Browse Topic: Materials

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Methodology for Fast-Running, Time-Resolved Simulation of Non-Exhaust Particle Emissions from Brake Wear Abrasion2025-01-0275To be published on 07/02/2025
Non-exhaust particle emissions, particularly those generated by brake wear, are a significant source of fine particulate matter in urban environments. These emissions contribute to air pollution and pose serious health risks, particularly in densely populated areas. While vehicle exhaust emissions have been extensively studied and regulated, the contribution of non-exhaust sources, including brake wear, remains a critical factor in air quality management. This paper presents a novel methodology for fast-running, time-resolved simulation of non-exhaust particle emissions, specifically those from brake wear abrasion. A 3D CFD model computes the turbulent flow field around the disc brake. The resulting information on the convective air cooling is applied as boundary conditions on a 3D thermal model. This thermal simulation setup is compared and verified with experimental data from literature. The 3D numerical models produce data and boundary conditions for an efficient 1D numerical
Herkenrath, Ferris, Lückerath, Moritz, Günther, Marco, Pischinger, Stefan
Technical Paper
Improving Gearbox Acoustics Through Elastomer-Based Bearing Damping2025-01-0323To be published on 07/02/2025
This study analyses the effect of external damping of roller bearings on the acoustic behaviour of gearboxes in electric powertrains. The increasing adoption of electric vehicles has increased the importance of mitigating gearbox noise, as the lack of masking noise from internal combustion engines and the higher operating speeds of electric motors exacerbate the acoustic challenges. Gearbox noise, which is primarily caused by tooth mesh excitation and its transmission through shafts and bearings, requires strategies to minimise its impact on vehicle comfort and performance. External damping is introduced via adapters integrated into the outer bearing ring, which are used to modify the vibrational behaviour of the bearing assembly and reduce both structure-borne and airborne noise emissions. A systematic approach using Design of Experiments (DoE) methodology is used to quantify the effects of this damping. This approach allows the analysis of critical parameters including material
von Schulz, Kai, Linde, Tilmann, Jäger, Steffen
Technical Paper
Evaluation of Static and Dynamic stiffness of rubber grommet by experimental and FEA method2025-01-0274To be published on 07/02/2025
Vibration control is most important in automotive applications and generally rubbers are used to dampen these vibrations due to their inherent nature and low-cost manufacturing methods. Now to select a rubber material shore hardness is considered in engineering applications, but to additionally control the behaviour we need to understand its static and dynamic stiffness. These values help to determine the vibration isolation obtained by these rubbers. In this paper, we will discuss methods to calculate the static and dynamic stiffness of rubber grommets using experimental methods and FEA modelling. As elastomers have non-linear material properties various material modelling techniques in FEA are used to capture multiple phenomena like creep, fatigue and dynamic conditions. Rubber compounding is used to improve the physical and chemical properties which in turn would give desirable linear characteristics. Certain guidelines and thumb rules are used in the rubber industry for different
Khamkar, Prasad Subhash, Gaikwad, Vikrant C
Technical Paper
In Situ Observation of Different Soot Layers in a Model Filter Channel During Its Regeneration2025-01-0312To be published on 07/02/2025
To keep the air clean, wall-flow particulate filters are predominantly used in the exhaust gas after-treatment systems of combustion engines to remove reactive soot and inert ash particles. These filters consist of parallel porous channels with alternately closed ends, effectively separating particles by forming a layer on the filter surface. However, the particulate layer increases the pressure drop, requiring periodic regeneration. During regeneration, soot oxidation breaks up the particulate layer, while resuspension and transport of individual agglomerates may occur. These phenomena are influenced by gas temperature and velocity, as well as dispersity and the reactivity of the soot particles. Sustainable fuels can produce different types of soot with different reactivities and dispersities, therefore this study focuses on the influences of soot dispersity and reactivity by varying the reactive particle system. A model wall-flow filter channel is used for the investigation, enabling
Desens, Ole, Hagen, Fabian P., Meyer, Jörg, Dittler, Achim
Technical Paper
Optimisation of Rotor Skewing of a Yokeless And Segmented Armature Axial Flux Machine2025-01-0311To be published on 07/02/2025
This paper presents an optimization of rotor skewing of an Axial Flux Machine (AFM) in a Yokeless And Segmented Armature (YASA) design in the torque-speed characteristics diagram. AFM have advantages regarding a compact design and high torque density compared to other variants of permanent magnet machines. The drive train Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) performance is influenced by cogging torque, magnetic torque ripple and tooth forces. While the axial skewing of rotors in radial flux machines (RFM) has already been extensively studied to minimize these magnetic excitations, this represents a target value for optimizations in AFM. Optimizations are carried out and validated using 2D and 3D finite-element (FE) models. The 2D model combines multiple 2D slices but lacks accuracy because an insufficient inclusion of 3D effects. The 3D model allows to obtain a noticeable reduction by more than 30% of the dominant torque harmonic amplitudes over the whole torque-speed range in
Müller, Karsten, Maisch, Hannes, De Gersem, Herbert, Burkhardt, Yves
Technical Paper
TPMS based porous media for improved reactant transport in high current density polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell operations2025-01-0196To be published on 06/16/2025
To address the challenges of water flooding and flow maldistribution in high current density operations of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), this study investigates the use of triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) based porous media for replacing conventional parallel flow-field (CPFF) patterns. The performance of fuel cells, with emphasis on reactant transport and water management, is analyzed through a multi-physical three-dimensional numerical model. To evaluate the impact of TPMS flow-fields, BPs were designed with ignorable difference in contact area ratio between BP and gas diffusion layer, ensuring comparable interfacial contact resistance. Compared to CPFF, the novel flow-field based on I-lattice promote a more uniform distribution of reactants and exhibit better liquid water saturation in porous media, thus, exhibiting greater current densities 8-15% in ohmic loss regime and nearly 22% in mass-limited regime. The flow-field based on G-lattice achieved a
Ho, Phuc Van, Lim, Ocktaeck
Technical Paper
Investigating lubricants base oils reactivity in ammonia/hydrogen engines via accelerated aging2025-01-0240To be published on 06/16/2025
As a carbon-free molecule, ammonia is more and more considered as a relevant fuel for long distance and off-road applications. However, this gas has different combustion characteristics compared to conventional fuels, challenging the suitability of lubricants to such engines. In this work, the evolution of lubricants under conditions mimicking ammonia combustion was assessed. Mineral and polyester lubricant base oils were exposed to oxygen, nitrogen oxides, and ammonia in a pressurized reactor under stirring. Oil aliquots were sampled at regular intervals, and characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), viscosity and total oxygen and nitrogen contents measurements. Exposure to air containing nitrogen oxides resulted in quicker accumulation of oxidation products compared to neat air, for both the mineral and complex polyester base oil. Besides, exposure to gaseous ammonia in air resulted in a slower oxidation rate for both oils, compared to neat air. A global
Doncoeur, Carole, Giarracca, Lucia, Cologon, Perrine, Rousselle, Christine
Technical Paper
Modern Low Friction Coating Technology for Automotive Tribology2025-01-0247To be published on 06/16/2025
According to Forbes, China, armed with electric vehicles (EVs), could have several companies among the top 10 global brands by sales in 2030. Their global market share is expected to be 33% in 2030. EV's friction is mostly boundary and mixed lubrication, more severe than ICE with hydrodynamic lubrication. Electrical surface failures are clustering, frosting, fluting, cratering, white etching, color change of grease, current marks, gear fluting and microbubbles. Modified friction test condition of ball on disk for EV parts is 1 m/s, 50 N, 1.1 GPa, 80 V, 12.5 kHz (vs. conventional pin on disk, 0.1 m/s, 10 N, 1 km). For the protection of EV's wear and friction, the coatings, DLC, CrN and CrCuN, are compared in the literature. Global coating companies developed with the keywords: hybrid process (PVD/PACVD + FLAD), low-temperature process for polymer/seal coating (ta-C), HIPIMS+CVD for CFRP cutting tool. Fraunhofer IWS has a low friction coating project for ultra-smooth and super
Cha, Sung Chul, Moon, Kyoung Il, Kim, Jongkuk, Park, Chang Ho, Kim, Dong Sik
Technical Paper
Morphology Experiment of Icing Effect on Spray Propagation2025-01-0222To be published on 06/16/2025
The working conditions of combustion systems have been going extreme under the desire of human beings exploring the unknown. Cold environments can be a significant impact on the spraying of fuel not only by changing the fuel properties including viscosity and surface tension, but also by freezing the parts. In the present study, methanol spray from a commercial injector is studied via high-speed imaging, with the liquid fuel being frozen to sub-zero degrees at the injector tip. It is observed that water components from the environment will freeze at the injector tip, creating crystal structures on the surface. During the injection, the ice components will be flushed by the liquid, and the spray morphology of the starting cycle will be strongly altered, resulting in wider spray angles, much shorter penetrations, and particle structures can be observed in the downstream of the flow field. The results of the experiment provide a clear view and quantified evaluation of the freezing impact
Zeng, Tingxi, Wang, Shangning, Zhang, Yijia, Hung, David, Xu, Min
Technical Paper
Influence of Fuel Surface Tension and Viscosity on Internal Flow Bubble Formation and Atomization in Flash Boiling Sprays2025-01-0221To be published on 06/16/2025
Flash boiling spray can achieve atomization effects similar to high-pressure subcooled sprays at lower injection pressures, which reduces engine hardware costs and aligns with the trend toward increased efficiency and miniaturization for hybrid vehicle engines. Thus, it is considered a promising next-generation fuel atomization technology. The atomization characteristics and spray structure of flash boiling sprays differ significantly from those of subcooled sprays, with distinct mechanisms in the primary breakup stage being a major cause of these differences. Previous studies have established the bubble-rupture primary breakup model, which is closely linked to bubble generation during internal flow. However, existing research has primarily focused on controlling the superheat index and injection pressure, without sufficiently considering the impact of fuel properties on bubble generation. As carbon neutrality goals advance, alternative fuels such as e-fuels (e.g., e-gasoline), low
Zhang, Yijia, Li, Yilong, Wang, Shangning, Zeng, Tingxi, Xu, Min, Hung, David, Li, Xuesong
Technical Paper
Acoustic Evaluation of Fiber-Based Materials for Engine Bay Applications2025-01-0115To be published on 05/05/2025
A newly formulated fiber-based material was developed to offer a cleaner, recyclable alternative to foam-based vehicle acoustic products. The fiber-based material was designed to be used in multiple vehicle acoustic applications, with different blends of the material available depending on the application. It performs well as an engine bay sound absorber due to its high heat tolerance and good absorption performance. A study was conducted to evaluate the sound absorption performance of this fiber-based material, specifically the engine bay blends, in comparison to that of current foam-based products. The results from this study show that the sound absorption performance of this new fiber-based material can match that of current foam-based materials while providing a recyclable product unlike the foam.
Krugh, Jack
Technical Paper
Metamaterial application to automotive glass for vibration reduction and reduced noise transmission2025-01-0119To be published on 05/05/2025
A metamaterial which, attached to the edge of a panel, reduces vibration results in reduced noise transmission into a vehicle. In this particular case, the metamaterial is designed to be attached to the edge of a glass panel and can reduce panel vibration and noise transmission due to wind or other sources into the vehicle interior. Acoustic transmission loss and panel vibration assessments show the benefit of this approach.
Sorenson, Steve, Li, Xiaopeng, Moore, Jaime, Robison, Scott
Technical Paper
New system for the measurement of sound-insertion loss on small samples: a comparison with ASTM-E2611 and ASTM E90 test procedures2025-01-0116To be published on 05/05/2025
This article follows a companion article presented at the SAE NVC 2021, in which a new system for the measurement on small samples of the normal-incidence Insertion Loss (IL) of multilayers used for the manufacturing of automotive sound package parts was first introduced. In addition to simplifying the evaluation of the sound-insulation of multi-layers used to produce sound-package components, the system aims to overcome the limitations of the test procedure based on the ASTM E2611 standard. In this article, the latter point is demonstrated by comparing the insertion loss results obtained with the new system with those obtained with the test procedure based on the ASTM E2611 standard on a few multilayers commonly used for the manufacturing of automotive sound package parts. Results indicate that the results obtained by means of the newly developed system are more meaningful, practically usable and less prone to edge-effects, compared to those obtained according to the ASTM E2611 test
Ruggeri, Giulio, Bertolini, Claudio, Horak, Jan
Technical Paper
Cairene Car-Culture: How are Automobility and Social Behavior Linked to The Development of The Soundscape and Urban Fabric of Cairo.2025-01-0069To be published on 05/05/2025
Cairo’s soundscape has witnessed changes due to the ongoing urban structure developments that accommodate the number of vehicles passing through the city. The soundscape produced by this growing automobility is affected not only by vehicles but also by their owners' behavior. Cairenes use their cars as a communication tool and an extension of private space. By viewing the vehicle as a component of the soundscape as well as a space that filters it, this study examines the synergy between social behavior, automobility, urban structure, and their interdependent relationship on the soundscape of Cairo. The study responds to literature elaborating on acoustic ecology, car culture, urban structure, and social behavior. The methodology applied in this study follows practice-based phenomenological research while documenting and reflecting on car cultural practices in Cairo from an aural perspective. Grounded theory contextualizes the analysis of archived audio and video material, semi
Abd El Naby, Abla Mohamed
Technical Paper
Data-Driven Machine Learning Approach for Rattle Risk Mitigation2025-01-0126To be published on 05/05/2025
In the modern automotive industry, squeak and rattle issues are critical factors affecting vehicle perceived quality and customer satisfaction. Traditional approaches to predicting and mitigating these problems heavily rely on physical testing and simulation technologies, which can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, especially for larger models. In this study, we propose a data-driven machine learning approach to mitigate rattle risks more efficiently. In this study, a floor console model has been evaluated using the traditional simulation-based E-line method to pinpoint high-risk areas. Data generation is performed by varying material properties, thickness, and flexible connection stiffness using the Modified Extensible Lattice Sequence (MELS) sampling algorithm, creating a diverse and comprehensive dataset for generating a machine learning (ML) model. Utilizing the dataset, the top contributing variables were identified for training the ML models. Various machine-learning
Parmar, Azan, Rao, Sohan, Reddy, Hari Krishna
Technical Paper
Designing Rubber Flaps for Resonance Management: High-Frequency Tuning in Electric Vehicles Using AI/ML Approaches2025-01-0125To be published on 05/05/2025
High-frequency whine noise in electric vehicles (EVs) poses a significant challenge, affecting customer perception and the overall vehicle experience. One primary source of this undesirable noise is the interaction between motor pole resonance and the resonance of the engine mount rubber. This paper presents an innovative method for predicting and tuning the frequency response of engine mounts by precisely adjusting the dimensions of rubber flaps, specifically their length and width. The proposed solution employs a dual approach: fine-tuning rubber flap dimensions and utilizing machine learning (ML) techniques. An ML model, trained on historical data, predicts how varying flap dimensions impact frequency response, providing a data-driven foundation for optimization. This prediction capability is enhanced by a Python program that automates the optimization process using a linear combination formula, efficiently addressing resonance issues. By integrating ML insights with the linear
Hazra, Sandip, Khan, Arkadip
Technical Paper
Snap-fits evaluation for minimizing the Squeak & Rattle in Automotives2025-01-0091To be published on 05/05/2025
The world of plastic products has been growing due to its versatile properties, which have become an intrinsic and fundamental part of the engineering of new products. The most important aspects contributing to this spectacular growth are the design and assembly, making sure that plastic parts are designed optimally. The safety requirements have been increased due to the safety ratings and thus interior parts must provide more absorption and protection to occupants. The main connection types used in the plastic parts are heat stakes and snap fits. The purpose of a good snap fit is not only to have a high retention effort but also to present ergonomic characteristics with low insertion and extraction effort because each part requires a different function. With the time-dependent loading the material will redistribute its internal energy thereby performing a time-related flow leading to reduced pretension thus decreasing stiffness. This paper presents an analytical and numerical method
Michael Stephan, Navin Estac Raja, C M, Mithun, Mohammed, Riyazuddin, R, Prasath
Technical Paper
A Comprehensive Evaluation of PU Foam for EV NVH Performance2025-01-0120To be published on 05/05/2025
Low density polyurethane foam was first proposed as an alternative to expandable baffles and tapes for sealing vehicle body cavities towards the end of the last century. In spite of several inherent advantages for cavity sealing, the high equipment cost of dispensing amongst other reasons, this technology has not spread as widely as expected. With the advent of electric vehicles, there is an increased emphasis on controlling higher frequencies from motors, inverters and other components, and polyurethane foam can be a viable solution by providing more robust sealing. Polyurethane foam sealing is already being employed in the new breed of electric vehicles but its NVH advantages have not been fully studied or published in literature. Using an existing electric vehicle with conventional expandable baffles & tape sealing measures, a comprehensive evaluation of NVH performance using the closed-cell polyurethane foam solution was carried out. Testing included component level bench test on
Kavarana, Farokh, Guertin, Bill
Technical Paper
Reducing LiDAR Cabin Noise with Damped Elastomers: a Novel Method for Predicting Performance and Durability2025-01-0114To be published on 05/05/2025
Mechanical LiDAR units utilize spinning lasers to scan surrounding areas to enable limited autonomous driving. The motors within the LiDAR modules create noise that can leak into the cabin of a vehicle. Decoupling the module from the body of the vehicle with highly damped elastomers can reduce the acoustic noise in the cabin and improve the driving experience. Damped elastomers work by absorbing the vibrational energy and dispelling it as latent heat, which creates challenges in an unpredictable automotive environment. Throughout the development process with vehicle OEMs and LiDAR ODMs, highly damped elastomers were able to effectively reduce the noise created by the scanning LiDAR modules in a laboratory environment. It was unproven that these elastomers would be as effective in extreme heat, cold, or humid environments. Extensive bench and vehicle tests were conducted, but confidence was low without a model to predict behavior at edge-cases. By creating a unique test method to model
Russell, Casey, Masterson, Peter, O'Connell, Kerry
Technical Paper
Effects of acoustic dissipative material in applications with acoustic leakage2025-01-0117To be published on 05/05/2025
In the paper, the dissipative material and other conventional acoustic materials are studied in conditions which simulates actual vehicle application with acoustic leakage. The various acoustic materials are evaluated in the lab with acoustic leakage existing in steel panel experimentally and virtually in computer simulation with the estimated Biot’s parameters of the materials. Often, the acoustic leakages exist in actual vehicle condition in pass-through or mounting faster locations. The work includes in-vehicle test results on application and show how the dissipative material works.
Yoo, Taewook, Maeda, Hirotsugu, Sawamoto, Keisuke, Anderson, Brian, Gan, KimTong, Herdtle, Thomas
Technical Paper
Evaluating Powertrain Mount Decoupling: Insights from Simulation, Experimental Results, and Analytical Calculations2025-01-0022To be published on 05/05/2025
This study presents a thorough examination of engine mount decoupling by integrating virtual simulations, physical testing, and analytical calculations. Engine mounts are crucial for isolating vibrations and enhancing vehicle comfort and performance, making their dynamic behavior vital for effective design. In our approach, we employ multi-body dynamics (MBD) simulations to model the interactions within engine mounts. By adjusting the bush stiffness parameters in the MBD framework, we can predict decoupling frequencies and analyze kinetic energy distribution. The bush stiffness values used in simulations are then applied in physical testing, ensuring consistency in the results for decoupling frequencies and kinetic energy distribution. This alignment between virtual and empirical data significantly enhances the reliability of our findings. Moreover, we conduct analytical calculations that correspond with the results from both the simulations and physical tests. This comprehensive
Shende, Kalyani, Shingavi, Shreyas, Rane, Vishesh, Hingade, Nikhil
Technical Paper
Road Noise Analysis Using Component TPA and FBS with Vehicle Component Modifications2025-01-0055To be published on 05/05/2025
Road noise caused by road excitation is a critical factor for vehicle NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) performance. However, assessing the individual contribution of components, particularly bushings, to NVH performance is generally challenging, as automobiles are composed of numerous interconnected parts. This study describes the application of Component Transfer Path Analysis (CTPA) on a full vehicle to provide insights into improving NVH performance. With the aid of Virtual Point Transformation (VPT), blocked forces are determined at the wheel hubs; afterward, a TPA is carried out. As blocked forces at the wheel hub are independent of the vehicle dynamics, these forces can be used in simulations of modified vehicle components. These results allow for the estimation of vehicle road noise. To simulate changes in vehicle components, including wheel/tire and mount bushings, Frequency-Based Substructuring (FBS) is used to modify the vehicle setup in a simulation model. In this
Kim, Jungu, Reichart, Ron, de Klerk, Dennis, Schütler, Willem, Malic, Mario, Kim, Hyeongjun, Kim, Uije
Technical Paper
Drilling Methods for Controlling Exit Burr Height in CRES Material Stacks2025-01-0169To be published on 05/02/2025
The Electroimpact Automatic Fan Cowl Riveter uses two novel drill processes to control exit burr height and achieve the required hole quality in CRES (Corrosion-Resistant Steel, also called stainless steel) material stacks. Both processes use piloted cutters on the OML side, and two different tools are used in a backside spindle on the IML side of the component. The first process uses a shallow-angle shave tool in the IML spindle to directly control the exit burr height after it is produced by the OML spindle and is called the “burr shave” technique. The second process uses a countersink tool in the IML spindle and produces an “intermediate countersink” after the pilot hole is drilled by the OML spindle, but before the final hole diameter is drilled. These drill processes were able to achieve the required hole quality in a challenging CRES material stack, which allows the machine to be qualified for one-up assembly of the component.
Schultz, Rich, Peterman, Randy, Luker, Zachary, Murakonda, Sai Krishna
Technical Paper
Comparison of Different Joining Techniques as a Benchmark for Integrally Joined Thermoformed Components Based on Tailored rCF Organosheets2025-01-0170To be published on 05/02/2025
Climate-neutral aviation requires resource-efficient composite manufacturing technologies and viable solutions for the reuse of carbon fibers (CF). In this context, thermoplastic composites (TPC) can make a strong contribution. Thermoforming of TPC is an efficient and established process for aerospace components. But it’s efficiency could be further increased by integration of joining processes, which would otherwise be separate steps. In this work, a two-step thermoforming process for hollow box structures, particularly uplift structures, is presented. The starting point are two organosheets. First, one of the organosheets, intended for the bottom skin of the uplift structure, is thermoformed. After cooling, the press opens, the organosheet remains in the press and an infrared heater is pivoted in, to locally heat up just the joining area. Meanwhile, a second organosheet, intended for the top skin, is heated and thermoformed and simultaneously joined to the lower skin, thereby forming
Vocke, Richard, Seeßelberg, Lorenz, Focke, Oliver, Dietrich, Jan Yorrick, Jobke, Katrin, Albe, Christopher, May, David
Technical Paper
Material Adapted Method for the Repair of Curved Thermoplastic Composite Structures by Induction Welding of Patches2025-01-0165To be published on 05/02/2025
Thermoplastic fiber-reinforced polymer composites (TPCs) are gaining importance in aviation due to their high strength, stiffness, and recyclability. To maximize their potential, efficient repair methods are needed to maintain aircraft safety and structural integrity. This article introduces a novel repair technique for damaged TPC structures, involving the insertion of a repair patch with a susceptor material. The susceptor consists of a material with high electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability and therefore reacts stronger to the electromagnetic field than the composite, even if it is carbon fiber based. This means that the thermal energy is specifically concentrated in the repair area. The susceptor can be placed on the patch surface or in the welding zone. The process begins by identifying and preparing the damaged area, followed by precise scarfing. Care is taken to ensure that the surrounding material remains intact and that an exact stepped structure is created, which
Geiger, Markus, Glaap, Anton, Schiebel, Patrick, May, David
Technical Paper
Segment Manipulator Retrofit2025-01-0159To be published on 05/02/2025
A segment manipulator machine was in service nineteen years. Many of the control components were out of date and hard to obtain. Customer engaged Electroimpact to upgrade using the latest state-of-art controls. The program from the previous control system could not be reused. A “layup mandrel” is a form that is used to lay carbon fiber. The layup mandrel for a wide body aircraft fuselage section consists of six segments. The mandrel is made up of segments so that it can be assembled and disassembled from the inside. The segments are Crown, Upper Left, Upper Right, Lower Left, Lower Right, and Keel. For each build the mandrel is assembled with a segment manipulator machine, wound with carbon fiber tape, clad, and baked in an autoclave. Then the mandrel is disassembled with a segment manipulator machine leaving the cured carbon fiber shell behind. The segments are refurbished and brought to the assembly area on segment carts for the next build. Segments each weigh in the vicinity of 3000
Luker, Zachary, Donahue, Michael
Technical Paper
A New Test Rig for Electrically Actuated Landing Gear and Brake of a Small Transport Aircraft2025-01-0161To be published on 05/02/2025
Performing highly representative tests of aircraft equipments is a critical feature for gaining utmost confidence on their ability to perform flawlessly in flight under the entire spectrum of operating conditions. This can also contribute to accelerate the certification process of a new equipment. A research project (E-LISA) was performed in recent years, as part of the european funded Clean Sky 2 framework, with the objective of building an innovative facility for testing an electrically actuated landing gear and brake for a small air transport. The project eventually led to the development and construction of an Iron Bird able to reproduce in a realistic and comprehensive way a full variety of landing test cases consistent with certification specifications and landing histories available in the repository of the airframer. The Iron Bird that was eventually developed is a multi-functional intelligent and easy reconfigurable facility integrating hardware and software allowing to
De Martin, Andrea, Bertolino, Antonio, Jacazio, Giovanni
Technical Paper
Conceptual Design of a Superconducting Aero Electric Engine System2025-01-0146To be published on 05/02/2025
The goal of the development of an electric aircraft engine is to create an aircraft system that achieves ultimate efficiency using hydrogen fuel instead of fossil fuels. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on reducing weight as much as possible, and this paper describes the approach to such fuel cell-powered aircraft. The authors have adopted a superconducting coreless rotating electric machine with an integrated hydrogen tank and are pursuing a target of 70kg or less for the main components of a 2MW rotating electric machine. High-temperature superconducting wires have zero electrical resistance and can carry a very high current density, but the alternating current (AC) loss generated when used in AC has been an issue in their application to rotating electric machines. In 2023, The SCSC cable was developed to be a low-AC-loss, robust, and high current cable concept, in which copper-plated multifilament coated conductors are wound spirally on a core. In addition to using this
Oyori, Hitoshi, Sakurai, Sho, Kusase, Shin, Yoshida, Yukihiro, Yoshinaga, Seiichiro, Nose, Hiroyuki, Amemiya, Naoyuki
Technical Paper
Image Processing-Based Chip Detection by KIZKI Algorithm and Its Optimization2025-01-0168To be published on 05/02/2025
The process of producing aircraft parts involves the drilling of aluminum alloys. This creates a large amount of chips, which are removed using air, but sometimes they still remain within the holes. This is checked by inspectors through visual inspection. However, the quality of human inspection varies based on skill level and fatigue. Thus, image-based inspection should be used to stabilize and further improve inspection quality. This study aims to build a framework for chip detection based on image processing. Taking into account on-site implementation, the system must have low installation and running costs and be standalone. Therefore, we adopt the KIZKI algorithm, which satisfies these conditions. KIZKI means awareness in Japanese. This is a model of human peripheral vision and saccades. It does not require training like AI and can achieve high-speed and high-performance detection using a low-performance computer. In other words, there is no need for a computer with an expensive
Iinuma, Marin, Sato, Junya, Tsuji, Masahiko
Technical Paper
Advancements in Lightning Strike Damage Modeling: Finite Element Model to Predict Thermal Damage Induced on Composites01-18-02-000704/21/2025
Modern aircraft, ships, and offshore structures are increasingly constructed using fiber-reinforced composite materials. However, when subjected to lightning strikes, these materials can suffer significant structural and functional damage due to their electrical and thermal properties. This study aims to develop a novel finite element (FE) model to minimize the error in estimating the thermal damage caused during lightning strikes. This will aid in design and optimization of lightning protection systems. The developed model introduces a simplified numerical approach to model the lightning arc interaction with CFRP laminate. The existing FE model includes idealized loading conditions, leading to high error in estimation of severe damage area and in-depth damage. The proposed methodology incorporates a more realistic lightning-induced loading pattern to improve accuracy. Several cases are analyzed using available FE methods and compared to the proposed model (case 6) to evaluate the
Sontakkey, Akshay, Kotambkar, Mangesh, Kaware, Kiran
Journal Article
Dynamic Nonlinear Viscoelastic Measurements of Vehicle Seat Components for Ride Comfort Evaluation2024-32-005104/18/2025
Ride comfort is an important factor in the development of vehicles. Understanding the characteristics of seat components allows more accurate analysis of ride comfort. This study focuses on urethane foam, which is commonly used in vehicle seats. Soft materials such as urethane foam have both elastic and viscous properties that vary with frequency and temperature. Dynamic viscoelastic measurements are effective for investigating the vibrational characteristics of such materials. Although there have been many studies on the viscoelastic properties of urethane foam, no prior research has focused on dynamic viscoelastic measurements during compression to simulate the condition of a person sitting on a seat. In this study, dynamic viscoelastic measurements were performed on compressed urethane foam. Moreover, measurements were conducted at low temperatures, and a master curve using the Williams–Landel–Ferry (WLF) formula (temperature–frequency conversion law) was created.
Kamio, Chihiro, Yamaguchi, Takao, Maruyama, Shinichi, Hanawa, Kazuto, Iwase, Tsutomu, Hayashi, Tatsuo, Sato, Toshiharu, Mogawa, Hajime
Technical Paper
Development of NOx Storage Catalyst and Investigation of Deterioration Mechanism for Small Powertrains2024-32-009704/18/2025
In response to the evolving landscape of exhaust gas regulations for small powertrains, reducing NOx emission is increasingly important. This study deeply investigated the feasibility of a NOx storage catalyst (NSC) containing cerium oxide (CeO2) and barium oxide (BaO) for reducing NOx emission. The key functions, NOx storage and reduction performances were evaluated, and deterioration mechanisms were explored through performance evaluations and physical property analyses. The findings revealed a strong correlation between the size of CeO2 crystals and NOx storage performance at low temperature, such as those encountered during city driving conditions. Conversely, at high temperature, such as those during highway driving conditions, NOx storage performance correlated well with sulfur deposition, suggesting that the formation of barium sulfate (BaSO4) contributes to the deactivation. This experiment also showed a strong correlation between NOx reduction performance and BaSO4 formation
Nakano, Fumiya, Koito, Yusuke
Technical Paper
Detailed Approach for Pre-Chamber Heat Release Analysis for the HSASI Pre-Chamber Spark Plug Using a Pressure Sensor Glow Plug2024-32-006304/18/2025
The hot surface-assisted spark ignition (HSASI) pre-chamber spark plug, which was developed at the Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences, increases the dilution limit with excess air and the tolerance to residual gas in the pre-chamber compared to a conventional passive pre-chamber spark plug. In this study, the conventional glow plug which is integrated in the pre-chamber of the HSASI pre-chamber spark plug was replaced by a pressure sensor glow plug (PSG) from BERU. This allows for a detailed combustion analysis in the pre-chamber. The signal of the PSG was validated with a piezoelectric cylinder pressure sensor and a method to analyse the pre-chamber heat release was introduced. Experimental investigations were carried out on a single-cylinder gasoline engine. A series of operating points diluted with excess air and a variation in load were conducted. The gas flow rate through the orifices of the pre-chamber was calculated from the pressure difference between the pre-chamber and
Holzberger, Sascha, Kettner, Maurice, Kirchberger, Roland
Technical Paper
Numerical Studies on the Relation between the Multiple Auto-Ignition and Pressure Wave in the Premixed Charge2024-32-007904/18/2025
The relation between the multiple auto-ignition in the premixed charge with fuel concentration distribution and associated pressure wave are numerically investigated. This study assumes that the auto-ignition phenomenon in the end-gas of PCCI combustion, a next-generation combustion method which is expected to achieve both low fuel consumption and low emissions at a high level. Detailed numerical analysis considering the elementary chemical reactions of the compressible reacting fluid flow described in the one-dimensional coordinate system with high spatial and time resolution was performed to clarify the detailed phenomena of the onset of the multiple auto-ignition and the pressure wave propagation in the gas.
Iizumi, Kota, Yoshida, Kenji
Technical Paper
Fatigue Analysis of Motorcycle Rear Swing Arm on Different Road Surfaces2024-32-004604/18/2025
The rear swing arm, a crucial motorcycle component, connects the frame and wheel, absorbing the vehicle’s load and various road impacts. Over time, these forces can damage the swing arm, highlighting the need for robust design to ensure safety. Identifying potential vulnerabilities through simulation reduces the risk of failure during the design phase. This study performs a detailed fatigue analysis of the swing arm across different road conditions. Data for this research were collected from real-vehicle experiments and simulation analyses, ensuring accuracy by comparing against actual performance. Following CNS 15819-5 standards, road surfaces such as poorly maintained, bumpy, and uneven roads were tested. Using Motion View, a comprehensive multi-body dynamic model was created for thorough fatigue analysis. The results identified the most stress-prone areas on the swing arm, with maximum stress recorded at 109.6N on poorly maintained roads, 218.3N on bumpy surfaces, and 104.8N on
Chiou, Yi-Hau, Hwang, Hsiu-Ying, Huang, Liang-Yu
Technical Paper
Reducing the Waste of Plating Solution for Magnetostrictive Torque Sensors2024-32-000604/18/2025
The power assist system of an electric bicycle uses a magnetostrictive torque sensor to detect the pedal force based on the magnetic properties of the crankshaft, which change according to stress. Fe–Ni alloy plating is used to coat the surface of the crankshaft with a magnetic film to enhance the magnetostrictive effect. However, the sensor performance decreases as the plating solution degrades, which necessitates replacement of the plating solution. In this study, experiments were performed to investigate how to prevent or mitigate degradation of the plating solution to reduce waste. The amounts of carbon and sulfur in the magnetic film were found to increase with degradation of the plating solution. The carbon derived from organic reducing agents and their decomposition products, and the sulfur derived from stress relievers and their decomposition products. A method was developed for reducing the amounts of carbon and sulfur in the magnetic film, which would help maintain the sensor
Ohnishi, Hiromichi
Technical Paper
Study on Flex Fuel Compatible Coatings for Automotive Fuel Tank2024-32-007604/18/2025
Reducing CO2 emissions is now a major focus in India heading towards net zero emissions by 2070. India is the 3rd largest automobile market in the world and the transportation sector is the 3rd largest CO2 emitter. In this direction, it is necessary to reduce the carbon footprint from the automobile sector to combat climate change. The adoption of sustainable biofuels such as ethanol will enable us to reduce emissions, as ethanol is carbon neutral fuel. However, vehicle manufacturers are facing challenges in manufacturing flex fuel compatible parts in the vehicle mainly fuel systems. Ethanol has both nonpolar and polar bonds, making it miscible to both gasoline and water, thereby water contamination is inevitable in ethanol blend fuels. In addition, control of ethanol contamination by sulfates and chlorides during ethanol production is challenging. Thus, ethanol blend fuels are considered more corrosive and tendency towards deposit formation than normal gasoline fuels. Design and
Pandi, Dinesh Babu, Shanmugam, Gomathy Priya, Nagarkatti, Arun, Gopal, Manish, Anbalagan, Prathap
Technical Paper
Changes of Shifting Rate of Metal V-Belt Type CVT during Speed Up/Down under Quasi-Idle Loading Condition2024-32-007804/18/2025
The objective of this experimental study was to investigate the change of shifting rate of metal V-belt type CVT during speed up/down under quasi-idle loading condition. Changes in the rotational speeds of the driving and driven pulleys were simultaneously measured by the rotational speed sensors installed on the driving and driven shafts during speed up/down shifting, respectively. In addition, the interaxial force applied to the driving and driven pulleys was measured by a load cell. The shifting rate was defined as the ratio of the calculated radial displacement to the tangential displacement of the belt in the pulley groove. This study found that the shifting rate was determined not only by the slippage between the pulley and the belt element, but also by the elastic deformation of the belt element in the pulley groove. The power transmission performance was improved when the elastic deformation was small even though radial slippage between the pulley and the belt element was
Mori, Yuichirou, Okubo, Kazuya, Obunai, Kiyotaka
Technical Paper
Operating Characteristics of an Automotive Adjustable-Field Permanent Magnet Motors with 3D Magnetic Paths and Asymmetric Magnet Arrangement2024-32-002704/18/2025
This paper describes a three-dimensional structure of an adjustable field magnetization permanent magnet (PM) motor and a high-power density rotor structure with asymmetric permanent magnet arrangement for both high torque and high efficiency operation in the high speed and low torque range. 3D-FEA has confirmed that it is possible to achieve both high torque density and adjustable field magnetization. Load testing using the prototype proposed motor confirmed that high motor efficiency can be achieved even during high-speed operation.
Hiyoshi, Yutaro, Doi, Kotaro, Noguchi, Toshihiko
Technical Paper
Investigation on the Wear Regime of Plastic Gears Sliding Against Metal Gears2024-32-009904/18/2025
The use of plastic gears has expanded due to their lightweight properties, low noise emission, and cost-effective manufacturing. For instance, in the transportation equipment industry, some metal gears are being replaced with plastic gears. To achieve further size and weight reduction, gears must be able to withstand higher loads without damage. Gears have various modes of damage. Since there are different types of wear, each with different factors, it is important to identify the factors and take appropriate countermeasures. In gear meshing, there are many factors that affect wear, so restricted-factor tests are required to confirm the effectiveness of countermeasures. The purpose of this study is to elucidate the wear regime in high-load gear meshing and then to establish a simplified evaluation method replicating the meshing of gears for wear resistance focusing on the relative sliding between the two surfaces of metal and plastic. In the evaluation, changes in wear morphology over
Yamamoto, Jimpei, Suzuki, Takaharu, Ako, Natsuki, Iwasaki, Shinya, Kurita, Hirotaka
Technical Paper
Test Method for Catalytic Carbon Brake Disk OxidationAIR5567A (Current)04/14/2025
The scope of the test method is to provide stakeholders including fluid manufacturers, airport operators, brake manufacturers, aircraft constructors, aircraft operators and airworthiness authorities with a relative assessment of the effect of deicing chemicals on carbon oxidation. This simple test is only designed to assess the relative effects of runway deicing chemicals by measuring mass change of contaminated and bare carbon samples tested under the same conditions. It is not possible to set a general acceptance threshold oxidation limit based on this test method because carbon brake stack oxidation is a function of heat sink design and the operating environment.
A-5A Wheels, Brakes and Skid Controls Committee
Information Report
Hose Assembly, Convoluted Polytetrafluoroethylene, Metallic Reinforced, Low Pressure, Up to 400 °F, AircraftAS1227C (Current)04/14/2025
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) defines the requirements for a convoluted polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) lined, metallic reinforced, hose assembly suitable for use in aerospace fluid systems at temperatures between -65 °F and 400 °F for Class 1 assembly, -65 °F and 275 °F for Class 2 assembly, and at operating pressures per Table 1. The use of these hose assemblies in pneumatic storage systems is not recommended. In addition, installations in which the limits specified herein are exceeded, or in which the application is not covered specifically by this standard, shall be subject to the approval of the procuring activity.
G-3, Aerospace Couplings, Fittings, Hose, Tubing Assemblies
Technical Standard
Cobalt Alloy, Corrosion- and Heat-Resistant, Round Wire 20Cr - 15Ni - 40Co - 7.0Mo - 16Fe (Elgiloy®) Vacuum Induction Melted, Vacuum Consumable Electrode or Electroslag Remelted, Solution Heat Treated and Cold DrawnAMS5833F (Current)04/14/2025
This specification covers a corrosion- and heat-resistant cobalt alloy in the form of round wire 0.001 to 0.140 inch (0.025 to 3.56 mm), inclusive, in nominal diameter supplied in straight lengths or coils.
AMS F Corrosion and Heat Resistant Alloys Committee
Material Specification
Cobalt Alloy, Corrosion and Heat Resistant, Round Wire 20Cr - 15Ni - 40Co - 7.0Mo - 16Fe (Elgiloy®) Vacuum Induction Melted Plus Vacuum Consumable Electrode or Electroslag Remelted, Solution Heat Treated, Cold Drawn, and AgedAMS5834F (Current)04/14/2025
This specification covers a corrosion- and heat-resistant cobalt alloy in the form of round wire 0.001 to 0.140 inch (0.025 to 3.56 mm), inclusive, in nominal diameter supplied in straight lengths or coils (see 8.7).
AMS F Corrosion and Heat Resistant Alloys Committee
Material Specification
Aluminum Alloy Extrusions, 7.8Zn - 2.6Mg - 2.0Cu - 0.10Zr - (7068-T6511), Solution Heat Treated, Stress Relieved, and Precipitation Heat TreatedAMS4331B (Current)04/14/2025
This specification covers an aluminum alloy in the form of extruded bars, rods, shapes (profiles), and tubing 0.250 to 3.000 inches (6.35 to 76.20 mm), inclusive, in nominal diameter, least thickness, or nominal wall thickness (see 8.5).
AMS D Nonferrous Alloys Committee
Material Specification
Titanium Alloy, Sheet, Strip, and Plate, 5Al - 2.5Sn, Extra Low Interstitial, AnnealedAMS4909M (Current)04/14/2025
This specification covers a titanium alloy in the form of sheet, strip, and plate up to 1.000 inch (25.40 mm), inclusive (see 8.6).
AMS G Titanium and Refractory Metals Committee
Material Specification
Aluminum Alloy, Extrusions, 1.0Mg - 0.60Si - 0.28Cu - 0.20Cr (6061-T4), Solution Heat Treated and Naturally AgedAMS4161K (Current)04/14/2025
This specification covers an aluminum alloy in the form of extruded bars, rods, wire, shapes, profiles, and tubing.
AMS D Nonferrous Alloys Committee
Material Specification
Trace Element Control Nickel Alloy Castings and PowderAMS2280E (Current)04/14/2025
This specification establishes testing methods and maximum permissible limits for trace elements in nickel alloy castings and powder materials. It shall apply only when required by the material specification.
AMS F Corrosion and Heat Resistant Alloys Committee
Material Specification
Steel, Corrosion-Resistant, Bars, Forgings and Forging Stock, 11.5Cr - 10Ni - 1.0Al - 0.5Ti - 1.0Cu - 1.0W (S240®), Premium Aircraft Quality Vacuum Induction Plus Vacuum Consumable Electrode Melted Solution Heat Treated, Precipitation HardenableAMS5929B (Current)04/14/2025
This specification covers a corrosion-resistant steel in the form of bars and forgings 8 inches (203 mm) and under in nominal diameter or maximum cross-sectional dimension and forging stock of any size.
AMS F Corrosion and Heat Resistant Alloys Committee
Material Specification
Gaseous NitrocarburizingAMS2759/13A (Current)04/14/2025
This specification covers the engineering requirements for producing a continuous compound zone (white layer) on parts by means of a gaseous, low-temperature, carbon-enriched nitriding process.
AMS B Finishes Processes and Fluids Committee
Material Specification
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