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This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) recommends a methodology to be used for the design, analysis and test evaluation of modern helicopter gas turbine propulsion system stability and transient response characteristics. This methodology utilizes the computational power of modern digital computers to more thoroughly analyze, simulate and bench-test the helicopter engine/rotor system speed control loop over the flight envelope. This up-front work results in significantly less effort expended during flight test and delivers a more effective system into service. The methodology presented herein is recommended for modern digital electronic propulsion control systems and also for traditional analog and hydromechanical systems.
S-12 Powered Lift Propulsion Committee
This paper investigates the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) within radar-based perception for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) under safety considerations aligned with ISO 26262 [1] for functional safety and ISO 21448 (SOTIF) [2] for performance-related safety of the intended functionality. The study evaluates a hybrid architecture in which AI-based perception modules are combined with deterministic supervisory mechanisms to maintain safety compliance. A simulation-based case study using CARLA with radar sensor modeling is presented to compare a deterministic radar perception pipeline with an AI-enhanced approach under nominal and degraded environmental conditions. Performance is evaluated using precision, recall, and F1 score metrics. Results indicate improved recall and F1 score under adverse scenarios for the AI-based perception module, accompanied by a moderate increase in false positives. The paper discusses architectural constraints required to limit non
Jain, Yesha
This year, SAE International hosts the 2026 edition of the International Powered Lift Conference (IPLC), which focuses on the latest developments in vertical and/or short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) aircraft research, concepts and programs. IPLC is a joint technical meeting, held approximately biennially, co-sponsored by the American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics (AIAA), the Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS), SAE International and the Vertical Flight Society (VFS). Because each technical society hosts the IPLC only once a decade, and because the event was originally begun in the 1980s, turnover of staff and volunteers with each of the organizations creates a lack of knowledge and historical context of the event. This paper provides a formal record of the history and legacy of the IPLC, as well as its role in highlighting the technical and programmatic progress of V/STOL over the ages.
Hirschberg, Michael J.
Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines have emerged as an option for decarbonizing heavy-duty transportation. However, injecting high-pressure hydrogen gas into pressurized combustion chambers induces complex compressible flow phenomena, including choked flow and under-expanded supersonic jet structures, which challenge conventional modeling approaches for optimizing engine performance and emissions. This study conducts a numerical investigation of transient hydrogen injection into a high-pressure argon environment, benchmarking a 2D axisymmetric Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model against high-fidelity experimental optical measurements. Utilizing Ansys Fluent with a density-based solver, coupled with the k-ω SST turbulence model and species transport equations, simulations were performed at injection pressures of 6 MPa and 10 MPa into a 1 MPa ambient chamber. The simulation successfully captured fundamental compressible physics, including Mach disk formation and significant
Castilla Batun, Uriel IsaacAlzahrani, Fahad
Kolmogorov-Arnold Networks (KANs) are a novel mathematical method to generate data-driven AI surrogate models. Compared to neural networks based on the MLP standard (Multi-Layer Perceptron), these offer further mathematical interpretability and thus allow improved validation of AI for industrial applications. In this paper, we use KANs to generate an AI vehicle model of a truck as a mathematically precise AI surrogate model. To do this, we combine the KAN approach with the approach of Neural Ordinary Differential Equations (Neural ODEs) to generate predictions for the time-series of the truck’s velocity. Furthermore, we compare the results of the AI based on KANs with the traditional approach using MLP in terms of model size, accuracy, and computational time in order to evaluate advantages and disadvantages of the KAN approach. The best AI-KAN vehicle model identified in this way is then embedded in a co-simulation via the Functional Mockup Interface standard, thus opening up a wide
Vaudrevange, Patrick K.S.Halverson, JamesRuehle, FabianFabcic, TomazDingler, ChristianPiskala Dilipkumar, SanthoshkumarIbrahim, MuhammedHerrnberger, MichaelKasper, JohannaTürk, LarsKeckeisen, Michael
Software-defined, highly customizable vehicle architectures drastically increase the number of hardware–software constellations that must be validated, especially under safety and timing constraints. Traditional unit and integration testing, as well as current regression and combinatorial methods, cannot practically cover this configuration space or reliably capture emergent effects arising from complex interactions, such as bandwidth contention and non-linear latency behavior. This work presents a proof-of-concept for predictive, situational validation of self-describing hardware and software components within realistic automotive E/E architectures. Proposing a novel Machine Learning- (ML) based method for early systemic feasibility prediction of automotive configurations using Graph Neural Networks (GNNs). Specifically, the subclass Graph Isomorphism Networks (GINs) is applied to predict the compatibility of a randomly composed configuration of software and hardware components
Wizl, JensGuarda, Filippo
The goal of reducing global CO2 emissions requires actions especially for the transportation sector. To achieve the goal, electric traction motors are frequently implemented in passenger vehicles, as well as in commercial vehicles like heavy-duty trucks or buses. Particularly electric city buses have the potential to reduce the local emissions in urban areas and provide local exhaust-emission-free mobility. While their number of registrations rises, research focusses on the improvement of the overall system in order to increase energy efficiency. High importance is gained by the thermal management of the whole system. This research investigates a simulative approach to improve the thermal management and therefore the energy efficiency of an electric city bus. The different thermal components of an electric city bus like drive system, battery system and heating, ventilation and air conditioning system (HVAC system) are modelled. Their thermal behavior has been validated in previous
Schäfer, HenrikHellberg, TobiasMeywerk, Martin
The aim of this work is to develop a modular, real-time-capable digital twin of an electric powertrain based on machine learning (ML)-based model structures and a systematic, component-oriented architecture with a focus on efficiency estimation in test bench environments. The further goal here is to enable virtual testing, which can be used for frontloading and thus both prevent errors and increase the speed of product development. Based on a comprehensive set of measured and derived test bench data, a multi-stage procedure is implemented that integrates data acquisition, physically informed feature selection, modeling at the component and subsystem level, and hybrid coupling strategies. The digital twin captures inverter, electric machine, and mechanical transmission stages and generates consistent predictions of key variables such as torque, speed, power factors, and subsystem as well as overall drivetrain efficiency. The methodology enables a systematic comparison of black box, dark
Kopp, LennartProksch, DanielOckert, NielsKarthaus, CarstenKley, Markus
Ultrasonic sensors are widely deployed in automotive driver assistance systems for near-range environment perception and provide safety-relevant inputs for functions such as parking assistance and automated parking. With increasing vehicle automation, the integrity and availability of ultrasonic sensor data become more critical, as compromised measurements may lead to incorrect vehicle decisions and hazardous behavior. While prior research has extensively studied physical attacks on ultrasonic sensors, a structured cybersecurity risk analysis in accordance with automotive cybersecurity standards, combined with experimental validation, is largely missing. In particular, the communication interface between ultrasonic sensors and control units has received limited attention despite its relevance as a potential attack surface. This paper presents a systematic security analysis of an automotive ultrasonic sensing system based on a demonstrator setup. The work applies a Threat Analysis and
Gahm, SebastianHaller, JonathanKriesten, Reiner
Knocking combustions in an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) are engine damaging combustions, and reliable detection of each knocking event is very critical. Engines usually rely on piezo-electric knock sensors to monitor structure-borne noise, which outputs a complex, continuous time series signal. Typically, knock combustions have an additional noise component along with the regular combustion signal, but differentiation of knocking vs non knocking signal (signal to noise ratio) based on visual inspection of this signal alone is challenging and requires computationally intense signal processing such as Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) or Wavelet transforms followed by manual calibration [1]. In this paper, we propose an alternative to replace traditional knock detection with more reliable time-domain alternative signal decomposition technique. Here we decompose the raw sensor signal into seasonality, trend, and residual, and use the residual component as it is seen to retain
Parulekar, Tushar A.Chilukuri, SandeepMahmood, Haneefa
Current lithium-ion batteries should generally only be charged above 0 °C, as charging below this temperature can promote lithium plating and irreversible degradation. However, conventional pack-level heating elements increase system mass and design complexity. In addition, heat is transferred from outside into the cell, causing the temperature inside the cell to rise slowly. This study evaluates internal Joule heating of cylindrical Li-ion cells using a zero-mean square-wave current excitation and quantifies the associated aging impact. LG INR21700-M50L cells were tested at 0 °C, −10 °C, and −20 °C with three excitation frequencies (50 Hz, 1 Hz, 10 mHz) at 5 A amplitude. Each cycle consisted of 30 min heating followed by 60 min cooling; reference capacity-based state of health (SOH) was assessed every 50 cycles up to 400 cycles. A maximum surface temperature rise of 14.3 K was achieved, with larger temperature rise at lower ambient temperature and lower excitation frequency. Capacity
Raiber, StefanAllmendinger, FrankDegler, DavidParschau, Anke
Recent advancements in Vision-Language Models have opened new possibilities for bridging the gap between Systems Engineering artifacts and automated code generation. Traditional Large Language Models are primarily trained on textual data and generic code repositories, which limits their ability to interpret graphical engineering artifacts such as Simulink block diagrams or system architecture models. In safety-critical domains like the automotive industry, these graphical models are central to development workflows and must remain closely aligned with textual requirements and implementation code to ensure traceability, compliance, and functional correctness. This paper proposes a Vision-Language Model-centered multimodal training framework for code generation that integrates textual requirements, graphical model-based artifacts, and annotated source code into a unified learning process. By leveraging models which combine vision encoders with language backbones, the approach enables the
Padubrin, MarcelKulzer, Andre CasalGuerocak, Erol
Vehicle manufacturers use Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) approaches to validate overall vehicle characteristics, including those dependent on the powertrain, at an early stage of vehicle development. A powertrain test rig is a typical example. In the specific setup, the vehicle engine and side shafts are mechanically coupled to the load machines of the test rig, eliminating the physical influence of the rims, tires and vehicle body. Adapting a specimen to the test rig changes some characteristics. This affects the specimen's vibration behaviour, making it more challenging to validate comfort-related characteristics. A particular example is longitudinal vehicle shuffle; the powertrain's first torsional natural frequency causes it. The natural frequencies of the real vehicle and device under test differ significantly, so a road-matching approach is not directly feasible. To account not only for tire-road contact but also for the missing vehicle mass, some scientific studies propose a purely
Hübner, CarlProkop, Günther
This paper will revisit an area of Short Take-Off and Landing (STOL) operations and powered-lift aircraft design that has been limited in scope, and at best, very specialized when it comes to research, aircraft built, and experimentation: The Upper Surface Blowing (or USB) aircraft configuration. Five aircraft have been flown successfully using the Upper Surface Blowing powered-lift concept: The Boeing YC-14, the Ball-Bartoe Jetwing, the Antonov An-72, the NASA QSRA experimental aircraft, and the National Aerospace Laboratory (NAL) Aska or Quiet STOL Research aircraft. Only the Antonov An-72 (and its commercial follow-on, the An-74) reached any significant degree of production. This fact illustrates the uniqueness of the USB technology as applied to powered-lift. A background of the technology will be given, what connects them as far as the USB configuration, discuss the main lessons learned, and briefly dwell on other configurations that are close relatives of aircraft using the USB
Pinero, Erasmo
This SAE Standard establishes a test method and a definition for disclosing the performance of suction/blower fans when applied to self-propelled sweepers that solely use a pneumatic conveyance means for the collection and transfer of “sweepings” into a collection hopper.
MTC2, Sweeper, Cleaner, and Machinery
In permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) ohmic losses occur in the stator windings. Reducing these losses contributes to a higher efficiency and increases the vehicles range. An effective approach to reduce frequency-dependent AC conduction loss is the use of litz wires. In addition, direct cooling helps to reduce DC conduction loss and winding temperatures. Therefore, this work presents a multiphysical modeling approach of a direct-cooled litz wire winding in a PMSM. It combines loss modeling of the winding with novel thermal and hydraulic calculation methods. AC conduction loss due to skin and proximity effect and DC conduction loss are modeled temperature dependent. Scaled-down conjugate heat transfer simulations are used to determine the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) between wires and coolant. Additionally, the pressure drop is derived and converted into parameters for use in a porous media model. The derived parameters are used to generate surrogate models to enable
Blaschke, Wolfgang MaximilianMengoni, LeonardList, AdrianKulzer, André Casal
Level-3 and higher automated driving systems require longitudinal speed strategies that remain consistent with both physical stopping feasibility and realistic sensing constraints. This paper presents a route-based, sensor-aware speed planning method that supports safety validation and explicitly couples longitudinal driving strategy with sensor field-of-view coverage. Based on a concrete route extracted from digital maps and enriched with fleet data, point-wise maximum speeds are computed considering road curvature, speed limits, and comfort constraints. From the resulting drivable speed profile, physically consistent stopping paths and their endpoints are calculated for each route position, accounting for friction limits, scenario-dependent deceleration capabilities, and system delays between perception and braking. The set of stopping paths is aggregated into a region of interest (ROI) representing the spatial area that must be reliably perceived to guarantee safe stopping. This ROI
Kohler, Paul LeonhardResch, Michael
The mitigation of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions poses a major challenge for the transportation sector, driving the need for renewable fuels. Bioethanol represents a promising fuel for Spark-Ignition (SI) engines, combining a reduced life-cycle CO₂ impact with advantageous combustion properties. However, despite its proven performance under steady-state conditions, the widespread of fuels with high ethanol content is still constrained by significant difficulties during engine cold-start operation. This study aims to experimentally assess the effect of ethanol concentration on cold-start performance and warm-up transient behavior of a Naturally Aspirated (NA), Port Fuel Injected (PFI) SI engine. Warm-up tests were conducted at an operating condition of 2000 rpm engine speed and 20 Nm torque using three fuels with increasing ethanol content: commercial gasoline (E5), E30 and E60. In addition, dedicated startability tests were carried out for E60 and neat ethanol (E100) at different
Falbo, LuigiFalbo, BiagioPerrone, DiegoCastiglione, Teresa
Uncertainty quantification (UQ) is increasingly recognized as essential when machine learning (ML) is employed in domains that are safety-relevant, cost-intensive, or legally binding, such as the product engineering of battery electric vehicle (BEV) energy systems. UQ methods aim to estimate the aleatoric, epistemic or both uncertainties associated with the predictions of a machine learning model. However, the landscape of UQ methods is diverse and rapidly evolving, with no single approach proving optimal across all tasks. Consequently, the selection of methods in practice is often driven by experience, constrained by limited comprehensive knowledge, time, and implementation capacity. This paper introduces an application-oriented process model supporting data scientists in selecting UQ methods in ML by adapting the SPALTEN [1] problem-solving methodology and the Algorithm Selection Process Model (ASPM) into an Algorithm Selection Process Model for Uncertainty Quantification (UQ-ASPM
Holderied, NiklasHörtling, StefanBause, KatharinaDüser, Tobias
Trajectory tracking control and vehicle state estimation are core functionalities of highly automated vehicles and must operate reliably under strict real-time constraints as well as in the presence of model uncertainties and limited sensor availability. This paper presents an integrated, real-time capable framework for trajectory tracking control and vehicle state estimation, developed within the UShift II research project and implemented on the highly automated vehicle platform. The framework combines nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) for trajectory tracking with an extended Kalman filter (EKF) for multi-sensor state estimation within a modular system architecture. The NMPC is based on a vehicle model designed for low-speed automated driving maneuvers and explicitly accounts for actuator constraints. Trajectories are tracked based on local planned reference trajectories while ensuring smooth and physically feasible control inputs for underlying control. The EKF fuses
Fuchs, SörenNeubeck, JensWagner, Andreas
This paper assesses the efficiency limits of light-duty vehicle propulsion systems based on reciprocating internal combustion engines (ICE) in the current state of the art and in the next five-year horizon, considering their combination with technologies such as electric turbocharging and hybridization, while excluding plug-in hybrid configurations so that fuel remains the primary onboard energy source. A systematic methodology is applied to evaluate the influence of key variables—heat transfer, air–fuel ratio, and compression ratio—on engine performance, integrating these variations into a simulation model to capture their interactions and effects. The resulting parametric study enables the generation of new engine maps that exploit synergies between parameters and enhance the prediction of engine behaviour across different operating conditions, forming the basis for assessing potential advancements in hybrid powertrain architectures. These maps are then used to define performance
Pla, BenjaminDolz, VicenteSerrano, Jose R.Gómez-Vilanova, AlejandroOliva, FerminCardenas, MariaAriztegui, Javier
This paper presents Stochastic Gradient Pulse Adaptation (SGPA), a real-time adaptive pulse-charging system for rechargeable electrochemical batteries that dynamically adjusts charging aggressiveness based on the battery's internal response, as opposed to predetermined CC–CV or fixed pulse profiles. SGPA is different from traditional charging methods that use static current de-rating and conservative voltage limits. Instead, SGPA uses gradient-based feedback from terminal voltage behaviour, temperature changes, internal resistance changes, and state of charge to continuously adapt pulse amplitude and duty cycle. This algorithm boosts the charging intensity when the electrochemical circumstances are good. It lowers the pulses slowly when signs of thermal or impedance-related stress show up. Simulation-based proof-of-concept experiments on a heavy-duty multi-battery system show that charging time is less than with multi-CCCV charging, while still keeping the current distribution across
Prakashkumar, BalagopalMannar, Vignesh
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) place high demands on electric drives across a wide operating range: high efficiency in customer-related driving scenarios and maximum performance in dynamic driving modes. A promising solution to this challenge is the dynamic reconfiguration of the electric machine winding configuration between series and parallel mode, enabling optimal electromagnetic properties of the drive for different operating points. This paper presents the design and prototyping of an electronic winding reconfiguration system for high-performance traction applications. The hardware prototype has been designed and built, but has not yet been tested, which is why the results are based on simulations. Unlike mechanical winding reconfiguration concepts, which have long transition times and cannot switch under load, the proposed system enables fast and safe load transitions between the winding configurations. The study describes the topology and hardware of the switching unit
Oestreicher, RaphaelSchneider, Jörgvon Ohlen, DavidFuchs, PatrickKulzer, André Casal