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Microstructure and Microhardness of Electroless Nickel-Phosphorous Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube Composite Coatings on Nimonic C263 Superalloy2026-01-5067To be published on 08/05/2026
Nickel-based superalloys are becoming common in the automotive exhaust and turbocharger systems, wherein components are subjected to extreme thermal, mechanical, and oxidative conditions. Nimonic C263 exhibits high-temperature strength and creep resistance. But its surface is susceptible to degradation under service conditions. Electroless composite deposition is a surface engineering technique in which metal ions are chemically reduced and deposited onto the substrate without external electrical energy, enabling uniform and adherent coatings. In this study, electroless nickel-phosphorous (Ni–P)/multiwalled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) composite coating has been deposited on Nimonic C263 substrates. Two carbon nanotube (CNT) concentrations (0.20 g and 0.36 g) were investigated. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to analyze surface morphology and CNT dispersion, while micro-Vickers hardness testing was conducted in accordance with ASTM E384 using a diamond pyramid indenter at a load of 100 g and a dwell time of 15 s. The Ni–P/0.20 g MWCNT coating exhibited superior hardness due to uniform CNT dispersion and improved microstructural characteristics. Higher CNT concentration results in agglomeration and reduced coating efficiency. The experimental findings would be a quality dataset to optimize composite coating in future with the use of artificial intelligence and machine learning. The paper emphasizes the uniqueness of coating Nimonic C263 superalloy with Ni–P/MWCNT composite coatings, which is not as extensively studied as traditional materials. The best CNT concentration of 0.20 g is found in order to experience the best microstructural uniformity and hardness. The findings provide a definite structure–property relationship between the dispersion of CNT and mechanical performance, which makes the coating to be practical in high-temperature automotive applications.
Vinoth, N., Anush Raj, B., Lokeshkumar, J., Vishnu, N.
Analysis and Elimination of Transient Impact of Rollers in S-cam Brakes2026-01-5066To be published on 08/05/2026
S-cam brake is a drum-type foundation brake used in heavy commercial vehicles. It is a safety-critical device; hence, thorough validation of its performance by lab test rigs and field tests is essential. During prototype testing, an unusual impact was observed during dynamic braking at high pressure application, specifically when the brake drum is rotating, after a period of operation of about 10,000 cycles. This phenomenon was then observed even at static braking when the brake drum was at rest. From initial inspection, it is due to the cam roller, which rides on the web-slot provided at the shoe assembly, while the S-cam is rotating and falls back instantly. This phenomenon occurs repeatedly and creates an audible noise, which needs to be eliminated. The study aims to correlate the phenomenon using finite element analysis (FEA) as in a prototype test and to identify the root cause and optimize the design variables. Since the friction coefficient at the cam roller–web interface is unknown after a period of operation, different values of friction coefficient, ranging from 0.1 to 0.8, are iterated and simulated by rotating the S-cam until the braking effort is reached. The dynamic implicit analysis procedure in Abaqus standard is used to simulate this condition. Based on the results, design variables were improved to mitigate the issue. A quick solution, achieved by modifying a minor feature, successfully prevented the fallback behavior and was validated through physical testing. Furthermore, a permanent solution was developed to eliminate both the “ride-on” and “fallback” phenomena by optimizing component dimensions. This FEA methodology helps to validate the design in an initial concept phase itself for future variants. Using this method, even the structural and fatigue performance of braking parts can be validated at a system-level simulation with better accuracy.
Dinesh Kumar, J., Riyaz Mohamed, D., Vasanth Bharath, S., Rajkumar, S., Murugan, S.
Research and Application of Mechanical Voltage Stabilization Control Device2026-99-01197/31/2026
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Wang, Gang, Liu, Cuicui, Tong, Deshui, Cao, Jian, Mu, Taiji, Han, Baidong
Modelling Failure Propagation in Material-Driven Collaborative Manufacturing Networks Using Cellular Automata2026-99-01207/31/2026
Collaborative manufacturing networks enhance production efficiency but are increasingly vulnerable to cascading failures due to their complex interdependencies, particularly in critical processes like gear manufacturing. This study addresses this challenge by proposing a dynamic modelling framework based on Cellular Automata. Utilizing manufacturing resource and task scheduling data, a material flow-driven Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) is constructed to capture the network’s hierarchical topology. Key innovations include state transition rules with memory effects, where dynamic failure probability integrates neighbouring node states and historical failure records, governing normal node failure, recovery, and re-failure (with an attenuation factor reflecting enhanced resilience). The case study focusing on the gear manufacturing industry, through simulations on a 100-node gear production network, reveals spatiotemporal failure propagation patterns. By implementing resource redundancy configuration and material flow optimization, iterations generally converge around 35 steps, demonstrating significant self-recovery potential and strong network robustness in collaborative manufacturing networks. This approach provides a scientifically grounded tool for identifying cascading risks in collaborative manufacturing networks.
Bai, Hao, Kou, Zhida, Liang, Jingya, Zhang, Cheng
Research on the Topology Design of Electric Vehicle Corner Module Suspension Based on POC Theory2026-99-01517/31/2026
The corner module is an innovative design that combines drive, steering, suspension, and other vehicle structures into a single wheel unit. This achieves a high level of integration for chassis functions. A chassis built on this module can perform more complex movements. Suspension is a key part that decides how the vehicle moves. However, current suspension design approaches lack a systematic methodology for configuration synthesis and analytical verification for the multi-degree-of-freedom (multi-DOF) requirements of the corner module. This study introduces a new method for designing the corner module suspension based on the Position and Orientation Characteristic theory (POC theory). First, the type of suspension DOF is derived from chassis functional requirements by treating the required corner module motion as the target suspension DOF. Then, we decide the number of chains, links, and joints in the mechanism and perform configuration synthesis of suspension mechanism. Next, we combine the selected kinematic pairs and select suspension mechanisms that meet the requirements of suspension DOF. There are two steps of calculation in this process. In this study, the goal is to design a suspension with three links, two loops, and two degrees of freedom. Seven suspension mechanisms with specific loops and components were obtained using the proposed process. Finally, the paper presents the process of mechanism verification. Using the steering link and ground excitation as inputs, theoretical calculations and simulation analysis were conducted to verify that the mechanisms obtained meets the suspension design objectives. This proves that the POC theory-based method for creating multi-DOF suspension is effective.
Kong, Wenkai, Zhu, Wenfeng, Zeng, Zhixuan
Multi-Objective Optimization Design of Ship Propulsion Shaft System in Ice Area Based on NSWOA Algorithm2026-99-01527/31/2026
Ship propulsion shaft systems are subjected to ice load excitation when ships are navigating in polar ice regions. Compared to conventional hydrodynamic effects, the ice load imposes higher requirements on the shaft system’s ability to withstand torsional stresses. To improve the power of the ship propulsion system when sailing in ice areas and reduce the power loss of the shaft system, while considering the vibration performance. In this paper, a multi-objective optimal design of the shaft system is carried out using the Non-dominated Sorted Whale Optimization Algorithm (NSWOA) to reduce stresses on both the motor shaft and the intermediate shaft. The coupled system model of motor-shaft system-propeller structural components is established, and the system dynamics response model is obtained by solving using the Newmark-β method. Based on the response model, a multi-objective whale optimization algorithm is used to optimize the power and vibration performance of the shaft system simultaneously. The optimized results show that the shaft system transfer efficiency is improved by 0.27%, and the stress at the shaft end is reduced by 11.8% and 12.3% respectively.
Hu, Chuanxi, Li, Yao, Pan, Shuxian, Liu, Zhiyong, Xie, Yuteng, Ye, Jun, Zhou, Ruiping
Optimization of Pneumatic Conveying Elbows to Reduce Grain Particle Normal Contact Forces via CFD-DEM Coupling Method2026-99-01167/31/2026
This study presents a refined design for pneumatic conveying pipelines, featuring a grooved structure at the bend aimed at reducing particle breakage during transportation. Using soybean particles as a focus, the research employs a gas-solid two-phase flow approach to explore how different groove depths and widths influence the breakage rate. We used CFD-DEM simulation techniques, combining fluid mechanics with discrete element modeling to achieve a more accurate representation of particle motion and collision forces during expressing. Based on these simulations, we identified the most effective combination of groove width and spacing. Experimental results showed that a groove width of 4.5 mm coupled with a 40 mm spacing could decrease impact forces on particles by approximately 5% to 10% at expressing speeds of 15 m/s and 20 m/s. Throughout all measured time intervals, the impact forces remained stable, with turbulence exerting minimal influence on the particle forces.
Luo, Xinhao, Yang, Tiancheng, Huang, Bo, Mao, Genwu, Dong, Deliang, Shi, Heng, Li, Xiaoliang, He, Bo
Construction of a Digital Management Platform for Intelligent Workshops in the Electronics Industry2026-99-01177/31/2026
Under China’s intelligent manufacturing strategy, manufacturing enterprises are expected to achieve digital and networked operations by 2025, with full digital transformation by 2030. Intelligent factories, the core of this transformation, rely on interconnected, integrated, and data-fused systems. This paper focuses on the micro-assembly intelligent workshop at the Nanjing Research Institute of Electronics Technology, which produces micro-circuit modules for large-scale complex electronic systems. The workshop combines discrete and process manufacturing modes, presenting unique challenges for digital management. A digital management platform based on a five-layer architecture (device, network, data, application, and decision layers) is proposed to address multi-dimensional business needs, including production scheduling, logistics, execution, and decision optimization. A hierarchical workflow structure of the workshop, consisting of a main workflow and several sub-processes, is in-depth studied and designed. The platform is constructed based on requirements analysis and workflow design of the workshop and integrates systems such as MES, APS, WMS, and SCADA, supported by AI-driven big data analytics. This study offers a practical framework for advancing digital transformation in the electronics industry.
Zhang, Jian, Wang, Jiafeng, Guo, Yongzhao
Study on the Contact Stress Distribution and Calculation Method of Cylindrical Roller Bearings Considering Clearance Changes2026-99-01247/31/2026
The distribution of contact stress in roller bearings has a significant impact on operational performance and safety. Firstly, we established a bearing clearance change model that combines interference fit and thermal expansion effects. Then, we studied the clearance changes of key parameters’ influence under different operating conditions. Using Hertz contact theory, we analyze the nonlinear coupling relationship between clearance changes, load distribution, and contact stress. Through MATLAB analytical calculations, load and stress distribution contour maps were obtained under typical operating conditions, which provided theoretical support for bearing optimization design and reliability analysis. The result depicts that an increase in interference fit and temperature difference leads to clearance decrease, triggering a redistribution of contact stress. As clearance decreases, the maximum contact stress exhibits a nonlinear growth trend. To further enhance engineering practicality, this paper uses the MATLAB platform to develop a visualization of digital image processing software. The software enables interactive analysis throughout the entire process of clearance input, stress calculation, and graphical display.
Pang, Yiqing, Cai, Hongbin, Ren, Siyang
The 10 th International Conference on Mechanical Manufacturing Technology and Material Engineering (MMTME 2025)2026-99-01007/31/2026
TOC
Tobolski, Sue
The Cylindrical Component Impacts the Honeycomb Structure2026-99-01017/31/2026
High-performance composite materials are widely used in the main structural components of satellites. Various cylindrical components will hit the satellite at the time. The cartridge is fixed and unchanging. Honeycomb structure and ceramic honeycomb structure are the same, the cylindrical component is lighter and can attack satellites at a greater speed under the same conditions as the propellant. In terms of mass quality, the speed can reach over 1.6 times, and ceramic honeycomb structure can have minimal kinetic energy loss and can face enemies in combat with thicker steel plates, allowing for continuous destruction. Cylindrical component remaining kinetic energy (∆E) is 3.2968e3 J, but ceramic cylindrical component ∆E is 2.082e3 J, and ceramic cylindrical component have more advantages, and there are fewer arbitrary steel balls flying.
Xu, Jian, Yang, Zhen, Chang, Xuefang, Li, Qiang, Zhang, Kun, Qu, Dandan
Study on Energy-related Mechanisms of Aeroelastic Instability of Ultra-Long Flexible Wind Turbine Blades Under Various Working Conditions2026-99-01347/31/2026
With the continuous increase in wind turbine power capacity, ultra-long flexible blades face intensified aeroelastic instability risks due to reduced structural stiffness, enhanced modal coupling, and aerodynamic nonlinearity. In addition to the analysis of basic vibration characteristics, this study focuses on energy-related mechanisms of aeroelastic instability under various working conditions. Using a numerical model integrating Dynamic Blade Element Momentum Theory (DBEMT) and Geometrically Exact Beam Theory (GEBT), over 400 time-domain simulations were conducted to characterize instability onset and development. Results reveal four distinct aeroelastic instability regions, each dominated by specific modes. In Region A, flutter dominated by the 2nd flapwise mode is observed. In Region B, flutter dominated by the 1st edgewise mode is observed. In Region C, flutter dominated by the 2nd edgewise mode is observed. While in Region D, where the medial angle of attack (AoA) of the blade has exceeded the stall angle, stall-induced vibration dominated by the 1st flapwise mode is observed. Energy analysis shows aerodynamic work concentration near the blade tip drives instability, with diverse energy exchange patterns across regions. Except for some operating conditions in region C, where instability is dominated by edgewise energy absorption, most aeroelastic instability conditions are dominated by flapwise energy absorption. Torsional degree of freedom contributes minimally to aerodynamic work, but the torsional vibration exerts a notable influence on the AoA. This, in turn, changes the comprehensive aerodynamic forces impacting the blade as well as the general aeroelastic stability. This study clarifies the relationship between operating conditions and energy-driven instability, offering some reference values for the design work and safety assurance of ultra-long flexible blades of the wind turbine.
Wang, Su, Chen, Jiajia, Zhou, Le, Shen, Xin, Li, Chun, Du, Zhaohui
Design and Application of Simulation-Based Lifting Tool for Fabric Truck Roller Replacement2026-99-01377/31/2026
In the process of replacing the rollers of the fabric cart of the tobacco storage cabinet, in order to solve the problems of low replacement efficiency and high safety risk.This article proposes a specialized lifting tool for fabric cart rollers with a self-locking and adopts the screw lifting structure, which facilitates roller maintenance operations, and conducts SolidWorks Simulation calculations and dynamic simulation methods. Jinan Cigarette Factory fine cigarettes special line leaf silk temporary storage cabinet fabric car roller replacement, for example, the results show that: the average operating personnel reduced by 50%, the replacement time from 6.7h to 1.2h, efficiency increased by 458%, This innovation significantly reduces the labor intensity of maintenance personnel and ensures a safe and reliable replacement process.
Zhang, Lei, Xue, Yifei, Zhang, Ge, Sun, Yanzhao, Wang, Hongbin, Cheng, Linfeng
Experimental Study on Suppression of Lithium-Ion Battery Fires Using Clean and Efficient Aqueous Fire Extinguishing Agents2026-99-01337/31/2026
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Yu, Tao, Zhu, Shunbing, Li, Ke, Zhang, Menglan
Seismic Performance and Reinforcement Strategies for ±600 kV Suspended Converter Valves — Part1: Seismic Vulnerabilities2026-99-01457/31/2026
The suspended converter valve constitutes the fundamental equipment essential for the functioning of direct current power transmission infrastructure. The electrical equipment has been severely damaged in historical seismic events, underscoring the earthquake resistance of thyristor valve is critical for maintaining secure and consistent performance of energy delivery systems. Current seismic research focuses on ±800 kV converter valves, while studies on ±600 kV converter valves are lacking. Due to significant differences in the length of suspended insulators between ±600 kV and ±800 kV converter valves, their seismic responses differ considerably. A three-dimensional finite element model encompassing both the ±600 kV suspended converter valve and its supporting valve hall structure was developed to accurately capture their dynamic interactions under seismic excitation. The modal analysis is conducted, and the natural frequencies and mode shapes of converter valve and valve hall system are obtained. The seismic analysis results indicate that under 1 g seismic excitation, the calculated maximum seismic displacement of the suspended valve tower is 421 mm, exceeding the engineering design limit of 400 mm. The calculated minimum stress safety factor for the converter valve suspended insulators is 1.46, failing to meet the specified requirement of no less than 2. Both the swing amplitude of the converter valve and the stress on the suspended insulators exceed design limits. It not only poses a mechanical safety risk to the converter valve, but the excessive seismic displacement can also lead to seismic coupling effects between the converter valve and critical equipment. Therefore, further research on damping measures is required for the seismic vulnerabilities of ±600 kV suspended converter valves.
Lin, Sen, Zhu, Zhubing, Lu, Zhicheng, Sun, Yuhan
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Vacuum Laser Welded Joints in 42CrMo Thick Plate2026-99-01327/31/2026
Vacuum laser welding trials were carried out on 42CrMo steel, a material widely utilized in the defense sector. By employing a 30 kW fiber laser system, complete penetration welds were successfully produced on 20 mm thick 42CrMo steel plates. The resulting joints displayed satisfactory surface quality on both the top and bottom sides, with no evident defects such as cracks or porosity. A comprehensive analysis of the joint microstructure and mechanical properties was conducted. Findings reveal that the weld zone (WZ) is predominantly composed of lath martensite, accompanied by minor quantities of plate martensite, organized as columnar crystals. The joints demonstrated high tensile strength at ambient temperature, with fracture consistently occurring within the base metal (BM). Microhardness measurements indicated higher values within the weld relative to the base metal, and no pronounced softening was detected in the heat-affected zone (HAZ). Additionally, the joints exhibited commendable impact toughness, suggesting overall superior mechanical performance.
Shi, Haicheng, Zhang, Guoyu, Li, Wuhong, Cao, Dongxu, Liu, Tianlei
An Automatic Cleaning System for Copper Bar Chain of Cigarette Cutting Machine2026-99-01317/31/2026
The cutting machine is a critical component in the cigarette processing line, and its cutting quality depends on the operational condition of the copper bar chain. The grooves on the surface of the copper bar chain accumulate dust during the operation of the machine, which often causes unstable conveyance of raw materials, significant width variations, and a high defect rate. To address this issue, this study developed a linear reciprocating automatic cleaning system for copper bar chains to remove dust from the groove surface and hinge joints. Experiments have verified that the system improved the cutting qualification rate, increased the operational stability of the cutting machine, reduced manual cleaning workloads, and reached higher cleaning efficiency. This innovative system is also expected to provide a valuable reference for similar equipment manufacturers and advance technological innovation in the cigarette processing industry.
Li, Haitao, Zhang, Chunyuan, Fang, Junqing, Su, Lin, Chen, Peng, Guo, Zhiwei, Xing, Dongdong
Design and Development of a Durability Test Device for the Surface of Elderly-Friendly Mattresses2026-99-01397/31/2026
A test device for detecting the durability of the surface of elderly-friendly mattresses was designed and developed, which has functions such as force value monitoring, displacement monitoring, data recording, and hardness grade determination. Through the collaborative work of the mechanical system and the control system, high-precision reciprocating rolling tests and hardness grade determination on the mattress surface are realized. The verification test results show that the relative standard deviation (RSD) value of the mattress hardness grade test results is less than 10%, indicating that the detection data obtained by using this device is stable, meets the design requirements, and has operability.
Wang, Jin, Feng, Panpan, Shen, Guofeng, Zhang, Lei
Optimization Design of the Lifting Platform Mechanism for a Sand 3D Printing Equipment2026-99-01407/31/2026
This paper addresses the stiffness issue of a lifting platform mechanism in a sand mold 3D printing device through finite element analysis (FEA) and proposes a multi-faceted optimization design approach. A finite element model of the lifting platform was established to analyze its stress and deformation distribution under extreme working conditions, revealing that the maximum deformation occurred at the platform edges. Based on the analysis results, structural design optimization, topology optimization of the top plate, and multi-objective parameter optimization of the bracket were implemented, significantly improving the platform's stiffness. After optimization, the maximum deformation of the lifting platform was reduced by 51.6%, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed methods. The results indicate that this approach has strong practical engineering value and can serve as a reference for optimizing similar structures.
Hong, Haichun, Yang, Wenliang, Xu, Jifu, Wang, Haitao, Jing, Wenxia, Niu, Longlong, Wang, Zhibing
Application of the Coupled Volume of Fluid and Level Set (CVOFLS) Method for Moving Interface Tracking in the Zalesak Disk Problem2026-99-01387/31/2026
Addressing the inaccuracies in interface curvature computation using the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method and the lack of mass conservation in the Level Set (LS) method, a novel interface tracking method, the Coupled Volume of Fluid and LS (CVOFLS) method, is established. This approach synergistically integrates the strengths of both VOF and Level Set methodologies. It simultaneously solves for the VOF and LS functions based on fluid velocity, corrects fluid mass using the surface obtained by the VOF approach, and computes interface normals using the LS function, thereby eliminating the need for LS function reinitialization. This effectively overcomes the shortcomings of both methods. Numerical simulations of interface tracking demonstrate that the CVOFLS method ensures high tracking accuracy of free interfaces, good mass conservation, and improved computational efficiency.
Cui, Liying, Sun, Hui, Xu, Wei
Design of a Fully Automated Tea Packaging System Based on an Improved Genetic Algorithm2026-99-01137/31/2026
Manual operations in traditional tea packaging lines often suffer from low productivity, safety risks, and inconsistent labeling quality. To overcome these limitations, this study develops a fully automated tea packaging system guided by an improved genetic algorithm. The system integrates five functional modules—bag feeding, bag opening, material filling, sealing, and labeling—into a seamless workflow. By applying the optimization capability of the improved genetic algorithm, the system achieves better coordination among modules, higher adaptability to different bag shapes and sizes, and improved operational efficiency. Experimental validation demonstrates that the proposed design not only simplifies the packaging procedure but also enhances precision, reliability, and production speed. The system provides a flexible and intelligent solution applicable to a wide range of tea packaging requirements.
Guo, Hui, Zhao, Zhikai, Yuan, Weilong, Lin, Lin, Yu, Yunchang, Gao, Jiashun
Numerical Study on Measurement Accuracy of Liquid Level/Capacity Measurement Device and System in a Shipboard Environment2026-99-01227/31/2026
In the marine environment, navigation safety and operational effectiveness depend heavily on the precision of liquid level/capacity measurement equipment and systems. In order to examine their measurement accuracy under complex operational situations, including ship navigation states and water tank sloshing, this study employed computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methodologies. The numerical technique performs a thorough examination of how various operating conditions impact measurement accuracy and integrates the volume of fluid (VOF) model and laminar flow model with appropriately defined boundary conditions and solver settings. The findings indicate that constant-speed navigation has minimal impact on accuracy, horizontal acceleration causes moderate deviations, and accelerated diving greatly reduces precision. The amplitude of water tank sloshing has a positive correlation with measurement error. When sloshing amplitudes are less than 1 m, the integration of the resulting acceleration efficiently lowers deviations while preserving excellent accuracy. In light of these results, we advise adding accelerometers to differential pressure transmitters to improve measurement precision. This investigation provides data-driven references and technical solutions for system design and operational standard formulation in marine measurement systems.
Shang, Jin, Qin, Ziming, Wang, Yingwei, Wu, Chao, Zhao, Fenggang, Chen, Liang, Xia, Wei, Yan, Jin, Chen, Min, Chen, Guoao
Parameter Identification for the Dynamics Model of a Robotic Grasping Process Based on SFOA2026-99-01237/31/2026
To precisely simulate the nonlinear dynamic characteristics of a robotic arm grasping cylindrical objects from storage units, this study establishes a dynamic model of the robotic grasping process incorporating Coulomb and viscous friction models to characterize frictional properties. Furthermore, to effectively identify unknown parameters in the dynamic model, a parameter identification method based on the Superb Fairy-wren Optimization Algorithm (SFOA) is proposed. The root-mean-square error (RMSE) between the displacement responses from the dynamic model and the experimentally acquired displacement data serves as the optimization objective. Multiple sets of experimental data are utilized to identify the unknown parameters of the dynamic model. The results demonstrate that when the identified parameters are applied to the dynamic model, the goodness-of-fit between the model’s response displacement data and the experimental displacement data exceeds 0.999. This validates the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed method for identifying unknown parameters in dynamic models.
Shen, Shaofeng, Yang, Liu, Wang, Zihan, Han, Qunyi
An Integrated Instrument for Endodontic Access Cavity Preparation and Root Canal Preparation with Full Pneumatic Drive2026-99-01187/31/2026
During root canal treatment, dentists must use endodontic access cavity preparation dental handpieces and root canal preparation handpieces separately for endodontic access cavity preparation and root canal preparation. To reduce the use of surgical tools, an integrated instrument for endodontic access cavity preparation and root canal preparation was designed. Driven by an air impeller and equipped with a quick tool disassembly unit, the instrument realizes forward or reverse rotation of the end tool via an STM32-controlled electromagnetic directional valve. The flow characteristics of the air impeller system were analyzed using ANSYS CFX, and the results showed that the impeller output torque met the design requirements. To minimize torque fluctuations during rotation, a double-layer offset impeller structure with an offset angle of 14° was designed based on the flow characteristics of the impeller system. The instrument was applied in simulated endodontic access cavity preparation and root canal preparation experiments. Preliminary experimental results demonstrate the feasibility of using this integrated instrument for both endodontic access cavity preparation and root canal preparation.
Chen, Guoliang, Xu, Kunlang
Resilience Evaluation of HVAC Outdoor Units Against Typhoons Using Finite Element Method2026-99-01067/31/2026
In view of the practical problem that the air-conditioner outdoor units in the spacecraft test workshops of coastal launch sites are severely damaged under the influence of super typhoon, this paper employs the finite-element simulation method to establish a finite-element model of the outdoor units. The implicit Euler solution method is used to calculate the stress conditions of each component of the unit under the influence of typhoons with wind speeds of 50.9 m/s and 61.2 m/s respectively. By combining with the material yield strength, the weak links in the design are identified, and targeted improvement measures are proposed. The simulation results demonstrate good agreement with the actual impact of the typhoon, which can effectively guide the typhoon-resistance optimization design of subsequent air-conditioning units.
Gu, Yufei, Chen, Shaojiang, Shi, YunShan, Fu, Yuanming, Chen, Xi, Yang, Degang
Simulation of Compression and Bending Performance of GFRP Rod of Composite Hollow Post Insulator2026-99-01077/31/2026
Composite hollow core station post insulators utilize fiber-reinforced epoxy resin as the core rod material, offering advantages such as high specific strength, high specific stiffness, and excellent fatigue resistance. This enables them to effectively meet the flexible, variable, and complex operational demands of modern power systems. However, composite materials exhibit anisotropic characteristics, resulting in complex mechanical properties. Additionally, the core rod of hollow pillar composite insulators is typically fabricated through a spiral-plus-circumferential winding process, which significantly complicates structural design and computational analysis. This study establishes a finite element model of the hollow pillar composite insulator core rod in ABAQUS. It analyzes the influence of fiber content on composite material parameters and performs finite element numerical calculations to examine the stress state of core rods with different winding angles under compressive and bending loads. The research findings provide theoretical support for the optimized structural design of hollow pillar composite insulator core rods.
Liu, Jianbiao, Du, Yijun, Quan, Xiaoxi, Zhou, Songsong
Adaptability Analysis of The Depth and Curvature Radius of Automatic Fiber Placement2026-99-01127/31/2026
This study explored the relationship between the placement roller and the radius of curvature of the mold. In the production process, it is better to judge the feasibility of placement based on the actual placement profile. It is calculated that when the prepreg with a tow width of 6.35 mm is used for automatic fiber placement and forming, the 4-tow, 8-tow, and 16-tow laying rollers can be laid at a maximum depth of 2 mm. The formulas for the length of the automatic fiber placement roller and the axial radius of curvature of the die are obtained. At the same time, through geometric analysis, a formula for calculating the minimum radius of curvature of the pressure roller is obtained. The finite element software Abaqus was used to simulate the contact of the 4-tow, 8-tow, and 16-tow laying rollers with the minimum axial critical radius of curvature at a 2 mm depth, and output the force curve of the node where the mold surface contacts the pressure roller. It is found that the simulation results are consistent with the calculation results.
Ma, Cheng, Xiu, Zhifeng, Xue, Hongming, Yang, Maowei, Zhang, Pin
Optimization of the Stewart Platform Based on Improved Genetic Optimization2026-99-01057/31/2026
Based on the improved genetic optimization, a new Stewart platform optimization design method is proposed in this paper. Through introducing chaotic mapping and simulation annealing strategy, combining the kinematic analysis of the Stewart platform and the constraint conditions of the workspace, aiming at maximizing the workspace and minimizing the motion error, the structural parameters of the platform are optimized. The experimental results show that the improved GA significantly improves the workspace and motion performance of the Stewart platform compared with the traditional ant colony optimization and basic genetic optimization.
Zhu, Ming, Wang, Baichao
Fatigue Life Prediction and Improvement of Supporting Structures under Cyclic Highpressure Impact2026-99-01157/31/2026
Under cyclic ultra-high-pressure impact loads, structures often experience local fractures due to insufficient initial fatigue life (low-cycle fatigue). This article focused on a certain ultra-high-pressure support structure and established a dynamic model based on load transfer characteristics to simulate the transient stress-strain response under impact loads. On this basis, a low-cycle fatigue life evaluation method was used to predict the fatigue life of the structure about 362 times, which was significantly different from the required indicators for structural fatigue life. In response to the problem of high loadbearing capacity on the structural support surface and significant stress concentration at the root, the structural load-bearing method has been optimized. Calculation analysis showed that after optimization, the structural stress was greatly improved, the bearing capacity of the support surface was reduced by 25 %, and the fatigue life of the structure was increased from 362 times to 4208 times, an increase of about 10 times. The optimized structure has been verified through 2000 tests without any fracture, meeting the requirements for the service life of the structure.
Wang, Shuman, Ning, Bianfang, Ma, Amin, Zhang, Fanfan
A Data-Driven Method for Predicting The Operational Status of The Aircraft Assembly System2026-99-01117/31/2026
Aircraft assembly systems, as a critical phase in aerospace manufacturing, face significant challenges in maintaining production efficiency and ensuring product quality. This complex manufacturing system exhibits two distinct characteristics: (1) tightly coupled interactions among manufacturing elements involving process sequences, material flows, and equipment utilization; and (2) dynamic resource allocation and material distribution plans. The inherent variability in production element configurations often leads to operational instability and schedule deviations, which may result in abnormal production states. To address these challenges, this study proposes a data-driven predictive framework that integrates Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) neural networks with multi-criteria evaluation. The developed LSTM-based model effectively forecasts two critical production indicators of cycle time and balance rate, achieving temporal prediction through historical operational data analysis. The proposed methodology facilitates timely anomaly detection and early warning, allowing proactive risk mitigation and ensuring sustained production system stability. This research contributes to advancing intelligent monitoring and control strategies for aircraft assembly operations within data-driven manufacturing environments.
Chen, Bolin, Wu, Junjie, Sun, Jinfeng, Wang, Kai
Analysis and Verification of the Stiffness of Flexible Mechanisms2026-99-01037/31/2026
Recent advances in precision motion technology have heightened the requirement for precise stiffness analysis in flexible mechanisms. This paper begins with a theoretical analysis, constructing a mathematical expression for the stiffness of flexible mechanisms, providing a systematic framework for analysis. Subsequently, the study employed finite element analysis on both single and double parallelogram flexible mechanisms to validate the proposed theoretical stiffness formulas. This process not only confirmed the effectiveness of the proposed expressions but also highlighted the influence of different structures on stiffness characteristics. The finite element analysis results validate the proposed theoretical model as an effective and reliable tool for predicting the stiffness of flexible mechanisms. By establishing a reliable predictive model, this research paves the way for the informed design and systematic optimization of next-generation flexible mechanisms in precision motion engineering.
Cai, Dongchen
Reliability Evaluation of Five-Axis Machining Center based on Improved FAHPEWM-Extension Theory2026-99-01027/31/2026
To address the challenge of accurately assessing the reliability of complex equipment, a reliability evaluation system for a five-axis machining center was developed based on extension theory. By collecting and analyzing the failure modes and data of various subsystems, the strengths of the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) and the Entropy Weight Method (EWM) were combined to determine the weight of reliability evaluation indicators for both the machining center and its subsystems. A comprehensive assessment of the five-axis machining center's overall reliability was conducted. According to the principle of maximum membership, the reliability grades for the spindle system and the feed system were both rated as “excellent.”
Fei, Shouxiang, Wang, Dechao, Piao, Chengdao, Zheng, Shengkui
Identification and Quantification of PAHs in Gasoline Soot Using ASE-GC-MS/MS2026-99-01107/31/2026
In the present work, a novel method that combines accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) and gas chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) was proposed to identify and quantify polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in gasoline soot. The n-hexane was employed to extract the target analytes, and the optimal extraction conditions were identified (cycle times = 3, extraction time = 30 min, extraction temperature = 120°C, and extraction pressure = 100 MPa). The extraction efficiency of six analytes was measured to assess the ASE method; the formation mechanism of partial PAHs was discussed, and the 18 PAHs in gasoline soot were studied both qualitatively and quantitatively under the optimal conditions. It was found that our new method reached a high correlation coefficient (between 0.9987 and 0.9997); the limits of quantification (LOQs) (S/N = 6) for these PAHs were between 0.003 and 0.009 ng/mL with a relative standard deviation (RSD) of 2.9–10.6%. Our method demonstrated good performance in determining the target analytes in soot samples, such as gasoline soot, some materials soot, co-combustion soot, gasoline, and materials. The PAHs differences in soot samples containing gasoline and materials soot samples were significant enough to obtain the observed discrimination. The method is an accurate and sensitive quantitative method to identify gasoline residues in soot samples of arson fire.
Liu, Shujun, Cao, Henan, Qi, Lijie, Liu, Yang, Li, Qi
Comparative Analysis of CDTire Model and FTire Model in Vehicle Comfort and Durability Simulation2026-99-01097/31/2026
This paper studies the applicability of the CDTire tire model in vehicle comfort and durability simulations by comparing it with the FTire tire model. Based on a physical 250/50 R19 tire, the corresponding CDTire and FTire models are developed and integrated into a multibody dynamics model of an SUV. After simulations of two handling comfort conditions and one durability condition using the CDTire and FTire models, it is found that, when FTire is used as the base case, CDTire produces a smaller relative error in vehicle comfort simulation, with a maximum of +5.6%. In the durability simulation, the relative error is larger, but the maximum value remains within ±10% at + 9.7%. Therefore, it can be concluded that CDTire is one tire model with acceptable simulation accuracy for vehicle comfort and durability.
Gao, Fengling, Wu, Wenwen, Geng, Hao
Stewart Platform Position and Attitude Error Compensation Based on Improved Particle Swarm Optimization2026-99-01047/31/2026
The six-degree-of-freedom Stewart platform, as a high-precision parallel robot, is widely used in fields such as aerospace and precision manufacturing. However, its complex structure and diverse sources of error (such as manufacturing errors, assembly errors, rod deformation, etc.) make it difficult to effectively control position and attitude errors. This article proposes a Stewart platform position and attitude error compensation method, relying on the improved particle swarm optimization algorithm. By establishing a position and attitude error model for the platform and optimizing the driving joint error using the IPSO optimization, the position and attitude error of the platform have been significantly reduced, providing a new solution for error compensation of high-precision parallel robots.
Zhu, Ming, Wang, Baichao
The Design of an Adaptive Multi-Material Fully Automated Grinding and Polishing Machine2026-99-01277/31/2026
With the increasing demand for material microimaging analysis, there is a growing need for advanced precision grinding and polishing equipment, especially for metals, ceramics, and composites. Existing automated systems struggle with handling complex material challenges. This paper presents a fully automated adaptive grinding and polishing machine based on an STM32 microcontroller that handles multi-material samples. The system includes modules for sample access, cleaning, pad replacement, human-computer interaction, and equipment communication. The STM32 microcontroller executes grinding and polishing tasks based on instructions from the host computer while dynamically adjusting PID control parameters using an improved weighted average optimization algorithm. This approach enhances control accuracy, stability, and overall surface treatment quality compared to traditional PID control methods.
Zhang, Longqing, Kong, Xiangyu, Zhao, Xiuyang, Li, Xingbei
Simulation Research on Non-Destructive Testing of Pipeline Based on Ultrasonic Guided Wave2026-99-01437/31/2026
Ultrasonic guided waves; Pipeline non-destructive testing; L(0,2) mode; Sensor array layout; Finite element simulation; Guided wave signal processing.
Liao, Wei, Li, Tengfei, Zhang, Wenhui, Lin, Qingming, Guo, Yanbing
Design of an Automatic Device for Snow Clearing of Solar Greenhouses2026-99-01467/31/2026
Solar greenhouses in winter or mountainous areas can be at risk of roof snow accumulation, leading to collapse, poor lighting, and sudden drops in temperature. The snow removal technologies presently employed on these greenhouses have the disadvantages of being cumbersome to adjust, being intricately structured, having a high cost, having high energy consumption, and being poorly adaptable to the curvature of the plastic. An intelligent snow removal device for removing snow on a northern solar greenhouse roof, and an automatic alarm safety system were designed to solve the problems. The device consists of a snow-clearing mechanism, a traversing mechanism, and detection-alarm modules. The mechanism for snow removal consists of a crank-slider with a curved guide rail. The snow removal rod is driven by the gear motor, which goes back and forth on the arched top. A bevel gear transmission system drives the gear motor mechanism. Due to this, the transverse mechanism moves with an interrupting jump-action on transverse rails around many different zones. The system for monitoring snow pressure has a distributed sensor that is programmed as a shield using an Arduino software system. The sensors detect the pressure of the snow in real-time. When the snow pressure hits the threshold, it activates the mechanism for coordinated functioning. This mechanism triggers snow clearing when the pressure threshold is achieved to avoid energy consumed through “premature clearing”. It also fits well on the curved surfaces of the greenhouse without any jamming. The snow removal machine’s various components and operations would accomplish full span snow removal and make it possible to overcome high labour intensity, slow manual response, energy waste, and others. The technology can enhance the safety of winter production of northern greenhouse crops and improve the disaster-resistant capacity of modern agriculture facilities. This technology has been granted a patent for invention.
Fu, Chengguo, Wei, Shanxiang, Zhang, Rongxian, Ding, Xuefeng, Gao, Yulan
A Simple Method for Synthesizing Wear-Resistant Superhydrophobic Anti-Icing Coating2026-99-01297/31/2026
This research demonstrates a facile method for fabricating an anti-icing coating through spray deposition on a metallic substrate. A dual-layer structure was designed to enhance icephobic properties: a primer layer incorporating fluorocarbon resin, butyl acetate, and rod-shaped micrometer-sized metal oxides to establish a secondary roughness morphology, followed by a topcoat composed of butyl acetate and nano-scaled superhydrophobic particles. Evaluation of the coating performance revealed a maximum water contact angle of 171.9°, indicating exceptional hydrophobicity. Furthermore, the coating exhibited notable abrasion resistance and anti-icing capabilities against overlaying ice.
Li, Dongyang, Xu, Zelong, Wu, Jiang, Tong, Wei, Wang, Weiqing, Cong, Rimei, Qian, Jiawei, Qu, Shaohui
Solution of Optimal Parameters of Leaf Springs by Firefly Algorithm Based on Penalty Function2026-99-01447/31/2026
The probe is an important component of the precision instrument. During the measurement process, the deformation of the leaf spring directly affects the accuracy of the displacement of the probe. There are many undetermined parameters for the leaf spring, and some parameters have a non-linear impact on the results. This paper proposes a firefly algorithm that combines penalty functions to solve the optimal solution of the objective function for multi parameter leaf springs. Through strategies such as normalizing mapping intervals, setting small populations between cells, and fine-tuning position update formulas, this algorithm quickly obtains the optimal parameters of the leaf spring, and compares it with the orthogonal experimental method to prove the feasibility of this method, providing a certain theoretical reference value for multi parameter solving.
Yu, Jianghao, Shi, Zhaoyao, Song, Huixu
Finite Element-Based Structural Optimization for UAV Storage-Launch Container2026-99-01647/31/2026
To fulfill the multi-tube launch requirements for a specific folding-wing UAV, this study improves the structure of the existing storage-launch container. Based on the finite element method, a parametric model of the container is established, and a multi-condition mechanical analysis is carried out for various storage, transportation, and launch conditions. The difference between the first six natural frequencies of the free mode and the prestressed mode is compared and analyzed. The modal analysis model considering prestress is used to identify the optimization area of the container. The variable density method (SIMP) is used to optimize the topology of the container, with the volume of the container as the constraint condition and the minimum strain energy as the optimization goal. The optimization results show that the first-order modal natural frequency of the container is increased by 108%, and the first six natural frequencies are increased to a safe range, which effectively avoids the resonance risk. At the same time, the quality is reduced by 29%, and good optimization results are achieved.
Yuan, Weiyang, Ji, Yuguo, Liu, Zhipeng, Yu, Wenxin
Micro-Groove Fabrication and Simulation Analysis on PEEK Surface under UV Nanosecond Laser Irradiation2026-99-02257/31/2026
This study investigates the interaction mechanism between ultraviolet nanosecond pulsed lasers and polyetheretherketone (PEEK). By integrating finite element simulations with experimental validation, the work explores the laser microtexturing characteristics of PEEK surfaces and evaluates the influence of microtextures on the material’s surface biocompatibility. First, the interaction between the laser and the PEEK polymer was analyzed, and a laser ablation model was established using the COMSOL Multiphysics simulation platform. Using finite element simulation, the effects of spot overlap ratio were investigated by adjusting the average laser power, while the influence of single-pulse energy on the ablation characteristics of the PEEK surface was examined by varying the scanning speed. Subsequently, ultraviolet nanosecond laser processing experiments were conducted on planar PEEK microtextures based on the simulation results. Taking surface microgrooves on PEEK as representative structures, the variations in groove depth and width under different combinations of laser parameters were analyzed. The parameters, including average laser power, scanning speed, and repetition frequency, were optimized to identify processing conditions that yield stable depth and width, along with good surface flatness. Finally, experiments have initially verified that the microtextured PEEK surface may improve biocompatibility and regulate surface wettability to a certain extent.
Wu, Yifan, Wang, Xiaohui, Han, Yujie, Jin, Shuo
Measurement and Regulation of Residual Stress in Door Opening Welds of Wind Turbine Towers2026-99-01977/31/2026
Weld residual stress is a critical factor affecting the structural integrity and service life of wind turbine towers. In this study, a systematic investigation was conducted on the residual stress distribution and control methods for door corner welds of an in-service wind turbine tower after approximately 20,000 hours of operation. X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements revealed significant tensile residual stress in the weld and heat-affected zone, with peak values reaching 315 MPa, particularly concentrated at depths of 5-7 mm. To mitigate these stresses, two post-weld treatment methods were employed: ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT) and localized heat treatment. UIT effectively transformed surface tensile stress into compressive stress, achieving a maximum compressive residual stress of -372 MPa within a depth of 3 mm, while simultaneously refining grains and increasing surface hardness. In contrast, localized heat treatment at 460 °C for 5 hours led to a broader stress relief effect, reducing residual stress by approximately 100 MPa without causing significant changes to the macrostructure, but inducing substructural rearrangements beneficial for stress relaxation. Mechanical testing confirmed that both treatments improved tensile strength, ductility, and toughness of the welds. The combined findings demonstrate that ultrasonic impact treatment is highly effective for enhancing fatigue performance at the surface, while localized heat treatment offers advantages for deep stress redistribution and long-term structural stability. This comprehensive approach provides valuable technical guidance for residual stress management in complex welded structures of wind turbine towers.
Sun, Wanting, Zhong, Zhenqian, Zhang, Bo, Liu, Hui
Preparation and Characterization of Glycerol-Based Fe3O4 Magnetic Fluids2026-99-02447/31/2026
3434–1
Hu, Rui, Zhong, Shihao, Xu, Chunxia, Chen, Binhua, Liu, Yang
Ultrasonic Assisted Room Temperature Welding of Liquid Gallium Indium Alloy Brazing Material and Its Solidification Behavior at the Cu-Cu Interface2026-99-01967/31/2026
Considerable the gallium-based alloys low melting point coupled with easy to synthesize intermetallic compounds with diverse metallic elements, employing liquid gallium-based alloys as the soldering medium and leveraging ultrasonic as assistance are effective to construct pure copper joints under atmosphere condition. The investigation delves into the characterization of the reaction products, interface microstructure, elemental distribution patterns, and evolution of shear strength within the welds. Furthermore, the pivotal role of ultrasonic waves and constituent element diffusion mechanisms during the solidification phase is elucidated. Thus, the initial one-day occurred during solidification showed the 2.6 MPa shear strength but with the time increased to four and a half days, the shear strength raised to 8.4 MPa at room temperature. Thereinto, the results indicate the weld seam has achieved metallurgical connection. This innovative welding technique operates at room temperature provides significant guidance for designing a novel perspective low-temperature joining for applications. It is not only augments the repertoire of material connection methodologies but also presents a viable joining strategy for sensitive elevated temperature materials. Therefore, such process possesses substantial practical significance and promises avenues for future applications.
Guo, Manying, Qu, Yingying, Fang, Qiuyue, Yang, Shen
Research on Ultrasonic Measurement Technology for Submarine Pipeline Deformation2026-99-02237/31/2026
Aiming at the measurement of buckling deformation defects of submarine pipelines in turbid waters, a precise measurement method for submarine pipeline deformation was proposed based on ultrasonic ranging technology. A unified underwater coordinate system for submarine pipelines and measurement sensors is established, and a three-dimensional model of the pipeline outer surface is constructed on this basis to provide a basis for calculating pipeline deformation elements. On the basis of underwater ultrasonic velocity correction, measurement accuracy control measures were proposed. Two types of ultrasonic measurement transducers and measurement systems were designed, and engineering applications were carried out to measure the deformation of submarine pipelines in the project. The measurement results indicate that the ultrasonic measurement system operates well under harsh sea conditions such as high turbidity, low visibility, and high flow velocity in the construction sea area, with high measurement accuracy. The three-dimensional model of the deformed pipeline is constructed accurately, and the deformation characteristics of the pipeline can be accurately calculated, meeting the requirements of engineering applications and providing effective data support for submarine pipeline maintenance.
Wang, Kekuan, He, Yazhang, Wang, Hong, Zhang, Tao, Cheng, Peiliang, Sun, Xinyan, Bai, Qian
Development and Experiment of Rolling Friction and Wear Testing Machine Based on LabVIEW2026-99-02457/31/2026
To investigate the friction and wear characteristics of rolling bearings under various operating conditions, this paper develops a ring-block type rolling bearing friction and wear testing machine based on LabVIEW. The device achieves rotational friction by regulating the speed with a motor and applies the test load using a lever and weight loading method to simulate the actual working conditions of rolling bearings. The testing machine integrates a high-frequency response force sensor with a high-sampling rate data acquisition system, and combines with the LabVIEW platform to achieve real-time collection, processing, and display of friction force. Using a rolling bearing with a diameter of 50mm as the test object, continuous testing was conducted for 100 s under the conditions of a speed of 500r/min and a load of 50N. The experimental results show that the friction coefficient fluctuated significantly in the early stage of the test (the first 20s), and then stabilized. After stabilization, the average friction coefficient measured was approximately 0.005, which is highly consistent with the theoretical value, verifying the accuracy and reliability of this machine. The testing machine has a compact structure and is easy to operate. It is suitable for friction performance testing of various types of rolling bearings and provides an effective experimental means for the tribological research of rolling bearings.
Xiao, Supeng, Hu, Rui, Xu, Chunxia, Liu, Yang, Chen, Binhua
Engineering Practice of Sealing Design and Testing Technology for the Solar Array Drive Assembly of Tianhe Core Module2026-99-02437/31/2026
The Core Module of the space station is the first module of China’s Space Station, responsible for controlling the key parameters such as orbit, speed, and pressure of the entire space station, and serving as the control center of the assembly. The Solar Array Drive Assembly is a part of the Core Module. It needs to participate in the functional requirements of the whole cabin sealing of the cabin body, so it adopts the design scheme of semi-sealed. By adjusting the compression ratio and volume fraction of the sealing ring, and the roughness of the sealing surface, the overall sealing performance is improved. A small cavity leak detection hole is added to realize the sealing effect of detecting the second-layer seal separately. The real leakage rate of the drive mechanism is detected effectively by using multiple calibration schemes in the leak detection process, and the semi-sealing technology of the Solar Array Drive Assembly is verified, which has guidance and reference significance for the subsequent spacecraft design requiring a sealing function.
Dai, Fei, Zhu, Jiahao, Huang, Mengzhe, Qian, Zhiyuan
SiO2 Particle Charging Behavior with a Nonionic Surfactant in Low-Permittivity Liquids2026-99-02247/31/2026
2–4–222
Jiang, Liyuan, Chen, Jiayi, Lv, Qunsong, Cao, Huiying
Force-Balance Analysis of Surface Instability in a Tri-Layer Film/Substrate Structure2026-99-02157/31/2026
Driven by increasing engineering demands, the need for high-performance flexible electronics has surged, accelerating the development of stretchable devices within mechanics. Among multilayer structures, the film/substrate architecture serves as a typical example, and its buckling behavior remains a longstanding focus of mechanical investigation. This work examines how an elastic film bonded to a soft tri-layer substrate loses stability, producing wrinkled surface patterns under compression. We first construct a mechanical model, then derive an analytical expression for the wrinkle amplitude using a force-balance approach, and finally employ finite-element simulations and theoretical comparisons, we systematically explore how the middle layer’s stiffness and thickness jointly govern the onset, wavelength and amplitude of surface buckling, revealing quantitative selection rules that have not previously been reported for tri-layer structures. The results show that the tri-layer film/substrate structure exhibits two instability modes: film-intermediate co-buckling and film-only wrinkling. By simply varying the middle layer’s elastic modulus or its thickness, one can move the structure across the boundary that separates the film-only and bi-layer buckling regimes, providing a direct mechanical selection for on-demand mode. In addition, the wrinkle amplitude increases monotonically with the applied initial strain. Those findings offer a theoretical reference for designing flexible electronics based on film/substrate structures.
Chen, Hao, Zhang, Wulin, Song, Yahui
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