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Material Adapted Method for the Repair of Curved Thermoplastic Composite Structures by Induction Welding of Patches2025-01-0165To be published on 05/02/2025
Thermoplastic fiber-reinforced polymer composites (TPCs) are gaining importance in aviation due to their high strength, stiffness, and recyclability. To maximize their potential, efficient repair methods are needed to maintain aircraft safety and structural integrity. This article introduces a novel repair technique for damaged TPC structures, involving the insertion of a repair patch with a susceptor material. The susceptor consists of a material with high electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability and therefore reacts stronger to the electromagnetic field than the composite, even if it is carbon fiber based. This means that the thermal energy is specifically concentrated in the repair area. The susceptor can be placed on the patch surface or in the welding zone. The process begins by identifying and preparing the damaged area, followed by precise scarfing. Care is taken to ensure that the surrounding material remains intact and that an exact stepped structure is created, which
Geiger, Markus, Glaap, Anton, Schiebel, Patrick, May, David
Technical Paper
Assignment Criteria for Function Allocation to Commercial Aviation System Security Domains2025-01-0156To be published on 05/02/2025
Aircraft cabin management is characterized by operational and business processes. Both are defined as a logical sequence of activities that occur during the flight. While the operational process includes activities to ensure flight safety, such as take-off, cruise and landing, the business process activities are related to adding value to the customer, i.e. the passenger. They are to be certified by the authority as a part of the aircraft type certification. These processes are defined by the airline and are described as part of the airline’s business model. While the scope of operational processes for passenger safety within the aircraft cabin should remain as unchanged as possible, the increasing competitive pressure on airlines is leading to a constantly rising number of services in the cabin. To prevent compromising cabin safety from increased cabin crew workload during the cruise phase, there is a growing trend toward digitizing operational and business processes. The digitized
Hintze, Hartmut, Blecken, Marvin, God, Ralf, Pereira, Daniel
Technical Paper
Enhancing Efficiency in Aerospace Manufacturing through AI Agent Based Bearing Diagnostics System2025-01-0158To be published on 05/02/2025
Industrial bearings are critical components in aerospace manufacturing, where their failures can result in costly downtime. Traditional fault diagnosis typically depends on time-consuming on-site inspections conducted by specialized engineers. This research introduces an innovative Artificial Intelligence application that functions as a virtual maintenance technician, empowering on-site personnel to perform preliminary diagnoses. By reducing the dependence on specialized engineers, this technology aims to minimize downtime. The AI system leverages large language models to guide the inspection process, answer queries from a comprehensive knowledge base, analyze defect images, and generate detailed reports with actionable recommendations. Multiple deep learning algorithms operate as backend APIs to support this functionality. This study details the architectural design of the expert system and provides a real-time simulation of its workflow, demonstrating its potential to enhance
Chandrasekaran, Balaji
Technical Paper
Powering the Future of Sustainable Flight2025-01-0147To be published on 05/02/2025
Eaton Aerospace is collaborating with original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) on the advancement of technologies to increase aircraft efficiency, enable aircraft electrification, and reduce carbon emissions. Leveraging our expertise as an intelligent power management company, Eaton’s products and research include hydraulic power packs, electromechanical actuation (EMA), thermal management systems, and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). Eaton Blended Power TM systems improve efficiency through eliminating all centralized hydraulic circuits with distributed power that is provided by a combination of hydraulic power packs and EMA for a More Electric Aircraft (MEA). EMA systems, including electrical synchronization, eliminate the usage of hydraulics and provide additional functionality that benefits the flight efficiency of the aircraft. With MEA comes higher energy and thermal densities, resulting in the need for advanced thermal management. Eaton’s scalable and modular thermal management
Skinner, Jeff, Proul, Margaret, Devan, Stephen, Clendenin, Laura, Hutchinson, Lewis, Masson, Andrew, May, Frank, Momotiuk, Andy, Zuzelski, Chris
Technical Paper
Interconnected and Data-Driven Aircraft Cabin Systems: Consistent Integration of ARINC 853 Messaging Standard into Model-Based Aircraft Systems Development2025-01-0174To be published on 05/02/2025
Increasing digitalization of the aircraft cabin, driven by the need for improved operational efficiency and an enhanced passenger experience, has led to the development of data-driven services. In order to implement these services, information from different systems is often required, which leads to a multi-system architecture. When designing a network that interconnects these systems, it is important to consider the heterogeneous device and supplier landscape as well as variations in the network architecture resulting from airline customization or cabin upgrades. The novel ARINC 853 Cabin Secure Media-Independent Messaging (CSMIM) standard addresses this challenge by specifying a communication protocol that relies on a data model to encode provided and consumed information. This paper presents an approach to integrate CSMIM-specific communication concepts into a Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) framework using the Systems Modeling Language (SysML). This enables a streamlined
Giertzsch, Fabian, Blecken, Marvin, God, Ralf
Technical Paper
Comparison of Different Joining Techniques as a Benchmark for Integrally Joined Thermoformed Components Based on Tailored rCF Organosheets2025-01-0170To be published on 05/02/2025
Climate-neutral aviation requires resource-efficient composite manufacturing technologies and viable solutions for the reuse of carbon fibers (CF). In this context, thermoplastic composites (TPC) can make a strong contribution. Thermoforming of TPC is an efficient and established process for aerospace components. But it’s efficiency could be further increased by integration of joining processes, which would otherwise be separate steps. In this work, a two-step thermoforming process for hollow box structures, particularly uplift structures, is presented. The starting point are two organosheets. First, one of the organosheets, intended for the bottom skin of the uplift structure, is thermoformed. After cooling, the press opens, the organosheet remains in the press and an infrared heater is pivoted in, to locally heat up just the joining area. Meanwhile, a second organosheet, intended for the top skin, is heated and thermoformed and simultaneously joined to the lower skin, thereby forming
Vocke, Richard, Seeßelberg, Lorenz, Focke, Oliver, Dietrich, Jan Yorrick, Jobke, Katrin, Albe, Christopher, May, David
Technical Paper
Integrating for Safety – A Proposed Approach to the Integration of Propulsion Battery Systems in Hybrid Electric Aviation2025-01-0148To be published on 05/02/2025
In the last year we have witnessed a notable surge in the designs and in the guidance material for electric and hybrid aircraft. FAA and EASA have continued to evaluate the safety of Propulsion Battery Systems (PBS), with a focus on thermal runaway containment testing. As a result, a harmonization white paper was issued to provide a certification path for Thermal Runaway (TR) Hazards, followed by an EASA certification memorandum on the acceptable approaches for the certification of Electric/Hybrid Propulsion Systems (EHPS). And just recently, an FAA Advisory Circular (draft) was issued for the “powered-lift” aircraft that feature these propulsion battery systems. In spite of the advances made by electric/hybrid aircraft manufacturers and the aviation authorities, there is still a missing piece of the puzzle. Mainly, we are still not confident in our ability to properly integrate the PBS into the EHPS architecture, in such a way where safety is never compromised, no matter the hazard
Hanna, Michael, Walker, Cherizar
Technical Paper
Innovative High-Performance Active Dampers for Effective Mitigation of Helicopter Main Rotor Vibrations2025-01-0163To be published on 05/02/2025
Helicopter vibrations, primarily generated by the main rotor-gearbox assembly, are a major source of concern due to their impact on structural integrity, cockpit instrument durability, and crew comfort. These vibrations are mainly transmitted through the gearbox’s rigid support struts to the fuselage, leading to increased cabin noise and potential damage to critical components. This paper presents a solution for vibration mitigation which involves replacing traditional gearbox support struts with low-weight, high-performance active dampers. Developed by Elettronica Aster S.p.A., these active dampers are designed as electro-hydraulic actuators embedded within a compliant structure. The parallel nested configuration of the system enables high power densities and effective vibration control, significantly reducing the transmission of harmful vibrations to the fuselage. The comprehensive model-based design process is detailed, describing the development and use of a high-fidelity physics
Bertolino, Antonio Carlo, Sorli, Massimo, Porro, Paolo Giovanni, Galli, Claudio
Technical Paper
Determining Worst-Case Execution Time Bounds for Multi-core Processors2025-01-0155To be published on 05/02/2025
Demonstrating deadline adherence for real-time tasks is a common requirement in all safety norms, including ISO 26262 and DO-178C. Timing verification has to address two levels: the code level (worst-case execution time) and the scheduling level (worst-case response time). Determining which methodology is suited best depends on the characteristics of the target processor. All contemporary microprocessors try to maximize the instruction-level parallelism by sophisticated performance-enhancing features that make the execution time of a particular instruction dependent on the execution history. On multi-core systems, the execution time additionally is influenced by interference effects on shared resources caused by concurrent activities on the different cores, which are not controlled by the scheduling algorithm. In the avionics domain, the new FAA AC 20-193 / EASA AMC 20-193 guidance documents formalize predictability aspects of multi-core systems and derive adequate measures for timing
Kaestner, Daniel, Gebhard, Gernot, Huembert, Christian, Pister, Markus, Wegener, Simon, Ferdinand, Christian
Technical Paper
Image Processing-Based Chip Detection by KIZKI Algorithm and Its Optimization2025-01-0168To be published on 05/02/2025
The process of producing aircraft parts involves the drilling of aluminum alloys. This creates a large amount of chips, which are removed using air, but sometimes they still remain within the holes. This is checked by inspectors through visual inspection. However, the quality of human inspection varies based on skill level and fatigue. Thus, image-based inspection should be used to stabilize and further improve inspection quality. This study aims to build a framework for chip detection based on image processing. Taking into account on-site implementation, the system must have low installation and running costs and be standalone. Therefore, we adopt the KIZKI algorithm, which satisfies these conditions. KIZKI means awareness in Japanese. This is a model of human peripheral vision and saccades. It does not require training like AI and can achieve high-speed and high-performance detection using a low-performance computer. In other words, there is no need for a computer with an expensive
Iinuma, Marin, Sato, Junya, Tsuji, Masahiko
Technical Paper
The Why of Development Assurance2025-01-0154To be published on 05/02/2025
In the domain of aircraft certification, Development Assurance is what some would call a useful tool to gain confidence in the development of complex systems, and what others would call a necessary evil. But what does it actually do? Why is it necessary for certification of modern aircraft? What, epistemologically, does it bring to the table? This paper aims to show why development assurance activities, at all levels from aircraft to item, close the epistemological holes created when complex systems are chosen for implementation. It will map the different sources and types of uncertainty encountered in system verification and explain how each type is dealt with within a certification context, working from simple mechanical systems up to complex and highly integrated systems using software and airborne electronic hardware and beyond. It will show that Development Assurance, far from being an arbitrary set of activities, systematically brings personal and corporate expertise to bear to
Laflin, Cory R.
Technical Paper
Enhancing Airworthiness Security: SysML-Based Approach to Modelling Security Scope Definitions2025-01-0172To be published on 05/02/2025
Airworthiness certification of aircraft requires an Airworthiness Security Process (AWSP) to ensure safe operation under potential unauthorized interactions, particularly in the context of growing cyber threats. Regulatory authorities mandate the consideration of Intentional Unauthorized Electronic Interactions (IUEI) in the development of aircraft, airborne software, and equipment. As the industry increasingly adopts Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) to accelerate development, we aim to enhance this effort by focusing on security scope definitions – a critical step within the AWSP for security risk assessment that establishes the boundaries and extent of security measures. However, our findings indicate that, despite the increasing use of model-based tools in development, these security scope definitions often remain either document-based or, when modeled, are presented at overly abstract levels, both of which limit their utility. Furthermore, we found that these definitions
Hechelmann, Adrian, Mannchen, Thomas
Technical Paper
A New Test Rig for Electrically Actuated Landing Gear and Brake of a Small Transport Aircraft2025-01-0161To be published on 05/02/2025
Performing highly representative tests of aircraft equipments is a critical feature for gaining utmost confidence on their ability to perform flawlessly in flight under the entire spectrum of operating conditions. This can also contribute to accelerate the certification process of a new equipment. A research project (E-LISA) was performed in recent years, as part of the european funded Clean Sky 2 framework, with the objective of building an innovative facility for testing an electrically actuated landing gear and brake for a small air transport. The project eventually led to the development and construction of an Iron Bird able to reproduce in a realistic and comprehensive way a full variety of landing test cases consistent with certification specifications and landing histories available in the repository of the airframer. The Iron Bird that was eventually developed is a multi-functional intelligent and easy reconfigurable facility integrating hardware and software allowing to
De Martin, Andrea, Bertolino, Antonio, Jacazio, Giovanni
Technical Paper
Empirical Inflow Ratio Adjustment for Hovering Open Rotors with Experimental Validation2025-01-0162To be published on 05/02/2025
This study presents empirical modifications of Blade Element Momentum Theory (BEMT) to improve rotor performance prediction for open rotors in hovering conditions. The empirical adjustments were made to the inflow ratio, factoring in the real rotor wake area and estimated induced power losses. A comparison between experimental data and two analytical models, one using an empirical inflow formula and the other a theoretical formula (classical BEMT), was conducted for two rotors. The empirical inflow model demonstrated superior accuracy in predicting thrust and torque. These modifications are applied to the inflow ratio by accounting for the actual rotor wake area and estimated induced power losses. The findings highlight the potential for more accurate performance prediction through the integration of empirical data into theoretical frameworks.
Dayhoum, Abdallah, Ramirez-Serrano, Alejandro, Martinuzzi, Robert
Technical Paper
Machine Learning-Based Vision Mapping and Planning for Flexibility in High-Mix Robotic Manufacturing2025-01-0157To be published on 05/02/2025
Industries that require high-accuracy automation in the creation of high-mix/low-volume parts, such as aerospace, often face cost constraints with traditional robotics and machine tools due to the need for many pre-programmed tool paths, dedicated part fixtures, and rigid production flow. This paper presents a new machine learning (ML) based vision mapping and planning technique, created to enhance flexibility and efficiency in robotic operations, while reducing overall costs. The system is capable of mapping discrete process targets in the robot work envelope that the ML algorithms have been trained to identify, without requiring knowledge of the overall assembly. Using a 2D camera, images are taken from multiple robot positions across the work area and are used in the ML algorithm to detect, identify, and predict the 6D pose of each target. The algorithm uses the poses and target identifications to automatically develop a part program with efficient tool paths, including
Langan, Daniel, Hall, Michael, Goldberg, Emily, Schrandt, Sasha
Technical Paper
Designing and Controlling a Hybrid Fuel Cell System for Propelling a Turboprop Aircraft2025-01-0151To be published on 05/02/2025
In the context of aviation sector decarbonization, fuel cell hybrid electric aircrafts are a promising alternative to conventional fuels, presenting opportunities for more sustainable and efficient flight. Hence, the present work is focused on an alternative powertrain architecture, wherein a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system cooperates with a lithium-ion battery to fulfill the electrical power demand of a turboprop-based aircraft. Particularly, a mathematical tool is proposed to evaluate both the components size and performance, while a degradation aware rule-based control strategy guarantees an effective power split between the hybridizing components. Such an energy management approach introduces an idling level and a rate limiter to mitigate degradation associated with start-up/shut-down and transient phases, respectively. Moreover, to have a reliable estimation of the vehicle’s fuel economy, while also guaranteeing the correct components dimensioning, the fuel cell system
De Donato, Angelo, Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Musto, Carmine
Technical Paper
More Electric Engine Technologies Towards the 2040s2025-01-0152To be published on 05/02/2025
Improvement and evolution of all aircraft technologies and the commercialization of new technologies are essential to the carbon-net-zero goal of air mobility. Passenger aircraft are required to provide the ultimate in comfort, economy, and safety, and gas turbine engines will not disappear, while promoting the conversion to SAF and hydrogen fuels. The More Electric Engine (or MEE) concept, which has been proposed since the late 2000s, is one alternative. This paper focuses on the electrification of engine accessories. When the concept of electrification of engine accessories was first presented at Aerotech 10 years ago, the discussion at Aerotech seemed to be negative. Attaching a motor to conventional engine accessories would obviously increase the weight. Next, the conventional engine accessories are centrally controlled and only FADEC is in command, but electrification of engine accessories will increase the cost by adding intelligence to all the accessories. On a more academic
Umeki, Yasuyoshi, Oyori, Hitoshi, Muraoka, Mikio, Suzuki, Tsunehisa, Ogami, Yasuhiro, Yamamoto, Yasuhiko
Technical Paper
Drilling Methods for Controlling Exit Burr Height in CRES Material Stacks2025-01-0169To be published on 05/02/2025
The Electroimpact Automatic Fan Cowl Riveter uses two novel drill processes to control exit burr height and achieve the required hole quality in CRES (Corrosion-Resistant Steel, also called stainless steel) material stacks. Both processes use piloted cutters on the OML side, and two different tools are used in a backside spindle on the IML side of the component. The first process uses a shallow-angle shave tool in the IML spindle to directly control the exit burr height after it is produced by the OML spindle and is called the “burr shave” technique. The second process uses a countersink tool in the IML spindle and produces an “intermediate countersink” after the pilot hole is drilled by the OML spindle, but before the final hole diameter is drilled. These drill processes were able to achieve the required hole quality in a challenging CRES material stack, which allows the machine to be qualified for one-up assembly of the component.
Schultz, Rich, Peterman, Randy, Luker, Zachary, Murakonda, Sai Krishna
Technical Paper
Approach to Optimize the Airplane Boarding Process by using Image Recognition and Stochastic Simulation to Predict Overhead Bin Fill Levels2025-01-0164To be published on 05/02/2025
In single-aisle aircraft, the available storage space for carry-on baggage is inherently limited. When the aircraft is fully booked, this often results in insufficient overhead bin space, necessitating last-minute gate-checking of carry-on items, which delays the boarding process and reduces operational efficiency. A promising approach to mitigating this issue involves the integration of computer vision technologies with an appropriate data storage system and stochastic simulation to enable accurate and supportive predictions that enhance planning. In this work the YOLOv8 image recognition algorithm is used to identify and classify each passenger’s carry-on baggage into categories such as handbags, backpacks and suitcases. This data is then linked to passenger information stored in the NoSQL database MongoDB, which included seat assignments and the number of carry-on items per passenger. Stochastic simulation is applied to predict the occupancy levels of overhead storage bins across
Bergmann, Jacqueline, Hub, Maximilian
Technical Paper
Segment Manipulator Retrofit2025-01-0159To be published on 05/02/2025
A segment manipulator machine was in service nineteen years. Many of the control components were out of date and hard to obtain. Customer engaged Electroimpact to upgrade using the latest state-of-art controls. The program from the previous control system could not be reused. A “layup mandrel” is a form that is used to lay carbon fiber. The layup mandrel for a wide body aircraft fuselage section consists of six segments. The mandrel is made up of segments so that it can be assembled and disassembled from the inside. The segments are Crown, Upper Left, Upper Right, Lower Left, Lower Right, and Keel. For each build the mandrel is assembled with a segment manipulator machine, wound with carbon fiber tape, clad, and baked in an autoclave. Then the mandrel is disassembled with a segment manipulator machine leaving the cured carbon fiber shell behind. The segments are refurbished and brought to the assembly area on segment carts for the next build. Segments each weigh in the vicinity of 3000
Luker, Zachary, Donahue, Michael
Technical Paper
Model-Based Design and Energy Management of an Aeronautical Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell System2025-01-0150To be published on 05/02/2025
The growing demand for air transport requires efficient and sustainable power systems to meet the pressing need for decarbonizing the sector. A hybrid unit, consisting of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system and a lithium-ion battery, is a suitable option due to the benefits of reduced gravimetric and volumetric impacts, along with the flexibility of energy management strategies. This work addresses, using a model-based approach, the issue of integrating these electrochemical devices into the aircraft’s electrical architecture, considering both design and energy management aspects. Two scenarios are explored to match the DC bus line voltage requirements. In the first, the fuel cell system nominal power is kept constant, while the number of DC/DC converters operating in parallel is assessed by constructing bi-dimensional maps derived from literature. These maps relate the converter’s maximum deliverable power to the input and desired output voltage. The second scenario introduces
Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Napolitano, Ciro
Technical Paper
Short-Time Current Rating of Aircraft Wire2025-01-0145To be published on 05/02/2025
This paper presents a comparative analysis of various short-time current rating formulas, focusing on applications in aircraft wiring. Examining historical formulas developed by pioneers such as W.H. Preece and I.M. Onderdonk alongside modern experimental data provide a comprehensive understanding of short-time current rating formulas. Also, exploring key challenges, such as environmental conditions and material variability in aviation with particular attention to adiabatic methods for current-carrying calculations. The findings of this paper offer practical insights into improving the safety and reliability of an aircraft electrical system with improving the accuracy of short-time current rating predictions.
Fifield, Jon
Technical Paper
Semi-Automatic Riveter G39 Replacement2025-01-0160To be published on 05/02/2025
Zieve, Peter, Reznicek, Jeffrey
Technical Paper
Conceptual Design of a Superconducting Aero Electric Engine System2025-01-0146To be published on 05/02/2025
The goal of the development of an electric aircraft engine is to create an aircraft system that achieves ultimate efficiency using hydrogen fuel instead of fossil fuels. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on reducing weight as much as possible, and this paper describes the approach to such fuel cell-powered aircraft. The authors have adopted a superconducting coreless rotating electric machine with an integrated hydrogen tank and are pursuing a target of 70kg or less for the main components of a 2MW rotating electric machine. High-temperature superconducting wires have zero electrical resistance and can carry a very high current density, but the alternating current (AC) loss generated when used in AC has been an issue in their application to rotating electric machines. In 2023, The SCSC cable was developed to be a low-AC-loss, robust, and high current cable concept, in which copper-plated multifilament coated conductors are wound spirally on a core. In addition to using this
Oyori, Hitoshi, Sakurai, Sho, Kusase, Shin, Yoshida, Yukihiro, Yoshinaga, Seiichiro, Nose, Hiroyuki, Amemiya, Naoyuki
Technical Paper
MBSE Framework for Developing Data-Driven Passenger Services in Aircraft Cabins2025-01-0171To be published on 05/02/2025
The aircraft cabin plays a crucial role in airline differentiation strategies, particularly when introducing novel, data-driven services. These services aim to enhance the passenger experience during the flight and to improve cabin crew efficiency in order to reduce workload and ensure continued growth of airline revenue. Digitalization and extensive exchange of information across the entire aircraft transport system have emerged as key enablers for these services. The development of aircraft and aircraft systems that realize these services is characterized by a multi-level development process. Various development levels are considered to initially identify the functions of an aircraft in the air transport system, refine its systems and break them down into their components until a level of detail is reached that allows the implementation of the component functions. In addition to the high complexity, a major challenge in this development is to ensure traceability and consistency
Blecken, Marvin, Giertzsch, Fabian, God, Ralf
Technical Paper
Sustainable Design of Automotive Batteries2025-01-0001To be published on 04/18/2025
A consequence of the automotive industry's shift to electrification is that a significantly higher percentage of a vehicle's lifecycle CO₂ emissions occur during the production phase. As a result, vehicle manufacturers and suppliers must shift the focus of product development from the 'in-use phase only' to optimizing the complete product lifecycle. The proper design of a battery has the highest impact to all other phases following in the life-cycle. It influences the selection of materials, the manufacturing, in-use and end of life, respectively the recycling and recycling yield for a circular economy. Using real-life examples the paper will explain what are the main parameters necessary for designing a sustainable battery. What are the low hanging fruits to be considered? In addition, it will elaborate on the relation as well as the impacts to other KPIs like safety, costs and life-time of the battery. Finally it will round up in an outlook on how batteries will evolve in the future
Braun, Andreas, Rothbart, Martin
Technical Paper
On the Application of Trapped Vortices in Motorsport Application for Improved Aerodynamic Performance Using Passive and Active Flow Controls2025-01-5029To be published on 04/15/2025
New regulations introduced by the Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile (FIA) for the 2026 Formula 1 season mark the first instance of active flow control methods being endorsed in Formula 1 competition. While active methods have demonstrated significant success in airfoil development, their broader application to grounded vehicle aerodynamics remains unexplored. This research investigates the effectiveness of trapped vortex cavity (TVC) technology in both active and passive flow controls, applied to a NACA0012 airfoil and an inverted three-element airfoil from a Formula 1 model. The investigation is conducted using numerical methods to evaluate the aerodynamic performance and potential of TVC in this paper. In the single-airfoil case, a circular cavity is placed along the trailing edge (TE) on the suction surface; for the three-element airfoils, the cavity is positioned on each airfoil to determine the optimum location. The results show that the presence of a cavity, particularly
Ng, Ming Kin, Teschner, Tom-Robin
Technical Paper
Experiment Characterization and Simulation Analysis of a Lithium-Ion Battery in Different Ambient Conditions2025-01-5028To be published on 04/15/2025
A great number of performances of an electric vehicle such as driving range, powering performance, and the like are affected by its configured batteries. Having a good grasp of the electrical and thermal behavior of the battery before the detailed design stage is indispensable. This paper introduces an experiment characterization method of a lithium-ion battery with a coolant system from cell level to pack level in different ambient conditions. Corresponding cell and pack simulation models established in AMESim that aimed to capture the electrical and thermal features of the battery were also illustrated, respectively. First, the capacity test and hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) test were conducted in a thermotank to acquire basic data about the battery cell. Next, based on acquired data, first-order equivalent circuit model (1C-ECM) was built for the battery cell and further combined with environmental boundary conditions to check the simulation accuracy. Then, hybrid
Zhou, Shuai, Liu, Huaiju, Yu, Huili, Yan, Xu, Yan, Junjie
Technical Paper
Connectors and Inlets for the North American Charging System (NACS) for Electric VehiclesJ3400/2_202504 (Current)04/03/2025
This document covers the dimensional definition of the SAE J3400 (NACS) electric vehicle coupler, which includes the connector and inlet.
Hybrid - EV Committee
Technical Standard
Predictive Battery Thermal Management System Control Strategy and Simulation in Electric Vehicle2025-01-502704/03/2025
With the global issue of fossil fuel scarcity and the greenhouse effect, interest in electric vehicles (EVs) has surged recently. At that stage, because of the constraints of the energy density and battery performance degradation in low-temperature conditions, the mileage of EVs has been criticized. To guarantee battery performance, a battery thermal management system (BTMS) is applied to ensure battery operates in a suitable temperature range. Currently, in the industry, a settled temperature interval is set as criteria of positive thermal management activation, which is robust but leads to energy waste. BTMS has a kilowatt-level power usage under high- and low-temperature environments. Optimizing the BTMS control strategy becomes a potential solution to reduce energy consumption and overcome mileage issues. An appropriate system simulation model provides an effective tool to evaluate different BTMS control strategies. In this study, a predictive BTMS control strategy, which adjusts
Huang, Zhipei, Chen, Jiangbo, Tang, Hai
Technical Paper
Electric Vehicle Charging Adapter Safety and OEM-Qualified Device DesignationJ3400/1_202504 (Current)04/03/2025
This document covers the general physical, electrical, functional, and performance requirements for adapters connected to standards conforming conductive power transfer via handheld conductive coupler capable of transferring either DC or single phase power using two current-carrying contacts. The focus is on defining the process to evaluate the suitability of adapters for NACS couplers. This edition only covers adapters used between SAE J3400 and SAE J1772.
Hybrid - EV Committee
Technical Standard
Optimization of the Numerical Spray Modeling for Polyoxymethylene Dimethyl Ethers for Combustion Prediction in CONVERGE2025-01-502604/03/2025
Different approaches are undertaken to mitigate the impact of the transport sector on climate change. Alongside electrifying powertrains, sustainable e-fuels such as polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (OME) are considered a promising bridging technology for different applications. However, this requires that the engines are optimized for the new fuels. Accordingly, this study aims to optimize the numerical spray modeling of OME in CONVERGE. Based on the KH–RT break-up model, the spray simulations of three different commercial injectors for heavy-duty applications are analyzed regarding the predictability of the liquid and gaseous penetration lengths and the total simulation time. A sensitivity analysis is conducted for the turbulence model, mesh size, and spray parameters prior to optimizing the spray model and validating it with experimental results. While each parameter individually influences the different phases of the injection event, the sensitivity analysis reveals that the break
Zepf, Andreas, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte
Technical Paper
SAE TOMORROW TODAY BRIEFS - NEVI and America's EV Charging Future1350904/03/2025
The National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Program (NEVI) is a $5 billion initiative aimed at developing EV charging infrastructure across all 50 states and Puerto Rico. However, recent executive orders have put the program and its funding on hold. To dig into what this all means, Roberto Baldwin, Sustainability Editor, SAE Sustainable Mobility Solutions, recently sat down with Andrew Wishnia, Senior Vice President at Boundary Stone Partners, to discuss what NEVI is all about and what the future holds for this EV charging infrastructure initiative. For more information on the evolution of sustainability, head on over to sustainablecareers.sae.org. There, you can check out our drive of the new 2025 Ioniq 5, the first non-Telsa EV to hit the road with SAE J3400 (a.k.a., NACS). We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss
Hineman, Marcie
Podcast
Use of Methanol in a High-Power Density Generator13-06-03-002104/02/2025
Increasing global pressure to reduce anthropogenic carbon emissions has inspired a transition from conventional petroleum-fueled internal combustion engines to alternative powertrains, including battery electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrids. Hybrids offer a promising solution for emissions reduction by addressing the limitations of pure EVs such as slow recharge and range anxiety. In a previous research endeavor, a prototype high-power density generator was meticulously designed, fabricated, and subjected to testing. This generator incorporated a compact permanent magnet brushless dynamo and a diminutive single-cylinder two-stroke engine with low-technology constructions. This prototype generated 8.5 kW of electrical power while maintaining a lightweight profile at 21 kg. This study investigates the performance and emissions reduction potential by adapting the prototype to operate on methanol fuel. Performance and emissions were experimentally evaluated under varying operating conditions
Gore, Matt, Nonavinakere Vinod, Kaushik, Fang, Tiegang
Journal Article
INSTALLING AND REMOVAL TOOLS, CONNECTOR ELECTRICAL CONTACT, TYPE I, CLASS 1, COMPOSITION CAS81969/17A (Current)04/02/2025
AE-8C2 Terminating Devices and Tooling Committee
Technical Standard
CRIMPING TOOL AND ACCESSORIES, REMOTE CRIMP HEAD, HYDRAULIC, WIRE SIZE 8 TO 0000 FOR INSULATED AND UN-INSULATED CRIMP BARRELSAS5259/1B (Current)04/02/2025
AE-8C2 Terminating Devices and Tooling Committee
Technical Standard
Design Parameter Impact of Wind-Averaged Drag Optimization2025-01-877204/01/2025
With the increasing prevalence of electric vehicles (EVs), decreasing vehicle drag is of upmost importance, as range is a primary consideration for customers and has a direct bearing on the cost of the vehicle. While the relationship between drag and range is well understood, there exists a discrepancy between the label range and the real-world range experienced by customers. One of the factors influencing the difference is the ambient wind condition that modifies the resultant air speed and yaw angle, which is typically minimized during SAE coast-down testing. The following study implements a singular wind-averaged drag (WAD) coefficient which is derived from a 3-point yaw curve to show the impact of yaw as compared to the zero-yaw condition. This leads to an interesting dilemma for the vehicle aerodynamicist: whether to optimize the vehicle's exterior shape for low wind (zero yaw) conditions or for real-world conditions where the ambient wind generally produces a few degrees of yaw
Kaminski, Meghan, D'Hooge, Andrew, Borton, Zackery
Technical Paper
Energy Price Sensitivity and Cost Analysis of Battery Electric and Fuel Cell Powertrains for Class 8 Heavy-Duty Trucks in Real-World Scenarios: A 2024, 2035, and 2050 Perspective2025-01-859204/01/2025
This study evaluates the performance of alternative powertrains for Class 8 heavy-duty trucks under various real-world driving conditions, cargo loads, and operating ranges. Energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and the Levelized Cost of Driving (LCOD) were assessed for different powertrain technologies in 2024, 2035, and 2050, considering anticipated technological advancements. The analysis employed simulation models that accurately reflect vehicle dynamics, powertrain components, and energy storage systems, leveraging real-world driving data. An integrated simulation workflow was implemented using Argonne National Laboratory's POLARIS, SVTrip, Autonomie, and TechScape software. Additionally, a sensitivity analysis was performed to assess how fluctuations in energy and fuel costs impact the cost-effectiveness of various powertrain options. By 2035, battery electric trucks (BEVs) demonstrate strong cost competitiveness in the 0-250 mile and 250-500 mile ranges, especially when
Mansour, Charbel, Bou Gebrael, Julien, Kancharla, Amarendra, Freyermuth, Vincent, Islam, Ehsan Sabri, Vijayagopal, Ram, Sahin, Olcay, Zuniga, Natalia, Nieto Prada, Daniela, Alhajjar, Michel, Rousseau, Aymeric, Borhan, Hoseinali, El Ganaoui-Mourlan, Ouafae
Technical Paper
An Experimental Investigation of the Liquid Jet Breakup Characteristics in a Vaporizer under Equivalent Operating Conditions of a Microturbine Combustion Chamber2025-01-845804/01/2025
This study experimentally investigates the liquid jet breakup process in a vaporizer of a microturbine combustion chamber under equivalent operating conditions, including temperature and air mass flow rate. A high-speed camera experimental system, coupled with an image processing code, was developed to analyze the jet breakup length. The fuel jet is centrally positioned in a vaporizer with an inner diameter of 8mm. Airflow enters the vaporizer at controlled pressures, while thermal conditions are maintained between 298 K and 373 K using a PID-controlled heating system. The liquid is supplied through a jet with a 0.4 mm inner diameter, with a range of Reynolds numbers (Reliq = 2300÷3400), and aerodynamic Weber numbers (Weg = 4÷10), corresponding to the membrane and/or fiber breakup modes of the liquid jet. Based on the results of jet breakup length, a new model has been developed to complement flow regimes by low Weber and Reynolds numbers. The analysis of droplet size distribution
Ha, Nguyen, Quan, Nguyen, Manh, Vu, Pham, Phuong Xuan
Technical Paper
Spray Characterization in a Constant Volume Chamber of Aluminum Oxide Nanoparticles-Diesel Blends2025-01-845504/01/2025
Aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) nanoparticles are considered a promising fuel additive to enhance combustion efficiency, reduce emissions, and improve fuel economy. This study investigates the spray characteristics of diesel fuel blended with aluminum oxide nanoparticles in a constant volume chamber. The blends were prepared by dispersing Al₂O₃ nanoparticles in diesel at varying concentrations (25, 50, and 100 mg of aluminum oxide nanoparticles into 1 L of pure diesel, respectively) using a magnetic stirrer and ultrasonication to ensure stable suspensions. Spray characterization was conducted in a high-pressure and high-temperature constant volume chamber, simulating actual engine conditions. The ambient temperatures for this experiment were set from 800 to 1200 K, and the oxygen concentrations were set from 21% to 13%. The study focused on key spray parameters such as spray penetration length, spray angle, and spray area, analyzed using high-speed imaging and laser diffraction techniques
Ji, Huangchang, Zhao, Zhiyu
Technical Paper
Effects of Jet Caps on Hydrogen Piezoelectric Injectors for DI Applications: Experiments and 3D-CFD Simulations2025-01-845404/01/2025
The adoption of hydrogen as a sustainable replacement for fossil fuels is pushing the development of internal combustion engines (ICEs) to overcome the technical limitations related to its usage. Focusing on the fuel injector in a DI configuration, it must guarantee several targets such as the adequate delivery of hydrogen mass for the given operating condition and the proper mixture formation in the combustion chamber playing a primary role in reaching the target performance in H2-ICEs. Experimental campaigns and computational fluid dynamics simulations can be used as complementary tools to provide a deep understanding of the injector behaviour and to drive design modifications in a quick and effective way. In the present work an outward opening, piezo-actuated injector purposely designed to be fuelled with hydrogen is tested on several operating conditions to evaluate its performance in terms of delivered mass flow and jet morphology using the Schlieren imaging technique. To
Pavan, Nicolò, Cicalese, Giuseppe, Gestri, Luca, Fontanesi, Stefano, Breda, Sebastiano, Mechi, Marco, Vongher, Sara, Postrioti, Lucio, Buitoni, Giacomo, Martino, Manuel
Technical Paper
Examination of the Data Structures of the Bendix® Data Recorder2025-01-871204/01/2025
Bendix® EC-80™ and certain EC-60™ ABS control units contain an event data recorder called the Bendix® Data Recorder (BDR). Raw BDR data is obtained using commercially available software, however, the translation of the raw data into an event report has only been performed by the manufacturer. In this paper, the raw data structures of the commercially available datasets are examined. It is demonstrated that the data follows uniform and repeatable patterns. The raw BDR data is converted into a conventional report and then validated against translation reports performed by the manufacturer. The techniques outlined in this research allow investigators to access and analyze BDR records independently of the manufacturer and in a way previously not possible.
DiSogra, Matthew, Hirsch, Jeffrey, Yeakley, Adam
Technical Paper
Accuracy of Timestamps in Digital and Network Video Recorders2025-01-869004/01/2025
Video analysis plays a major role in many forensic fields. Many articles, publications, and presentations have covered the importance and difficulty in properly establishing frame timing. In many cases, the analyst is given video files that do not contain native metadata. In other cases, the files contain video recordings of the surveillance playback monitor which eliminates all original metadata from the video recording. These “video of video” recordings prevent an analyst from determining frame timing using metadata from the original file. However, within many of these video files, timestamp information is visually imprinted onto each frame. Analyses that rely on timing of events captured in video may benefit from these imprinted timestamps, but for forensic purposes, it is important to establish the accuracy and reliability of these timestamps. The purpose of this research is to examine the accuracy of these timestamps and to establish if they can be used to determine the timing
Molnar, Benjamin, Terpstra, Toby, Voitel, Tilo
Technical Paper
Speed Determination Using Audio Analysis of Dash Camera Video from Passenger Vehicle Tires Frequencies for Vehicle Accident Reconstruction2025-01-868204/01/2025
Prior research has validated a reliable method of determining vehicle speed using the audio data and a known wheelbase of a test vehicle captured by dash camera audio. However, it has been found that dash camera audio may record a frequency that varies with the test vehicle’s speed. Investigating the origin of this frequency revealed the horn effect phenomena, which has been well known in research by the tire industry. Independent research identified a frequency generated by the rotating tires when a certain speed threshold was reached by the test vehicle. The research concluded that the tread pattern of the tire in contact with the roadway surface generated a frequency that varied with vehicle speed. However, research using the audio from a dash camera to determine vehicle speed from that specific varying frequency for forensic purposes has not been investigated in prior research. The purpose of this study was to outline, test, and confirm the source of the wheel speed frequency as a
Vega, Henry V., Ngo, Long Justin, Hatab, Ziad, Cornetto, Anthony, Engleman, Krystina, Hunter, Eric
Technical Paper
Impact of Chemical Poisoning and Hydrothermal Aging on a Production Diesel AT System2025-01-849704/01/2025
Diesel aftertreatment (AT) systems are critical for controlling emissions of CO, HC, NOX, and PM in the on-road transportation sector. Ensuring compliance with regulatory standards throughout the AT system's lifespan requires precise prediction of various degradation mechanisms under real-world operating conditions and mitigating their impact through proper catalyst sizing and advanced controls. In the SwRI A2CAT-II consortium, a medium-duty diesel engine production aftertreatment system was subjected to full useful life aging, involving chemical poisoning with phosphorus (P) and sulfur (S) species, along with hydrothermal aging following the DAAAC protocol. This study was aimed to model and predict the aging trajectory of this production AT system thereby capturing changes in system dynamics under both steady-state and transient conditions. The system, designed to meet the 0.2 g/bhp-hr standard, comprised a Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC), Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF), Selective
Balakrishnan, Arun, Chundru, Venkata Rajesh, Eakle, Scott, Sharp, Christopher
Technical Paper
Powertrain Components Aging Model Selection for Energy Efficient Vehicles: Selection Strategy and Challenges2025-01-854104/01/2025
The long-term performance of powertrain components in energy-efficient vehicles, particularly in Class 8 heavy-duty applications, is crucial for sustaining energy efficiency. However, these components degrade over time, impacting performance and highlighting the need for appropriate aging models to estimate the impact of aging. This study aims to identify and select appropriate aging models for two critical powertrain components: battery and electric machine. Through a comprehensive literature review, the primary aging processes, key influencing factors, and available aging models for these components are identified. A selection matrix is established, considering the model complexity, the model accuracy, and the volume of data required while maintaining the desired precision for the powertrain component models. Based on the selection matrix, an appropriate battery aging model is chosen for the vehicle’s battery. This model was selected for its ability to effectively capture the aging
Rownak, Md Ragib, Hanif, Athar, Ahmed, Qadeer, Fahim, Muhammad Qaisar, Anwar, Hamza, Li, Hui, Le, Dat, Nelson, Matthew
Technical Paper
Comparative Evaluation of Untextured and Textured Surfaces for Wear, Wettability and Friction Characteristics2025-01-833104/01/2025
Reduction of frictional losses by changing the surface roughness in the form of surface textures has been reported as an effective method in reducing friction in the boundary regime of lubrication. Laser-based micro texturing has been mostly used to create these texture patterns and it is reported that it can reduce the frictional resistance by ~20-50%. However, the use of laser-based techniques for texture preparation led to residual thermal stress and micro cracks on the surfaces. Hence, the current study emphasizes using conventional micromachining on piston material (Al alloy Al4032) to overcome this limitation. Three variations of semi-hemispherical geometries were prepared on the surface of Al alloy with dimple depths of 15, 20 and 40 μm and dimple diameters of 90, 120 and 240 μm. Prepared textured surfaces with untextured surfaces are compared in terms of wear, wettability, and friction characteristics based on Stribeck curve behaviors. Results of this investigation demonstrated
Sahu, Vikas Kumar, Shukla, Pravesh Chandra, Gangopadhyay, Soumya
Technical Paper
Sensitivity Analysis of Virtual Crash Simulation Software Using Design of Experiments (DOE)2025-01-869304/01/2025
This paper is a continuation of a previous effort to evaluate the post-impact motion of vehicles with high rotational velocity within various vehicle dynamic simulation softwares. To complete this goal, this paper utilizes a design of experiments (DOE) method. The previous papers analyzed four vehicle dynamic simulation software programs; HVE (SIMON and EDSMAC4), PC-Crash and VCRware, and applied the DOE to determine the most sensitive factors present in each simulation software. This paper will include Virtual Crash into this methodology to better understand the significant variables present within this simulation model. This paper will follow a similar DOE to that which was conducted in the previous paper. A total of 32 trials were conducted which analyzed ten factors. Aerodynamics, a factor included in the previous DOE, was not included within this DOE because it does not exist within Virtual Crash. The same three response variables from the previous DOE were measured to determine
Roberts, Julius, Civitanova, Nicholas, Stegemann, Jacob, Buzdygon, David, Thobe, Keith
Technical Paper
A Methodology for Minimizing Liftgate-Induced Low-Frequency Boom Noise in Vehicles2025-01-861704/01/2025
The significance of the liftgate's role in vehicle low-frequency boom noise is highlighted by its modal coupling with the vehicle's acoustic cavity modes. The liftgate's acoustic sensitivity and susceptibility to vehicle vibration excitation are major contributors to this phenomenon. This paper presents a CAE (Computer-Aided Engineering) methodology for designing vehicle liftgates to reduce boom risk. Empirical test data commonly show a correlation between high levels of liftgate vibration response to vehicle excitations and elevated boom risk in the vehicle cabin. However, exceptions to this trend exist; some vehicles exhibit low boom risk despite high vibration responses, while others show high boom risk despite low vibration responses. These discrepancies indicate that liftgate vibratory response alone is not a definitive measure of boom risk. Nonetheless, evidence shows that establishing a vibration level control guideline during the design stage results in lower boom risk. The
Abbas, Ahmad, Haider, Syed
Technical Paper
Analysis of Back-EMF Protection Strategies for PM Synchronous Motor Based 2W/3W Electric Vehicles2025-01-856504/01/2025
The use of electric vehicles (EVs) has been on the rise in recent years and this trend is expected to continue in the upcoming years. There are several reasons for the increasing popularity of EVs, including environmental concerns, advances in technology, and government incentives. The 2W/3W EV powertrain comprises components such as the battery, traction motor, motor controller, charger, and DC-DC converter, etc. Essential components which impact the power, efficiency, and range of the vehicle are a motor (generally PMSM or BLDC) and a motor controller. PMSMs can produce more output power than BLDC motors of the same size, making them suitable for high-power applications. While the EV powertrain allows for greater flexibility in designing electric vehicle architectures, it also exhibits new challenges in meeting all the essential requirements. When a motor rotates, as per Lenz’s law, an opposing voltage (Back-EMF) is generated in a motor whose magnitude is proportional to its angular
Mohan, Midhun, Shinde, Rushikesh, Magar, Pradip, Deo, Mayank Pramod, Chaudhary, Pramod
Technical Paper
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