Browse Topic: Electrical, Electronics, and Avionics

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Enhancing Airworthiness Security: SysML-Based Approach to Modelling Security Scope Definitions2025-01-0172To be published on 05/02/2025
Airworthiness certification of aircraft requires an Airworthiness Security Process (AWSP) to ensure safe operation under potential unauthorized interactions, particularly in the context of growing cyber threats. Regulatory authorities mandate the consideration of Intentional Unauthorized Electronic Interactions (IUEI) in the development of aircraft, airborne software, and equipment. As the industry increasingly adopts Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) to accelerate development, we aim to enhance this effort by focusing on security scope definitions – a critical step within the AWSP for security risk assessment that establishes the boundaries and extent of security measures. However, our findings indicate that, despite the increasing use of model-based tools in development, these security scope definitions often remain either document-based or, when modeled, are presented at overly abstract levels, both of which limit their utility. Furthermore, we found that these definitions
Hechelmann, Adrian, Mannchen, Thomas
Technical Paper
Determining Worst-Case Execution Time Bounds for Multi-core Processors2025-01-0155To be published on 05/02/2025
Demonstrating deadline adherence for real-time tasks is a common requirement in all safety norms, including ISO 26262 and DO-178C. Timing verification has to address two levels: the code level (worst-case execution time) and the scheduling level (worst-case response time). Determining which methodology is suited best depends on the characteristics of the target processor. All contemporary microprocessors try to maximize the instruction-level parallelism by sophisticated performance-enhancing features that make the execution time of a particular instruction dependent on the execution history. On multi-core systems, the execution time additionally is influenced by interference effects on shared resources caused by concurrent activities on the different cores, which are not controlled by the scheduling algorithm. In the avionics domain, the new FAA AC 20-193 / EASA AMC 20-193 guidance documents formalize predictability aspects of multi-core systems and derive adequate measures for timing
Kaestner, Daniel, Gebhard, Gernot, Huembert, Christian, Pister, Markus, Wegener, Simon, Ferdinand, Christian
Technical Paper
Image Processing-Based Chip Detection by KIZKI Algorithm and Its Optimization2025-01-0168To be published on 05/02/2025
The process of producing aircraft parts involves the drilling of aluminum alloys. This creates a large amount of chips, which are removed using air, but sometimes they still remain within the holes. This is checked by inspectors through visual inspection. However, the quality of human inspection varies based on skill level and fatigue. Thus, image-based inspection should be used to stabilize and further improve inspection quality. This study aims to build a framework for chip detection based on image processing. Taking into account on-site implementation, the system must have low installation and running costs and be standalone. Therefore, we adopt the KIZKI algorithm, which satisfies these conditions. KIZKI means awareness in Japanese. This is a model of human peripheral vision and saccades. It does not require training like AI and can achieve high-speed and high-performance detection using a low-performance computer. In other words, there is no need for a computer with an expensive
Iinuma, Marin, Sato, Junya, Tsuji, Masahiko
Technical Paper
The Why of Development Assurance2025-01-0154To be published on 05/02/2025
In the domain of aircraft certification, Development Assurance is what some would call a useful tool to gain confidence in the development of complex systems, and what others would call a necessary evil. But what does it actually do? Why is it necessary for certification of modern aircraft? What, epistemologically, does it bring to the table? This paper aims to show why development assurance activities, at all levels from aircraft to item, close the epistemological holes created when complex systems are chosen for implementation. It will map the different sources and types of uncertainty encountered in system verification and explain how each type is dealt with within a certification context, working from simple mechanical systems up to complex and highly integrated systems using software and airborne electronic hardware and beyond. It will show that Development Assurance, far from being an arbitrary set of activities, systematically brings personal and corporate expertise to bear to
Laflin, Cory R.
Technical Paper
Approach to Optimize the Airplane Boarding Process by using Image Recognition and Stochastic Simulation to Predict Overhead Bin Fill Levels2025-01-0164To be published on 05/02/2025
In single-aisle aircraft, the available storage space for carry-on baggage is inherently limited. When the aircraft is fully booked, this often results in insufficient overhead bin space, necessitating last-minute gate-checking of carry-on items, which delays the boarding process and reduces operational efficiency. A promising approach to mitigating this issue involves the integration of computer vision technologies with an appropriate data storage system and stochastic simulation to enable accurate and supportive predictions that enhance planning. In this work the YOLOv8 image recognition algorithm is used to identify and classify each passenger’s carry-on baggage into categories such as handbags, backpacks and suitcases. This data is then linked to passenger information stored in the NoSQL database MongoDB, which included seat assignments and the number of carry-on items per passenger. Stochastic simulation is applied to predict the occupancy levels of overhead storage bins across
Bergmann, Jacqueline, Hub, Maximilian
Technical Paper
Segment Manipulator Retrofit2025-01-0159To be published on 05/02/2025
A segment manipulator machine was in service nineteen years. Many of the control components were out of date and hard to obtain. Customer engaged Electroimpact to upgrade using the latest state-of-art controls. The program from the previous control system could not be reused. A “layup mandrel” is a form that is used to lay carbon fiber. The layup mandrel for a wide body aircraft fuselage section consists of six segments. The mandrel is made up of segments so that it can be assembled and disassembled from the inside. The segments are Crown, Upper Left, Upper Right, Lower Left, Lower Right, and Keel. For each build the mandrel is assembled with a segment manipulator machine, wound with carbon fiber tape, clad, and baked in an autoclave. Then the mandrel is disassembled with a segment manipulator machine leaving the cured carbon fiber shell behind. The segments are refurbished and brought to the assembly area on segment carts for the next build. Segments each weigh in the vicinity of 3000
Luker, Zachary, Donahue, Michael
Technical Paper
Model-Based Design and Energy Management of an Aeronautical Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell System2025-01-0150To be published on 05/02/2025
The growing demand for air transport requires efficient and sustainable power systems to meet the pressing need for decarbonizing the sector. A hybrid unit, consisting of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system and a lithium-ion battery, is a suitable option due to the benefits of reduced gravimetric and volumetric impacts, along with the flexibility of energy management strategies. This work addresses, using a model-based approach, the issue of integrating these electrochemical devices into the aircraft’s electrical architecture, considering both design and energy management aspects. Two scenarios are explored to match the DC bus line voltage requirements. In the first, the fuel cell system nominal power is kept constant, while the number of DC/DC converters operating in parallel is assessed by constructing bi-dimensional maps derived from literature. These maps relate the converter’s maximum deliverable power to the input and desired output voltage. The second scenario introduces
Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Napolitano, Ciro
Technical Paper
Short-Time Current Rating of Aircraft Wire2025-01-0145To be published on 05/02/2025
This paper presents a comparative analysis of various short-time current rating formulas, focusing on applications in aircraft wiring. Examining historical formulas developed by pioneers such as W.H. Preece and I.M. Onderdonk alongside modern experimental data provide a comprehensive understanding of short-time current rating formulas. Also, exploring key challenges, such as environmental conditions and material variability in aviation with particular attention to adiabatic methods for current-carrying calculations. The findings of this paper offer practical insights into improving the safety and reliability of an aircraft electrical system with improving the accuracy of short-time current rating predictions.
Fifield, Jon
Technical Paper
Machine Learning-Based Vision Mapping and Planning for Flexibility in High-Mix Robotic Manufacturing2025-01-0157To be published on 05/02/2025
Industries that require high-accuracy automation in the creation of high-mix/low-volume parts, such as aerospace, often face cost constraints with traditional robotics and machine tools due to the need for many pre-programmed tool paths, dedicated part fixtures, and rigid production flow. This paper presents a new machine learning (ML) based vision mapping and planning technique, created to enhance flexibility and efficiency in robotic operations, while reducing overall costs. The system is capable of mapping discrete process targets in the robot work envelope that the ML algorithms have been trained to identify, without requiring knowledge of the overall assembly. Using a 2D camera, images are taken from multiple robot positions across the work area and are used in the ML algorithm to detect, identify, and predict the 6D pose of each target. The algorithm uses the poses and target identifications to automatically develop a part program with efficient tool paths, including
Langan, Daniel, Hall, Michael, Goldberg, Emily, Schrandt, Sasha
Technical Paper
Assignment Criteria for Function Allocation to Commercial Aviation System Security Domains2025-01-0156To be published on 05/02/2025
Aircraft cabin management is characterized by operational and business processes. Both are defined as a logical sequence of activities that occur during the flight. While the operational process includes activities to ensure flight safety, such as take-off, cruise and landing, the business process activities are related to adding value to the customer, i.e. the passenger. They are to be certified by the authority as a part of the aircraft type certification. These processes are defined by the airline and are described as part of the airline’s business model. While the scope of operational processes for passenger safety within the aircraft cabin should remain as unchanged as possible, the increasing competitive pressure on airlines is leading to a constantly rising number of services in the cabin. To prevent compromising cabin safety from increased cabin crew workload during the cruise phase, there is a growing trend toward digitizing operational and business processes. The digitized
Hintze, Hartmut, Blecken, Marvin, God, Ralf, Pereira, Daniel
Technical Paper
Conceptual Design of a Superconducting Aero Electric Engine System2025-01-0146To be published on 05/02/2025
The goal of the development of an electric aircraft engine is to create an aircraft system that achieves ultimate efficiency using hydrogen fuel instead of fossil fuels. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on reducing weight as much as possible, and this paper describes the approach to such fuel cell-powered aircraft. The authors have adopted a superconducting coreless rotating electric machine with an integrated hydrogen tank and are pursuing a target of 70kg or less for the main components of a 2MW rotating electric machine. High-temperature superconducting wires have zero electrical resistance and can carry a very high current density, but the alternating current (AC) loss generated when used in AC has been an issue in their application to rotating electric machines. In 2023, The SCSC cable was developed to be a low-AC-loss, robust, and high current cable concept, in which copper-plated multifilament coated conductors are wound spirally on a core. In addition to using this
Oyori, Hitoshi, Sakurai, Sho, Kusase, Shin, Yoshida, Yukihiro, Yoshinaga, Seiichiro, Nose, Hiroyuki, Amemiya, Naoyuki
Technical Paper
Enhancing Efficiency in Aerospace Manufacturing through AI Agent Based Bearing Diagnostics System2025-01-0158To be published on 05/02/2025
Industrial bearings are critical components in aerospace manufacturing, where their failures can result in costly downtime. Traditional fault diagnosis typically depends on time-consuming on-site inspections conducted by specialized engineers. This research introduces an innovative Artificial Intelligence application that functions as a virtual maintenance technician, empowering on-site personnel to perform preliminary diagnoses. By reducing the dependence on specialized engineers, this technology aims to minimize downtime. The AI system leverages large language models to guide the inspection process, answer queries from a comprehensive knowledge base, analyze defect images, and generate detailed reports with actionable recommendations. Multiple deep learning algorithms operate as backend APIs to support this functionality. This study details the architectural design of the expert system and provides a real-time simulation of its workflow, demonstrating its potential to enhance
Chandrasekaran, Balaji
Technical Paper
Interconnected and Data-Driven Aircraft Cabin Systems: Consistent Integration of ARINC 853 Messaging Standard into Model-Based Aircraft Systems Development2025-01-0174To be published on 05/02/2025
Increasing digitalization of the aircraft cabin, driven by the need for improved operational efficiency and an enhanced passenger experience, has led to the development of data-driven services. In order to implement these services, information from different systems is often required, which leads to a multi-system architecture. When designing a network that interconnects these systems, it is important to consider the heterogeneous device and supplier landscape as well as variations in the network architecture resulting from airline customization or cabin upgrades. The novel ARINC 853 Cabin Secure Media-Independent Messaging (CSMIM) standard addresses this challenge by specifying a communication protocol that relies on a data model to encode provided and consumed information. This paper presents an approach to integrate CSMIM-specific communication concepts into a Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) framework using the Systems Modeling Language (SysML). This enables a streamlined
Giertzsch, Fabian, Blecken, Marvin, God, Ralf
Technical Paper
Integrating for Safety – A Proposed Approach to the Integration of Propulsion Battery Systems in Hybrid Electric Aviation2025-01-0148To be published on 05/02/2025
In the last year we have witnessed a notable surge in the designs and in the guidance material for electric and hybrid aircraft. FAA and EASA have continued to evaluate the safety of Propulsion Battery Systems (PBS), with a focus on thermal runaway containment testing. As a result, a harmonization white paper was issued to provide a certification path for Thermal Runaway (TR) Hazards, followed by an EASA certification memorandum on the acceptable approaches for the certification of Electric/Hybrid Propulsion Systems (EHPS). And just recently, an FAA Advisory Circular (draft) was issued for the “powered-lift” aircraft that feature these propulsion battery systems. In spite of the advances made by electric/hybrid aircraft manufacturers and the aviation authorities, there is still a missing piece of the puzzle. Mainly, we are still not confident in our ability to properly integrate the PBS into the EHPS architecture, in such a way where safety is never compromised, no matter the hazard
Hanna, Michael, Walker, Cherizar
Technical Paper
Sustainable Design of Automotive Batteries2025-01-0001To be published on 04/18/2025
A consequence of the automotive industry's shift to electrification is that a significantly higher percentage of a vehicle's lifecycle CO₂ emissions occur during the production phase. As a result, vehicle manufacturers and suppliers must shift the focus of product development from the 'in-use phase only' to optimizing the complete product lifecycle. The proper design of a battery has the highest impact to all other phases following in the life-cycle. It influences the selection of materials, the manufacturing, in-use and end of life, respectively the recycling and recycling yield for a circular economy. Using real-life examples the paper will explain what are the main parameters necessary for designing a sustainable battery. What are the low hanging fruits to be considered? In addition, it will elaborate on the relation as well as the impacts to other KPIs like safety, costs and life-time of the battery. Finally it will round up in an outlook on how batteries will evolve in the future
Braun, Andreas, Rothbart, Martin
Technical Paper
ZT4SDV Dynamic Trust for SW Defined Vehicles*2025-01-808404/01/2025
Today’s vehicle architectures build trust on a framework that is static, binary and rigid; tomorrow’s software defined vehicle architectures require a trust model that is dynamic, nuanced, and adaptive. The Zero Trust paradigm supports this dynamic need, but current implementations focus on protecting information, not considering the challenges that automobiles face interacting with the physical world. We propose expanding Zero Trust for cyber-physical systems by weighing the potential safety impact of taking action based on information provided against the amount of trust in the message and develop a method to evaluate the effectiveness of this strategy. This strategy offers a potential solution to the problems of implementing real-time responses to active attacks over vehicle lifetime.
Kaster, Robert, Ma, Di
Technical Paper
Research on the Change of Mind Control during Gearshift in Hybrid System2025-01-850904/01/2025
This paper initially delineates the control process of driver-initiated gear changes. The gear-shifting point control module computes the new target gear based on the current updated driving state, and the gear-shifting point decision module assesses the rationality of the new target gear and conveys it to the gear-shifting timing control module. The gear-shifting timing control module selects the reasonable new stage in accordance with the current execution status and outputs the new target gear, coordinating the clutch control module and the brake control module to regulate the clutch engagement/disengagement and the switches of the two clutches. Altering the intention regarding gear changes encompasses gear replacement and variations in power type, which involve the necessary recalculation of the target speed based on the new target gear. Secondly, the conditions for the “change of mind” request in the speed stage are stipulated, which is the stage where the input shaft speed is
Jing, Junchao, Huang, Weishan, Li, Dongfei, Zuo, Botao, Liu, Yiqiang
Technical Paper
CFD Modeling of Elastomeric Silicone Material Dispensing to Enable Equipment Design & Optimization for Efficient Automotive Manufacturing2025-01-831804/01/2025
In the automotive industry, it is essential to consider not only how well specialty materials perform and are formulated, but also how efficiently and economically they can be applied during manufacturing. This becomes especially important during the early stages of development to prevent issues when these materials are used in new designs by automotive suppliers or manufacturers. With the rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs), new materials are being used more frequently, and these materials may not have been as thoroughly tested as those used in traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure that these materials can be applied correctly and efficiently from the start. One way to speed up the development process is through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling. CFD helps predict how materials will behave when dispensed, which is essential for developing the right equipment and conditions for applying these materials. Working with
Kenney, J. Andy, Delgado, Roberto, Hossain, Arif, Ng, Sze-Sze, Thomas, Ryan, Chyasnavichyus, Marius, Tsang, Chi-Wei, Hwang, Margaret, Wu, Lance, Dietsche, Laura, Mcmichael, Jonathan, Raines, Kevin, Nelson, Grant
Technical Paper
Extreme-Fast Charging Performance Optimization of Immersion-Cooled Battery Systems with Cylindrical Cells2025-01-816904/01/2025
Efficient and robust optimization frameworks are essential to develop and parametrize battery management system (BMS) controls algorithms. In such multi-physics application, the tradeoff between fast-charging performance and aging degradation needs to be solved while simultaneously preventing the onset of thermal runaway. To this end, a multi-objective optimization framework was developed for immersion-cooled battery systems that provides optimal charging rates and dielectric flowrates while minimizing aging and charging time objectives. The developed production-oriented framework consists of a fully coupled, lumped electro-thermal-aging model for cylindrical cells with core-to-surface and immersion-cooling heat transfer, the latter controlled by the dielectric fluid flowrate. The modeled core temperatures are inputs to a semi-empirical aging degradation model, in which a fast-aging solver computes the updated capacity and internal resistance over multiple timescales, which in turn
Suzuki, Jorge, Tran, Manh-Kien, Tyagi, Ramavtar, Meshginqalam, Ata, Zhou, Zijie, Nakhla, David, Atluri, Prasad
Technical Paper
Impact of Battery Aging on the State of Charge-Open Circuit Voltage Relationship and Its Effects on Battery Capacity Estimation2025-01-855804/01/2025
Electrified vehicles rely on batteries to store energy for propulsion. Batteries depend on chemistry that changes over time and with use. This aging has many effects. Historically, efforts to predict and be robust to battery aging have focused on capacity loss and power loss/resistance growth. While a battery’s state of charge-open circuit voltage (SOC-OCV) relationship is typically treated as static, data illustrates that it shifts with battery age. We are not aware of any published methods to account for this effect for on-board modeling or controls. Regulations by the European Union, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the California Air Resource Board have proposed a state of certified energy (SOCE) to provide vehicle owners with a common metric reflecting the vehicle battery age. This metric captures the capacity and power loss of an aged battery. However, SOC-OCV changes with age may make accurately estimating SOCE more challenging. The upcoming regulations require accurate
Vuylsteke, Gabrielle, Wu, Hao, Moore, William, Washington, Donnell
Technical Paper
Research on Crash Simulation and Safety of Automotive Power Battery2025-01-822604/01/2025
In recent years, energy scarcity and environmental pollution have intensified globally, prompting increased research and development in new energy vehicles as countries prioritize environmental protection and energy conservation. Compared to fuel-powered vehicles, new energy vehicles have relatively larger battery volumes and weights, which can increase damage and the risk of fires and explosions in collisions. To analyze and optimize the safety performance of a specific vehicle model's battery pack, we constructed a finite element model using existing software and performed pre-processing, simulation, and analysis of modal, random vibration, and extrusion characteristics. This revealed specific damage scenarios and enabled reliability analysis under working conditions. To enhance safety and reduce mass, we parametrically modeled power pack components and optimized parameters via multi-objective genetic algorithms under three road conditions. Results indicate reduced mass and improved
Wang, Zhi
Technical Paper
Enhancing Tire Predictive Maintenance with Next-Generation TPMS Sensors2025-01-875904/01/2025
This paper presents findings on the use of data from next-generation Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS), for estimating key tire states such as leak rates, load, and location, which are crucial for tire-predictive maintenance applications. Next-generation TPMS sensors provide a cost-effective and energy-efficient solution suitable for large-scale deployments. Unlike traditional TPMS, which primarily monitor tire pressure, the next-generation TPMS used in this study includes an additional capability to measure the tire's centerline footprint length (FPL). This feature offers significant added value by providing comprehensive insights into tire wear, load, and auto-location. These enhanced functionalities enable more effective tire management and predictive maintenance. This study collected vehicle and tire data from a passenger car hatchback equipped with next-generation TPMS sensors mounted on the inner liner of the tire. The data was analyzed to propose vehicle-tire physics
Sharma, Sparsh, Son, Roman
Technical Paper
Design of Fault-Tolerant Control Strategy for Dual-Winding Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor in Vehicles2025-01-880504/01/2025
Motor drive control is crucial for achieving the performance, reliability, and comfort of electric vehicles. Multi-phase motors, represented by dual-winding permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs), have significant research value in the electric vehicle field due to their high-power drive capabilities and strong fault tolerance. A simple and easily analyzable motor model is essential for achieving high precision in control. This paper employs VSD coordinate transformation (vector space decomposition) based on electromagnetic principles and the positional relationships between windings, treating the multi-phase motor as a whole and mapping various physical quantities to multiple subspaces for simplified analysis. Consequently, a mathematical model for the dual-winding PMSM is established. The vector control system based on VSD coordinate transformation adopts a dual closed-loop structure for speed and current. It focuses on a comparative analysis between traditional two-vector
Gao, ChaoFan, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Technical Paper
MBD-FEM Co-Simulation Approach to Assess Strength of Automotive Chassis Components2025-01-831504/01/2025
Automotive chassis components are considered as safety critical components and must meet the durability and strength requirements of customer usage. The cases such as the vehicle driving through a pothole or sliding into a curb make the design (mass efficient chassis components) challenging in terms of the physical testing and virtual simulation. Due to the cost and short vehicle development time requirement, it is impractical to conduct physical tests during the early stages of development. Therefore, virtual simulation plays the critical role in the vehicle development process. This paper focuses on virtual co-simulation of vehicle chassis components. Traditional virtual simulation of the chassis components is performed by applying the loads that are recovered from multi-body simulation (MBD) to the Finite Element (FE) models at some of the attachment locations and then apply constraints at other selected attachment locations. In this approach, the chassis components are assessed
Behera, Dhiren, Li, Fan, Tasci, Mine, Seo, Young-Jin, Schulze, Martin, Kochucheruvil, Binu Jose, Yanni, Tamer, Bhosale, Kiran, Aluru, Phani
Technical Paper
Efficiency Comparison between Single-Channel and Double-Channel Operation in Dual Three-Phase PMSM2025-01-857004/01/2025
Due to the high-power density, high torque rating, low torque ripples and fault-tolerant capability, the Dual Three-Phase Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (DTP-PMSM) has recently emerged as a feasible alternative for automotive applications. However, it comes with its own challenge of increased losses at low torque due to the use of 6-phase inverter or two three-phase inverters. The DTP-PMSM drive model can be designed to function in two operating modes, double-channel (dual three-phase) mode with both the inverters operating, and single-channel (three-phase) with one of the two inverters shut down. This paper proposed an efficiency analysis between single channel and double channel modes in a DTP-PMSM drive. A simulation model is prepared to calculate efficiency, and the losses associated with different parts of battery fed DTP-PMSM drive system operated in both modes. Detailed loss model is simulated to represent efficiency of a battery-fed DTP-PMSM drive system. Both single
Sun, Fengyang, Pradhan, Subarni, Yang, Jingru, Nahid-Mobarakeh, Babak, Valencia Garcia, Diego Fernando, Mavalankar, Drushan, Allocco, Alessandro
Technical Paper
End-to-End Style Parking Algorithm Development Pipeline Based on Procedural Parking Scenario Synthetic Data Generation2025-01-806004/01/2025
Less costs and higher efficiency may be constant technological pursuit. Despite the great success, data-driven AI development still requires multiple stages such as data collection, cleaning, annotation, training, and deployment to work together. We expect an end-to-end style development process that can integrate these processes, achieving an automatic data production and algorithm development process that can work with just clicks of the mouse. For this purpose, we explore an end-to-end style parking algorithm development pipeline based on procedural parking scenario synthetic data generation. Our approach allows for the automated generation of parking scenarios according to input parameters, such as scene construction, static and dynamic obstacles arrangement, material textures modification, and background changes. It then combines with the ego-vehicle trajectories into the scenarios to render high-quality images and corresponding label data based on Blender software. Utilizing
Li, Jian, Wang, Hanchao, Zhang, Song, Meng, Chao, Rui, Zhang
Technical Paper
Advancing Verification and Validation for ADAS and ADS2025-01-805204/01/2025
Emerging automotive technologies like advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving systems (ADS) hold promise for improving safety for the traveling public; however, effective verification and validation (V&V) of these systems has proven to be challenging. Traditional testing methodologies may serve in limited cases for systems exhibiting low levels of automation, but recent studies show that these systems that have been brought to market perform poorly in practice. Further, these traditional methods do not serve for testing systems with high levels of automation where a human driver simply serves as a fallback ready user or is out of the loop altogether. New V&V methods are required to assess whether these systems can perform their intended functions in their intended operating environments, and to assess whether they can do so safely across the expansive and variable operating space. This paper presents an overview of ADAS and ADS challenges and novel approaches to
Thorn, Eric, Knisley, Veronica, Auchter, Joseph
Technical Paper
Deriving Architectural Requirements for SAE J3016 TM Level 3 System from Functional Safety Perspective2025-01-800904/01/2025
Vehicles with SAE J3016TM Level 3 systems are exposed to road infrastructure, Vulnerable Road Users (VRUs), traffic and other actors on roadways. Hence safe deployment of Level 3 systems is of paramount importance. One aspect of safe deployment of SAE Level 3 systems is the application of functional safety (ISO 26262) to their design, development, integration, and testing. This ensures freedom from unreasonable risk, in the event of a system failure and sufficient provisions to maintain Dynamic Driving Task (DDT) and to initiate Minimum Risk Maneuver (MRM), in the presence of random hardware and systematic failures. This paper explores leveraging ISO 26262 standard to develop architectural requirements for enabling SAE Level 3 systems to maintain DDT and MRM during fault conditions and outlines the importance of fail-operability for Level 3 systems, from a functional safety perspective. At a high-level, UN Regulation No. 157 – Automated Lane Keeping Systems (ALKS) is used as a baseline
Mudunuri, Venkateswara Raju, Jayakumar, Namitha
Technical Paper
Damage Analysis of Traction Battery For New Energy Vehicle Based on Bottom Impact2025-01-812504/01/2025
As the high-quality development of the new energy vehicle (NEV) and traction battery industries, the safety of traction batteries has become a global focus. Typically mounted at the bottom of NEVs, traction battery systems are particularly vulnerable to mechanical damage caused by bottom impacts, posing serious safety risks. This study investigates the damage sustained by NEV traction battery systems during bottom impact collisions, using computer tomography analysis to detail the damage mechanisms. The findings provide valuable data to enhance the safety and protective performance of traction batteries under such scenarios.
Yan, Pengfei, Wang, Fang, Ma, Tianyi, Han, Ce, He, Gaiyun
Technical Paper
Tube-MPC Based Path Tracking for I Vehicle Considering Data-Driven Stable Region and External Disturbances2025-01-826204/01/2025
Path tracking is a key function of intelligent vehicles, which is the basis for the development and realization of advanced autonomous driving. However, the imprecision of the control model and external disturbances such as wind and sudden road conditions will affect the path tracking effect and even lead to accidents. This paper proposes an intelligent vehicle path tracking strategy based on Tube-MPC and data-driven stable region to enhance vehicle stability and path tracking performance in the presence of external interference. Using BP-NN combined with the state-of-the-art energy valley optimization algorithm, the five eigenvalues of the stable region of the vehicle β−β̇ phase plane are obtained, which are used as constraints for the Tube-MPC controller and converted into quadratic forms for easy calculation. In the calculation of Tube invariant sets, reachable sets are used instead of robust positive invariant sets to reduce the calculation. Simulation results demonstrates that the
Zhang, Haosen, Li, Yihang, Wu, Guangqiang
Technical Paper
Bio-Based Phase Change Material for Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal Management using Copper Fins: A Numerical Investigation2025-01-817104/01/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining popularity due to their zero tailpipe emissions, superior energy efficiency, and sustainable nature. EVs have various limitations, and crucial one is the occurrence of thermal runaway in the battery pack. During charging or discharging condition of battery pack may result in thermal runaway condition. This promotes the requirement of effective cooling arrangement in and around the battery pack to avoid localized peak temperature. In the present work, thermal management of a 26650 Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cell using natural convection air cooling, composite biobased phase change material (CBPCM) and its combination with copper fins is numerically investigated using multi-scale multi dimension - Newman, Tiedenann, Gu and Kim (MSMD-NTGK) battery model in Ansys Fluent at an ambient temperature of 306 K. Natural convection air cooling was found effective at discharge rates of 1C to 3C, maintaining cell temperature below the safe limit of 318 K for 80
Srivastav, Durgesh, Patil, Nagesh Devidas, Shukla, Pravesh Chandra
Technical Paper
Unleash the Power of Generative Design for Lightweighting and Reducing Carbon Footprints in Automotive Engineering2025-01-865704/01/2025
The automotive industry faces ongoing challenges in reducing vehicle mass and carbon emissions while ensuring structural integrity. Traditional design approaches often fail to address these issues comprehensively. This paper explores the application of generative design (GD) to optimize critical automotive components, specifically focusing on reducing mass and in turn carbon emissions. GD builds upon traditional topology optimization by employing iterative method using MELS approach to refine designs providing multiple alternative designs to choose from. MELS (Modified Extensible Lattice Sequence) specifically is used to equally spread-out points (designs) in a space by minimizing clumps and empty spaces. This property of MELS makes lattice sequences an excellent space filling DOE scheme. GD leverages the design of experiments (DOE) to vary key design variables systematically to generate and consider many potential design concepts for a given problem. It also uses artificial
Hosmath, Anjaney, Barai, Jay, Dhangar, Vinaykumar
Technical Paper
A Data-Driven Framework for Battery Capacity Estimation in Real-World Electric Vehicles Using Virtual Impedance and Incremental Capacity Analysis2025-01-856104/01/2025
Accurate battery capacity estimation is critical for ensuring the safe and reliable operation of electric vehicles (EVs) and addressing user range anxiety. However, predicting battery health is challenging due to the non-linearity, non-measurability, and complex multi-stress operating conditions that characterize battery performance. Incremental capacity curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) are effective tools for reflecting battery aging, but their practical application has limitations. This paper presents a novel method for battery capacity estimation using charging segment data derived from real-world operating conditions monitored by the vehicle's Battery Management System (BMS). The proposed approach begins with a detailed statistical analysis of voltage data to determine optimal charging capacity intervals and involves selecting appropriate voltage ranges to compute equivalent full-charge capacities. Experimental tests are performed to measure battery charging
Tao, Siyi, Zhu, Jiangong, Li, Yuan, Chang, Wei, Dai, Haifeng, Wei, Xuezhe
Technical Paper
A Thermal Behaviour of Battery Cell Using Different Electrochemical Models (ECM and NTGK)2025-01-814004/01/2025
In this study, we examine the thermal behaviours of lithium-ion battery cells using two widely employed electro-chemistry models: the Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) and the Newman-Tiedemann-Gauthier-Kim (NTGK) model. Given the critical importance of temperature regulation for the efficiency and lifespan of lithium-ion batteries, this research aims to identify the numerical method that best predicts cell thermal behaviour under constant discharge conditions with 2C, 1C and 0.5C rate. By comparing the outputs of the ECM and NTGK models, we assess their accuracy in predicting key parameters such as State-of-Charge (SoC), current output, voltage, temperature and heat generation. The findings offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of each model in simulating the thermal dynamics of battery cells, providing a basis for optimizing battery performance and longevity in real-world applications.
Wakale, Anil, Ma, Shihu, Hu, Xiao
Technical Paper
Real-Time PMV Thermal Comfort Index Observer Based on Artificial Neural Networks for Infrared Heating Panel Control2025-01-813904/01/2025
Improving electric vehicles’ range can be achieved by integrating infrared heating panels (IRPs) into the existing Heating Ventilation and Air-Conditioning system to reduce battery energy consumption while maintaining thermal comfort. Localized comfort control enabled by IRPs is facilitated by thermal comfort index feedback to the control strategy, such as the well-known Predicted Mean Vote (PMV). PMV is obtained by solving nonlinear equations iteratively, which is computationally expensive for vehicle control units and may not be feasible for real-time control. This paper presents the design of real-time capable thermal comfort observer based on feedforward artificial neural network (ANN), utilized for estimating the local PMV extended with IRP radiative heating effects. The vehicle under consideration is equipped with 12 heating panels (zones) organized into six controller clusters that rely on the average PMV feedback from its respective zone provided by a dedicated ANN. Each of six
Cvok, Ivan, Yerramilli-Rao, Isha, Miklauzic, Filip
Technical Paper
FIT File Processing for Accident Reconstruction2025-01-869604/01/2025
It is becoming increasingly common for bicyclists to record their rides using specialized bicycle computers and watches, the majority of which save the data they collect using the Flexible and Interoperable Data Transfer (.fit) Protocol. The contents of .fit files are stored in binary and thus not readily accessible to users, so the purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the differences induced by several common methods of analyzing .fit files. We used a Garmin Edge 830 bicycle computer with and without a wireless wheel speed sensor to record naturalistic ride data at 1 Hz. The .fit files were downloaded directly from the computer, uploaded to the chosen test platforms - Strava, Garmin Connect, and GoldenCheetah - and then exported to .gpx, .tcx and .csv formats. Those same .fit files were also parsed directly to .csv using the Garmin FIT Software Developer Kit (SDK) FitCSVTool utility. The data in those .csv files (henceforth referred to as “SDK data”) were then either directly
Sweet, David, Bretting, Gerald
Technical Paper
Assessment of Injuries in Rear Impacts2025-01-872704/01/2025
Rear impacts make up a significant portion of crashes in the United States. To date, regulations on rear impacts have focused on fuel system integrity and seat performance, while most research has focused on seat performance in relation to occupants’ injuries, with some analyses of crash severity and seat belt effects. The performance of seats and seat belts may vary depending on the size of the occupant. Understanding how occupant characteristics, as well as crash scenarios, affect injury outcomes can show opportunities for further enhancements in rear impact occupant protection. This paper presents analyses using survey weighted logistic regression models to understand the factors affecting serious injury outcomes (i.e., MAIS 3+) in rear impacts, exploring the potential for improving occupant outcomes. Three separate models are evaluated, focusing on 1) overall injury level, 2) head, neck, and cervical-spine injuries, and 3) thorax, abdomen, thoracic- and lumbar-spine injuries for
Greib, Joshua, Jurkiw, Renee, Kryzaniwskyj, Tanja, Owen, Susan, Van Rooyen, Paul, Whelan, Stacey, Williamson, John
Technical Paper
Multiscale Modeling and Validation of Thermal Runaway Propagation in Immersion-Cooled Battery Systems with Full-Scale Application2025-01-816604/01/2025
Thermal management is a key challenge in the design and operation of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), particularly in high-stress conditions that may lead to thermal runaway (TR). Immersion cooling technology provides a promising solution by offering uniform cooling across all battery cells, reducing the risk of hotspots and thermal gradients that can trigger TR. However, accurately modeling the thermal behavior of such systems, especially under the complex conditions of immersion cooling, presents significant challenges. This study introduces a comprehensive multiscale and Multiphysics modeling framework to analyze thermal runaway and its propagation (TRP) in battery systems cooled by immersion in dielectric fluids. The model integrates both 1D and 3D simulations, focusing on calibrating energy terms at the single-cell level using 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The calibration process includes a detailed analysis of cell chemistries, exothermic heat release, and thermal runaway
Negro, Sergio, Tyagi, Ramavtar, Kolaei, Amir, Pugsley, Kyle, Atluri, Prasad
Technical Paper
Developing a Camera-Based Perspective Transformation Method for Quantifying Driver Direct Visibility for Passenger Vehicles2025-01-866704/01/2025
This study outlines a camera-based perspective transformation method for measuring driver direct visibility, which produces 360-degree view maps of the nearest visible ground points. This method is ideal for field data collection due to its portability and minimal space requirements. Compared with ground truth assessments using a physical grid, this method was found to have a high level of accuracy, with all points in the vehicle front varying less than 0.30 m and varying less than 0.6 m for the A- and B-pillars. Points out of the rear window varied up to 2.4 m and were highly sensitive to differences in the chosen pixel due to their greater distance from the camera. Repeatability through trials of multiple measurements per vehicle and reproducibility through measures from multiple data collectors produced highly similar results, with the greatest variations ranging from 0.19 to 1.38 m. Additionally, three different camera lenses were evaluated, resulting in comparable results within
Mueller, Becky, Bragg, Haden, Bird, Teddy
Technical Paper
Detecting Cyber-Security Vulnerabilities in Legacy Safety-Critical Software with Tight Performance Constraints2025-01-808804/01/2025
Security flaws in automotive software have significant consequences. Modern automotive engineers must assess software not only for performance and reliability but also for safety and security. This paper presents a tool to verify software for safety and security. The tool was originally developed for the Department of Defense (DoD) to detect cybersecurity vulnerabilities in legacy safety-critical software with tight performance constraints and a small memory footprint. We show how the tool and techniques developed for verifying legacy safety-critical software can be applied to automotive and embedded software using real-world case studies. We also discuss how this tool can be extended for software comprehension.
Awadhutkar, Payas, Tamrawi, Ahmed, Sauceda, Jeremias
Technical Paper
Role of AI in an Autonomous Vehicle Perception Systems: Use of Convolutional Neural Network Approach to Design the Vehicle Perception System2025-01-801204/01/2025
Artificial Intelligence has gained lot of traction and importance in the 21st century with use cases ranging from speech recognition, learning, planning, problem solving to search engines etc. Artificial Intelligence also has played a key role in the development of autonomous vehicles and robots ranging from perception, localization, decision to controls. Within the big AI umbrella there is machine learning which is all about using your computer to "learn" how to deal with problems without “programming". Deep learning is a branch of machine learning based on a set of algorithms that learn to represent the data directly from the input such as an image, text, Sound, etc. Within deep learning there are Convolutional Neural Networks and Recurrent Neural Networks (CNN/RNN). The study here used convolutional neural network approach to perform image/object recognition. Given that the objective of the autonomous or semi-autonomous vehicle is to promote safety and reduce number of accidents, it
Mansour, Iyad, Singh, Sanjay
Technical Paper
Decoding User Experience: A Study of Public EV Charging Stations Based on Amap Comments2025-01-811504/01/2025
The rapid expansion of the electric vehicle (EV) market has intensified the need for robust charging infrastructure. The quality of their experiences at public charging stations has become crucial to sustaining this transition. Key factors such as station accessibility, charging speed, and pricing transparency significantly affect user satisfaction. In Guangzhou, a China's major metropolitan city with an EV penetration rate exceeding 50%, this city offers an ideal context to assess the alignment between expanding EV infrastructure and user needs. This study examines user satisfaction with EV public charging stations in Guangzhou using a dataset of over 2,000 user comments from Amap. The comments are first processed using the Jieba segmentation library, with sentiment analysis conducted through the Natural Language Processing tool SnowNLP, categorizing comments by sentiment (419 positive, 156 neutral, and 1,690 negative). Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency(TF-IDF) is then applied
Guo, Haifeng, Ou, Shiqi (Shawn), Jing, Hao, Qi, Hao, Shi, Lanxin
Technical Paper
Responsible AI System Development in Automotive Applications: A Framework2025-01-810204/01/2025
With the surge in adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) in automotive systems, especially Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and autonomous vehicles (AV), comes an increase of AI-related incidents–several of which have ended in injuries and fatalities. These incidents all share a common deficiency: insufficient coverage towards safety, ethical, and/or legal requirements. Responsible AI (RAI) is an approach to developing AI-enabled systems that systematically take such requirements into account. Existing published international standards like ISO 21448:2022 (Safety of the Intended Functionality) and ISO 26262:2018 (Road Vehicles – Functional Safety) do offer some guidance in this regard but are far from being sufficient. Therefore, several technical standards are emerging concurrently to address various RAI-related challenges, including but not limited to ISO 8800 for the integration of AI in automotive systems, ISO/IEC TR 5469:2024 for the integration of AI in functional
Nelson, Jody, Lin, Christopher
Technical Paper
A Path Tracking Control Method Considering Vehicle Stability and Road Curvature2025-01-803804/01/2025
The current research landscape in path tracking control predominantly focuses on enhancing tracking accuracy, often overlooking the critical aspect of passenger comfort. To address this gap, we propose a novel path tracking control method that integrates vehicle stability indicators and road curvature variations to elevate passenger comfort. The core contributions are threefold: firstly, we conduct comprehensive vehicle dynamics modeling and analysis to identify key parameters that significantly impact ride comfort. By integrating human comfort metrics with vehicle maneuverability indices, we determine the optimal range of dynamics parameters for maximizing passenger comfort during driving. Secondly, inspired by human driving behavior, we design a path tracking controller that incorporates an anti-saturation algorithm to stabilize tracking errors and a curvature optimization algorithm to mimic human driving patterns, thereby enhancing comfort. Lastly, comparative simulations with two
Lu, Jun, Zeng, Dequan, Hu, Yiming, Wang, Xiaoliang, Liu, Dengcheng, Jiang, Zhiqiang
Technical Paper
Modular Dynamometer Testing Framework to Evaluate Energy Impacts of Longitudinal Automated Driving Systems2025-01-806504/01/2025
As longitudinal Automated Driving System (ADS) technologies, such as Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), become more prevalent, robust testing frameworks that encompass both simulation and vehicle-in-the-loop (VIL) methodologies are essential to ensure system reliability, safety, and performance refinement. Although significant research has focused on ACC algorithm development and simulation testing, existing VIL dynamometer testing frameworks are typically tailored to specific vehicle models and sensor simulation tools. These highly customized approaches often fail to account for broader interoperability while overlooking energy consumption as a key performance metric. This paper presents a novel modular framework for ACC dynamometer testing, designed to enhance interoperability across a diverse range of vehicle platforms, simulation tools, and dynamometer facilities with a focus on evaluating impacts of automated longitudinal control on the overall energy consumption of the vehicle. The
Goberville, Nicholas, Hamilton, Kayla, Di Russo, Miriam, Jeong, Jongryeol, Das, Debashis, Ord, David, Misra, Priyashraba, Crain, Trevor
Technical Paper
Solving Vehicle Speed and Acceleration from Video Evidence Using Optimization2025-01-868304/01/2025
Abstract This paper introduces a method to solve the instantaneous speed and acceleration of a vehicle from one or more sources of video evidence by using optimization to determine the best fit speed profile that tracks the measured path of a vehicle through a scene. Mathematical optimization is the process of seeking the variables that drive an objective function to some optimal value, usually a minimum, subject to constraints on the variables. In the video analysis problem, the analyst is seeking a speed profile that tracks measured vehicle positions over time. Measured positions and observations in the video constrain the vehicle’s motion and can be used to determine the vehicle’s instantaneous speed and acceleration. The variables are the vehicle’s initial speed and an unknown number of periods of approximately constant acceleration. Optimization can be used to determine the speed profile that minimizes the total error between the vehicle’s calculated distance traveled at each
Snyder, Sean, Callahan, Michael, Wilhelm, Christopher, Johnk, Chris, Lowi, Alvin, Bretting, Gerald
Technical Paper
Analysis and Validation of Torque Ripple Cancellation to Reduce Electric Motor Noise for Electric Vehicles2025-01-857304/01/2025
The electric motor is a significant source of noise in electric vehicles (EVs). Traditional hardware-based NVH optimization techniques can prove insufficient, often resulting in trade-offs between motor torque or efficiency performance. The implementation of motor control-based torque ripple cancellation (TRC) technology provides an effective and flexible solution to reduce the targeted orders. This paper presents an explanation of the mathematical theory underlying the TRC method, with a particular focus on the various current injection methods, including those that allow up to 4DOFs (degrees-of-freedom). In the case study, the injection of controlled fifth or seventh order current harmonics into a three-phase AC motor is shown to be an effective method for cancelling the most dominant sixth order torque ripple. A dedicated feedforward harmonic current generation module is developed the allows the application of harmonic current commands to a motor control system with adjustable
He, Song, Gong, Cheng, Chang, Le, Peddi, Vinod, Zhang, Peng, GSJ, Gautam
Technical Paper
Avoiding the Crash: A Vision-Language Model Evaluation of Critical Traffic Scenarios2025-01-821304/01/2025
Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) have transformed transportation by reducing human error and enhancing traffic efficiency, driven by deep neural network (DNN) models that power image classification and object detection. However, to maintain optimal performance, these models require periodic re-training; failure to do so can result in malfunctions that may lead to accidents. Recently, Vision-Language Models (VLMs), such as LLaVA-7B and MoE-LLaVA, have emerged as powerful alternatives, capable of correlating visual and textual data with a high degree of accuracy. These models’ robustness and ability to generalize across diverse environments make them especially suited to analyzing complex driving scenarios like crashes. To evaluate the decision-making capabilities of these models across common crash scenarios, a set of real-world crash incident videos was collected. By decomposing these videos into frame-by-frame images, we task the VLMs to determine the appropriate driving action at each frame
Fernandez, David, MohajerAnsari, Pedram, Salarpour, Amir, Pesé, Mert D.
Technical Paper
Vehicle Interior Audio System Noise Prediction Based on Inverse Acoustic Approach and Directivity Pattern2025-01-864004/01/2025
Automotive audio components must meet high quality expectations with ever-decreasing development costs. Predictive methods for the performance of sound systems in view of the optimal locations of loudspeakers in a car can help to overcome this challenge. Use of simulation methods would enable this process to be brought up front and get integrated in the vehicle design process. The main objective of this work is to develop a virtual auralization model of a vehicle interior with audio system. The application of inverse numerical acoustics [INA] to source detection in a speaker is discussed. The method is based on truncated singular value decomposition and acoustic transfer vectors The arrays of transfer functions between the acoustic pressure and surface normal velocity at response sites are known as acoustic transfer vectors. In addition to traditional nearfield pressure measurements, the approach can also include velocity data on the boundary surface to improve the confidence of the
Baladhandapani, Dhanasekar, Thaduturu, Sai Ravikiran, Du, Isaac
Technical Paper
Research on Dangerous Driving Behavior Recognition Algorithm Based on LSTM2025-01-820404/01/2025
To address the issue of high accident rates in road traffic due to dangerous driving behaviors, this paper proposes a recognition algorithm for dangerous driving behaviors based on Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks. Compared with traditional methods, this algorithm innovatively integrates high-frequency trajectory data, historical accident data, weather data, and features of the road network to accurately extract key temporal features that influence driving behavior. By modeling the behavioral data of high-accident-prone road sections, a comprehensive risk factor is consistent with historical accident-related driving conditions, and assess risks of current driving state. The study indicates that the model, in the conditions of movement track, weather, road network and conditions with other features, can accurately predict the consistent driving states in current and historical with accidents, to achieve an accuracy rate of 85% and F1 score of 0.82. It means the model can
Huang, Yinuo, Zhang, Miaomiao, Xue, Ming, Jin, Xin
Technical Paper
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