Browse Topic: Electrical, Electronics, and Avionics

Items (55,300)

A Study on the Development of Optimal Brakes for Electric Vehicles Using Simulation

2025-01-0345To be published on 09/15/2025

As the internal combustion engine vehicle change into the electric vehicle, we can use regenerative brake. It can improve not only the energy consumption, but also reduce the hydraulic brake usage. The less hydraulic brake usage mitigates the heat load on the brake disc. From this reason, the lightweight brake can be used in the electric vehicle. However, when the lightweight brake is applied, the brake NVH can be increased. The optimization design of the lightweight brake should be done to prevent the brake NVH. In this paper, the optimal brake disc thickness and brake interfaces are determined by using of disc heat capacity analysis. The lightweight brake should be optimized by using of the brake squeal analysis. We can verify the results from both analysis and tests. Finally, we can have the lightweight brake, which is competitive in terms of cost, weight and robust to the brake NVH

Kim, Sungho, Kim, Jeongkyu, Hwang, Jaekeun, Kang, Donghoon

Real-Time HIL Testing and Validation for Multi-ECU Smart Brake Systems: Design, Implementation, and System Optimization

2025-01-0344To be published on 09/15/2025

This paper presents applied methodologies and results from real-time Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing of smart braking systems, based on experience gained during European Tier-1 supplier development programs. It outlines how HIL accelerated control software validation, enhanced fault coverage, and improved development cycles for emerging technologies like brake-by-wire and regenerative braking systems. As braking systems evolve to meet the demands of electrification and autonomy, their complexity has grown significantly requiring robust, scalable, and safety-focused validation techniques. Modern smart braking architectures often employ decentralized control, with individual ECUs managing each brake corner. To ensure safe and reliable operation of such systems, a real-time HIL test bench was developed to simulate a wide range of driving conditions and validate critical functionalities including Anti-lock Braking System (ABS), Vehicle Dynamics Control (VDC), and regenerative braking

Sathiyamoorthy, Pradeepraja

Dynamic analysis of automotive wheel bearings

2025-01-0366To be published on 09/15/2025

Bearings are mechanical components that support loads and transmit rotational motion. With the increasing demand for high-value-added products, such as semiconductors, aerospace components, and robotics, the need for more precise and diverse applications has grown. Consequently, accurate bearing performance prediction and evaluation technologies have become essential. Bearing performance prediction is generally classified into static and dynamic approaches. Traditionally, research has primarily focused on static and quasi-static predictions based on bearing theory. However, these methods have a significant limitation in that they fail to accurately consider the actual behavior of bearings. As a result, the necessity for prediction methods based on numerical analysis, which can account for the time-dependent behavior of bearings, has been increasingly recognized. In this study, dynamic analysis of bearings was conducted to evaluate their behavior over time. First, dynamic analysis of

Lee, Seungpyo

Effect of Casting Microstructure on the Mechanical Performance of Recycled EN AC-43200 Al-Si Alloy

2025-01-0357To be published on 09/15/2025

Nowadays, the automotive industry is moving toward the reduction of CO2 emissions implementing different strategies. Beyond the direct reduction of emissions from the vehicles, an important role is played by the production of parts made with recycled materials. This is particularly relevant for automotive components (e.g., brake calipers and steering knuckles) produced using cast Aluminium-Silicon (Al-Si) alloys, whose primary production from bauxite is highly energy-intensive. However, recycled cast Al-Si alloys could have different mechanical performances with respect to their primary counterparts, due to the presence of impurity elements from the recycling process. For this reason, it becomes fundamental to study the effect of different casting parameters (e.g., molten alloy temperature, sprue design and mould temperature) on the solidification microstructure of recycled, cast Al-Si alloys and, as a consequence, on the mechanical performances of the material. In this context, this

Pavesi, Arianna, Barella, Silvia, D'Errico, Fabrizio, Bonfanti, Andrea, Bertasi, Federico

Applying Specialized System Analysis for Brake by Wire in Software Defined Vehicles: The Development of a System Analysis Tool (SAT)

2025-01-0355To be published on 09/15/2025

In the rapidly advancing field of automotive engineering, the emergence of Software-Defined Vehicles (SDVs) has introduced complex design and functionality challenges, particularly with respect to braking systems. A main concept of SDV electrical architecture is centralizing vehicle controls and decoupling this control software from sensing and actuation mechanisms. This paradigm shift, specifically when applied to Brake by Wire (BbW) systems, leads to the decentralization of brake actuation, and requires precise coordination among numerous electronic components for effective braking command execution. The absence of mechanical backup in BbW systems necessitates additional fail-safe redundancies, further complicating the system. A comprehensive model that elucidates these component interdependencies is essential for enhancing engineers' optimization of system design. This paper introduces a custom-built System Analysis Tool (SAT), complemented by a specialized methodology, tailored

Heil, Edward, Zuzga, Sean, Babul, Caitlin

Bolstering Driver Braking Confidence – Considerations for “Deceleration Adder” Technologies

2025-01-0353To be published on 09/15/2025

Over the life of a typical vehicle, a average can be expected to apply the brakes on the order of 1.6 million times – almost 9 times per mile and over 290 times per day, and an “exuberant” driver can be expected to do this over 2.2 million times. Without question, the driver becomes accustomed to how the vehicle responds to braking control (and all of the normal variation around it), and even develops expectations for how it will respond the next time the brakes are employed. In the rare event of a failure or malfunction in the brake system, that results in an appreciably different vehicle response to the brake brake input, this can be surprising and even alarming to the driver, sometimes to the extent of causing hesitatation in braking. Fortunately, with the rise of mechatronic braking actuators in the 1980’s and 1990’s, features such as “Driver Brake Assist” (which provides additional pressure beyond what the primary brake actuator can at the time) and “Panic Brake Assist” (which

Antanaitis, David

Preliminary Multi-Physics Modelling and Characterization of a Magneto-Rheological Brake

2025-01-0347To be published on 09/15/2025

Magneto-Rheological (MR) Fluid is a smart material used in several applications for its ability to switch from fluid behaviour to solid-like conditions if a magnetic field is present. The dependency of viscosity on magnetic field makes this fluid suitable for braking system of electric vehicles, thanks to its high controllability and response time in the whole operative range. The main parameters that influence the behaviour of the fluid, and so the braking action of the system, are magnetic field and rotational velocity. In general, the extremely variable properties make complicated to simulate the system and its behaviour in different operating conditions. Therefore, after some simulations a physical prototype is necessary to experimental verify the response of the braking system at different driving conditions. The aim of this paper is the development of a virtual model of Magneto-Rheological Brakes whose validity is extended to different driving conditions. This goal can be

De Luca, Elena, Imberti, Giovanni, de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Carello, Massimiliana

2 Box System - Integrated EBA with ABS as ESC

2025-01-0340To be published on 09/15/2025

Electric Brake Actuation (EBA) systems are increasingly superseding the conventional actuation using vacuum boosters. In EBA system, when the driver presses the brake pedal, brake pressure proportional to the pedal travel, effort and pedal ramp rate is delivered by the EBA to the brakes. The EBA system consists of an Electric Motor, Pedal travel sensor, Pressure developing Unit, Pedal emulator, valves, a Pressure sensor and an ECU (Electronic Control Unit). The Pedal travel sensor provides the driver's input and feeds it to the ECU, which evaluates the driver's request, and suitably actuates the Motor to deliver pressure to the wheel end brakes. The EBA can be a 1 Box system, where the EBA & ESC (Electronic Stability Control) are integrated or a 2 Box system where EBA and ESC or are present separately. This paper describes a 2 Box system with EBA and ABS (Antilock Brake System), that can provide all features of a 1 Box system with ESC. Globally, with the growing demand for advanced

Ramani, Sudha

Enhancing robustness of electro-hydraulic Brake-by-Wire actuators via linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control

2025-01-0341To be published on 09/15/2025

In recent years, motorsport has increasingly focused on environmental concerns, leading to the rise of hybrid and fully electric competitions. In this scenario, electric motors and batteries take a crucial role in reducing the environmental impact by recovering energy during braking. However, due to inherent limitations, motors and battery cannot fully capture all braking power, necessitating the use of standard friction brakes. To achieve an efficient balance between electric motors and friction brakes, the brake pressure can no longer be directly controlled by the driver. Instead, it must be computed by the Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) and sent to a smart actuator, i.e. the Brake-By-Wire (BBW), which ensures that the required pressure is applied. The standard approach to achieve precise pressure control is to design a nested Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control architecture, which requires an accurate nominal model of the system dynamics to meet the desired tracking

Gimondi, Alex, Dubbini, Alberto, Riva, Giorgio, Cantoni, Carlo

Influence of MPC based Driver Types on the Energy Consumption of Battery Electric Vehicles

2025-24-0113To be published on 09/07/2025

Electric vehicles are increasingly important to reducing emissions and promoting sustainable mobility. Despite their advantages over conventional vehicles, the energy consumption of electric vehicles is heavily influenced by various factors such as driving behavior, elevation profile, and environmental conditions. In particular, the driving style plays a crucial role in determining range and energy consumption. This influence is also observed in the context of the Interreg project FreeE-Bus. This project focuses on the development of optimized charging management for electric buses in the public transport system of the Lake Constance region. Due to strict data protection regulations that prevent a detailed analysis of driver data, assessing the impact of driving styles is difficult. This paper addresses this issue by developing an innovative driver model that simulates different driver types and analyzes their effects on energy consumption. The driver model employs a Model Predictive

Konzept, Anja, Reick, Benedikt, Miller, Marius, Rautenberg, Philip, Störzer, Martin

New Hybrid Powertrain architectures for European Passenger Car Market

2025-24-0097To be published on 09/07/2025

The present paper describes a comparative analysis of different hybrid architectures and optimization of the total energy efficiency on passenger car applications. The first part of the study is devoted to providing simulation results of different type of hybrid architecture, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages with numerical simulation on different type of use cases, not only on legislated cycles but also on RDE use cases representative of customer behavior. The outputs of the usage of Passenger cars for the EU market highlights interesting results not yet published. The above mentioned analysis opens the window to (1) study new control strategies for optimizing the total energy consumption in different scenarios and (2) investigate options for maximizing the efficiency of the overall powertrain system.

Amati, Nicola, Marello, Omar, Mancarella, Alessandro, Cavallaro, Davide, Ianni, Luca, Cascone, Claudio, Paulides, Johannes JH

Development and parametrization of a physics-based ageing model for Li-ion battery cells

2025-24-0140To be published on 09/07/2025

Although significant progress has been made on developing electrochemical models of Li-ion batteries performance, there is a significant gap in predictive, physics-based modelling of the degradation mechanisms. In this work, we perform a systematic experimental and modelling study to explore the potential of predictive battery ageing models. A commercial NMC pouch cell is initially characterized in detail using tear-down analysis, electrical and electrothermal tests to obtain the electrochemical model parameters and validate its fidelity in a large range of operating conditions in terms of temperature, state-of-charge and load. The cell is then exposed to accelerated ageing operating conditions and its performance is monitored regularly to obtain its degradation rate in terms of capacity and resistance. The aged cell is also characterized by tear-down and optical techniques. The experimentally obtained test database is used to develop and validate the mathematical models that describe

Koltsakis, Grigorios, Spyridopoulos, Spyridon, Chatziioannou, Panteleimon, Tentzos, Michail

Effects of the battery pack temperature on the energy management strategy and fuel consumption of a series hybrid quadricycle

2025-24-0101To be published on 09/07/2025

Nowadays, a push towards decarbonisation to reduce the problem of environmental pollution is increasingly pressing. In the current automotive context, a tendency among the cars manufacturer to consider the development of hybrid vehicles is growing. Indeed, thanks to the battery downsizing due to the presence of the range extender (REx), a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) allows to overcome the limitations of pure electric vehicles (EV) such as the infrastructure which is linked to the battery charging process. Moreover, the performance of battery in terms of efficiency and operating limits are strictly related to the temperature of battery pack and to the energy management strategy (EMS). The proposed work aims to analyse the performance of a series hybrid vehicle (S-HEV) depending on the temperature of battery pack and the EMS. The considered S-HEV is equipped with a hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine that is used as REx. First, a lumped thermal model of the battery pack is

Cervone, Davide, Sicilia, Massimo, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare

Influence of Geometric Parameters on the Performance of TPMS-Based Heat Exchangers.

2025-24-0015To be published on 09/07/2025

Advancements in additive manufacturing (AM) technology have enabled the use of Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces (TPMS) to integrate thermal and structural functions into a single component. These structures offer advantages such as weight reduction, compactness, and enhanced heat dissipation, making them promising for automotive, aerospace, and electronics applications. TPMS structures, characterized by zero mean curvature and periodic crystalline geometry, have recently gained significant research attention thanks to their potential in thermal management. Among various TPMS geometries, the gyroid and diamond structures stand out for their thermal and fluid dynamic performance. This study explores the influence of cell geometry, unit cell size, and wall thickness on the efficiency of TPMS-based heat exchangers, as these parameters are crucial for their technical feasibility. Using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations, a comparative analysis is conducted for an heat exchange

Cordisco, Ilario, Torri, Federico, Berni, Fabio, Testa, Veronica, Giacalone, Mauro, Fontanesi, Stefano

Supervised Machine Learning Approach to Predict the Optimal Equivalence Factor for Predictive Energy Management Strategies of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

2025-24-0119To be published on 09/07/2025

Achieving minimal fuel consumption in map-based energy management strategies or equivalent consumption minimization strategies (ECMS) for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) requires prior knowledge of the optimal equivalence factor (EF). This factor, which weights the fuel consumption of the internal combustion engine (ICE) and electric energy consumption, can be calculated if the exact driving profile is known. However, in real-world scenarios, the exact driving profile and consequently the optimal EF is unknown. This uncertainty motivates the use of predictive information to estimate this factor, aiming to enable fuel optimal control in real world driving. This paper presents a methodology to predict the optimal EF across various initial battery states of energy and real-world driving profiles using a regression model for a given powertrain configuration. Initially, the optimal EF is determined, and a range of possible input features based on driving profiles are calculated and

Kimmig, Nikolai, Schlomann, Jan Philipp, Goerke, Daniel, Schmiedler, Stefan, Geringer, Bernhard, Hofmann, Peter

BEV powertrain analytics: Network Pulse Ringing - Ripple Currents - NVH Topics

2025-24-0134To be published on 09/07/2025

The interaction of electric, electronic and mechanical components defines the quality of a BEV’s powertrain. Component selection, their integration and calibration aim at meeting legal requirements for EMC and safety and competitive targets for efficiency, NVH and driving comfort. These tasks in particular need attention on electromagnetic events on the DC bus, the highpower electronics of inverters, the e-motors, and the drive shaft. Each component within this environment is defined by its electromechanical features with variabilities selected from a large set of software accessible operating parameters. Consequently, a complete powertrain and its controllers give rise to endless combinations for powertrain operation. How to understand and avoid riskful and ineffective parameter options, how to find powertrain control parameters for safe, efficient and comfortable operation? And how to find solutions within competitive development timeframes? Two examples: • A high voltage DC bus is

Winklhofer, Ernst, Berglez, Manuel, Kiss, Gergely, Platzer, Thomas

Methanol cold start for a serial hybrid powertrain

2025-24-0074To be published on 09/07/2025

Green methanol is a renewable fuel with many advantages when used in a spark ignition combustion process. Methanol has a comparatively high enthalpy of vaporization, leading to lower combustion temperatures (com-pared to gasoline combustion) and, hence, lower wall heat losses as well as a reduced tendency to pre-ignition. Therefore, a brake efficiency of more than 40 % and furthermore minimal emissions are possible. The serial combination with an electric powertrain provides a disconnection of the load demand of the powertrain and the operating point of the combustion engine. In this case, a high volumetric and gravimetric power density, easy energy storage, and proven infrastructure of fuel distribution is combined with electric driving, high efficiencies, minimal emissions and a closed carbon cycle for the energy provision. Nevertheless, the high flash point of methanol at 11°C indicates a challenging cold start. The described procedure enables the cold start of pure methanol down to

Dobberkau, Maximilian, Werner, Ronny, Atzler, Frank

Design of a pure synchro-reluctant machine with asymmetrical poles for high-speed applications

2025-24-0129To be published on 09/07/2025

In this article, the authors present the various choices made to design a magnet free and directly recyclable pure synchro-reluctant (Pure-SynRel) machine with asymmetrical poles operating at a maximum speed of 21,000 rpm dedicated to automotive. This project was carried out by identifying design levers and optimizing the magnetic circuit in order to remove 3 well know issues of this topology: maximizing the power factor to reduce the inverter rating and cost, minimizing sources of NVH and torque ripples in particular, and finally maximizing the efficiency in use to close the gap with magnet technologies (PMaSynRel). The sizing of stator components such as the choice of winding (concentric or distributed, full or fractional pitch, round or hairpin wire) and rotor components (number of poles pairs, shape and number of barriers, etc.) are explained. The optimizations methods and the mechanical solutions used to reach the max speed are also detailed. A machine with symmetrical poles was

APPLAGNAT-TARTET, Antoine, Milosavljevic, Misa, Delpit, Pierre

Effect of PEM Fuel Cell Technology Advancement on the Energy Efficiency of a Heavy-Duty Vehicle

2025-24-0111To be published on 09/07/2025

Advancements in fuel cell stack technology—such as improved power density, catalyst utilization, and durability—have significantly enhanced system efficiency and reduced hydrogen consumption in heavy-duty fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). In parallel, innovations in auxiliary subsystems, including air supply management, thermal regulation, and energy storage integration, have minimized parasitic losses, optimized fuel usage, and improved battery state-of-charge dynamics. These technological improvements collectively influence vehicle operation under varying load conditions, affecting both transient response and overall energy efficiency. To systematically assess these impacts, this study evaluates key performance metrics such as compressor-related energy losses, fuel utilization, and battery performance. The current vehicle simulation model relies on an outdated fuel cell system based on technology from 20 years ago, which no longer accurately reflects the efficiency potential of

Dursun, Beyza, Johansson, Max, Tunestal, Per, aronsson, Ulf, Eriksson, Lars, Andersson, Oivind

ML-based Identification of Lactones & Impact of Blends on Performance and Emissions in a Spark-Ignition CFR Engine

2025-24-0071To be published on 09/07/2025

The identification of sustainable fuels that exhibit optimal physicochemical properties, can be synthesized from widely available feedstocks, enable cost-effective large-scale production, and integrate seamlessly with existing infrastructure is essential for reducing global carbon emissions. Given their high energy density, efficient handling, and versatility across applications, renewable liquid fuels remain a critical component of even the most ambitious energy transition scenarios. Lactones, cyclic esters derived from the esterification of hydroxycarboxylic acids, feature a ring structure incorporating both a carbonyl group (C=O) and an ether oxygen (O). Variations in ring size and carbon chain length significantly influence their physicochemical properties, which in turn affect their performance in internal combustion engines. According to predictive models based on artificial neural networks, valerolactone, caprolactone, and helptalactone isomers show promise as fuels in spark

Sirna, Amanda, Loprete, Jason, Ristow Hadlich, Rodrigo, Assanis, Dimitris, Patel, Rutvi, Mack, J. Hunter

A 0D Methodology for Estimating Critical Parameters in Thermal Runaway Tests of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Closed Volumes

2025-24-0150To be published on 09/07/2025

The growing push for electrification, driven by the need to reduce emissions associated with combustion engines, has accelerated the adoption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, this rapid development raises significant safety concerns, particularly regarding thermal runaway events. This study presents a zero-dimensional (0D) methodology for estimating critical parameters during thermal runaway tests conducted in sealed volumes, such as canister-based experiments where both gas composition and pressure are analyzed. The proposed methodology relies on 0D combustion calculations, incorporating experimentally observed vent gas compositions and vented mass quantities. The primary results establish approximate values for critical parameters, providing an order-of-magnitude estimation of overpressure during tests. These findings are crucial for the proper pre-dimensioning of test facilities designed for thermal runaway experiments in confined volumes. As a key conclusion, this study

Garcia, Antonio, Micó, Carlos, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Gómez-Soriano, Alejandro

Analysis of DC Current and Voltage Ripples of Electrical Drivetrains for HV Electrical System Emulation

2025-24-0135To be published on 09/07/2025

State-of-the-art testing of traction inverters is conducted using PHIL-based testbeds. These systems, which include a battery emulator and an E-Motor Emulator (EME), offer significant advantages over dynamometer testbeds in terms of test duration, reproducibility, parameterization and protection of the unit under test. In these advanced systems, the physical modeling of the AC side (e-motor) is highly detailed, accounting for factors such as iron saturation effects, current harmonics, and loss models. However, the DC side models are limited to a constant voltage and an internal resistance model, neglecting other components like additional traction inverters or DC/DC converters connected to the HV electrical system and their impact on voltage and current ripples – high-frequency oscillations in the current that can arise from power electronic systems. This research project aims to address this gap by developing an HV electrical system emulator that considers these influences. This

Merath, Stefan, Winzer PhD, Patrick, Reick, Benedikt

An eco-charging strategy for heavy-duty electric vehicles via graph optimization

2025-24-0116To be published on 09/07/2025

The adoption of heavy-duty electric vehicles (HDEVs) presents significant challenges in trip planning due to high energy consumption, limited battery capacity, and the reduced availability of high-power charging stations. Unlike passenger EVs, HDEVs require careful coordination of routing and charging decisions to ensure both operational efficiency and feasibility. This work proposes a graph-based optimization framework for eco-charging strategies that jointly optimizes energy consumption, travel time, and charging costs while considering road, traffic, and infrastructure constraints. The methodology relies on constructing first a routing graph, where nodes represent waypoints, and edges represent road links with attributes such as speed limits, traffic conditions, and energy consumption. This graph is then extended into a hypergraph, where nodes incorporate information about both vehicle location and state-of-charge (SOC), while edges represent either driving or charging actions. The

Zonetti, Daniele, Sciarretta, Antonio, De Nunzio, Giovanni

A Critical Assessment of Phase Change Materials for Boosting EV Efficiency

2025-24-0147To be published on 09/07/2025

Effective thermal management in battery packs is a key technology for enhancing the efficiency and longevity of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Traditional active cooling systems can consume significant amounts of energy, thereby impacting the vehicle's overall efficiency. This paper explores the use of phase change materials (PCMs) as a complementary cooling technology, enabling both an improved active and an extended passive conditioning of battery packs. By leveraging the unique properties of PCMs, it is possible to partially operate the battery system without active cooling, thus reducing the overall energy consumption and improving vehicle autonomy. The phase change phenomenon further offers the benefit of a homogeneous temperature distribution within the battery pack. This study addresses the potential of PCMs as a thermal management solution for battery packs by firstly identifying suitable materials meeting requirements specific to such application. In addition, the paper

Fandakov, Alexander, Nolte, Oliver, Herzog, Alexander, Sens, Marc

Effects of piston preheating and friction reduction on cold-start charge preparation for DI methanol engine: an in-cylinder CFD study

2025-24-0040To be published on 09/07/2025

Methanol is gaining interest as a renewable fuel for ICE application. A challenge for this fuel is its evaporation rate at low temperatures, making cold start at low environment temperature problematic. The first combustion cycles are characterized by a low combustion chamber temperature and high engine friction. In a previous work, a practical idea is presented to both pre-heat the pistons and pre-condition the gliding working surfaces, reducing friction. In this article, an in-cylinder CFD model is used to study the charge preparation of a DI methanol ICE until end of compression. The model is calibrated in-house against measurements of a warm methanol engine. The piston temperature is varied within the rage expected by the pre-heating – pre-lubricating device. The friction decrease is translated into the reduced amount of fuel needed to generate the IMEP required to idle the engine. Engine initial starting conditions at -20°C, 0°C and +20°C are considered. For these global

Bovo, Mirko, Mubarak Ali, Mohammed Jaasim

Heat Flux Temporal Variation and Turbulent Structures on Diesel Flame-Impinged Wall by Comparing High-Speed Infrared Thermography and MEMS Sensor Measurements

2025-24-0039To be published on 09/07/2025

For a more detailed understanding of the highly complex mechanism of wall heat transfer during diesel flame impingement, heat flux measurement results obtained using two relatively new approaches—high-speed infrared thermography and a Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) heat flux sensor—were compared. Both measurements were conducted on a chamber wall impinged by a diesel flame in a constant-volume combustion vessel under similar experimental conditions.　　High-speed thermography utilizes the world’s fastest infrared camera (TELOPS M3k, 13,000 fps, 128×128 pixels) to capture time-series temperature and heat flux distributions on the wall surface, enabling detailed visualization of near-wall turbulent structures reflected in the heat flux with a spatial resolution of 70 microns (9 mm/128 pixels). The MEMS sensor consists of multiple closely aligned (520-micron spacing) highly sensitive thin-film Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) of 235×235 microns, allowing estimation of near

Shimizu, Fumika, Morooka, Masato, Aizawa, Tetsuya, Dejima, Kazuhito, Nakabeppu, Osamu

Experimental Simulation of a Real Mission for Identifying a Telematics-Based Diagnostic Model in Connected Light Commercial Vehicles

2025-24-0124To be published on 09/07/2025

Remote monitoring of commercial vehicles is taking an increasingly central position in automotive companies, driven by the growth of the on-road freight transportation sector. Specifically, telematics devices are increasingly gaining importance in monitoring powertrain operability, performance, reliability, sustainability, and maintainability. These systems enable real-time data collection and analysis, offering valuable support in resolving issues that may occur on the road. Moreover, the fault codes, called Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs), that arise during actual road driving constitute fundamental information when combined with several engine parameters updated every second. This integration provides a more accurate assessment of vehicle conditions, allowing proactive maintenance strategies. The principal goal is to deliver an even faster response for resolving sudden issues, thus minimizing vehicle downtime. High-resolution data transmission and failure event information

D'Agostino, Valerio, Cardone, Massimo, Mancaruso, Ezio, Rossetti, Salvatore, Marialto, Renato

Reducing Range Prediction Uncertainty in Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles Using a Route-Informed Transformer-Based Model

2025-24-0122To be published on 09/07/2025

Electrification of heavy-duty on-road trucks used for regional freight transportation is a viable option for fleets to reduce operation and maintenance costs and lower their carbon footprint. However, there is considerable uncertainty in projecting their daily range because highly variable payload mass, among other factors, confounds battery state of charge (SOC) prediction algorithms. Previous work by the authors proposed an electric vehicle range prediction model based on two parallel recurrent neural networks (RNNs). The first RNN used mean-variance estimation to output a predicted mean and variance, and the second used bounded interval estimation to provide bounds on the SOC required to complete a trip. The dual RNN approach resulted in estimating the remaining range and error bands of the SOC over the route. The previous work was limited because it did not incorporate driving conditions, like road type and ambient temperature, that affect driver behavior and energy consumption

Jayaprakash, Bharat, Eagon, Matthew, Northrop, William F.

Characterization of low-density gas spray structure and vorticity using PIV technique

2025-24-0067To be published on 09/07/2025

In view of the increasing interest towards hydrogen, such as its utilization for road transport sector decarbonisation, in the current study helium has been employed as substitute to characterize the spray structure through the use of the particle image velocimetry (PIV) technique. The experimental test campaign implied the use of a gaseous injector capable of delivering the substitute fuel up to 50 bar in a constant volume spray – chamber, which pressure has been varied in order to scrutinize the influence of environment density on jet structure. Two configurations were employed: one consisting of a free path of distribution of the spray, the second including a metal plate positioned perpendicularly 50 mm from the injector tip, thus making it possible to observe the spray – wall interactions under several conditions. The illumination was provided by a dual cavity Nd:YAG laser and a 4-megapixel camera used for image capture. The influence of pressure ratio (PR) was evaluated over a

Cecere, Giovanni, Andersson, Mats, Merola, Simona, Irimescu, Adrian

Experimental measurement of dynamometer homologation cycles in a dual-fuel medium-duty engine

2025-24-0036To be published on 09/07/2025

Dual-fuel engines employing alternative combustion concepts have shown promising results in meeting significant emission reductions while maintaining engine performance. In the medium and heavy-duty transport sectors, where electrification remains challenging, developing low-temperature combustion is still a technological solution for reducing carbon impact. However, most of the results in this research field have been presented under stationary conditions, which still positions the transient operation as a challenge. One of the main reasons has been the lack of a dedicated control system to manage the load transitions and the inoperability of stock turbochargers to satisfy the EGR dilution ratios and boost pressure to sustain dual-fuel combustion. This study employs a modified 7.7 L dual-fuel engine for its operation in transient conditions by incorporating a prototype turbocharger system. The study addresses the recalibration of the engine to introduce modifications to the injection

Garcia, Antonio, Monsalve-Serrano, Javier, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Iñiguez, Erasmo

Advanced Plasma-based Ignition Strategy for Future Spark Ignition Engines

2025-24-0020To be published on 09/07/2025

Internal combustion engines will continue to play an important role in transportation for decades to come because of the high onboard energy density. For present passenger vehicles, efforts have been made to reduce the cold start emissions and improve engine efficiency. To reach such goals, lean and diluted mixtures are needed to reduce the chemical reactivity of the mixture, so a higher engine compression ratio can be used to improve thermal efficiency. The decreased flame temperature of the lean/diluted mixtures are also beneficial for NOx reduction. Strong in-cylinder flow is needed to increase flame propagation speed for efficient and complete combustion process. Strong ignition sources are needed to provide robust ignition to support the combustion process. In this paper, the application of advanced plasma-based ignition strategies are reviewed, with special attention to the on-demand plasma energy profiling, which has flexible control over discharge duration and current

Yu, Xiao, Leblanc, Simon, Reader, Graham, Zheng, Ming

Combined Virtual and Experimental Approach to Develop Highly Efficient Metallic Catalyst for New World Wide Emission Legislation

2025-24-0080To be published on 09/07/2025

The market penetration of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) in Europe is not following the foreseen scenario. This is related to several factors, such as uncertainty of the second-hand value of BEV, real driving range under cold conditions and availability of charging stations. Even if the European Community is still planning a full ban of Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) by 2035. In the rest of the world a more technology neutral approach is being pursued with car manufacturers developing different powertrain architectures, from mild- to full-hybrid and Range Extenders (REEX). In this context the different emission regulations, and the wide range of powertrain architectures, the focus of the development will be the increase of catalyst efficiency without any big impact on exhaust aftertreatment cost. In this work the authors have used a 1D simulation approach to support the optimization of metallic TWC substrate for the High Power Cold Start use case. Additionally, a 3D CFD was used

Montenegro, Gianluca, Della Torre, Augusto, Marinoni, Andrea, Onorati, Angelo, Klövmark, Henrik, Laurell, Mats, Pace, Lorenzo, Konieczny, Katrin

Optimal Design of Electric Motors for Automotive Applications

2025-24-0132To be published on 09/07/2025

The paper describes how, exploiting AI, it is possible to design electric motors for automotive applications. Both traction motors and motors for auxiliary functions are dealt with. Given the requested performance of the motor (objective functions) and the constraints, the design variables defining the motor are derived by means of a multi-objective programming approach. Usually tenth of either objective functions or design variables are considered. Aspects related both to electromagnetic and mechanical performance are taken into account, in a multi-physics framework. The issues referring to thermal, structural and noise-vibration-harshness are considered for defining the Pareto-optimal sets both in the design variable domain and in the objective function domain. Such domains can be found by either supervised learning or reinforced learning, two well-known AI algorithms. Basic constraints related to manufacturing are included in the optimization process. A couple of examples are

Guidotti, Giacomo, barri, Dario, Soresini, Federico, Ballo, Federico, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Di Gerlando, Antonino, Mastinu, Gianpiero

Battery datasets for neural network-based State-of-Health estimators: a review and implementative workflow

2025-24-0139To be published on 09/07/2025

Correct management of the battery systems for electric vehicles, at pack, module and cell level, has critical importance to ensure safe and efficient operation. Proper control at cell level, requires estimation of battery statuses, such as the State-of-Charge and the State-of-Health, as they cannot directly measured during vehicle operation. With the increasing advances in sensor availability, edge computing and the development of big data, data-driven approaches have gained increasing interest. In particular, due to their great flexibility and potential in mapping non-linear relations within data, application of machine learning (ML) and neural networks (NNs) in SoH estimation have been thoroughly investigated. The numerous studies available in literature leveraged extracted different features from data to train NNs, or directly used measurements signal as input. Additionally, many studies available in literature are based on a limited number of publicly available datasets, which

Chianese, Giovanni, Capasso, Clemente, Veneri, Ottorino

Use of Model-Based Datasets and Neural-Networks to support Real-Time Driving Suggestions System for Components Preservation in Battery Electric Vehicles

2025-24-0115To be published on 09/07/2025

Nowadays, Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are considered an attractive solution to support the transition towards more sustainable transportation systems. Although their well-known advantages in terms of overall propulsion efficiency and exhaust emissions, the diffusion of BEVs on the market is still reduced by some technical bottlenecks. Among those, the uncertainty about the expected durability of the vehicle's onboard battery packs plays a key role in affecting customer choice. In this context, this paper proposes the use of model-based datasets for training a driving support system based on machine learning techniques to be installed on board. The objective of this system is to acquire vehicle, environmental, and traffic information from sensor’ networks and provide real-time smart suggestions to the driver to preserve the remaining useful life of vehicle components, with particular reference to the battery pack and brakes. For the generation of the training dataset, first, a set

Bernardi, Mario Luca, Capasso, Clemente, Iannucci, Luigi, Sequino, Luigi

Evaluating safety behavior of Li-ion batteries regarding negative electrode composition

2025-24-0149To be published on 09/07/2025

Li-ion battery performance is highly dependent on the electrode materials. The composition of the negative and positive electrodes influences crucial aspects of the Li-ion cell, including energy density, ageing behavior and thermal stability. Recent Li-ion technologies include the use of composite graphite-silicon negative electrodes to improve the energy storage capacity of the otherwise graphite-only negative electrode. This article evaluates the impact of negative electrode composition (standard graphite vs. Si-Gr) on the performance of two recent technologies of Li-ion batteries from the same manufacturer, focusing on electrical performance and safety behavior. The studied technologies are the LG M50LT and LG M58T, the latest one introducing a considerable increase of capacity, passing from 4.80 to 5.65 in nominal capacity. This article abords the comparison of both technologies in electric performance, electrode composition, cell design and thermal stability. Electrical

Cruz Rodriguez, Jesus Armando, Lecompte, Matthieu, Redondo-Iglesias, Eduardo, Pelissier, Serge, Abada, Sara

When Electric Vehicles Sleep: Investigating Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Precooling in Extreme Temperature Conditions

2025-24-0146To be published on 09/07/2025

Effective thermal management is essential for optimizing the performance and longevity of lithium-ion battery packs, particularly in electric vehicles facing extreme temperature conditions. This study investigates the performance of an indirect liquid cooling system used for pre-cooling stationary electric vehicle battery packs, focusing on scenarios such as vehicle sleep mode in high-temperature conditions. The cooling system, which utilizes a water-glycol mixture flowing at 1.2 L/min, was tested on a battery pack consisting of 36 prismatic battery cells in a thermally isolated chamber, subjected to initial temperatures of 50.0°C, 60.0°C, and 69.5°C. To assess the thermal behavior, 25 thermocouples were strategically positioned on the battery surface, and inlet coolant temperature was monitored via an additional thermocouple. An exponential cooling response was observed across all temperature cases, with maximum temperature difference between the hottest and coldest cells reaching 7.6

Darvish, Hossein, Carlucci, Antonio Paolo, Ficarella, Antonio, Laforgia, Domenico

Data-driven modeling of H2-SCR catalysts for real-time estimation of NOx reduction efficiency

2025-24-0084To be published on 09/07/2025

Achieving zero emissions across transportation is a tremendous challenge. The upcoming Euro 7/VII standards, set to be enforced in 2025, will mandate further reduction in ICEs exhaust emissions. Thus, additional improvements and potential new technologies and fuels are needed to design ultra-low emissions vehicles. Hydrogen seems to be a very attractive fuel, thanks to its high lower heating value, clean combustion, and extremely low pollutant emissions, due to the zero-carbon content. Nevertheless, NOx emissions are still an issue in hydrogen fueled engines and optimized lean-burn combustion and suitable after-treatment NOx reduction are mandatory to reach high specific power and efficiency and near zero NOx emissions, thus enabling H2-ICE powered vehicles to be zero-impact emitting technology solution. Selective Catalytic Reduction by using NH3 as the reducing agent is the most effective control technology for NOx abatement. Nevertheless, ongoing research and innovation are critical

Crispi, Maria Rosaria, Conde Cortabitarte, Carla, Occhicone, Alessio, Piqueras, Pedro, Arsie, Ivan, Pianese, Cesare

Multilevel control strategy design and optimization for fuel cell hybrid heavy-duty vehicles

2025-24-0107To be published on 09/07/2025

The heavy-duty transportation sector is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, highlighting the urgent need for zero-emission solutions. This research develops a multilevel control architecture that optimizes fuel economy and minimizes emissions in fuel cell hybrid heavy-duty vehicles, equipped with proton exchange membrane fuel cell and battery pack as main power sources. The detailed fuel cell system model incorporates reactants and thermal dynamics, including air supply, hydrogen flow, water management and their effects on reaction kinetics, membrane conductivity, water balance, performance and durability. The low-level control strategy is designed using a physics-based approach that accounts for critical constraints, including temperature, membrane water content and differential pressure between the cathode and anode. By identifying optimal setpoints for key control variables, this methodology enables the development of accurate control maps for actuator management

Bove, Giovanni, Aliberti, Paolo, Simone, Christian, Sorrentino, Marco, Pianese, Cesare

Design of a Reconfigurable Winding Switch for an In-Wheel Automotive Motor

2025-24-0130To be published on 09/07/2025

A design is presented for a mechanical switchgear, intended for reconfiguring the windings of an electric machine whilst in operation. The design is a result of the EM-TECH project funded under Horizon Europe, and includes integration onto an in-wheel automotive motor. The motor features 6 phase fractions, which can be reconfigured by the switchgear between series-star or parallel-star arrangements, thereby doubling the torque or speed range of the electric machine. The effect on the operating envelope of the machine is similar to the addition of a 2-speed transmission, but with an added mass of only 1.5kg – around one tenth of the equivalent transmission. As well as the extended operating envelope, the reconfigurable winding motor offers benefits in efficiency and power density. Previous studies have shown the technical feasibility of such devices using semiconductor switches. Although these studies have confirmed the performance of the technology, such semiconductor solutions have

Vagg, Christopher, Thomas, Luke, Pickering, Simon, Herzog, Matic, Trinchuk, Danylo, Romih, Jaka

A comprehensive electro-thermal and fluid-dynamic model for liquid-cooled lithium-ion cells: development and experimental validation

2025-24-0145To be published on 09/07/2025

The temperature evolution of lithium-ion cells under operation has a significant impact on their performance, efficiency, and aging. Modeling the thermal status of lithium-ion cells is crucial to predict and prevent undesired working conditions or even failures. In this context, this paper presents a mathematical model to predict the transient temperature distributions of a lithium-ion polymer battery (LiPo) cooled by forced convection via a specially designed channel plate for liquid cooling. For the battery modeling, Newman’s pseudo-2D approach was used to perform a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. It assumes that the porous electrode is made of equally sized, isotropic, homogeneous spherical particles, which results in smooth, uniform intercalation/de-intercalation of lithium inside the electrode. Also, the channel plate geometry and the cooling liquid fluid-dynamic behavior were simulated with a commercial code based on the finite volume method. The model has been set

Ferrari, Cristian, Magri, Luca, Sequino, Luigi

Methodological approach to Battery Electric Vehicle design: Energy-Based model development from a detailed Digital Twin

2025-24-0098To be published on 09/07/2025

On the path to the decarbonization of the transport sector, the development of electric vehicles (EVs) is crucial to meeting the targets set by international regulatory bodies. EVs operate with zero tailpipe emissions and offer high energy efficiency and flexibility; however, challenges remain in achieving a fully sustainable electricity supply. In this context, powertrain design plays a fundamental role in determining vehicle performance and mission feasibility, which are strongly influenced by operating conditions and application characteristics, such as driving profiles and ambient temperature. A key challenge is the optimal sizing of components, particularly the battery pack and the electric motor. Therefore, a structured and methodological approach to powertrain design is essential to ensuring an optimal configuration. To this end, the project focuses on an integrated approach based on a master-and-slave modeling framework applied to a light-duty commercial vehicle at two levels

Bartolucci, Lorenzo, Cennamo, Edoardo, Grattarola, Federico, Lombardi, Simone, Mulone, Vincenzo, Tribioli, Laura, Aimo Boot, Marco

Practical Mixed Parameter Obtention Framework for Li-Ion Battery Electrochemical and Degradation Models Based on Parameter Classification and Physical Measurement

2025-24-0141To be published on 09/07/2025

Prediction of EV performance through lifetime is a crucial task. However, accurate prediction of states of LIBs remains a challenge due to the complexity of detailed electrochemical models, absence of a single universally accepted approach for the identification of model parameters and limitations in invasive and non-invasive parameter obtention methods. Classification and estimation of the most relevant parameters under different steps will enhance the identifiability of parameters in P2D models operating under various conditions. On the other hand, reliable estimation of the internal state of batteries can be drawn with proper integration of material parameters into the battery model. In this study, a systematic classification framework of parameter obtention was proposed through multi-steps for P2D electrochemical and degradation models. Furthermore, a practical mixed approach is developed for parameter obtention of P2D models with optimization-based calibration methodology and

Mehranfar, Sadegh, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Garcia, Antonio, Micó, Carlos, Elkourchi, Imad, Bekaert, Emilie, Herran, Alvaro, Konno, Juho

ACTIVE TEMPERATURE CONTROL STRATEGIES WITH LIQUID COOLING THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR LI-ION BATTERIES

2025-24-0148To be published on 09/07/2025

Nowadays, electric vehicles (EVs) are considered one of the most promising solutions for reducing pollutant emissions related to the road transportation sector. Although these vehicles have achieved a high level of reliability, various challenges about Li-ion storage systems and their thermal management systems remain unresolved. This work proposes a numerical and experimental study of a lithium-ion storage cell with a scaled battery thermal management system (BTMS). In particular, a channel plate for liquid cooling is specifically designed and manufactured for the cell under test. The BTMS is based on the development of an indirect liquid cooling system with optimal control of the coolant flow rate to fulfill the thermal requirements of the system. A lumped parameters approach is used to simulate the electro-thermal behavior of the system and to analyze the effects of real-time control strategies on the temperature of the cell under test. An ad-hoc experimental test rig is set up for

Capasso, Clemente, Castiglione, Teresa, Perrone, Diego, Sequino, Luigi

Methodology for the Study of Hydrogen Combustion in an Optical Spark Ignition Engine.

2025-24-0062To be published on 09/07/2025

The use of hydrogen as a fuel in internal combustion engines represents a promising alternative for reducing CO2 emissions. To optimize its efficiency and better understand the phenomena associated with its combustion, it is essential to have advanced visualization techniques for a better understanding of the processes involved. This paper presents the methodology used in the development of an optical engine for the study of hydrogen combustion, designed from a 454cc single-cylinder engine. The configuration of the optical system is described, which includes the use of high-speed cameras to capture the spark plug activation as well as the flame propagation in the combustion chamber. The engine has two optical accesses, one through the piston and one at the top of the cylinder that allows side viewing of the combustion chamber. In addition, the experimental procedure that alternates combustion cycles with motoring cycles, the determination of the air-hydrogen ratio with which the engine

Pastor, Jose V., Novella, Ricardo, Tejada, Francisco J., Cáceres-Carías, José

On a NMPC-based supervisory control logic for Energy Management purposes in Aeronautical Hybrid Propulsion Systems

2025-24-0102To be published on 09/07/2025

Eco-sustainability is one of the main aspects focused on motor industries, including those related to air transport, which work to realize alternative propulsion systems, such as Hybrid Electric Propulsion Systems, for reducing CO2 emissions. Despite the minor CO2 emission produced by Hybrid Electric Propulsion Systems, these categories of propulsors require a proper control architecture for managing combustion and electric energies based on driver decisions and the flight mission set. A supervisory control logic, based on a Nonlinear Model Predictive Control (NMPC), is presented in this work to guarantee a specific State of Charge level of batteries coupled with the minimization of fuel consumption of an aeronautical Hybrid Propulsion System. These two goals are achieved by the designed NMPC, which provides the best amount of torque between the propulsors belonging to the analyzed aeronautical powertrain, consisting of an Internal Combustion Engine and an Electric Machine. The

Tordela, Ciro, Fornaro, Enrico

Identification of Vehicle Mass Via Experimental Data Analysis Under Real Driving Conditions for On-Board Advanced Mobility Technologies Applications

2025-24-0114To be published on 09/07/2025

The growing emphasis on road safety and environmental sustainability has spurred the development of technologies to enhance vehicle efficiency. Accurate vehicle mass knowledge is crucial for all vehicles, to optimize advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and CCAM (Connected, Cooperative, and Automated Mobility) systems, as well as to improve both safety and energy consumption. Moreover, the continuous need to report precisely on the greenhouse emissions for good transports is becoming a key point to certificate the impact of transportation systems on the environment. Mass influences longitudinal dynamics, affecting parameters such as rolling resistance and inertia, which in turn are critical to adaptive control strategies. Moreover, the knowledge of vehicle mass represents a key challenge and a fundamental aspect for fleet managers of heavy-duty vehicles. Typically, this information is not readily available unless obtained through high-cost weighing systems or estimated

Vicinanza, Matteo, Adinolfi, Ennio Andrea, Pianese, Cesare

Condensate Formation in Exhaust Systems during Cold Start

2025-24-0081To be published on 09/07/2025

In order to minimize tailpipe emissions of vehicles with combustion engines, highest conversion rates of modern exhaust gas aftertreatment systems are indispensable. Especially at low ambient temperatures, gaseous emissions increase due to inhomogeneous mixture formation and incomplete combustion. Simultaneously, formation of condensate on exhaust gas-carrying components is stimulated due to temperatures dropping below the dew point. Depending on exhaust gas composition, ambient and local surface component temperatures along with engine operating conditions, the acidic or alkaline aqueous condensates contain a small fraction of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Nevertheless, in an acidic environment, for example, the hydrocarbons of the condensates can be polymerized, forming insoluble deposits that become progressively less reactive with time. These deposits may harm components of exhaust gas duct as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valves and/or coolers or exhaust gas

Knapp, Sebastian, Hagen, Fabian P., Wagner, Uwe, Bockhorn, Henning, Trimis, Dimosthenis, Koch, Thomas

Thermal Characterization of a High-Power Lithium-Ion Pouch Cell and Surface Temperature Prediction for Motorsport Applications

2025-24-0142To be published on 09/07/2025

Accurate cell thermal characterisation is vital for battery modelling and thermal management, especially in motorsport, where minor temperature estimation errors can have severe consequences. Conventional methods for determining key thermal parameters, such as the specific heat capacity, often require costly calorimeters or destructive testing. Recent studies propose an alternative approach using a 1D lumped thermal network to solve the thermal balance of a heat-generating cell. However, these studies often overlook critical aspects of the heat generation equation, particularly the entropic term, which is essential for capturing nonlinear thermal behaviour, especially under dynamic cycling conditions. This study presents a cost-effective approach for rapid cell thermal characterisation and accurate surface temperature prediction. A pouch LCO cell was first tested to determine the entropic coefficient, followed by experiments under two convective conditions to evaluate its specific heat

Sciortino, Davide Domenico, Schommer, Adriano, Costa, Andre

Experimental Investigation of Usage Limits of Various Alcohol-Based Fuels in Spark Ignition Engine

2025-24-0031To be published on 09/07/2025

Current ambitious targets of transport utilized fossil fuels replacement pose a considerable challenge while transportation affordability, energetic and precious materials security are to be maintained. Most of current solutions oriented to passenger cars fossil fuel replacement by more renewable resources are dependent on one method only. On other hand, each of them exhibits some drawbacks and benefits while a reasonable combination could mitigate number of limitations and include many of advantages. Such solution could be usage of wide range liquid fuels from renewable resources in a suitable spark ignition engine accompanied by common battery electricity storage. The aim of this experimental work was to develop and demonstrate possibilities and results of an uncomplex engine adaptation to a wide range of fuels obtainable from renewable resources suitable as a range extender to commonly proposed electric cars. The approach chosen used standard gasoline as a starting fuel followed by

Pechout, Martin

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