Browse Topic: Automation

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Research on Clustering Data-Driven Intelligent Perception Algorithm for Micro Mobile Robots2026-99-18437/17/2026
To address the challenges faced by micro flapping-wing flying robots in visual navigation—specifically, the large volume of visual information and the difficulty in transforming it into usable intelligent visual data—this paper proposes a clustering-based data-driven approach for directional and image perception. The aim is to enable intelligent visual navigation for flapping-wing robots. The proposed method performs clustering analysis on gyroscope data from the flapping-wing robot to extract directional features. Simultaneously, it applies clustering techniques to visual images captured by the robot to identify intelligent features such as edges. This approach enables the robot to acquire multiple optimized perceptual data types, thereby enhancing the behavior control system. Through the use of clustering analysis, the method not only improves the effectiveness of visual navigation but also extracts features related to visual targets and environmental information, providing technical support for visual target tracking. The experimental platform consists of a flapping-wing robot equipped with an onboard camera, and the proposed clustering-driven visual image perception approach has been experimentally validated. Experimental results demonstrate the high feasibility and effectiveness of the method in practical applications. The main contributions of this study lie in two aspects: (1) a clustering-driven visual image perception method for flapping-wing robots, and (2) a clustering-based approach for identifying posture and behavioral patterns of flapping-wing flying robots.
Li, Zixuan, Ding, Wei, Zhang, Feng, Song, Min, Liu, Zhaoming, Miao, Lei, Liu, Haotian, Bai, Ning, Tian, Shen, Cui, Long, Wang, Hongwei
Automatic Synthetic Road Network Drivability Evaluation2026-01-50427/13/2026
Simulation plays a significant role in the validation and verification of Automated Driving Systems (ADS). In a scenario-based validation strategy, the road and the actions of the traffic participants must be captured in a portable and flexible format for simulation. XML-based parametric models constitute a common combination upon which the static and dynamic aspects of the environment are captured. Although there are plenty of tools for generating these XML files there are few alternatives to verify their content. This paper suggests a method for converting and simplifying a synthetic road network into a graph for which the Chinese Postman Problem is solved. The resulting sequence can be converted back into a route that can be sampled to verify the drivability of the whole network. Once the network is verified, it can be safely used for simulation, increasing the speed at which ADS systems are developed. The graph representation can also be used to provide interactive feedback to LLMs (Large Language Model), which are increasingly used for automatic generation of roads and scenarios.
Vargas Rivero, Jose Roberto, Kern, Andreas, Menken, Stefan, Harth, Michael, Kuipou, Franck Russel
Optimizing Autonomous Obstacle Avoidance with PON Architecture and SDN-Based Dynamic Scheduling2026-99-05927/10/2026
This study addresses the challenges of communication delays and system stability in autonomous obstacle avoidance (AOA) systems under next-generation vehicular electronic/electrical architectures. A centralized PON-based architecture is proposed, leveraging XGSPON technology to enhance bandwidth capacity and reduce electromagnetic interference, while rigorously analyzing worst-case in-vehicle communication (IVOC) delays. To mitigate latency impacts, a Software-Defined Networking (SDN)-driven dynamic scheduling strategy prioritizes safety-critical data streams (e.g., environmental perception, motion control) through adaptive resource allocation. Further integrated with a robust H-infinity LQR controller, the co-design framework ensures precise trajectory tracking and suppresses steering oscillations under communication uncertainties. Simulation tests validate the framework's efficacy, demonstrating significant reductions in loop delays and improved dynamic stability in complex scenarios. This work bridges communication efficiency and control robustness, offering a scalable solution for advancing safety-critical autonomous driving systems.
Wang, Wenwei, Han, Muchen, Cao, Wanke
A Framework for Precautionary Safety for Automated Driving Systems—Toward Tactical Decisions Fulfilling Quantitative Risk Acceptance Criteria12-09-04-00287/8/2026
Safety of Automated Driving Systems (ADSs) is arguably one of the main remaining barriers before widespread market deployment. While there exists a plethora of methods for planning a trajectory that fulfils certain constraints, what those constraints should look like, to enable effective planning of safe trajectories, is still being discussed. In this article, we generalize the concept of Precautionary Safety (PCS) and present a framework providing constraints on the tactical and operational decisions of the ADS. Such constraints consider the ADS’ capabilities, the external conditions, knowledge of statistically relevant events and behaviors of other traffic actors, as well as the controllability of these events. The proposed framework enables assessment of the statistical fulfilment of quantitative risk acceptance criteria (QRACs), including requirements on accident, injury, and fatality rates. The framework further provides a means to dynamically adapt the constraints used for trajectory planning, i.e., to adapt the driving to the situation at hand. A case study, considering a possible collision scenario with a jaywalking pedestrian and a rear-end collision with a trailing vehicle, is provided to showcase the applicability and usefulness of the presented framework. The simulation-based case study displays the safety benefits from considering QRACs with multiple injury risk levels and further shows how the proposed PCS framework can be applied in practice.
Gyllenhammar, Magnus, de Campos, Gabriel Rodrigues, Sandblom, Fredrik, Törngren, Martin, Fredriksson, Jonas
Stakeholder-Oriented Explainability Requirements for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems and Automated Driving Systems: A Structured Analysis2026-01-07887/1/2026
The development and validation of advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving systems (ADS) are shifting from traditional linear V-model processes toward more iterative engineering cycles. Despite faster iteration, these safety-critical systems remain subject to stringent regulations. Standards and guidance, including UNECE UN Regulation No. 157 and ISO/TS 5083, emphasize traceability, transparency, and explainability throughout development and validation. Nevertheless, as ADAS/ADS are developed and validated in faster, more iterative release cycles, additional stakeholders become involved and new explainability requirements emerge. These requirements vary between stakeholders and across development, validation, and post-market deployment phases, yet they are not systematically captured in the current state of research and practice. Therefore, to ensure that explainability supports rapid iteration, it is essential to identify relevant stakeholders and specify their explainability needs. Standards such as IEEE Standard 7001-2021 provide a broad foundation for transparency in autonomous systems. However, their generic nature does not address the domain-specific complexities of ADAS/ADS. Furthermore, a conceptual gap remains between general transparency principles and explainability requirements in automotive development and validation. Building on IEEE Standard 7001-2021, this paper first offers a stakeholder taxonomy in the context of ADAS/ADS, then proposes a stakeholder-oriented analysis of explainability requirements within an automated driving use case and contexts. This analysis specifically focuses on the motivations for requiring explainability and the necessary explanation modalities. Finally, the paper discusses the limitations of the analysis and outlines directions for future research. The results of the paper provide a structured guideline for stakeholder-oriented explainability requirements in ADAS/ADS.
Liu, Xuanheng, Bairy, Akhila, Paudel, Bijay, Adolph, Laurenz, Heck, Melanie, Hettich, Lennard, Nägele, Ann-Therese, Rudolf, Korbinian, Bause, Katharina, Düser, Tobias, Schwammberger, Maike
Cooperative Edge Extension for Automated Driving Level 4 and Beyond2026-01-07767/1/2026
Electrical/Electronic Architectures (EEAs) are continuously evolving to meet newly emerging demands. In recent years, major drivers of this evolution have been the increasing software-defined nature of vehicles and the push toward automated driving. Key technologies such as edge-enhanced functions, vehicle-to-vehicle communication, and service-oriented architectures are therefore the focus of current research efforts. This paper presents a vision of how these technologies can be used to enable cooperation between vehicles, illustrated by using parked vehicles as edge nodes. These are typically seen as obstructions, as they significantly increase the risk of missing or misinterpreting vulnerable road users such as pedestrians or cyclists. Our proposed approach to counteract this problem is the use of the parked vehicles themselves as edge nodes that support object detection or even trajectory planning. Current research primarily considers smart traffic infrastructure, roadside units, and other vehicles as potential edge nodes. Including parked vehicles as edge nodes means that, instead of acting solely as obstacles, we leverage their built-in sensors to contribute to cooperative awareness. While such cooperation will enhance the safety of automated vehicles in urban areas, several challenges arise. In this paper, we discuss how data traceability, decision-making in the presence of conflicting information, and incentive mechanisms for owners of parked vehicles can be addressed. Based on these challenges, the paper outlines requirements for future cooperative architecture and highlights the role of edge-enhanced functions, Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communication, and service-oriented architectures in enabling fully automated driving.
Lüntzel, Vitus, Lukezic, Nikola, Kraus, David, Seidel, Luca, Beck, Maximilian, Schindewolf, Marc, Sax, Eric
Harmonizing Generative AI and ISO 26262 for Safe and Intelligent ADAS Systems2026-01-07857/1/2026
This paper investigates the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) within radar-based perception for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) under safety considerations aligned with ISO 26262 [1] for functional safety and ISO 21448 (SOTIF) [2] for performance-related safety of the intended functionality. The study evaluates a hybrid architecture in which AI-based perception modules are combined with deterministic supervisory mechanisms to maintain safety compliance. A simulation-based case study using CARLA with radar sensor modeling is presented to compare a deterministic radar perception pipeline with an AI-enhanced approach under nominal and degraded environmental conditions. Performance is evaluated using precision, recall, and F1 score metrics. Results indicate improved recall and F1 score under adverse scenarios for the AI-based perception module, accompanied by a moderate increase in false positives. The paper discusses architectural constraints required to limit non-deterministic behavior, including confidence gating, deterministic supervision, and scenario-based validation. The findings are limited to simulation and are intended to provide preliminary insights into the technical and safety implications of incorporating AI-based radar perception within ISO 26262-compliant ADAS architectures.
Jain, Yesha
Cybersecurity Risk Assessment and Experimental Validation of Automotive Ultrasonic Sensors2026-01-07827/1/2026
Ultrasonic sensors are widely deployed in automotive driver assistance systems for near-range environment perception and provide safety-relevant inputs for functions such as parking assistance and automated parking. With increasing vehicle automation, the integrity and availability of ultrasonic sensor data become more critical, as compromised measurements may lead to incorrect vehicle decisions and hazardous behavior. While prior research has extensively studied physical attacks on ultrasonic sensors, a structured cybersecurity risk analysis in accordance with automotive cybersecurity standards, combined with experimental validation, is largely missing. In particular, the communication interface between ultrasonic sensors and control units has received limited attention despite its relevance as a potential attack surface. This paper presents a systematic security analysis of an automotive ultrasonic sensing system based on a demonstrator setup. The work applies a Threat Analysis and Risk Assessment methodology aligned with ISO/SAE 21434 and HEAVENS 2.0 to identify security-relevant assets, threat scenarios, and attack paths. Risk levels are derived by evaluating potential impact and attack feasibility. To validate the risk assessment, a structured test strategy is developed using the ISTQB test process and translated into laboratory experiments. Both digital attacks targeting the sensor communication interface, with DSI3 selected as the representative protocol, and physical manipulations of the sensor environment are examined. Experimental results show that selected communication-level attacks can be realized with moderate effort and can cause controlled falsification or loss of measurement data. Physical environmental manipulations significantly degrade signal quality but do not fully suppress object detection in the evaluated configuration. The findings largely confirm the initial risk assessment while enabling refinement of attack feasibility parameters. The results provide a validated linkage between automotive cyber-security risk assessment methods and practical testing of ultrasonic sensing systems and underline the importance of jointly addressing communication interfaces and physical effects in future security concept development.
Gahm, Sebastian, Haller, Jonathan, Kriesten, Reiner
Mind the Gap: Quantifying Behavioral Fidelity in CARLA Using Naturalistic Drone Data2026-01-07717/1/2026
Rigorous validation of SAE Levels 3 and 4 autonomous systems increasingly relies on simulation. However, the simulation-reality gap remains a challenge for human-in-the-loop assessments. This study empirically quantifies the behavioral fidelity of the Car-Learning-to-Act (CARLA) simulator by recreating specific real-world traffic scenarios using the high-precision exiD drone dataset. Twenty-five participants performed a series of maneuvers, including lane changes and time-critical cut-ins. Their performance was analyzed using Dynamic Time Warping (DTW), driver profiling, and Time-to-Collision (TTC) metrics. The findings reveal a clear distinction between relative and absolute behavioral validity. In strategic decision-making tasks, the simulation demonstrated remarkably high temporal fidelity. DTW analysis explained 94% of the trajectory variance. Participants initiated lane changes with an average lag of -9 frames (0.36 s) compared to naturalistic references. These results indicate that, despite the absence of peripheral optical flow, the simulator successfully elicits temporally correlated decision-making patterns suitable for assessing strategic driver intent. However, physical execution in reactive scenarios revealed significant absolute discrepancies. Although the high Pearson correlation (r ≈ 0.89) in velocity profiles proves that drivers recognize and react to hazards with realistic timing, their physical inputs were exaggerated. Participants displayed digital, over-modulated braking responses and maintained a negative safety bias of -11.26 m, a deviation attributed to the lack of vestibular g-force feedback and geometric minification. Furthermore, distinct driver profiles emerged. Risk-oriented participants exhibited a gaming effect by neglecting safety margins. In conclusion, while CARLA is highly valid for testing the temporal logic of driver interactions, absolute dynamics require calibration functions, such as force-feedback (pedal) tuning and visual deceleration cues like camera shake, to compensate for sensory limitations before it can be used for safety-critical validation.
Rebling, Patrick, Alphan, Metehan, Nenninger, Philipp
Route-Based Sensor-Aware Speed Planning and Support for Safety Validation for Level-3 Automated Driving2026-01-07727/1/2026
Level-3 and higher automated driving systems require longitudinal speed strategies that remain consistent with both physical stopping feasibility and realistic sensing constraints. This paper presents a route-based, sensor-aware speed planning method that supports safety validation and explicitly couples longitudinal driving strategy with sensor field-of-view coverage. Based on a concrete route extracted from digital maps and enriched with fleet data, point-wise maximum speeds are computed considering road curvature, speed limits, and comfort constraints. From the resulting drivable speed profile, physically consistent stopping paths and their endpoints are calculated for each route position, accounting for friction limits, scenario-dependent deceleration capabilities, and system delays between perception and braking. The set of stopping paths is aggregated into a region of interest (ROI) representing the spatial area that must be reliably perceived to guarantee safe stopping. This ROI is overlaid with the geometric fields of view of camera, radar, and lidar sensors, enabling the definition of a compact and interpretable key performance indicator (KPI) based on the number of sensor modalities covering critical regions. Rather than evaluating a specific sensor configuration, the proposed KPI establishes a geometric interface between braking-based perception requirements and multi-modal sensing coverage. The approach reveals the structural sensitivity of perception demands to route geometry and braking assumptions and provides a systematic basis for perception-aware speed release decisions. The method is applicable to highways, interchanges, and other route types, and contributes a modular geometric framework for sensor-aware safety analysis in Level-3 and higher automated driving systems.
Kohler, Paul Leonhard, Resch, Michael
Context-Dependent Assessment of Driving Dynamics and User Perception in Automated Driving2026-01-07577/1/2026
As automation advances and occupants transition from active drivers to passive passengers, understanding how automated driving behavior is evaluated becomes increasingly important. While longitudinal and lateral vehicle dynamics are known to influence perceived comfort and safety, it remains unclear to what extent motion–perception relationships remain stable across urban traffic contexts. This study compares two real-world investigations of automated driving: a left-turn maneuver at a signalized intersection on a test track and a roundabout maneuver with a shuttle in public traffic. Both datasets include high-resolution vehicle dynamics and structured subjective ratings. A consistent objectification approach was applied to examine the transferability of motion–perception relationships across contexts. However, differences in vehicle platform, automation level, trajectory characteristics, and study design limit direct comparability and require cautious interpretation. Despite partially overlapping ranges in selected peak-based dynamic parameters, such as longitudinal acceleration, subjective comfort and safety ratings were consistently higher in the roundabout scenario. Furthermore, strong associations were observed between motion parameters and subjective evaluations in the intersection context (adj. R2 up to 0.891), whereas objective parameters showed only limited explanatory power in the roundabout scenario (adj. R2 ≤ 0.06). The results indicate that motion–perception relationships derived within a specific context may not be directly transferable across different traffic scenarios. The findings highlight limitations of globally derived motion-based evaluation models and underline the importance of validating objectification approaches across diverse operational environments.
Panzer, Anna, Strenge, Emma, Iatropoulos, Jannes, Henze, Roman
Model-Guided Scenario Expansion for Data-Driven Autonomous-Vehicle Safety Testing: A Feasibility Demonstration12-09-04-00326/29/2026
This article presents a data-driven pipeline for autonomous-vehicle (AV) safety testing. The pipeline integrates real-world traffic observations with model-guided scenario expansion and safety-metric evaluation to enable an end-to-end AV safety testing framework, demonstrated on a canonical highway scenario. The framework enhances test diversity, realism, and coverage by generating statistically informed variants of observed driving behaviors. Key parameters such as vehicle speed, trajectories, and headways are extracted from naturalistic data and used to train a probabilistic model of traffic dynamics. Scenario variants are sampled from this model and encoded as behavior trees (BTs) for modular, simulation-ready execution. Each scenario is simulated using a consistent AV control configuration, and safety metrics such as minimum safe distance violation, minimum safe distance factor, time to collision, and aggressive driving are applied to evaluate safety outcomes independently of system-specific tuning. A case study based on the highD dataset (110,000+ trajectories) demonstrates the framework’s ability to generate realistic and safety-relevant scenarios, providing an initial demonstration of pipeline feasibility and metric-based evaluation. This initial study is intentionally scoped to a single scenario class and a simplified parametric model to isolate and validate the end-to-end integration of the pipeline.
Elshenawy, Mohamed, Aboudina, Aya, Abdelmotaleb, Anhar, Amr, Mariam, El-darieby, Mohamed
Impact of Network-Induced Delays on Autonomous Vehicle Steering Stability10-10-03-00246/25/2026
This article presents a cross-layer framework that integrates realistic vehicle-to-network-to-vehicle (V2N2V) delay characterization with a rigorous stability analysis of automated vehicle steering control. Both constant and network-induced time-varying delays modeled via deterministic bounds are addressed. For constant delays, delay-independent stability regions within the controller gain space are analytically derived. For time-varying delays with stochastic network origins, modeled using deterministic bounds, a refined Lyapunov–Krasovskii functional (LKF) incorporating augmented single- and double-integral terms is constructed. To establish delay-dependent linear matrix inequality (LMI) conditions, a reciprocally convex combination approach is employed to handle the delay interval partitioning, and the second-order Bessel–Legendre inequality is applied to tighten the integral quadratic bounds. The resulting LMI conditions explicitly capture the coupled effects of delay magnitude, delay variation rate, and control gains on closed-loop stability. Simulations of a lane-keeping scenario confirm that the predicted stability boundaries accurately match the closed-loop system behavior. Notably, incorporating a realistic time-varying V2N2V delay profile into the controller design reduces the lateral-state root-mean-square error (RMSE) by over 54% and decreases the settling time by a factor of 10 compared to designs relying on an average-delay assumption. However, high packet loss rates are shown to still induce residual oscillations due to information scarcity. Ultimately, these results elucidate delay-induced instability mechanisms and provide practical guidelines for designing delay-robust steering controllers for connected and automated vehicles.
Li, Jialin, Lu, Jianwei, Wei, Heng, Ao, Di
Framing Rules of the Road Compliance for Driving Automation Systems from an Engineering StandpointDRRC-WP-01-20266/18/2026
Rules of the road were created to enable safe, predictable, and efficient road use by governing both individual vehicle operation and interactions among road users. Driving automation systems must be capable of complying with rules of the road to operate lawfully on public roads. Human drivers often rely on simplified guidance, such as state driver’s handbooks, together with tacit knowledge developed through experience and social norms to generalize behavior across jurisdictions. By contrast, driving automation systems must reasonably and explicitly account for the substantial volume of applicable legal requirements within its operational design domain (ODD). Accordingly, relevant legal requirements must be converted into explicit objective logic that can be utilized by driving automation systems. This paper proposes a method to address how driving behavior-related rules of the road can be consistently applied in engineering practice in a harmonized fashion across industry. Specifically, while rules of the road are expressed in natural language—often with subjective and context-dependent terms—driving automation systems require those rules to be interpreted and translated into unambiguous, testable engineering requirements. To address this, this white paper articulates key challenges and outlines systems-engineering approaches for engineering interpretation of rules of the road and their translation into objective requirements suitable for verification. Validation is also discussed as the process for ensuring that the requirements themselves remain appropriate over time.
Digital Road Rules Consortium
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - Coming Soon: The Humanoid Revolution135726/16/2026
Are humanoid robots moving from science fiction to reality? The answer is yes, and it may be faster than anyone predicted. Listen in as we sit down with David Kehr, President of Humanoid Robotics at Schaeffler, to discuss how the company is leveraging decades of expertise to power the next generation of physical AI. From deploying humanoids in manufacturing plants to advancing actuator technology and AI-powered simulation through NVIDIA Omniverse, this conversation dives into the real-world challenges and opportunities shaping the robotic revolution. Whether it's scaling humanoids safely or the future of dexterous robotic hands, you'll learn why automotive manufacturing expertise matters, and how humanoids could eventually move beyond factories into logistics, healthcare, and even the home. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, X, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, X, and Instagram.
Patterson, Lori
Measurement Framework for Automated Vehicle Systems Interaction12-09-04-00276/9/2026
1Systems level and integration testing are an integral part of the design and development of Automated Vehicles (AVs). Measurement science plays a pivotal role in testing to ensure the safe and efficient operation of AVs. This science establishes a common understanding of the units of measurement, crucial in linking human activities. This article describes the significance of measurement in studying interactions between key system technologies in AVs, including AI for perception, sensing, communications, and cybersecurity. To address the complexities of these interactions, a novel, adaptable, and interactive framework called the System Technology Interaction Model (STIM) is introduced. STIM considers both designed and emergent interactions between these system technologies, allowing AV developers to explore tailored experiments with the flexibility of filtering for focused testing. The framework currently models system interactions statically, not in real-time, to define potential relationships and influences during the design phase. The novelty of this framework comes from providing a holistic evaluation that captures testing of interactions between modules in addition to component-level testing, while other frameworks focus on testing individual component behaviors. It also assesses the equality of two interactions, meaning it ensures that two interactions behave the same way for consistent results. Moreover, the framework serves as a valuable tool for AV designers and safety regulators to aid in establishing robust design and assessment approaches. This work highlights the need for a common framework to thoroughly test AVs and gain a holistic understanding of system interactions. Finally, the framework aims to understand how to mitigate potential influences leading to AV malfunctions to advance the development and deployment of safe and reliable Automated Vehicles. The work focuses on level 1 and level 4 automated driving features to simplify the work, although it can be from level 1 to level 5. Although framework performance is inherently difficult to quantify, this framework’s performance can be reflected through its ability to accurately capture system interactions for improved AV design and support a broader usability among AV stakeholders. In the future, the framework can be expanded to include additional elements, such as infrastructure or other vehicles, to analyze information provided to AVs, allowing experts from various domains to collaborate, create similar models, integrate them when feasible, and model the interactions in real-time.
Griffor, Edward R., Arora, Mahima, Kootbally, Zeid, Nguyen, Vinh
Automated Design Sustainability Evaluation Framework: A CAD-Integrated Tool for Real-Time Costing and LCA in Automotive Engineering2026-37-00446/9/2026
As the automotive industry faces increasingly rigorous environmental regulations and an approaching obligation for Digital Product Passports (DPPs), incorporating sustainability metrics into the early design phase has become a necessity. Traditionally, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and manufacturing cost estimation are performed during or after the design phase using specific methods and tools, resulting in costly iterations and delayed decision-making. This paper introduces a preliminary computational tool that combines 3D CAD and spreadsheet software via VBA integration. The framework automates the generation of an “Extended Bill of Materials” by extracting geometric and manufacturing data directly from CAD models. This tool’s classification logic is a key innovation that intelligently processes CAD features to identify component categories, such as sheet metal, machined parts, or plastic injections. This automated recognition allows the framework to implement specific algorithmic models for the preliminary estimation of production costs and environmental impact indicators. The gap between computer-aided design and sustainability analysis is partially bridged by the tool, enabling engineers to receive immediate feedback on the carbon footprint and recyclability of their designs during the early conceptual stage. Preliminary testing within automotive case studies shows a substantial decrease in lead times for technical estimation. Specifically, analysis time was reduced by at least 90%, with subsystems processed in under 10 minutes, a significant improvement over traditional manual calculations. This tool represents a pragmatic step toward “Circular Design” paradigms, supporting compliance with future legislative frameworks and fostering the transition toward a circular economy in transportation systems.
Guadagno, Maurizio, Cecconi, Leonardo, Berzi, Lorenzo, Delogu, Massimo
Driven: Honda Fastport eQuad Prototype26AUTP06_126/1/2026
There's a well-known video from San Francisco in 1906 that comes up repeatedly in mobility discussions here in the 21st Century. If you haven't seen A Trip Down Market Street, it depicts the absolute bonkers variety of transportation methods used on Market Street back then: cable cars, horsecars, streetcars, pedestrians, automobiles and more. Past is prologue in a world that is adding scooters, delivery robots and other last-minute delivery vehicles to our streets. At the 2026 New York International Auto Show in April, Honda displayed its latest option in the form of the Fastport eQuad Prototype. The eQuad was originally unveiled at Eurobike 2025 and technically comes from Fastport, a micromobility venture from the Honda New Business Innovation Lab that was established to work on projects with global logistics companies. Jamie Davies, chief of operations for Fastport, called the group a kind of startup within Honda. “Three years ago,” Davies told SAE Media in New York, “a small group of Honda associates [came] together and [said], Okay, how can we create a new value for the company, a new business vertical? And so we've run the project in an agile way, working with customers all along the way to understand what their needs are, what the requirements are, and to bring to market something that fits.”
Blanco, Sebastian
Intelligent Vehicle Trajectory Tracking Control Using ILQR-MPC15-19-02-00085/23/2026
Trajectory tracking control is a core technology in intelligent vehicle autonomous driving systems, directly influencing both driving safety and control accuracy. To overcome the limitations of traditional model predictive control (MPC) in real-time performance under complex operating conditions, as well as the limited robustness of linear quadratic regulators (LQR) against system uncertainties, this article proposes a hybrid iterative LQR–MPC (ILQR-MPC) control strategy. First, a dynamic model of the intelligent vehicle is developed to capture its behavior during high-speed driving and cornering. Next, an ILQR-MPC hybrid framework is designed. By exploiting the rapid iterative optimization capabilities of the ILQR algorithm, an initial control sequence is generated for the MPC, thereby reducing the computational load during MPC’s online rolling-horizon optimization. This approach preserves MPC’s advantages in handling constraints and maintaining robustness against parameter variations and external disturbances. Finally, joint simulations using MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim are conducted to evaluate the proposed approach against conventional MPC under standard road conditions, curved sections, and sudden changes in road friction. The results show that the ILQR-MPC strategy reduces trajectory tracking errors, shortens computational time, and maintains excellent stability and robustness under complex operating conditions.
Lai, Fei, Sun, Junhao, Huang, Chaoqun
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - Can Airports Become Innovation Labs?135685/21/2026
What if your airport was a living laboratory for innovation? Listen in as we sit down with Brian Cobb, Chief Innovation Officer at Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International (CVG) Airport, to explore how CVG operates as a "city within a city," deploying emerging technologies to improve passenger experience, strengthen operational resilience, and reimagine the modern airport. Discover how CVG is advancing innovation through real-time TSA wait times, robotics testing, and the growing role of AI, autonomy, and cybersecurity. Get even more insight as Brian takes the stage as keynote speaker at the 25th anniversary of AeroTech(R) this June. He'll explore what's next for aviation innovation, from connected robotics and autonomous workflows to the standards and cross-industry collaboration needed to make it all work safely. To learn more and register, visit sae.org/events/aerotech. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, X, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, X, and Instagram.
Patterson, Lori
A Reinforcement Learning Trajectory Planning Model with Kalman Filter-Based Dynamic Tracking for Six-Axis Robotic Manipulators2026-99-07385/15/2026
Robot Arm Tracking Control refers to the control of robot end effectors following a prescribed trajectory as their movement in robotic systems. The work presents a combination of Kalman Filter Based Dynamic System Tracking with Reinforcement Learning Based Trajectory Planning. These two aspects of tracking and planning help the robotic manipulator dynamically track a target that is located on an arbitrary moving path. In particular, by using Kalman filtering to estimate the position of a moving target and to compensate for sensor noise and sparse sampling, we take high-precision estimation values of each point’s coordinates along the target trajectory as a reliable basis to build a policy network using reinforcement learning. Based on it, the robot manipulator could produce effective motion planning under its own dynamic capabilities and physical constraint limit. Comprehensive simulation results illustrate advantages of the new algorithm against the classical control method, confirm that the novel technique achieves better performance both in accuracy and computation efficiency. Also, this mixed control system can deal with complex moving path for track target object. Even when meet different obstacle and not sure measurement, it still works well with other moving obstacle in many conditions. This can be strong to face other dynamic obstacle even if have different situation with changing obstacle and uncertain data. It shows that this paper works as an attempt toward optimal solution to combine the model-based technique together with data-driven approach aiming to support real-time, highly accurate, adaptive prediction is based control technique, promising applications into industry and promoting more improved works related.
Yu, Jingze, Wang, Yujia, Li, Junshen, Chen, Cong, Xu, Peng
Driving Behavior Heterogeneity Identification with Action Patterns Relationship2026-99-07525/15/2026
Identifying driving heterogeneity is critical for enhancing the strategy learning capabilities of autonomous driving systems, as well as improving their safety and efficiency. This research proposes a novel driving heterogeneity identification framework. The framework consists of three core processes: action phase extraction, action relationship modeling, and behavior heterogeneity identification. First, a rule-based segmentation method is employed to systematically decode and interpret the inherent variations in human driving behavior. Subsequently, an action relationship modeling method is introduced to characterize the temporal relations between the acquired action phases. Finally, to mitigate the inaccurate identification caused by the sparse distribution of critical driving events in long-sequence data, a semantic encoding method is applied to remap the driving behavior space. Experimental results on the Lyft level-5 dataset validate the effectiveness of the proposed framework, which outperforms multiple traditional clustering algorithms. This demonstrates its significant potential to enhance behavior detection and learning in personalized advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and advanced autonomous vehicle (AV) design.
Yin, Hui, Zhang, Qinyao, Li, Xiaojian, Mo, Hangjie
Mechanism and Experimental Investigation of Variable Stiffness in Soft Actuators Based on Particles Jamming2026-99-07465/15/2026
Soft robot systems demonstrate exceptional load-bearing capacity and spatial compliance during operation, with transformative potential in disaster response scenarios requiring adaptive morphology and hazardous material manipulation. By integrating the complementary advantages of soft robotics and particle jamming mechanisms, this study proposes a real-time variable-stiffness soft actuator, while systematically investigating its mathematical modeling framework and stiffness modulation principles. A deformation model for the variable stiffness soft actuator is established, followed by static analysis of the variable-stiffness members using particle jamming theory, with theoretical investigation of their stress distributions. Subsequently, a variable-stiffness driver was fabricated via additive manufacturing (3D printing), resulting in a flexible mechanical digit capable of stiffness tuning, A soft mechanical hand grasping test platform was built, and grasping experiments of objects of different shapes and sizes were conducted. Experimental validation confirms the influence of actuator dimensions, particle characteristics, and granule size distribution on both stress states and bending angles at the soft robotic digit’s distal segment. The obtained results establish theoretical foundations and advance variable-stiffness soft robotics research and associated stiffness regulation methodologies.
Wang, Jian, Yuan, Haiyang, Deng, Haishun, Chen, Jiaxian
Adaptive Speed-Regulated Impedance Control for Robotic Ultrasound Scanning: Reducing Constant-Force Tracking Errors2026-99-07515/15/2026
Robotic ultrasound scanning technology is a research hotspot in the field of medical imaging, and can achieve standardized and high-precision data acquisition. However, large force tracking errors occur during scanning, especially in complex human tissues, which can severely degrade image quality and diagnostic accuracy. Therefore, we propose an adaptive speed-regulated impedance control strategy to address this challenge, which innovatively combines the spline real-time interpolation and impedance control for constant force tracking. Firstly, the discrete ultrasound scanning paths are fitted to generate a smooth and synchronized interpolation trajectory. Then, the speed of the reference trajectory is adjusted in real time based on the Taylor formula to reduce the force tracking error. Experimental verification was conducted, and the results showed that the force tracking error increases with the increase of trajectory speed. In addition, at high speeds (e.g., 10 mm/s), the mean/variance of the force tracking error of the proposed method (0.3067N/0.2784) is reduced by 31.1%/37.4% respectively compared with the mean/variance of the traditional impedance control (0.4452N/0.4448), fully demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy.
Min, Kang, Zhang, Le, Shi, Yudong, Fang, Jin, Mo, Hangjie, Li, Xiaojian
Robust Curvature Preview Drift Control Using STA-ISMC under Parameter Uncertainty10-10-03-00215/6/2026
Autonomous vehicles exhibit extremely strong nonlinearity during drift. However, existing autonomous drift algorithms often neglect previewed path curvature and offer only limited consideration of road surface uncertainty because of the influence of vehicle nonlinear dynamics, which can affect tracking accuracy and robustness of drift control. To solve these problems, this study proposes a robust optimal drift control framework based on curvature preview. First, a preview vehicle kinematic model is constructed, and a preview model predictive control path-tracking controller that considers the forthcoming curvature is designed. Through the analysis of equilibrium points with additional yaw moment, a robust optimal drift controller is developed, which employs a three-degrees-of-freedom vehicle model with an additional yaw moment. This controller adopts integral sliding mode control with a super-twisting algorithm (STA) and exhibits good stability, which is verified through Lyapunov analysis. The proposed control algorithm is validated through hardware-in-the-loop experiments. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method significantly improves path-tracking accuracy and robustness under uncertain road surface conditions, thereby providing an effective control solution for drift-based path-tracking maneuvers.
Gan, Yurun, Song, Ziyu, Gu, Tongtong, Ding, Haitao, Xu, Nan, Zhang, Jianwei
Application of an Automated HUMS Data Chain for Rapid Engine Installation Diagnostics in New Generation Aircraft Production EnvironmentF-0082-2026-02335/5/2026
This paper presents the implementation of a fully automated Health and Usage Monitoring System (HUMS) data chain designed to accelerate installed engine performance diagnostics during the pre-delivery phase of new-generation helicopters. Ensuring that engine performance remains consistent with original engine manufacturer (OEM) baseline data is a critical step in the final assembly process, yet traditionally time-consuming. The developed system automates data offloading and integrates three distinct streams: OEM engine performance characteristics, in-flight Engine Power Checks (EPC), and high-frequency continuous recordings. The core innovation lies in a multi-source data fusion methodology combined with a physics-based model to differentiate between genuine installation discrepancies and sensor anomalies through temperature deviation analysis. Results from the production environment demonstrate that this automated approach significantly reduces troubleshooting lead times and ensures on-time aircraft delivery. By shifting advanced monitoring from in-service operations to manufacturing, this system establishes a new digital benchmark for quality control in helicopter production.
Esterle, Florent, Lecauchois, Claire, Maisonneuve, Pierre-Loïc, Calvet, Thomas
Biomechanical Responses and Injuries of Male Post-Mortem Human Subjects in Rear-Facing Frontal Impacts with Unreinforced Airbag-Equipped Production Seats09-14-01-00305/4/2026
Previous rear-facing post-mortem human subject (PMHS) studies utilizing a reinforced seat have prompted questions as to whether the seat could have been a contributing factor to the severe rib and pelvis injuries observed in those experiments. In response, a recent PMHS study used an unreinforced seat in a similar experiment, which was expected to mitigate severe injuries by dissipating energy from seatback deformations. However, the PMHS tested in the unreinforced seat sustained even more severe rib fracture numbers than in the reinforced seat. No studies have investigated how additional variables (i.e., countermeasures) may influence rib fractures in high-speed rear-facing frontal impacts (HSRFFI). Therefore, this study aimed to explore the effect of an airbag-equipped seat (AES) on male PMHS responses and injuries. Rear-facing sled tests were conducted using five mid-size male PMHS seated in the AES at ΔV of 56 km/h: PMHS1 with no airbag as a baseline, PMHS2 with a seatback airbag (SA), PMHS3 with an extended seatback airbag (ESA), and PMHS4 and 5 with ESA and a wedge airbag (ESA+WA). An instrument panel (IP) and windshield were installed behind the seat to mimic realistic interior vehicle compartments. A chestband at mid-sternum, 6-degree motion blocks at the head, T1, T4, T8, T12, pelvis, and extremities, as well as rib strain gages and rosettes were installed on PMHS to understand potential mechanisms of injuries. A motion capture system was used to quantify whole-body PMHS and seatback kinematics. Maximum seatback rotation was 38.1° in the baseline test and 20.3°–25.1° with AES. Peak chest A-P compression in the anterior-posterior (A-P) direction was 25.7 mm for baseline and 7.3 mm–35.2 mm with AES (23.7 mm for SA, 7.3 mm for ESA, 35.2 and 8.7 mm for ESA+WA). The number of rib fractures (NRF) was high in baseline (32), SA (25), and ESA (27) conditions, but was reduced in ESA+WA (6 and 13). Strain rosette data indicated upward directions of principal strains on the posterior ribs, likely due to I-S deformation of the PMHS thoraces. Responses from thorax instrumentation showed that peak chest deflection (A-P) alone did not fully explain NRF, especially as rib fractures in all tests occurred after peak deflection in this direction. Instead, maximum principal strains in the I-S direction (shear), confirmed by strain rosette data, likely influenced rib fractures. ESA+WA effectively supported PMHS, maintaining upright postures and minimizing I-S chest shear, which reduced NRF. Limitations include a small sample size, possible age-related injury effects, and seat designs intended for low-speed rear impacts, not HSRFFI. Compression and shear loading to the PMHS thoraces were observed in HSRFFI. The shear loading was likely due to the large upward thorax deflection induced by the ramping motion and seatback rotation. One of the AES, ESA+WA, effectively maintained an upright spine and reduced NRF. This study offers important information for improving current safety tools and designing rear-facing countermeasures for automated driving systems.
Kang, Yun-Seok, DeWitt, Timothy, Wensink, Timothy, Marcallini, Angelo, Jung, Yong Hyun, Lee, Dong Gil, Harm, Jae Jun, Ko, Seokhoon, Hunter, Randee, Agnew, Amanda M.
SAE Level 2 ADAS Performance in Specific Crash-Imminent Scenarios09-14-01-00155/4/2026
This research examined the performance of SAE Level 2 (L2) advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) in crash-imminent scenarios (CIS), with particular attention to how vehicle configuration like body style and powertrain (internal combustion engine, plug-in hybrid, electric vehicle) influences vehicle system performance. The objectives were to (1) identify CIS relevant to L2-equipped vehicles using crash databases and naturalistic driving studies (NDSs), (2) develop scenario-based test procedures and test matrices, and (3) evaluate system and vehicle responses across configurations and conditions. Multiple crash data sources were analyzed, including NHTSA’s Standing General Order dataset of L2-related crashes, the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, the Crash Report Sampling System, and NDS data from the Second Strategic Highway Research Program and the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute L2 NDS. Coded variable analyses from the datasets identified three common CIS: lane and road departures, rear-end striking events, and intersection conflicts. Supporting variables such as speed, roadway condition, and driver actions were also extracted to characterize scenarios and inform test development. Tests were executed at a closed-track testing facility using four vehicles selected for diversity of L2 systems, body types, and powertrains. Phase 0 exploratory testing assessed vehicle kinematics and L2 responses to refine the test matrix. Phases 1 and 2 conducted controlled evaluations of selected CIS, with expansion factors reflecting real-world crash variability. The testing highlighted interactions between L2 features and active safety systems. For example, results showed that all four vehicles employed distinct hand-off strategies between L2 longitudinal control and active safety systems during rear-end striking crash scenarios, and AEB engagement was strongly correlated with TTC at the moment the vehicle identified the crash partner. This work contributes novel insights into vehicle L2 and ADAS behavior in CIS events across multiple factors and provides a structured framework to evaluate system behavior for those crash-imminent scenarios.
Beale, Gregory, Kefauver, Kevin, Venegas, Michael, Li, Eric, Chen, Jay, Huggins, Steven, Guduri, Balachandar, Llaneras, Eddy
The Impact of Transition Window Duration on Nominal Transitions of Control in Conditional Automation09-14-01-00165/4/2026
The objective of this research was to understand the impact of transition window duration on success and performance during nominal transitions from conditional driving automation (SAE level 3). Because the driver can be disengaged from driving when conditional driving automation is engaged, the central challenge is how to safely transition from automated control to human control. Past research from the literature on Level 3 Automated Driving Systems (L3 ADS) has focused on safety-critical event responses (e.g., responding to a hazard) and on automation that operates at high speeds, which is not representative of the systems currently deployed that operate in lower-speed traffic jam situations [4, 5]. This article presents an analysis of data from several transition-of-control studies with conditional driving automation in a high-fidelity driving simulator. A range of transition window durations were compared, and different transition-of-control behaviors were coded from video data. Transition windows for 4, 6, 8, and 10 s conditions resulted in failures by the drivers to resume control. Success rates by condition were lowest with 4 s transition windows, but also lower with 10 s windows, compared to 6 s, 8 s, or 15 s windows (potential explanations appear in the discussion). Time to first glance back at the forward road and time to first-hand on the steering wheel were predictors of transition of control success across all transition windows. Survival analyses showed that drivers needed to begin the transition process within a few seconds to make successful transitions, even with longer transition windows. The results demonstrate the impact of different transition window durations on transition of control and provide unique insights into the factors influencing transition success in situations representative of those happening on the road now. These results help shape understanding of the requisite time needed for safe transition from automated to manual control and speak to the design recommendations for human–automation interactions.
Gaspar, John, Ahmad, Omar, Schwarz, Chris, Fincannon, Thomas, Jerome, Christian
Visual–Language Model–Driven Annotation and Analysis of Maneuver Data for Enhanced Vehicle Safety09-14-01-00325/4/2026
Vehicle maneuver data are essential for perception and planning in advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving systems (ADS). While high-quality annotations improve machine-learning performance, existing maneuver datasets remain fragmented, labor-intensive to annotate, and inconsistent in semantic richness. Challenges persist in scalability, interpretability, and contextual labeling. This article establishes a structured framework for maneuver data analysis by combining a systematic review of existing resources with the development of a new multimodal dataset. First, we conduct a systematic review of publicly available datasets such as HDD, KITTI, BDD-X, D2CAV, Brain4Cars, DrivingDojo, and the Driving Behavior Database. We further evaluate the data modality and sensor configurations including event data recorders, onboard logging systems, and smartphone sensing. We then propose the Matt3r Data Collection System with modern metadata management, which integrates video, GPS, and IMU signals into temporally coherent clips. Next, we outline the limitations of traditional annotation approaches, which rely on manual labeling and rule-based methods. To address the limitations of traditional manual and semi-automated labeling, we propose a Vision–Language Model (VLM)–driven annotation pipeline. VLMs generate maneuver categories and causal explanations through prompt-based reasoning, with selected outputs refined through human-in-the-loop verification. Finally, we propose an annotation quality evaluation based on accuracy, inter-annotator agreement, credibility, consistency, and efficiency gain. In summary, this article bridges the gap between the environment perception requirements of existing ADAS and ADS systems and the developing capabilities of generative artificial intelligence. By providing a novel and scalable research approach for AI-driven maneuver data annotation and analysis, this article supports data engineering efforts for both research and practical applications aimed at enhancing vehicle safety.
Bai, Ling, Yuan, Chongyu, Osman, Islam, Lin, Zirui, Mirab, Ghazal, Saheb, Amir, Parnian, Neda, Shapiro, Evgeny, Shehata, Mohamed S., Liu, Zheng
Feature Reduction for Scenario-Based Safety Assessment of Automated Driving Systems09-14-01-00185/4/2026
Vehicles equipped with an Automated Driving System (ADS) have the potential to significantly reduce road collisions. To enable widespread adoption of ADSs, rigorous safety assessment is essential. Valuable insights for ADS safety validation can be gained by simulating scenarios across a broad range of feature variations. A common challenge in simulating these scenarios is known as the curse of dimensionality, where increasing the number of scenario features requires a near-infinite number of simulations to cover all variations. This issue of complexity presents a need for reducing scenario features. Most related work focuses on identifying important scenario features, while few evaluate how reducing these features impacts ADS failure estimation. The present study aims to address this gap by employing a wide range of feature reduction methods and assessing their effect on ADS failure estimation. Previous research generated datasets for three distinct scenario categories by performing virtual simulations using driver reference models on real-world data. In the present work, the machine learning classifiers such as extreme gradient boosting and random forest are applied to this data for predicting ADS failures. Ten dimensionality reduction techniques, including both feature selection and transformation approaches, are employed to reduce the scenario feature set. The optimal reduced feature set is selected based on classification performance measured by the area under the precision–recall curve. To assess the impact on ADS failure estimation, results are compared against those obtained with the full set of features. The findings indicate that reliable ADS failure estimates can be maintained, and even significantly improved, after substantially reducing the number of scenario features. By reducing scenario features, fewer virtual simulations may be required to reliably estimate ADS failures, which may enable more efficient scenario-based ADS safety assessment. Additionally, this study may offer guidance on selecting suitable dimensionality reduction techniques for scenario-based ADS safety assessment.
Lankhorst, Bram, de Gelder, Erwin, Janssen, Christian P., Scholich, Andre
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - Robotaxis vs Personal AVs: A WCX Panel Discussion135665/4/2026
What does it really take to scale automated driving from a mapped robotaxi service to personally owned autonomous vehicles? Recorded live at the WCX 2026 in Detroit, listen in as Chris Gerdes, Field Safety Architect, Waymo, and Hugh Nguyen, Automotive Technology and Mobility, KPMG, explore the technical, regulatory, and infrastructure challenges reshaping mobility as SAE Level 4 automation makes its way to the road. From safety data and sensor performance in harsh conditions to public trust, city readiness, and the growing divide between robotaxi ecosystems and consumer AVs, it's a grounded discussion on what scalable autonomy really looks like. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, X, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, X, and Instagram.
Patterson, Lori
How Machina Labs is Reshaping Defense Manufacturing with AI-Driven 7-Axis Robotics26AERP05_015/1/2026
Machina Labs recently closed its latest round of financing with $124 million, enough to develop a facility featuring up to 50 of its RoboCraftsman cells capable of producing thousands of complex structural assemblies for aerospace and defense customers - a list that already includes Lockheed Martin and the U.S. Air Force, among others. Founded in 2019, Machina Labs is a California-based company that seeks to reinvent metal manufacturing with a robot that uses artificial intelligence (AI) to rapidly form and assemble complex military grade structures directly from digital design files. RoboCraftsman is the company's manufacturing robot that leverages its proprietary “RoboForming” process to integrate multiple manufacturing processes - including metal forming, trimming, scanning, and heat treating - into a single containerized machine.
Can Multi-Fingered Robots Transform Shipboard Operations and Autonomous Maintenance?26AERP05_125/1/2026
USC Viterbi researcher received Office of Naval Research's Young Investigator Program award with Study on dexterous robotics. University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA In dynamic, unstructured environments like ship decks and even home kitchens, robots today still struggle to perform precision tasks such as tightening bolts or handling wires. This makes critical ship maintenance tasks difficult. USC researcher, Erdem Bıyık, aims to advance robots' finger manipulation and integrate human feedback to enable real-time learning for robots in an upcoming three-year, $750,000 project funded by the Office of Naval Research (ONR).
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - Building Trust in AV Safety135644/17/2026
As AVs continue to grow in popularity, one question remains top of mind: How do we know autonomous driving systems are genuinely safe? The Automated Vehicle Safety Consortium (AVSC) is an industry collaboration group focused on improving the safe development and deployment of automated driving systems (ADS). By bringing together automakers, technology companies, suppliers, mobility providers, and government stakeholders, the AVSC develops voluntary best practices and technical guidance that fosters public trust and delivers consistent AV safety standards. Listen in as we sit down with Darcyne Foldenauer, Executive Director, AVSC, and Erin McCurry, Principal Engineer, AVSC, to explore two new publications: Best Practice for ADS-DV Assessment of Safety Claims, and the Information Report on ADS-DV Stopped Conditions. From the difference between minimal risk maneuvers and minimal risk conditions, to when it's actually safer for a vehicle to stay stopped in lane, this conversation sheds light on the complex decisions behind automated driving safety. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, X, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, X, and Instagram.
Patterson, Lori
Automated Vehicle Marshalling SystemJ3292_202604 (Current)4/13/2026
The scope of this standard is Automated Vehicle Marshalling (AVM) of vehicles to enable remote control functionality for achieving SAE Level 4 (High Driving Automation according to the Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice SAE J3016) driving capabilities at controlled speeds within geofenced private controlled environments utilizing infrastructure-assisted sensing. It specifies a concept of operations which includes a reference-system architecture and use cases, system functional and performance requirements, multiple wireless communications protocols, and associated wireless messages to support AVM. AVM use cases such as plant marshalling, depot marshalling, valet parking, electric vehicle charging, etc. The Automated Vehicle Marshalling Central Server (AVM CS) infrastructure does detect objects, vehicles, vulnerable road users, and any obstructions that help guide the Automated Vehicle (AV) starting from uninitiated, activation, identification, automated control, unavailable and deactivation states of the respective feature lifecycle of AVM use cases by using only two wireless messages named Infrastructure Marshalling Message (IMM) and Vehicle Marshalling Message (VMM). This standard specifies the minimum requirements for the Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) messages, such as IMM and VMM, and the corresponding data frames and elements which are defined to support Infrastructure guided AVM use cases over Direct (LTE-V2X) and Network-based wireless communications technologies. These messages are utilized to achieve desired interoperability, safety, and data integrity. This standard focuses on an infrastructure-led implementation of an AVM system analogue to a Type 2 Automated Vehicle Parking (AVP) system implementation as described in International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 23374-1; the functional allocations listed below are part of the Type 2 AVP System where AVM CS of infrastructure carries out most of the operation functions including AV Identification and Emergency Stopping: Destination Assignment Route Planning Object and Event Detection and Response (OEDR) AV Localization Path Determination Trajectory Calculation Vehicle Motion Control (VMC) NOTE 1: Functional Safety rating Automotive Safety Integrity Level (ASIL) related requirements are outside the scope of this standard. NOTE 2: This standard could be utilized as a base for human operator assisted AVM. The implementation details from human operator assistance without Infrastructure assistance is outside the scope of this standard. NOTE 3: Unless otherwise marked as Informative, all material in this standard is to be considered normative.
V2X Core Technical Committee
Development of a Model-Aware Data-Driven Control Algorithm for a Drive-by-Wire System for a Level 4 Automated Vehicle2026-01-00434/7/2026
Precision control in Level 4 Automated Vehicles is essential for enhancing operational efficiency, accuracy, and safety. This work, conducted as part of ARPA-E’s NEXTCAR program, focuses on developing a robust hardware and software control solution to enable drive-by-wire functionality. A previous publication by the authors presented the hardware solutions for overtaking stock vehicle controls. This paper focuses on a model-based and data-driven control algorithm to enable drive-by-wire functionality for longitudinal and lateral motion control for a 2021 Honda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle. This vehicle was equipped with a set of sensors and an onboard processing unit to enable Level 4 automation. For lateral controls, an algorithm was developed to command steering torque to the electronic power steering module, ensuring the vehicle could attain the desired steering angle position at varying speeds. The system leveraged feedforward and feedback mechanisms. Feedback controller gains were identified through frequency response analysis of the steering torque assist electric motor and were further refined during track testing. To optimize the controller’s response time, a feedforward function was developed using a physics-aware model of the vehicle's steering system. The independent feature selection for the model was guided by using the physics of the system. For longitudinal control, the control inputs included the positions of the brake and accelerator pedals sent to the stock ECU, with the desired speed as the setpoint. The setup used a combination of feedforward and feedback control to achieve the target acceleration or deceleration. These algorithms underwent extensive dynamometer and track testing to perform various maneuvers in conjunction with the automated driving system.
Adsule, Kartik, Bhagdikar, Piyush, Drallmeier, Joseph, Alden, Joshua, Gankov, Stanislav
Understanding Adversarial Transferability in Vision-Language Models for Autonomous Driving: A Cross-Architecture Analysis2026-01-01704/7/2026
Vision-language models (VLMs) are increasingly used in autonomous driving because they combine visual perception with language-based reasoning, supporting more interpretable decision-making, yet their robustness to physical adversarial attacks, especially whether such attacks transfer across different VLM architectures, is not well understood and poses a practical risk when attackers do not know which model a vehicle uses. We address this gap with a systematic cross-architecture study of adversarial transferability in VLM-based driving, evaluating three representative architectures (Dolphins, OmniDrive, and LeapVAD) using physically realizable patches placed on roadside infrastructure in both crosswalk and highway scenarios. Our transfer-matrix evaluation shows high cross-architecture effectiveness, with transfer rates of 73–91% (mean TR = 0.815 for crosswalk and 0.833 for highway) and sustained frame-level manipulation over 64.7–79.4% of the critical decision window even when patches are not optimized for the target model. We further find asymmetric architecture-level risk, with Dolphins most vulnerable to incoming transfer attacks (VS = 0.82) and LeapVAD producing the most transferable patches (TO = 0.882), while models sharing CLIP-based vision encoders exhibit stronger bidirectional transfer. Overall, these results indicate that current VLM-based autonomous driving systems share systematic cross-architecture weaknesses that architectural diversity alone does not resolve, underscoring the need for defenses and design principles that explicitly account for transferability in safety-critical deployment.
Fernandez, David, MohajerAnsari, Pedram, Salarpour, Amir, Pese, Mert D.
Assessing a Safety Case: Bottom-up Guidance for Claims and Evidence Evaluation2026-01-05234/7/2026
As Automated Driving Systems (ADS) technology advances, ensuring safety and public trust requires robust assurance frameworks, with safety cases emerging as a critical tool toward such a goal. This paper explores an approach to assess how a safety case is supported by its claims and evidence, toward establishing credibility for the overall case. Starting from a description of the building blocks of a safety case (claims, evidence, and optional format-dependent entries), this paper delves into the assessment of support of each claim through the provided evidence. Two domains of assessment are outlined for each claim: procedural support (formalizing process specification) and implementation support (demonstrating process application). Additionally, an assessment of evidence status is also undertaken, independently from the claims support. Scoring strategies and evaluation guidelines are provided, including detailed scoring tables for claim support and evidence status assessment. The paper further discusses governance, continual improvement, and timing considerations for safety case assessments. Reporting of results and findings is contextualized within its primary use for internal decision-making on continual improvement efforts. The presented approach builds on state of the art auditing practices, but specifically tackles the question of judging the credibility of a safety case. While not conclusive on its own, it provides a starting point toward a comprehensive "Case Credibility Assessment" (CCA), starting from the evaluation of the support for each claim (individually and in aggregate), as well as every piece of evidence provided. By delving into the technical intricacies of ADS safety cases, this work contributes to the ongoing discourse on safety assurance and aims to facilitate the responsible integration of ADS technology into society.
Schnelle, Scott, Favaro, Francesca, Fraade-Blanar, Laura, Broce, Holland, Miranda, Justin, Wichner, David, Shrivastava, Mohit
The ML FMEA in Action: Lessons from Applications of Machine Learning Safety2026-01-00794/7/2026
Introducing machine learning (ML) into safety-critical systems presents a fundamental challenge, as traditional safety analysis techniques often struggle to capture the dynamic, data-driven, and non-deterministic behavior of learning-enabled components. To address this gap, the Machine Learning Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (ML FMEA) methodology was developed as an open-source framework tailored to ML-specific risks. This paper reports on the maturation of ML FMEA from an initial conceptual framework to a proven, practice-driven methodology. We make four primary contributions. First, we extend the ML FMEA pipeline with two new stages: a “Step Zero” for problem definition and system-level hazard analysis, and a “Step 5” for constructing ground truth or reward signals. Autonomous vehicle and humanoid robot applications are presented to illustrate the practical application and safety benefits of these additions. Second, we introduce tailored Severity, Occurrence, and Detection criteria for ML risk assessment, resolving ambiguities encountered when applying traditional FMEA metrics to ML development processes. Third, we demonstrate systematic alignment between ML FMEA artifacts and requirements from ISO/PAS 8800, ISO 21448 (SOTIF), ISO/TS 5083, ISO/IEC TR 5469, and UL 4600, providing a bridge between ML development practices and safety certification expectations. Fourth, we present cross-industry perspectives spanning automotive, aerospace, industrial robotics, and defense, highlighting deployment pathways and best practices for domain-specific adaptation. Through open-source collaboration and cross-industry validation, the ML FMEA has matured into a practical toolset that enables safety-informed ML workflows, supporting auditable, repeatable, and risk-aware development of learning-enabled systems.
Schmitt, Paul, Shinde, Chaitanya, Diemert, Simon, Pennar, Krzysztof, Seifert, Bodo, Poh, Justin, Lopez, Jerry, Mannan, Fahim, Mohammed, Majed, Chalana, Akshay, Wadhvana, Neil, Wagner, Michael
AI Model Creation and System Verification of “Telemotion” Infrastructure-Cooperative Autonomous Driving System Using Digital Twin2026-01-02554/7/2026
The concept of the vehicle has changed as a result of many innovations over the last decade in the fields of connected, autonomous/automated, shared, and electric (CASE) technologies. At the same time, labor shortages in Japan are becoming more serious due to a decline in the working population. To help resolve these issues, a remote-controlled autonomous vehicle driving system called Telemotion has been developed that automates the movement of vehicles in production plants. This system is an autonomous driving and transportation system in which the recognition, judgment, and operation functions of driving are handled by a control system outside the vehicle that communicates wirelessly with the vehicle. This system utilizes artificial intelligence (AI) and other advanced technologies to realize safe unmanned autonomous driving, and is already in operation in production plants. Currently, efforts are under way to build a digital twin environment and conduct AI learning using computer graphics (CG) to configure the system and improve the accuracy of the AI models with the aim of expanding its use to other factories. Within this digital twin environment, it is possible to examine previous tasks by reproducing the vehicles, processes, cameras, and vehicle movements present at a production site. Utilizing this digital twin enabled a significant reduction in the labor required to implement the system.
Hatano, Yasuyoshi, Iwazaki, Noritsugu, Nagafuchi, Yuhei, Iwahori, Kento, Tanaka, Atsushi, Uezu, Satoru, Kanou, Takeshi, Inoue, Go, Okamoto, Yuki, Oka, Yuhei, Kakuma, Daisuke, Chiba, Hiroya, Egashira, Kazuki, Ishikuro, Megumi, Sawano, Takuro
Safety Monitor for Off-Road Planning with Uncertainty Bounded Bekker Costs2026-01-01414/7/2026
Reliable off-road autonomy requires operational constraints so that behavior stays predictable and safe when soil strength is uncertain. This paper presents a runtime assurance safety monitor that collaborates with any planner and uses a Bekker-based cost model with bounded uncertainty. The monitor builds an upper confidence traversal cost from a lightweight pressure sinkage model identified in field tests and checks each planned motion against two limits: maximum sinkage and rollover margin. If the risk of crossing either limit is too high, the monitor switches to a certified fallback that reduces vehicle speed, increases standoff from soft ground, or stops on firmer soil. This separation lets the planner focus on efficiency while the monitor keeps the vehicle within clear safety limits on board. Wheel geometry, wheel load estimate, and a soil raster serve as inputs, which tie safety directly to vehicle design and let the monitor set clear limits on speed, curvature, and stopping at run time. The method carries uncertainty analytically into the upper confidence cost and applies simple intervention rules. Tuning of the sinkage limit, rollover margin, and risk window trades efficiency for caution while keeping the monitor light enough for embedded processors. Results from a simulation environment spanning loam to sand include intervention rates, violation probability, and path efficiency relative to the nominal plan, and a benchtop static loading check provides initial empirical validation.
Naik, Akshay, Norris, William, Sreenivas, Ramavarapu S., Soylemezoglu, Ahmet, Nottage, Dustin S., Patterson, Albert
A Simple Analytical Model for Predicting Cooperative Ratio in Agreement-Seeking Cooperative Driving Automation with C-V2X Communication2026-01-00784/7/2026
Cooperative Driving Automation (CDA) has emerged as an active research area in recent years, categorized into four classes of operations with varying levels of cooperation as defined in the SAE J3216 standard. Among these, Class C CDA, referred to as Agreement-Seeking Cooperation (ASC), has received limited attention in literature. Unlike Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC), which typically engages when lead vehicles are identified as cooperative and disagree under manual override or safety-critical conditions, ASC requires agents to exchange messages interactively to reach consensus on a proposed plan and its implementation. This necessitates more sophisticated communication and control designs, which in turn influences customized ASC efficiency. Previous work has examined, through simulation, the impact of three key parameters on ASC system performance: CDA message transmission frequency, Packet Drop Ratio (PDR), and Cooperation Duration Length (CDL). In this paper, we extend that investigation by conducting Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) experiments in a scenario-based simulation environment, integrating the ASC controller with vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication enabled by PC5-based Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything (C-V2X) radios. Using HIL test data, we derived a simple analytical model based on Pascal Distribution to predict the Cooperative Ratio (CR), which is a key index defined by cooperative time over the total scenario time. The model explores the fundamental mechanism of how transmission frequency, total trip time, instance CDA engagement probability and CDL collaboratively impact Cooperative Ratio. The validation of the model with experimental data reports the relative error is less than 5% for scenarios with CDA message transmission frequency higher than 5 HZ. Furthermore, because the model is independent of specific control logic assumptions, it provides a practical tool for guiding the design of ASC communication protocols and control strategies.
Zhan, Lu, Di Russo, Miriam, Das, Debashis, Stutenberg, Kevin, Misra, Priyash, Jeong, Jongryeol, Hyeon, Eunjeong
Driving with Influence: Exploring Crash Factors of Automated Systems in Different Roadway Contexts2026-01-05264/7/2026
Although SAE Level 2 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Automated Driving Systems (ADS) have been shown to provide some safety benefits, they have largely been constrained to specific driving contexts, namely motorways for ADAS and lower speed roadways for ADS. As more advanced systems are entering the roadways and their operating conditions are expanding, it remains an ongoing challenge to assess the safe operation of vehicles with automation in different roadway contexts and leverage lessons learned from real-world incidents to create safer and more robust systems. As of August 2025, NHTSA’s Standing General Order on Crash Reporting offers systematic data on such incidents, providing at least a cursory overview of where and how they occur. From this source, a total of 1,375 crash records were extracted, 657 for ADAS systems and 715 for ADS systems. Through the application of association rule mining and a novel metric termed influence, patterns in ADAS- and ADS-related crashes were examined within different roadway contexts. In general, it was found that subject vehicle and crash partner pre-crash movements as well as collision types were some of the most distinguishing factors between the two systems used. Differences in context specific rule summations also indicate distinct crash factor combinations between the two systems. The results offer an initial, exploratory perspective on the impact of vehicle automation on public roadways, providing insights that can inform system-specific safety assessments, risk mitigation strategies, and future research into the evolving dynamics of automated driving technologies.
Astle, W. Abram, Haus, Samantha
Development of a Lightweight and Quick-to-Install Pedal Robot for Unmanned Chassis Dynamometer Testing2026-01-01974/7/2026
As the adoption of electric vehicles continues to accelerate, the demand for their development and testing using chassis dynamometers has also increased significantly. Compared with internal combustion engine vehicles, chassis dynamometer testing for electric vehicles typically requires test durations several to several dozen times longer, resulting in substantially increased labor requirements. In addition, low-temperature testing is often required, further intensifying the workload associated with vehicle testing. To address these challenges, this study developed and evaluated a pedal robot designed to enable unmanned and automated testing. The pedal robot developed in this study weighs only 12 kg and can be installed within a few minutes. It is, to the authors’ knowledge, the world’s first pedal robot that mimics human driving behavior by using a single foot to operate both the accelerator and brake pedals. Unlike conventional driving robots, the actuators of the proposed system do not require direct mechanical attachment to the vehicle pedals, allowing for rapid installation. Furthermore, the robot is mounted on the driver-side floor, eliminating the need for attachment to the seat structure. The pedal robot features three degrees of freedom driven by three motors and employs artificial intelligence to recognize the shape and position of pedals across different vehicle models, thereby enabling automated test initiation without manual adjustment. The performance of the pedal robot was evaluated under UDDS, HWFET, and WLTC driving modes, and the results were analyzed in accordance with the SAE J2951 standard. Comparative evaluations demonstrated that the pedal robot achieved superior speed-tracking performance relative to that of an experienced human test driver. The developed pedal robot is currently being utilized for vehicle certification testing of electric and other vehicles at the Mobile Environment Research Center of the National Institute of Environmental Research in Korea. This paper presents a detailed analysis of the corresponding experimental results.
Lee, Daeyup, Kang, Ji Myeong, Jo, Yechan, Choi, SeongUn, Shin, Jaesik, Kim, Jongmin, Kang, Keonwoo
LiDAR-Driven A* Path Planning with Dynamic Obstacle Avoidance for Autonomous Navigation in ROS2026-01-00304/7/2026
Autonomous mobile robots are becoming a key part of everyday operations in industries like manufacturing, logistics, healthcare, and even home assistance. A core requirement for these robots is the ability to navigate efficiently and reliably within their operating environments. To do this automation, the robot needs to understand its surroundings, figure out where it is on a map, and find a safe path from where it is to where it needs to go without bumping into anything. This paper presents an effective grid-based path planning solution for autonomous indoor navigation with a mobile robot. Achieving reliable and collision-free navigation in changing environments is a major challenge for mobile robotics. This is especially true when obstacles can appear unexpectedly, requiring quick re-planning. To tackle this issue, an improved A* algorithm was implemented to work closely with LiDAR for environmental awareness. The improved algorithm was added to the robot’s navigation system, and LiDAR data were used for simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) with Gmapping. A key improvement was integrating with ROS move_base control instead of using direct velocity control, enabling smoother motion and better path tracking. Additionally, the improved A* path is further simplified into a series of crucial waypoints, which are followed by move_base while the system watches LiDAR data in real time to spot obstacles. When a moving obstacle is detected, the planner recalculates the path and updates waypoints, enabling the robot to go around the obstruction and continue toward its goal safely. Tests in real indoor environments showed that the proposed system performs reliably at avoiding dynamic obstacles, navigating smoothly, and achieving goals. By combining heuristic planning, LiDAR perception, and ROS navigation tools, the proposed system offers a practical solution for autonomous mobile robot navigation.
Devaraj, Sriram Sanjeev, Park, Jungme
Monocular 3D Perception and Lane-Aware Bird’s-Eye-View Mapping for Autonomous Driving2026-01-00124/7/2026
Accurate perception of the surrounding environment is fundamental and essential to safe and reliable autonomous driving. This work presents an integrated vision-based framework that com bines object detection, 3D spatial localization, and lane segmentation to construct a unified bird’s-eye-view (BEV) representation of the driving scene. The pipeline provides geometric information on object position and orientation by employing Omni3D to infer 3D bounding boxes of objects from monocular camera frames. Detections are subsequently projected onto a 2D BEV canvas, where object instances are represented with respect to the ground plane for enhanced interpretability. To complement the object-level perception, we utilized YOLOPv2 to perform lane segmentation, producing both lane masks and lane line masks in the image domain for future coordinate transformation. By adopting a pinhole camera model, the coordinate transformation of these masks from the perspective image plane into the BEV canvas can be performed. The fusion of 3D object detections and geometrically transformed lane representations yields a coherent and structured spatial map of the vehicle’s surroundings. In addition, the BEV space is integrated into a local 2D map generated from Mapbox tool. This unified environment model enables explicit reasoning about drivable space and surrounding obstacles, facilitating its integration into downstream modules such as path planning and trajectory prediction. The framework demonstrates the feasibility of leveraging recent advances in monocular 3D perception and deep learning-based lane segmentation to construct a computationally efficient and semantically rich BEV representation, which is a potential core perception component in real-time autonomous driving systems.
Tan, Lin, Arjmanzdadeh, Ziba, Wang, Hanchen, Li, Taozhe, Hajnorouzali, Yasaman, Burch, Collin, Lee, Victoria, Xu, Bin
High Order Control Lyapunov Function - Control Barrier Function - Quadratic Programming Based Autonomous Driving Controller for Bicyclist Safety2026-01-00344/7/2026
Ensuring the safety of Vulnerable Road Users (VRUs) is a critical challenge in the development of advanced autonomous driving systems in smart cities. Among vulnerable road users, bicyclists present unique characteristics that make their safety both critical and also manageable. Vehicles often travel at significantly higher relative speeds when interacting with bicyclists as compared to their interactions with pedestrians which makes collision avoidance system design for bicyclist safety more challenging. Yet, bicyclist movements are generally more predictable and governed by clear traffic rules as compared to the sudden and sometimes erratic pedestrian motion, offering opportunities for model-based control strategies. To address bicyclist safety in complex traffic environments, this study proposes and develops a High-Order Control Lyapunov Function–High-Order Control Barrier Function–Quadratic Programming (HOCLF-HOCBF-QP) control framework. Through this framework, CLFs constraints guarantee system stability so that the vehicle can track its reference trajectory, whereas CBFs constraints ensure system safety by letting vehicle avoiding potential collisions region with surrounding obstacles. Then by solving a QP problem, an optimal control command that simultaneously satisfies stability and safety requirements can be calculated. Three key bicyclist crash scenarios recorded in the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) are recreated and used to comprehensively evaluate the proposed autonomous driving bicyclist safety control strategy in a simulation study. Simulation results demonstrate that the HOCLF-HOCBF-QP controller can help the vehicle perform robust, and collision-free maneuvers, highlighting its potential for improving bicyclist safety in complex traffic environments.
Chen, Haochong, Cao, Xincheng, Guvenc, Levent, Aksun Guvenc, Bilin
Maintaining a Healthy Safety Culture in Autonomous Vehicle Development and Operations2026-01-05284/7/2026
Safety isn’t just the absence of accidents - it’s the presence of trust, empowerment, and accountability at every level. The result is a high-trust culture where process becomes practice and safety is a shared achievement. When people closest to the work feel supported to act on what they see, safety becomes the standard. Thus, the deployment of autonomous driving systems (ADSs) requires not only technical rigor but also a resilient organizational safety culture that supports continuous learning, accountability, and transparent communication. This paper examines how safety culture can be operationalized in ADS development and operations by integrating guidance from standards such as UL 4600 and best practices from SAE AVSC. UL 4600’s requirements for systematic hazard analysis, safety case maintenance, and safety performance indicators (SPIs) are used as a foundation for quantifying organizational behavior within a Just Culture framework. This work draws on Human and Organizational Performance (HOP) research, including foundational contributions from Hollnagel, Reason, Dekker, Conklin, and Rasmussen, linking cultural dynamics to workforce involvement and effective safety controls. We propose a taxonomy of seven safety-culture SPIs that trace directly to UL 4600 § 16.2.5 and demonstrate how they can be deployed within an incident-handling process. Each SPI is defined mathematically and mapped to process steps, enabling both leading- and lagging-indicator assessment of safety culture maturity. This proposed framework, which requires formal research validation, transforms SPIs from compliance metrics into qualitative diagnostic tools for trust, empowerment, and system learning. The approach aligns organizational processes with Just Culture principles, distinguishing human error, at-risk behavior, and reckless conduct, while supporting continuous improvement and evidence-based conformance with UL 4600 and related ADS safety standards.
Wagner, Michael, Gittleman, Michele
Agile Safety Case Assessments for Autonomous Vehicle Fleets2026-01-05214/7/2026
Rapidly upcoming deployment of autonomous vehicles (AVs), including robotaxis and trucks, has intensified the need for rigorous safety assessment of complex AI-driven systems. While considerable effort has been invested in constructing safety cases for AVs, systematic approaches for evaluating these safety cases remain underdeveloped. This paper presents a three-stage methodology for assessing AV safety cases. A process for assessing argumentation is presented that involves traceability to pre-reviewed and peer-reviewed safety cases such as the Open Autonomy Safety Case (OASC). Next, we present a structured process for evaluating the quality of evidence supporting these arguments. We applied this methodology to evaluate safety cases from multiple AV developers, enabling iterative refinement throughout the development lifecycle. Our agile approach supports efficient assessments by establishing clear traceability to industry standards and enabling early identification of potential gaps. This work provides regulators, operators, and developers with a practical framework for systematically evaluating AV safety cases and identifies lessons learned and areas for continued improvement.
Wagner, Michael
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