Browse Topic: Electrical systems

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Simulation-Based Investigation and its experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus2025-01-0266To be published on 07/02/2025
Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand respectively to increase the mileage of the vehicle [1]. The thermal management of an electric city bus comprises the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as engine and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal management of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real world driving cycles. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of heat transfer are modelled
Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin
Technical Paper
Modular Thermal Management Framework for Electric Drive System Development2025-01-0262To be published on 07/02/2025
The automotive industry is undergoing a major shift from internal combustion engines (ICE) to hybrid (HEV) and battery-electric vehicles (BEV), which has led to significant advancements and increased complexity in drivetrain design and thermal management systems. This complexity reflects the growing need to optimize energy efficiency, extend vehicle range, and ensure system reliability in modern electric vehicles. At the Institute of Automotive Engineering, a specialized synthesis tool for drivetrain optimization is used to identify the best drivetrain configurations based on specific boundaries and requirements. Building up on this toolchain a modular and adaptable thermal management framework has been developed, addressing another critical aspect of vehicle and drive development: efficient thermal circuit layout and its impact on energy consumption and overall system reliability. The thermal framework emphasizes the dynamic interactions between key components, such as electric
Notz, Fabian, Sturm, Axel, Sander, Marcel, Kässens, Christoph, Henze, Roman
Technical Paper
Experimental Investigation of Factors Influencing Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Battery Cells2025-01-0306To be published on 07/02/2025
In the fast-paced automotive development environment, experimental testing is often constrained by time and budget limitations. Consequently, tests are frequently conducted to meet regulatory requirements, industry standards, or internal guidelines. This leads to minimalistic testing approaches such as "One Factor at a Time" (OFAT) or "Trial and Error", which fail to capture parameter interactions and system complexities. This study investigates the critical factors influencing the thermal runaway behavior of lithium-ion battery cells under controlled experimental conditions. A statistical full-factorial experimental design was implemented to evaluate the impact of state of charge (SoC), heating trigger power, and cell capacity. The experiments, conducted using an autoclave setup, allowed for precise control of external conditions and detailed measurement of thermal and mechanical responses. The cells investigated are automotive-grade lithium-ion cells from development projects
Ceylan, Deniz, Kulzer, André Casal, Winterholler, Nina, Weinmann, Johannes, Schiek, Werner
Technical Paper
Design and Analysis of a Battery Thermal Management System for Fast Charging in Extreme Hot Condition2025-01-0322To be published on 07/02/2025
Fast charging of lithium-ion batteries presents significant thermal management challenges, due to the high demanding conditions of high C-rates, particularly at extreme ambient temperatures. This study explores the thermal behavior of a cylindrical lithium-ion cell during fast-charging scenarios designed to achieve a full charge in 15 minutes or less (SOC: 0%–100%), across a wide range of ambient temperatures. The analysis covers a broad spectrum of ambient temperatures, from 303 K to 333 K, addressing real-world operational challenges faced by electric vehicles and energy storage systems. A validated thermal model, calibrated with experimental data on the open circuit voltage (OCV) and internal resistance of the cell across varying conditions, is employed to accurately predict the temperature distribution of the cell at different states of charge (SOC). The model also includes scenarios involving high initial cell temperatures to assess their effect on thermal performance during fast
Jahanpanah, Jalal, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Babaie, Meisam, Konno, Juho, Akbarzadeh, Mohsen
Technical Paper
Prediction of hazardous gaseous emissions from a gasoline engine during cold starts using machine learning methods2025-01-0321To be published on 07/02/2025
Internal combustion engines generate higher exhaust emissions of hazardous gases during the initial minutes after engine start. Experimental data from a state-of-the-art turbo-charged 3-cylinder, 999 cc gasoline engine are used to predict cold start emissions using two Machine Learning (ML) models: a Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) which is a fully connected neural network and an Encoder-Decoder Recurrent Neural Network (ED-RNN). Engine parameters and various temperatures are used as input for the models and NOx, CO, and unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions are predicted. The dataset includes time series recordings from the Worldwide harmonized Light-duty vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) and four Real Diving Emissions (RDE) cycles at ambient and initial engine temperatures ranging from -20 °C to +23 °C. In total, 21 cases are considered, consisting of eight different ambient temperatures and five distinct driving cycles. Each case consists of a sequence of 2500 samples taken at 5 Hz. The
Mangipudi, Manoj, Denev, Jordan A., Bockhorn, Henning, Trimis, Dimosthenis, Koch, Thomas, Debus, Charlotte, Götz, Markus, Zirwes, Thorsten, Hagen, Fabian P., Tofighian, Hesam, Wagner, Uwe, Braun, Samuel, Lanzer, Theodor, Knapp, Sebastian M.
Technical Paper
Upgradable Mechatronic Systems – Integration of Upgrade Planning and Design for Sustainable Vehicle Development2025-01-0290To be published on 07/02/2025
The automotive industry faces the challenge of developing vehicles that meet current customer requirements while being future-proof. Surveys show that customers fear financial risks associated with essential subsystems like batteries due to aging and performance degradation, which significantly affects the service life of vehicles. Therefore, the rapid technological progress in electrified powertrain systems requires innovative approaches for high adaptability to changing demands. This paper presents an approach combining foresight-based planning of system-level upgrades with product architecture design to create adaptable and sustainable vehicles through modularity. Potential battery and energy storage technologies are identified, their market introduction is forecasted, and they are analyzed technically-functional and geometrically to create flexible design spaces within the product architecture. This enables the future integration of new, more efficient, or higher-performance
Fehrenbacher, Rüdiger, Kuebler, Maximilian, Zeng, Yunying, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert, Nootny, Fabio, Kolbe, Lucia, Jung, Luca
Technical Paper
Optimization of Metallic Substrate by 1D simulations to fulfill High Power Cold Start Conditions2025-01-0308To be published on 07/02/2025
The future of the internal combustion engine is strictly related to his capability to have Life Cycle Emission comparable to the pure Battery Electric Vehicles. To achieve this goal, it will be necessary not only to have carbon free fuels but also to increase the hybridization of the powertrain in order to have lower fuel consumption. On the other hand, it will be necessary to reduce to almost zero any further emissions of pollutants. For this reason, highly sophisticated exhaust aftertreatment must be developed. One particular use case is the so-called High-Power Cold Start. This can occur for the Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles when the transition from pure electric drive to ICE assisted drive happens during high load request, for example an acceleration on the freeway ramp. This use case has been evaluated by CARB and in many other works. Nevertheless, in this particular paper, the Authors would like to investigate which Metallic Substrate Technology fits better during a HPCS. This
Montenegro, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Della Torre, Augusto, Marinoni, Andrea, Pace, Lorenzo, Konieczny, Katrin, Laurell, Mats, Klövmark, Henrik
Technical Paper
Automated Test Process for Highly Configurable Software-Defined Mobility Systems in CI/CD2025-01-0297To be published on 07/02/2025
In the pursuit of customizability and evolvability of vehicle functions, manufacturers shift towards software-defined vehicles (SDV) to enable flexible customization and over-the-air updates. This results in multiple variants and versions of a vehicle model. While shifting to SDVs adds value and flexibility for customers, manufacturers struggle with homologating new and updated functionality because existing testing processes do not scale for high-frequency release cycles that limit available testing resources. Overcoming this challenge by using a coherent test process designed for testing variant-rich systems in continuous evolution will be one of the key enablers for the future development of SDVs. This paper presents an innovative end-to-end pipeline for efficient and comprehensive testing of variant-rich vehicle functionality tailored to an application in continuous development. Our transferable test pipeline employs sample-based variant selection, a software-in-the-loop
Hettich, Lennard, Pett, Tobias, Nägele, Ann-Therese, Schindewolf, Marc, Eris, Halit, Wagner, Stefan, Sax, Eric, Schaefer, Ina, Weyrich, Michael
Technical Paper
Thermal Simulation of CCS Charging Inlet at High Charging Currents with various Optimisation Approaches2025-01-0278To be published on 07/02/2025
Current status: In Europe, the CCS charging standard for electric vehicles is the most widely used charging system. In order to reduce the inconveniences caused by long charging times, the CCS charging standard has been gradually adapted to the need for higher charging capacities. Currently, charging currents of up to 500A are supported at a charging power of up to 500kW. In order to decarbonise road transport, commercial vehicles are also increasingly being electrified. Problem definition: Battery-electric commercial vehicles in particular have large battery capacities with several hundred kilowatt hours, some of which do not have enough energy for an entire working day, which is why they need to be recharged if necessary. High charging power with correspondingly high charging currents is required to recharge the electrical energy storage units of commercial vehicles in an acceptable time. Due to the electrical losses, waste heat is generated, which places a thermal load on the
Krings, Jochen, Reuss, Hans-Christian, Ziegler, Peter, Steinmetz, Paul
Technical Paper
Modern approach to adopt low cost EV solution on existing ICE vehicle2025-01-0190To be published on 06/16/2025
Developing countries like India are facing major problems of inflation of oil costs and increasing carbon emission. Electric vehicle is better option to control the carbon emission and oil prices. Electric vehicles have certain advantages to overcome existing issues but at the same time it has got own challenges. Range anxiety and battery cost are the hurdles to adopt EV solution. This paper explains the unique approach to adopt EV solution at very low cost in commercial vehicle segment. Idea is to convert existing internal combustion vehicle into Electric vehicle by optimising the cost of the vehicle so as it is affordable to the end user. It also explores the challenges and difficulties faced in their adoption, such as the high cost of infrastructure, scarcity of charging stations, limited range or range anxiety, and the performance of batteries. This paper gives outline of EV adoption by using existing ICE vehicle. Challenges and opportunities are discussed in details to make this
Deshmukh, Sagar Ramchandra, Doiphode, Nilesh
Technical Paper
Effect of ignition condition and fuel octane number on knock intensity in a small 2-stroke engine2025-01-0211To be published on 06/16/2025
The internal combustion engines are widely used on automotive transportation for its high energy storage system efficiency and the economic benefits. The 4-stroke engine has dominated all other forms to date, because the Otto cycle is much simpler to comprehend. However, the significant benefits such as, less pumping work and friction, lighter construction of 2-stroke engine, helped with applications which appreciate the simplicity and power density as well as meet the emission regulations. The disadvantages of the 2-stroke engine mainly caused by the lack of sufficient scavenging process, which limited its trapping efficiency. Also, the overlap of the intake and exhaust phases results in charge short-circuiting, more fuel consumption and high unburned hydrocarbon emissions. For the reason above, it is difficult for 2-stroke engines to realize stoichiometric combustion and unable to use three-way catalyst to control emissions. The residual exhaust gas in the cylinder makes the spark
Liu, Jinru, Iijima, Akira, Yamazaki, Yoshiaki, Yokota, Takumi, Kato, Hayato, Otaki, Yusuke
Technical Paper
Integrating for Safety – A Proposed Approach to the Integration of Propulsion Battery Systems in Hybrid Electric Aviation2025-01-0148To be published on 05/02/2025
In the last year we have witnessed a notable surge in the designs and in the guidance material for electric and hybrid aircraft. FAA and EASA have continued to evaluate the safety of Propulsion Battery Systems (PBS), with a focus on thermal runaway containment testing. As a result, a harmonization white paper was issued to provide a certification path for Thermal Runaway (TR) Hazards, followed by an EASA certification memorandum on the acceptable approaches for the certification of Electric/Hybrid Propulsion Systems (EHPS). And just recently, an FAA Advisory Circular (draft) was issued for the “powered-lift” aircraft that feature these propulsion battery systems. In spite of the advances made by electric/hybrid aircraft manufacturers and the aviation authorities, there is still a missing piece of the puzzle. Mainly, we are still not confident in our ability to properly integrate the PBS into the EHPS architecture, in such a way where safety is never compromised, no matter the hazard
Hanna, Michael, Walker, Cherizar
Technical Paper
Enhancing Efficiency in Aerospace Manufacturing through AI Agent Based Bearing Diagnostics System2025-01-0158To be published on 05/02/2025
Industrial bearings are critical components in aerospace manufacturing, where their failures can result in costly downtime. Traditional fault diagnosis typically depends on time-consuming on-site inspections conducted by specialized engineers. This research introduces an innovative Artificial Intelligence application that functions as a virtual maintenance technician, empowering on-site personnel to perform preliminary diagnoses. By reducing the dependence on specialized engineers, this technology aims to minimize downtime. The AI system leverages large language models to guide the inspection process, answer queries from a comprehensive knowledge base, analyze defect images, and generate detailed reports with actionable recommendations. Multiple deep learning algorithms operate as backend APIs to support this functionality. This study details the architectural design of the expert system and provides a real-time simulation of its workflow, demonstrating its potential to enhance
Chandrasekaran, Balaji
Technical Paper
Model-Based Design and Energy Management of an Aeronautical Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell System2025-01-0150To be published on 05/02/2025
The growing demand for air transport requires efficient and sustainable power systems to meet the pressing need for decarbonizing the sector. A hybrid unit, consisting of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system and a lithium-ion battery, is a suitable option due to the benefits of reduced gravimetric and volumetric impacts, along with the flexibility of energy management strategies. This work addresses, using a model-based approach, the issue of integrating these electrochemical devices into the aircraft’s electrical architecture, considering both design and energy management aspects. Two scenarios are explored to match the DC bus line voltage requirements. In the first, the fuel cell system nominal power is kept constant, while the number of DC/DC converters operating in parallel is assessed by constructing bi-dimensional maps derived from literature. These maps relate the converter’s maximum deliverable power to the input and desired output voltage. The second scenario introduces
Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Napolitano, Ciro
Technical Paper
Short-Time Current Rating of Aircraft Wire2025-01-0145To be published on 05/02/2025
This paper presents a comparative analysis of various short-time current rating formulas, focusing on applications in aircraft wiring. Examining historical formulas developed by pioneers such as W.H. Preece and I.M. Onderdonk alongside modern experimental data provide a comprehensive understanding of short-time current rating formulas. Also, exploring key challenges, such as environmental conditions and material variability in aviation with particular attention to adiabatic methods for current-carrying calculations. The findings of this paper offer practical insights into improving the safety and reliability of an aircraft electrical system with improving the accuracy of short-time current rating predictions.
Fifield, Jon
Technical Paper
Conceptual Design of a Superconducting Aero Electric Engine System2025-01-0146To be published on 05/02/2025
The goal of the development of an electric aircraft engine is to create an aircraft system that achieves ultimate efficiency using hydrogen fuel instead of fossil fuels. Therefore, it is necessary to focus on reducing weight as much as possible, and this paper describes the approach to such fuel cell-powered aircraft. The authors have adopted a superconducting coreless rotating electric machine with an integrated hydrogen tank and are pursuing a target of 70kg or less for the main components of a 2MW rotating electric machine. High-temperature superconducting wires have zero electrical resistance and can carry a very high current density, but the alternating current (AC) loss generated when used in AC has been an issue in their application to rotating electric machines. In 2023, The SCSC cable was developed to be a low-AC-loss, robust, and high current cable concept, in which copper-plated multifilament coated conductors are wound spirally on a core. In addition to using this
Oyori, Hitoshi, Sakurai, Sho, Kusase, Shin, Yoshida, Yukihiro, Yoshinaga, Seiichiro, Nose, Hiroyuki, Amemiya, Naoyuki
Technical Paper
Effect of Mesopore Structure of Carbon Gel on Improving the Capacity of Electric Double-Layer Capacitors2024-32-0026To be published on 04/18/2025
Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) store charge by adsorbing ions at the electrode-electrolyte interface, offering fast charge/discharge rates, high power density, minimal heat generation, and long cycle life. These characteristics make EDLCs ideal for memory backup in electronic devices and power assistance in electric and hybrid vehicles. However, their energy density is lower than that of batteries, necessitating improvements in electrical capacity and potential. Traditionally, activated carbon with a high specific surface area has been used, but recent research focuses on mesoporous carbon materials for better ion diffusion. This study uses resorcinol-formaldehyde-carbon cryogel (RFCC) with mesopores and organic electrolytes with a wider electrochemical window. Various RFCCs with different pore sizes were synthesized and evaluated. Comprehensive investigations into the pore structures and surface properties of both synthesized carbon gels and commercial mesoporous materials
Cheng, Zairan, Okamura, Tsubasa, Ohnishi, Yuto, Nakagawa, Kiyoharu
Technical Paper
Numerical Investigation of Electrolyte Feed System Designs at the Stack Level of Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries2024-32-0068To be published on 04/18/2025
The rise of electric vehicles (EVs) highlights the need to transition to a renewable energy society, where power is generated from sustainable sources. This shift is driven by environmental, economic, and energy security concerns. However, renewable energy sources like wind and solar are intermittent, necessitating extensive energy storage systems. Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are promising for large-scale energy storage due to their long cycle life, scalability, and safety. In VRFBs, cells are typically connected in series to increase voltage, with electrolytes introduced through parallel flow channels using a single manifold. This design, while simple and low in pressure drop, often leads to imbalanced flow rates among cells, affecting performance. Balancing flow rates is crucial to minimize uneven overpotential and enhance durability, presenting an optimization challenge between achieving uniform flow and minimizing pressure drop. This study developed numerical models to
Suwanpakdee, Nut, Aiemsathit, Poramet, Charoen-amornkitt, Patcharawat, Suzuki, Takahiro, Tsushima, Shohji
Technical Paper
Dynamic Modeling of an off-Road Vehicle with Whoops Behavior2024-32-0080To be published on 04/18/2025
Off-road vehicle demand is on the rise, particularly in North America. In connection with this trend, there is a demand for dynamic modeling to describe the behavior of off-road vehicles when driving terrains surfaces with successive bumps. However, conventional dynamic models has been insufficient in representing the situation where the tire-ground contact and detachment states switch successively during whoops behavior. Therefore, in this study, rigid-body multibody dynamics methodology was employed to model the vehicle and conduct numerical simulations. Numerical simulations were conducted using the constructed vehicle model, demonstrating that the behavior of off-road vehicles in whoops closely resembles the actual phenomenon.
Inoue, Tsuyoshi, Ejiri, Haruto, Heya, Akira, Yoshida, Masahiro
Technical Paper
Accelerating Battery Thermal Analysis by Integrating CFD Simulation and Machine Learning Techniques2024-32-0121To be published on 04/18/2025
The growing demand for sustainable transportation solutions and renewable energy storage systems has heightened the necessity for precise and effective prediction of battery thermal performance. However, achieving both precision and efficiency poses a challenge, necessitating exploration into diverse methodologies. The conventional use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) offers a comprehensive insight into thermal dynamics but prioritizes precision over efficiency. To enhance the efficiency of this traditional approach, numerous reduced-order modeling techniques have emerged, and the concept of Machine Learning (ML) presents a distinct avenue for enhancing simulation capabilities, particularly in the context of mobility solutions. This paper presents a novel approach to accelerate battery thermal analysis by integrating CFD and ML. The CFD simulations provide an intricate understanding of the thermal dynamics within batteries, encompassing fluid flow and temperature distributions
Devarajan, Gurudevan, Vaidyanathan, Ganesh, Bhave, Ajinkya, Ji, Lichao, Wang, Jiao, Zhou, Wei, He, Jiguang, Shi, Pengfei
Technical Paper
Local and Global Entropy Generation of Topographically Optimized Porous Reactors in Reaction-Diffusion Systems Considering Coupling Effects between Heat and Mass Transfer2024-32-0069To be published on 04/18/2025
As the automotive sector shifts towards cleaner and more sustainable technologies, fuel cells and batteries have emerged as promising technologies with revolutionary potential. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles offer faster refueling times, extended driving ranges, and reduced weight and space requirements compared to battery electric vehicles, making them highly appealing for future transportation applications. Despite these advantages, optimizing electrode structures and balancing various transport mechanisms are crucial for improving PEFCs’ performance for widespread commercial viability. Previous research has utilized topology optimization (TO) to identify optimal electrode structures and attempted to establish a connection between entropy generation and topographically optimized structures, aiming to strengthen TO numerical findings with a robust theoretical basis. However, existing studies have often neglected the coupling of transport phenomena. Typically, it is assumed that a single
Tep, Rotanak Visal Sok, Long, Mengly, Alizadeh, Mehrzad, Charoen-amornkitt, Patcharawat, Suzuki, Takahiro, Tsushima, Shohji
Technical Paper
3D-CFD Simulations of H2 ICEs: A Preliminary Evaluation of a Laminar Flame Speed Correction for Thermo-Diffusive Instability2024-32-0074To be published on 04/18/2025
In recent years, climate change and geopolitical instability have intensified the focus on sustainable power generation. This shift seeks alternatives that balance environmental impact, cost-effectiveness, and practicality. Specifically, in transportation and power generation, electric motors face challenges against internal combustion engines due to the high cost and mass of batteries required for energy storage. This makes electric solutions less favorable for these sectors. Conversely, internal combustion engines, when properly fueled, offer cost-effectiveness and a quasi-environmentally-neutral option. To address these challenges, researchers have explored e-fuels derived from renewable sources as a carbon-neutral supply for internal combustion engines. Among these, hydrogen is particularly promising. In hydrogen-powered internal combustion engines, 3D-CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) in-cylinder models are crucial. Once validated, these models can speed up the design process. A
Sfriso, Stefano, Berni, Fabio, Breda, Sebastiano, Fontanesi, Stefano, Cordisco, Ilario, Leite, Caio Ramalho, Brequigny, Pierre, Foucher, Fabrice
Technical Paper
Fuel Film Measurement in a SI Gasoline Engine Using a Newly Developed MEMS Sensor2024-32-0071To be published on 04/18/2025
The previously developed capacitance sensor for detecting a liquid fuel film was modified to apply to the in-cylinder measurement. On the developed sensor surface, comb-shaped electrodes were circularly aligned. The capacitance between the electrodes varies with the liquid fuel film adhering. The capacitance variation between the electrodes on the sensor surface was converted to the frequency variation of the oscillation circuit. In the previous study, it was revealed that the frequency of the oscillation circuit varies with the variation of the liquid fuel coverage area on the sensor surface. The developed sensor was installed in the combustion chamber of the rapid compression and expansion machine, and the performance of the developed sensor was examined. Iso-octane was used as a test fuel to explore the sensor that had been developed. As a result, the adherence of the liquid fuel directly injected into the cylinder was successfully detected under the quiescent and motoring
Kuboyama, Tatsuya, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Takayama, Satoshi, Nakabeppu, Osamu
Technical Paper
Optimal Porous Electrode Structures in All-Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries2024-32-0085To be published on 04/18/2025
To address the pressing issue of electrical fluctuations from renewable energy technologies, an energy storage system (ESS) is proposed. The vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is gaining significant attention due to its extended lifespan, durability, thermal safety, and independent power capacity, despite its high cost. Key components of the VRFB include a membrane, carbon electrode, bipolar plate, gasket, current collector, electrolyte, and pump. Among these, the carbon electrode and bipolar plate are the most expensive. Reducing capital costs in VRFB systems is crucial for advancing clean energy solutions. Conventional flow field designs like interdigitated flow field (IFF), serpentine flow field (SFF), and parallel flow field (PFF) are used to feed the electrolyte into the VRFB cell, necessitating thicker bipolar plates to avoid cracking during the machining process. This study focuses on optimizing the flow-through (FT) design, which eliminates the need for machining on bipolar
Aiemsathit, Poramet, Sun, Pengfei, Alizadeh, Mehrzad, Laoonual, Yossapong, Charoen-amornkitt, Patcharawat, Suzuki, Takahiro, Tsushima, Shohji
Technical Paper
Traction Voltage Level in Two-Wheelers: Considerations on Safety and Performance2024-32-0062To be published on 04/18/2025
Most electric 2-wheelers on the market today seek to replace combustion engine vehicles from 50cc to 150cc which equates to an electric motor power between 2 and 12 kW. The traction voltage level of these vehicles is mostly between 44V and 96V. However, the actual choice of voltage on a specific vehicle seems to be arbitrary and higher voltage does not necessarily correlate with higher motor power. This paper seeks to highlight considerations and tradeoffs which feed the choice of traction voltage levels. Important criteria are electrical safety standards and their impact on vehicle electrical architecture, the performance and availability of key electronics parts such as capacitors, MOSFETs, and gate drivers, while also highlighting functional safety aspects. This paper shows by a comprehensive analysis of the motor drive that for the vehicle class mentioned above the traction voltage level can be kept below 60V without any performance impact, while also ensuring electrical and
Schmitt, Stefan
Technical Paper
Assessing Lithium-ion Battery Functionality Post-Thermal Management with Water Mist2024-32-0122To be published on 04/18/2025
The danger of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) is intensified when they are used at inappropriate temperatures, leading to self-heating and eventually contributing to thermal runaway. Nevertheless, there is uncertainty through the safety of reusing batteries after they have been exposed to heat damage and water mist from fire extinguishers. To address these concerns, this study aimed to experimentally investigate the impact of temperature on batteries and introduce a thermal management using a water mist. Subjecting a battery to a temperature of 100°C for a duration of 39 minutes can immediately detect inoperability from a sudden drop in voltage. The use of water mist was proposed to rapidly mitigate the heat production inside the battery. The state of health (SOH) and the impedance were employed to confirm the battery’s functionality after exposure to thermal abuse and water spraying. The SOH of fresh cells was measured as a reference line for comparison to tested
Trinuruk, Piyatida, Patthathum, Pathomporn, Jumnongjit, Apiwit
Technical Paper
Sustainable Design of Automotive Batteries2025-01-0001To be published on 04/18/2025
A consequence of the automotive industry's shift to electrification is that a significantly higher percentage of a vehicle's lifecycle CO₂ emissions occur during the production phase. As a result, vehicle manufacturers and suppliers must shift the focus of product development from the 'in-use phase only' to optimizing the complete product lifecycle. The proper design of a battery has the highest impact to all other phases following in the life-cycle. It influences the selection of materials, the manufacturing, in-use and end of life, respectively the recycling and recycling yield for a circular economy. Using real-life examples the paper will explain what are the main parameters necessary for designing a sustainable battery. What are the low hanging fruits to be considered? In addition, it will elaborate on the relation as well as the impacts to other KPIs like safety, costs and life-time of the battery. Finally it will round up in an outlook on how batteries will evolve in the future
Braun, Andreas, Rothbart, Martin
Technical Paper
Experiment Characterization and Simulation Analysis of a Lithium-Ion Battery in Different Ambient Conditions2025-01-5028To be published on 04/15/2025
A great number of performances of an electric vehicle such as driving range, powering performance, and the like are affected by its configured batteries. Having a good grasp of the electrical and thermal behavior of the battery before the detailed design stage is indispensable. This paper introduces an experiment characterization method of a lithium-ion battery with a coolant system from cell level to pack level in different ambient conditions. Corresponding cell and pack simulation models established in AMESim that aimed to capture the electrical and thermal features of the battery were also illustrated, respectively. First, the capacity test and hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) test were conducted in a thermotank to acquire basic data about the battery cell. Next, based on acquired data, first-order equivalent circuit model (1C-ECM) was built for the battery cell and further combined with environmental boundary conditions to check the simulation accuracy. Then, hybrid
Zhou, Shuai, Liu, Huaiju, Yu, Huili, Yan, Xu, Yan, Junjie
Technical Paper
A Low-Entry Bus Body Structure Performance under the Conditions of the New Car Assessment Program Frontal Crash Tests09-13-02-000704/09/2025
The New Car Assessment Program (e.g., US NCAP and EuroNCAP) frontal crash tests are an essential part of vehicle safety evaluations, which are mandatory for the certification of civil means of transport prior to normal road exploitation. The presented research is focused on the behavior of a tubular low-entry bus frame during a frontal impact test at speeds of 32 and 56 km/h, perpendicular to a rigid wall surface. The deformation zones in the bus front and roof parts were estimated using Ansys LS-DYNA and considered such factors as the additional mass (1630 kg) of electric batteries following the replacement of a diesel engine with an electric one. This caused stabilization of the electric bus body along the transverse axis, with deviations decreased by 19.9%. Speed drop from 56 to 32 km/h showed a reduction of the front window sill deformations from 172 to 132 mm, and provided a twofold margin (159.4 m/s2) according to the 30g ThAC criterion of R80. This leads to the conclusion about
Holenko, Kostyantyn, Dykha, Aleksandr, Koda, Eugeniusz, Kernytskyy, Ivan, Royko, Yuriy, Horbay, Orest, Berezovetska, Oksana, Rys, Vasyl, Humeniuk, Ruslan, Berezovetskyi, Serhii, Chalecki, Marek
Journal Article
Predictive Battery Thermal Management System Control Strategy and Simulation in Electric Vehicle2025-01-502704/03/2025
With the global issue of fossil fuel scarcity and the greenhouse effect, interest in electric vehicles (EVs) has surged recently. At that stage, because of the constraints of the energy density and battery performance degradation in low-temperature conditions, the mileage of EVs has been criticized. To guarantee battery performance, a battery thermal management system (BTMS) is applied to ensure battery operates in a suitable temperature range. Currently, in the industry, a settled temperature interval is set as criteria of positive thermal management activation, which is robust but leads to energy waste. BTMS has a kilowatt-level power usage under high- and low-temperature environments. Optimizing the BTMS control strategy becomes a potential solution to reduce energy consumption and overcome mileage issues. An appropriate system simulation model provides an effective tool to evaluate different BTMS control strategies. In this study, a predictive BTMS control strategy, which adjusts
Huang, Zhipei, Chen, Jiangbo, Tang, Hai
Technical Paper
Connectors and Inlets for the North American Charging System (NACS) for Electric VehiclesJ3400/2_202504 (Current)04/03/2025
This document covers the dimensional definition of the SAE J3400 (NACS) electric vehicle coupler, which includes the connector and inlet.
Hybrid - EV Committee
Technical Standard
INSTALLING AND REMOVAL TOOLS, CONNECTOR ELECTRICAL CONTACT, TYPE I, CLASS 1, COMPOSITION CAS81969/17A (Current)04/02/2025
AE-8C2 Terminating Devices and Tooling Committee
Technical Standard
Use of Methanol in a High-Power Density Generator13-06-03-002104/02/2025
Increasing global pressure to reduce anthropogenic carbon emissions has inspired a transition from conventional petroleum-fueled internal combustion engines to alternative powertrains, including battery electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrids. Hybrids offer a promising solution for emissions reduction by addressing the limitations of pure EVs such as slow recharge and range anxiety. In a previous research endeavor, a prototype high-power density generator was meticulously designed, fabricated, and subjected to testing. This generator incorporated a compact permanent magnet brushless dynamo and a diminutive single-cylinder two-stroke engine with low-technology constructions. This prototype generated 8.5 kW of electrical power while maintaining a lightweight profile at 21 kg. This study investigates the performance and emissions reduction potential by adapting the prototype to operate on methanol fuel. Performance and emissions were experimentally evaluated under varying operating conditions
Gore, Matt, Nonavinakere Vinod, Kaushik, Fang, Tiegang
Journal Article
CRIMPING TOOL AND ACCESSORIES, REMOTE CRIMP HEAD, HYDRAULIC, WIRE SIZE 8 TO 0000 FOR INSULATED AND UN-INSULATED CRIMP BARRELSAS5259/1B (Current)04/02/2025
AE-8C2 Terminating Devices and Tooling Committee
Technical Standard
Learning-Based Energy Management Strategy of Fuel Cell City Buses Considering Power Source Degradation02-18-02-001204/02/2025
Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) offer a promising solution for achieving environmentally friendly transportation and improving fuel economy. The energy management strategy (EMS), as a critical technology for FCVs, faces significant challenges of achieving a balanced coordination among the fuel economy, power battery life, and durability of fuel cell across diverse environments. To address these challenges, a learning-based EMS for fuel cell city buses considering power source degradation is proposed. First, a fuel cell degradation model and a power battery aging model from the literature are presented. Then, based on the deep Q-network (DQN), four factors are incorporated into the reward function, including comprehensive hydrogen consumption, fuel cell performance degradation, power battery life degradation, and battery state of charge deviation. The simulation results show that compared to the dynamic programming–based EMS (DP-EMS), the proposed EMS improves the fuel cell durability while
Song, Dafeng, Yan, Jinxing, Zeng, Xiaohua, Zhang, Yunhe
Journal Article
Battery Thermal Management System for PHEV by using Air Conditioning Heater System2025-01-817204/01/2025
Toyota Motor Corporation pursuing an omnidirectional strategy that includes battery electric vehicle (BEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) to accelerate electrification. One of the technical challenges with our xEV batteries which feature good degradation resistance and long battery life, is that regenerative braking cannot be fully effective due to the decrease in regenerative power in some situations, such as low battery temperature. For the electrified vehicles with an internal combustion engine such as PHEVs, the solution has been running the engine to increase deceleration through engine braking during coasting. PHEVs are expected to extend their cruising range and enhance EV driving experience as "Practical BEVs". While increasing battery capacity and enhancing convenience, the restrictions on EV driving opportunity due to low battery temperature may negatively affect PHEV’s appealing. As an alternative, introducing a battery heater
Hoshino, Yu
Technical Paper
Bio-Based Phase Change Material for Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal Management using Copper Fins: A Numerical Investigation2025-01-817104/01/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining popularity due to their zero tailpipe emissions, superior energy efficiency, and sustainable nature. EVs have various limitations, and crucial one is the occurrence of thermal runaway in the battery pack. During charging or discharging condition of battery pack may result in thermal runaway condition. This promotes the requirement of effective cooling arrangement in and around the battery pack to avoid localized peak temperature. In the present work, thermal management of a 26650 Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cell using natural convection air cooling, composite biobased phase change material (CBPCM) and its combination with copper fins is numerically investigated using multi-scale multi dimension - Newman, Tiedenann, Gu and Kim (MSMD-NTGK) battery model in Ansys Fluent at an ambient temperature of 306 K. Natural convection air cooling was found effective at discharge rates of 1C to 3C, maintaining cell temperature below the safe limit of 318 K for 80
Srivastav, Durgesh, Patil, Nagesh Devidas, Shukla, Pravesh Chandra
Technical Paper
Enhanced Sorting Investigation of Retired Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy2025-01-813004/01/2025
Given the promising prospects of retired lithium-ion batteries in second-life utilization, enhancing their consistency through a rational sorting process has become a pressing priority. Traditional capacity-based sorting methods have significant limitations as it takes high time costs and fails to provide internal dynamic information about the batteries. To address this, the present study introduces a novel approach by incorporating electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) into the sorting process. Firstly, principal component analysis (PCA) analysis is applied to extract the first principal component from the EIS data, which has a strong correlation with battery capacity. It serves as a key feature for assessing the residual value of retired batteries. Accurate estimation of battery capacity is then achieved using a simple linear equation: For retired nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM) batteries, the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and root mean squared percentage error (RMSPE
Fan, Wenjun, Wang, Xueyuan, Jin, Yiqun, Jiang, Bo, Zhu, Jiangong, Wei, Xuezhe, Dai, Haifeng
Technical Paper
Analyzing EV Battery Package Responses during Side Pole Impacts with Multiple Speeds and Locations2025-01-873004/01/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) have experienced significant growth, and the battery safety of EVs has drawn increased attention. However, the mechanical responses of battery during crashes have rarely been studied. Hence, the objective of this study was to understand EV battery package mechanics during side-pole crashes at different impact locations and speeds beyond regulated side-pole test with one specific speed and one location. An EV finite element (FE) model with a battery package was used. Side-pole impact simulations were conducted at four impact locations, including the baseline impact location according to side-pole impact regulation, plus three positions by moving the rigid pole 400 mm toward the back of the EV and moving the pole 400 and 800 mm toward the front of the EV. In addition, the impact velocities at 32, 50, and 80 km/h were simulated. Based on simulations, the peak relative displacement, the maximum change in gap between batteries, the maximum change in gap between the
Chen, Jian, Bian, Kewei, Mao, Haojie
Technical Paper
Numerical Model of the Heat-Wait and Seek and Heating Ramp Protocol for the Prediction of Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries2025-01-812704/01/2025
Interest in Battery-Driven Electric Vehicles (EVs) has significantly grown in recent years due to the decline of traditional Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs). However, malfunctions in Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) can lead to catastrophic results such as Thermal Runaway (TR), posing serious safety concerns due to their high energy release and the emission of flammable gases. Understanding this phenomenon is essential for reducing risks and mitigating its effects. In this study, a digital twin of an Accelerated Rate Calorimeter (ARC) under a Heat-Wait-and-Seek (HWS) procedure is developed using a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) framework. The CFD model simulates the heating of the cell during the HWS procedure, pressure build-up within the LIB, gas venting phenomena, and the exothermic processes within the LIB due to the degradation of internal components. The model is validated against experimental results for an NCA 18650 LIB under similar conditions, focusing on LIB temperature
Gil, Antonio, Monsalve-Serrano, Javier, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Guaraco-Figueira, Carlos
Technical Paper
Improving Modal Frequencies in Class 5 Truck Fuel Cell Tank Structure through Topology Optimization2025-01-864804/01/2025
In addition to electric vehicles (EVs), hydrogen fuel cell systems are gaining attention as energy-efficient propulsion options. However, designing fuel cell vehicles presents unique challenges, particularly in terms of storage systems for heavy hydrogen tanks. These challenges impact factors such as NVH (noise, vibration, and harshness) and safety performance. This study presents a topology optimization study for Hydrogen Energy Storage System (HESS) tank structure in Class 5 trucks, with a focus on enhancing the modal frequencies. The study considers a specific truck configuration with a HESS structure located behind the crew cab, consisting of two horizontally stacked hydrogen tanks and two tanks attached on both sides of the frame. The optimization process aimed to meet the modal targets of this hydrogen tank structure in the fore-aft (X) and lateral (Y) directions, while considering other load cases such as a simplified representation of GST (global static torsion), simplified
Yoo, Dong Yeon, Chavare, Sudeep, Viswanathan, Sankar, Mouyianis, Adam
Technical Paper
Research on Crash Simulation and Safety of Automotive Power Battery2025-01-822604/01/2025
In recent years, energy scarcity and environmental pollution have intensified globally, prompting increased research and development in new energy vehicles as countries prioritize environmental protection and energy conservation. Compared to fuel-powered vehicles, new energy vehicles have relatively larger battery volumes and weights, which can increase damage and the risk of fires and explosions in collisions. To analyze and optimize the safety performance of a specific vehicle model's battery pack, we constructed a finite element model using existing software and performed pre-processing, simulation, and analysis of modal, random vibration, and extrusion characteristics. This revealed specific damage scenarios and enabled reliability analysis under working conditions. To enhance safety and reduce mass, we parametrically modeled power pack components and optimized parameters via multi-objective genetic algorithms under three road conditions. Results indicate reduced mass and improved
Wang, Zhi
Technical Paper
Research on the Thermal Balance Test Method of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles2025-01-815304/01/2025
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are gaining increasing interest due to contributions to zero emissions and carbon neutrality. Thermal management of FCEVs is essential for fuel cell lifespan and vehicle driving performance, but there is a lack of specialized thermal balance test standards for FCEVs. Considering differences in heat generating mechanism between FCEVs and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), current thermal balance method for ICEVs should be amended to suit for FCHVs. This study discussed thermal balance performance of ICEV and FCHVs under various regulated test conditions based on thermal balance tests in wind tunnel of two FCEVs and an ICEV. FCEVs reported overheat risk during low-speed climbing test due to continuous large power output from fuel cell (FC). Frequent power source switches between FC and battery were observed under dual constrains of fuel cell temperature and battery state of charge (SOC). Significant temperature exceedance of ICEV occurred
Fang, Yanhua, Min, Yihang, Ming, Chen, Li, Hongtao, Li, Dongsheng, He, Chong, Mao, Zhifei
Technical Paper
Impact of Battery Aging on the State of Charge-Open Circuit Voltage Relationship and Its Effects on Battery Capacity Estimation2025-01-855804/01/2025
Electrified vehicles rely on batteries to store energy for propulsion. Batteries depend on chemistry that changes over time and with use. This aging has many effects. Historically, efforts to predict and be robust to battery aging have focused on capacity loss and power loss/resistance growth. While a battery’s state of charge-open circuit voltage (SOC-OCV) relationship is typically treated as static, data illustrates that it shifts with battery age. We are not aware of any published methods to account for this effect for on-board modeling or controls. Regulations by the European Union, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the California Air Resource Board have proposed a state of certified energy (SOCE) to provide vehicle owners with a common metric reflecting the vehicle battery age. This metric captures the capacity and power loss of an aged battery. However, SOC-OCV changes with age may make accurately estimating SOCE more challenging. The upcoming regulations require accurate
Vuylsteke, Gabrielle, Wu, Hao, Moore, William, Washington, Donnell
Technical Paper
Damage Analysis of Traction Battery For New Energy Vehicle Based on Bottom Impact2025-01-812504/01/2025
As the high-quality development of the new energy vehicle (NEV) and traction battery industries, the safety of traction batteries has become a global focus. Typically mounted at the bottom of NEVs, traction battery systems are particularly vulnerable to mechanical damage caused by bottom impacts, posing serious safety risks. This study investigates the damage sustained by NEV traction battery systems during bottom impact collisions, using computer tomography analysis to detail the damage mechanisms. The findings provide valuable data to enhance the safety and protective performance of traction batteries under such scenarios.
Yan, Pengfei, Wang, Fang, Ma, Tianyi, Han, Ce, He, Gaiyun
Technical Paper
A Data-Driven Framework for Battery Capacity Estimation in Real-World Electric Vehicles Using Virtual Impedance and Incremental Capacity Analysis2025-01-856104/01/2025
Accurate battery capacity estimation is critical for ensuring the safe and reliable operation of electric vehicles (EVs) and addressing user range anxiety. However, predicting battery health is challenging due to the non-linearity, non-measurability, and complex multi-stress operating conditions that characterize battery performance. Incremental capacity curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) are effective tools for reflecting battery aging, but their practical application has limitations. This paper presents a novel method for battery capacity estimation using charging segment data derived from real-world operating conditions monitored by the vehicle's Battery Management System (BMS). The proposed approach begins with a detailed statistical analysis of voltage data to determine optimal charging capacity intervals and involves selecting appropriate voltage ranges to compute equivalent full-charge capacities. Experimental tests are performed to measure battery charging
Tao, Siyi, Zhu, Jiangong, Li, Yuan, Chang, Wei, Dai, Haifeng, Wei, Xuezhe
Technical Paper
A Thermal Behaviour of Battery Cell Using Different Electrochemical Models (ECM and NTGK)2025-01-814004/01/2025
In this study, we examine the thermal behaviours of lithium-ion battery cells using two widely employed electro-chemistry models: the Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) and the Newman-Tiedemann-Gauthier-Kim (NTGK) model. Given the critical importance of temperature regulation for the efficiency and lifespan of lithium-ion batteries, this research aims to identify the numerical method that best predicts cell thermal behaviour under constant discharge conditions with 2C, 1C and 0.5C rate. By comparing the outputs of the ECM and NTGK models, we assess their accuracy in predicting key parameters such as State-of-Charge (SoC), current output, voltage, temperature and heat generation. The findings offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of each model in simulating the thermal dynamics of battery cells, providing a basis for optimizing battery performance and longevity in real-world applications.
Wakale, Anil, Ma, Shihu, Hu, Xiao
Technical Paper
CFD Modeling of Elastomeric Silicone Material Dispensing to Enable Equipment Design & Optimization for Efficient Automotive Manufacturing2025-01-831804/01/2025
In the automotive industry, it is essential to consider not only how well specialty materials perform and are formulated, but also how efficiently and economically they can be applied during manufacturing. This becomes especially important during the early stages of development to prevent issues when these materials are used in new designs by automotive suppliers or manufacturers. With the rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs), new materials are being used more frequently, and these materials may not have been as thoroughly tested as those used in traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure that these materials can be applied correctly and efficiently from the start. One way to speed up the development process is through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling. CFD helps predict how materials will behave when dispensed, which is essential for developing the right equipment and conditions for applying these materials. Working with
Kenney, J. Andy, Delgado, Roberto, Hossain, Arif, Ng, Sze-Sze, Thomas, Ryan, Chyasnavichyus, Marius, Tsang, Chi-Wei, Hwang, Margaret, Wu, Lance, Dietsche, Laura, Mcmichael, Jonathan, Raines, Kevin, Nelson, Grant
Technical Paper
Extreme-Fast Charging Performance Optimization of Immersion-Cooled Battery Systems with Cylindrical Cells2025-01-816904/01/2025
Efficient and robust optimization frameworks are essential to develop and parametrize battery management system (BMS) controls algorithms. In such multi-physics application, the tradeoff between fast-charging performance and aging degradation needs to be solved while simultaneously preventing the onset of thermal runaway. To this end, a multi-objective optimization framework was developed for immersion-cooled battery systems that provides optimal charging rates and dielectric flowrates while minimizing aging and charging time objectives. The developed production-oriented framework consists of a fully coupled, lumped electro-thermal-aging model for cylindrical cells with core-to-surface and immersion-cooling heat transfer, the latter controlled by the dielectric fluid flowrate. The modeled core temperatures are inputs to a semi-empirical aging degradation model, in which a fast-aging solver computes the updated capacity and internal resistance over multiple timescales, which in turn
Suzuki, Jorge, Tran, Manh-Kien, Tyagi, Ramavtar, Meshginqalam, Ata, Zhou, Zijie, Nakhla, David, Atluri, Prasad
Technical Paper
Research on Heat Dissipation of Cabinet of Electrochemical Energy Storage System2025-01-819304/01/2025
With the increasingly prominent environmental problems and energy crisis, wind power, solar power and other new energy has been rapid development, and energy storage technology is of great significance to the development of new energy. Compared with the power batteries applied in electric vehicles, battery energy storage systems gather a larger number of batteries and a larger scale, usually up to megawatts or 100 megawatts. During the operation of the energy storage system, the lithium-ion battery continues to charge and discharge, and its internal electrochemical reaction will inevitably generate a lot of heat. If the heat is not dispersed in time, the temperature of the lithium-ion battery will continue to rise, which will seriously affect the service life and performance of the battery, and even cause thermal runaway leading to explosion. It is of great significance for promoting the development of new energy technologies to carry out research on the thermal model of lithium-ion
Chen, Jianxiang, Li, Liping, Zhou, Fupeng, Li, Chuncheng, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Technical Paper
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