Browse Topic: Electrical systems

Items (15,668)

Impact of Temperature on the Aging of Lithium-Ion Batteries: Insights from Capacity Testing for Enhanced Battery Management in Sustainable Transportation Systems

2025-01-8131To be published on 04/01/2025

This study focuses on a vital element of energy storage systems, particularly lithium-ion batteries, in the effort to cut down greenhouse gases and air pollutants from internal combustion engine vehicles. It investigates the impact of temperature on the aging process of these batteries, offering important insights into their capacity and lifespan. The research involved controlled testing at various temperatures to replicate real-world automotive conditions and evaluate how battery capacity changes over time. Initial characterization of fresh cells was conducted to establish baseline data on their capacity and internal resistance, which helps in understanding how temperature fluctuations affect battery performance. A thorough teardown analysis was then performed using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) on the electrodes, separator, and electrolyte. This analysis provided an in-depth look at the physical and chemical behavior of the battery

Garcia, Antonio, Monsalve-Serrano, Javier, Egea, Juan Manuel H.

A Fault Prediction Model for Electric Vehicle Charging Equipment Based on Adaptive Dynamic Thresholds

2025-01-8117To be published on 04/01/2025

The surge in electric vehicle usage has expanded the number of charging stations, intensifying demands on their operation and maintenance. Public charging stations, often exposed to harsh weather and unpredictable human factors, frequently encounter malfunctions requiring prompt attention. Current methods primarily employ data-driven approaches or rely on empirical expertise to establish warning thresholds for fault prediction. While these approaches are generally effective, the artificially fixed thresholds they employ for fault prediction limit adaptability and fall short in sensitivity to special scenarios, timings, locations, and types of faults, as well as in overall intelligence. This paper presents a novel fault prediction model for charging equipment that utilizes adaptive dynamic thresholds to enhance diagnostic accuracy and reliability. By integrating and quantifying Environmental Influence Factors (EF), Scenario Influence Factors (SF), Fault Severity Factors (FF), and

Wang, Hao, Wang, Ning, Li, Yuan, Tang, Xinyue

Optimization method of phase change energy storage device for electric vehicle batteries based on numerical simulation

2025-01-8603To be published on 04/01/2025

Phase change energy storage devices are extensively utilized in latent heat thermal energy storage and hold significant potential for application in the thermal management of automotive batteries. By harnessing the high-density energy storage capabilities of phase change materials to absorb heat released by the batteries, followed by timely release and utilization, there is a substantial improvement in energy efficiency. This approach aligns with the objective of promoting low-carbon environmental protection and presents an opportunity to enhance the operational performance and energy utilization efficiency of electric vehicle batteries in low-temperature conditions. However, the thermal conductivity of medium and low temperature phase change materials is poor, leading to its inefficient utilization. This paper focuses on optimizing the structure of a phase change heat exchanger in a phase change energy storage device to improve its performance. A basic design of the phase change heat

Zhang, Haonan, Sun, Mingzhe, Zheng, Haoyun, Zhang, Tianming

Understanding Forming Characteristics of 980 MPa and 1180 MPa strength level AHSS with various Microstructures

2025-01-8222To be published on 04/01/2025

For electrical vehicle (EV) automotive body-in-white (BIW) structures, protection of passengers and battery in crash event becomes critically important. In addition to energy absorption, intrusion protection for battery and vehicle becomes extremely important and Advanced high strength steels (AHSS), like dual phase (DP)/multi-phase (MP)/complex phase (CP)/retained austenite bearing (GEN3) steels and Press hardened steels (PHS), have become material of choice for design for these components. Higher yield strength materials especially in 980/1180MPa MP and CP category are chosen for part design over conventional low yield strength DP to meet crash and performance targets. In this study, the forming characteristics including both global and local formability are evaluated and compared among 980 DP/MP/CP grades. Formability tests, such as forming limit curve (FLC), true fraction strain, V bend, half dome, and hole expansion tests are conducted. Microstructure analysis to understand the

Shih, Hua-Chu, Pednekar, Vasant, Shi, Ming, Singh, Jatinder, Tedesco, Sarah, Wu, Wei

Disturbance Estimation Approach for minimizing Control Windup in Target Engine Speed Profile on Electrified Powertrains with a Low Voltage Belt Starter Generator and a Disconnect Clutch

2025-01-8584To be published on 04/01/2025

In cost- effective P2 hybrid vehicles with low voltage electric machines connected to the engine, an interesting control problem arises during the transition to a locked driveline state. This occurs when the engine connects to the wheels via a separation clutch. The two primary torque sources, the engine and the clutch, are traditionally imperfect estimators of applied and transferred torques. The Hybrid Supervisor’s feedforward constraints model relies on these imperfect inputs to determine torque and acceleration limits for the engine’s desired acceleration profiles and to specify engine feedforward commands, aiming for synchronization speed. Due to the inaccuracies in the torque estimates of the engine and clutch, the Hybrid Supervisor is susceptible to control windup, increased jerk to the driveline during synchronization, and inaccurate computation of its target acceleration profile, speed, and torque targets for the engine to achieve synchronization speed. This paper presents a

Banuso, Abdulquadri, Sha, Hangxing, Karogal, Indrasen, Madireddy, Krishna Chaitanya, Patel, Nadirsh

Lithium battery health status and lifespan prediction based on deep learning

2025-01-8126To be published on 04/01/2025

Rechargeable lithium batteries are widely used in the electric vehicle industry due to their long lifespan and high energy density. However, after long-term repeated charging and discharging, various electrochemical reactions inside lithium batteries can lead to performance degradation and even cause battery fires. Estimating the health status and predicting the remaining life of lithium batteries can provide insights into their future operating conditions, which is crucial for achieving fault warnings and ensuring the safe operation of battery-related equipment. In terms of predicting the health status of lithium batteries, this paper proposes a method based on an improved LSTM for health status estimation. This method first employs nearest neighbor component analysis to eliminate feature redundancy among the multidimensional health factors of the battery. Then, the differential grey wolf optimization algorithm is used to globally optimize the hyperparameters of the LSTM. The

K, meng zi

Model-Predictive Control for Heat Pump-Based Battery Thermal Management in Off-Road Autonomous Electrified Vehicles During Transient Operation

2025-01-8184To be published on 04/01/2025

The shift towards hybrid and electric powertrains in off-road vehicles aims to enhance mobility, extend range, and improve energy efficiency. However, heat pump-based thermal management systems in these vehicles continue to consume significant energy, impacting overall range and efficiency. Effective thermal management is essential for maintaining battery performance and safety, particularly in extreme conditions. Although high-fidelity models can capture the complex dynamics of heat pumps, real-time control within model-based optimization frameworks often depends on simplified models, which can degrade system performance. To address this, we propose a novel data-driven grey box control-oriented model (COM) that accurately represents the thermal dynamics of a vapor-compression refrigeration-based heat pump system. This COM is integrated into a model-predictive control (MPC) framework, optimizing thermal management during transient and burst-power operations of the battery pack. We

Sundar, Anirudh, Ghate, Atharva, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Ruan, Yeefeng, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam, Barron, Morgan

Effectiveness of Nail Penetration for Thermal Propagation Test in Battery Packs and Vehicles

2025-01-8128To be published on 04/01/2025

The number of electric vehicles (EVs) has increased significantly in recent years. Consequently, incidents of EV fires have been reported. To protect passengers and evaluate battery robustness, thermal propagation tests are conducted. Typically, these tests initiate a cell in a battery pack using either a heater or a nail. While the heater method is commonly used, the nail method faces restrictions when selecting an initiation cell, especially for battery pack and vehicle testing. For battery pack testing, vertical penetration against the vehicle's travel direction does not have cell selection restrictions. However, for horizontal penetration, the initiation cells are limited to the outermost cells in the battery pack. In vehicle testing, horizontal penetration is unfeasible, whereas vertical penetration from bottom to top is possible. To demonstrate the feasibility of the nail method for battery pack and vehicle testing, especially in vehicles, nail tests were conducted on an electric

Maeda, Kiyotaka, Takahashi, Masashi

Analysis of Trapped Gases Within an Aftertreatment System Reacting Over a TWC After Engine is Stopped

2025-01-8499To be published on 04/01/2025

Measurements of Hydrogen emissions from vehicle exhaust have been often substituted for prediction models, partly due to the lack of Hydrogen analyzers targeted for combustion gases. A previous study using a Hydrogen mass spectrometer revealed that the ratio of Hydrocarbons entering a Three-Way Catalyst (TWC) and Hydrogen leaving the catalyst was inconstant throughout a standardized driving cycle. Although Hydrogen by itself is not currently a target of emission regulations, its omission during catalyzer optimization may disrupt the intended performance of the integrated aftertreatment system. The highest emissions of unwanted gases are commonly seen during vehicle cold start. Thus, this study focuses on intermittent operation of an engine, such as that of full hybrid vehicles. In particular, this study measures how the gases trapped in the aftertreatment system continue to react over the TWC as it cools down after the engine stops. Hydrocarbons (HC), NOx, NH3 and H2 are measured

Lamas, Jorge Eduardo, Lacdan, Ma Camille, Hara, Kenji, Otsuki, Yoshinori

A framework for modeling mechanically induced thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries

2025-01-8134To be published on 04/01/2025

Battery safety is a paramount concern in the development of electric vehicles (EVs), as failures can lead to catastrophic consequences, including fires and explosions. Ensuring the reliability and robustness of lithium-ion cells under various conditions is essential for the widespread adoption of EVs. With the rapid global adoption of EVs, understanding how battery cells perform under extreme conditions such as mechanical or thermal abuse is crucial for ensuring safety. This study investigates the dynamic behavior of lithium-ion pouch cells under mechanical abuse conditions, focusing on improving safety measures in EV battery systems. Our research systematically examines the response of these cells at different states of charge (SOC), through controlled dynamic tests. These tests, which involve varying strain rates and punch geometries, offer significant insights into the mechanical thresholds that lead to cell failure. By analyzing the data, we gain a deeper understanding of the

Patanwala, Huzefa, kong, Kevin, Challa, Vidyu, Darvish, Kurosh, Sahraei, Elham

A drive anti-slip and lateral stability control technique for distributed three-axis drive vehicle

2025-01-8303To be published on 04/01/2025

The research object of this project is the longitudinal and lateral control of the distributed three-axis drive tractor. Which is different from the traditional four motors power system layout is that the third axel have two motors while the second axel only have one motor. Compared with the traditional design, it can reduce the dependence on battery performance and maintain motor operation in high efficiency range by switching different working model. For example, when driving at high speed, only the two-axis motor works, which can improve motor efficiency. When accelerate or climb, all motors work to provide a large power output. In the research, established the vehicle model in Simulink firstly, and then Co-simulated with Trucksim. The longitudinal control identified the optimal slip rate of the road firstly, then used the adaptive sliding mode control to obtain the driving torque of each wheel, which can achieve well control effect under various road conditions and motion modes

Shen, Ruiteng, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zong, Changfu

Reducing Temperature-related Aging Inhomogeneities in Battery Modules Using a Switchable Thermal Management System

2025-01-8167To be published on 04/01/2025

The operating temperature of lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells significantly influences their degradation behavior. In indirect liquid cooling systems, temperature variations within a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) LIB module are inevitable due to the increasing downstream temperature of the cooling medium as it absorbs heat. This leads to reduced temperature differentials between the cooling medium and the LIB cells. As a result, LIB cells located further along the flow path experience higher average temperatures than those at the front. Typically, a maximum average cell temperature difference of 5 K within LIB modules is considered acceptable. However, results from a conventional cooling system indicate that, when fast charging is exclusively used, this can lead to a 15.5 % difference in the total ampere-hours passed before the End-of-Life (EOL) is reached for the front and back LIB cells. To address this issue, a switchable thermal management system for the traction battery is

Auch, Marcus, Weyershäuser, Konstantin, Kuthada, Timo, Wagner, Andreas

Using CAN Electrical Signals for Cybersecurity and Harness Diagnostics

2025-01-8080To be published on 04/01/2025

This paper describes a novel invention which is an Intrusion Detection System based on fingerprints of the CAN bus analogue features. Clusters of CAN message analogue fingerprints can be associated with each ECU on the network. During a learning mode of operation, fingerprints can be learnt with the prior knowledge of which CAN identifier should be transmitted by each ECU. During normal operation, if the fingerprint of analogue features of a particular CAN identifier does not match the one that was learnt then there is a strong possibility that this particular CAN identifier’s message is symptomatic of a problem. It could be that the message has been sent by either an intruder ECU or an existing ECU has been hacked to send the message. In this case an intruder can be defined as a device that has been added to the CAN bus OR a device that has been hacked/manipulated to send CAN messages that it was not designed to (i.e. could be originally transmitted by another device). It could also

Quigley, Christopher, Charles, David

LLM-Powered Fuzz Testing of Automotive Diagnostic Protocols

2025-01-8091To be published on 04/01/2025

Modern vehicles contain tens of different Electronic Control Units (ECUs) from several vendors. These small computers are connected through several networking busses and protocols, potentially through gateways and converters. Moreover, vehicle-to-vehicle and internet connectivity are now considered to be requirements, adding an addi- tional layer of complexity to an already complex electronic system. Due to this complexity and the safety-critical nature of vehicles, au- tomotive cyber-security a difficult undertaking. One critical aspect of cyber-security is the robust testing of software for potential bugs and vulnerabilities. Fuzz testing is an automated software testing method that injects a large set of inputs to a system. It is an invaluable tech- nique across many industries, and has been increasingly gaining popu- larity since its conception. Its success highly relies on the ”quality” of inputs injected. One shortcoming associated with fuzz testing is the expertise required in

McShane, John, Celik, Levent, Brooks, Richard, Pesé, Mert D., Aideyan, Iwinosa

Applications of Advanced High-Strength Steels for Automotive Structures – Haulage Load body for EV

2025-01-8219To be published on 04/01/2025

To develop a Light weight Load body structure for Electric haulage vehicle application without affecting strength & durability of the product. Conventional haulage Load body given for diesel vehicle application weight is approximately 20% of vehicle Kerb weight. Payload carried by customer does not get affected much. Electric vehicle Kerb weight is comparatively higher than diesel vehicle, due to battery packs & its mounting structures. So the payload carried by customer is getting affected. Hence Load body weight must be reduced to 10-15% of Kerb weight. By considering past field failure data, customer loading pattern, durability trials & CAE static structural analysis, light weight Load body is designed with optimized sections & HSS material. To delight the customers, Number of Floor cross members & sideboard pillars not reduced which is their first impression before buying any haulage vehicle. Multiple iterations & design failure mode effective analysis was done before finalizing

Lakshminarayanan, Karthik

Effect of Camera and Video Parameters on the Accuracy of Vehicle Speeds and Accelerations Calculated from Onboard Dashboard Cameras

2025-01-8691To be published on 04/01/2025

The goal of this study was to evaluate the influence of camera and video parameters on the accuracy of speeds and decelerations calculated from onboard dashboard cameras (“dashcams”). We equipped a single test vehicle with 5 commercially available dashcams. We also equipped the test vehicle with a 5th-wheel, a brake pedal switch, and a synchronization light visible to the dashcams. We conducted 9 emergency braking tests from about 60 km/h and calculated the reference speed and deceleration from the 5th-wheel data. The brake pedal switch indicated the moment of brake application. The light synchronized the dashcam videos to the 5th-wheel and brake pedal data. The 5 dashcams had horizontal fields of view (FOV) ranging from 120 to 170 degrees, frame rates of 30 or 60 frames per second (FPS), and resolutions of 1080p, 2K, or 4K. For each camera and brake test, we extracted the video from the dashcam and calculated its linear and rotational motion using SynthEyes, a 3D motion tracking and

Flynn, Thomas, Ahrens, Matthew, Young, Cole, Siegmund, Gunter P.

Impact of Thermal and Electrical Dissimilarities on Battery Module Aging

2025-01-8173To be published on 04/01/2025

Battery cell aging and loss of capacity are some of the many challenges facing the widespread implementation of electrification in mobility. One of the factors contributing to cell aging is the dissimilarities of individual cells connected in a module. This paper reports the results of several aging experiments using a mini-module consisting of seven 18.2 Ah 21700 Lithium-ion battery cells connected in parallel. The aging cycle comprised a constant current-constant voltage charge cycle at a 0.7C C-rate, followed by a 0.2C constant current discharge, spanning the useful voltage range from minimum to maximum according to the cell manufacturer. Charge and discharge events were separated by one-hour rest periods and were repeated for four weeks. Weekly reference performance tests were executed to measure static and pulse power capacity as well as discharge impedance. All diagnostics were normalized with respect to their starting numbers to achieve a percentage change over time. Both

Swarts, Andre, Salvi, Swapnil S., Juarez Robles, Daniel

Development of Ceramic Humidity Regulator (CHR) Using Honeycomb Type PTC Heater to Improve Electric Vehicle Driving Range in Winter

2025-01-8177To be published on 04/01/2025

With Rapid growth of Electric Vehicles (EVs) in the market, challenges such as driving range, charging infrastructure, and reducing charging time needs to be addressed. Unlike traditional Internal combustion vehicles, EVs have limited heating sources and primarily uses electricity from the running battery, which reduces driving range. Additionally, during winter operation, it is necessary to prevent window fogging to ensure better visibility, which requires introducing cold outside air into the cabin. This significantly increases the power consumption for heating and the driving range can be reduced to half of the normal range. This study introduces the Ceramic Humidity Regulator (CHR), a compact and energy-efficient device developed to address driving range improvement. The CHR uses a desiccant system to dehumidify the cabin, which can prevent window fogging without introducing cold outside air, thereby reducing heating power consumption. A desiccant system typically consists of two

Hamada, Takafumi, Shinoda, Narimasa, Konno, Yoshiki, Ihara, Yukio, Ito, Masaki

Analysis of Coolant Flowing and Heat Transfer Performance in High Voltage Heater System

2025-01-8194To be published on 04/01/2025

A method for performance calculation and experimental method of a high voltage heater system in electric vehicles is proposed. This system is critical for the thermal management of electric vehicle batteries, especially in low-temperature environments. It provides essential heating support to maintain optimal battery performance and safety, thereby improving overall efficiency and reliability.Firstly, heater outlet temperature and pressure drop of the heater are used as metrics to compare simulation results with experimental data, thereby validating the established model. Then, simulations are performed on two heater flow channel configurations: a cavity flow channel and a cooling fin flow channel. It is observed that the latter significantly reduces the heating plate temperature. This reduction enhances the protection of heating elements and extends their operational lifespan, demonstrating the advantages of incorporating cooling fins into the flow channel structure. The optimization

Gong, Ming, Wang, Xihui, Wang, Dongdong, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Hyperparameter-Optimized Neural Network for Precise Battery State of Charge Estimation

2025-01-8210To be published on 04/01/2025

Accurate estimation of the state of charge (SOC) of battery cells is crucial for the efficient management and longevity of battery systems, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy storage. This paper presents an approach utilizing a Feedforward Neural Network (FNN) to estimate the SOC of battery cells. The proposed method leverages hyperparameter optimization to determine the optimal configuration of the neural network, including the number of neurons, the number of hidden layers, the best activation function, and the most effective learning rate. The primary objective of this research is to minimize the estimation error of the SOC to within 2%, thereby enhancing the reliability and performance of battery management systems. The hyperparameter optimization process involves a systematic search and evaluation of various configurations to identify the most effective neural network architecture. This process is critical as it directly impacts the accuracy and efficiency of

Saini, Sandeep, Admane, Chinmay

Barrier Weight Prediction for Vehicle Compatibility in North America Market using Finite Element Analysis

2025-01-8621To be published on 04/01/2025

The proliferation of the electric vehicle (EVs) in the US market led to an increase in the average vehicle weight due to the integration of the larger high-voltage (HV) batteries. To comply with this weight increase and meet stringent US regulations and Consumer Ratings requirements, Vehicle front-end rigidity has substantially increased. This increased stiffness in the larger vehicles (Large EV pickups/SUVs) may have a significant impact during collision with smaller vehicles. To address this issue, it is necessary we consider adopting a vehicle compatibility test like EuroNCAP MPDB in North American market as well. This study examines the influence of mass across vehicle classes and compares the structural variations for each impact class. The EuroNCAP MPDB (Moving Progressive Deformable Barrier) protocol was referenced for this analysis. Our evaluation approach comprises of two sections: the impact of the barrier mass on to the vehicle structure (V2B) and vehicle-to-vehicle impact

Kusnoorkar, Harsha, Koraddi, Basavaraj, Guerrero, MICHAEL, Sripada, Venu Vinod, Tangirala, Ravi

Consideration of Boost DC-DC Converter Losses in the Torque Control System of a Hybrid Supervisory Controller

2025-01-8575To be published on 04/01/2025

As the complexity of electrified powertrains and their architectures continue to grow and thrive, it becomes increasingly important and challenging for the supervisory torque controller to optimize the torque commands of the electric machines. The hybrid architecture considered in this paper consists of an internal combustion engine paired with at least one electric motor and a DC-DC switching converter that steps-up the input voltage, in this case the high voltage battery, to a higher output voltage level allowing the electric machines to operate at a greater torque range and increased torque responsiveness for efficient power delivery. This paper describes a strategy for computing and applying the losses of the converter during voltage transformation to determine the optimal engine and electric motor torque commands. The control method uses a quadratic fit of the losses at the power limits of the torque control system and on optimal motor torque commands, within the constraints of

Venkataramu, Achyut, Walsh, McKenzie, Tischendorf, Christoph, Sullivan, Mary, Patel, Nadirsh, Huo, Shichao, Sharma, Ashay

Dynamic Tailgate Water Management Simulation Using Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics

2025-01-8625To be published on 04/01/2025

Tailgate opening can cause rain that has settled on its surfaces to run off onto the customer or into the rear load space, causing annoyance. Relatively small adjustments to tailgate seals and encapsulation can effectively mitigate these effects. However, these failure modes tend to be discovered relatively late in the design process as they, to date, need a representative physical system to test – including ensuring that materials used on the surface flow paths elicit the same liquid flow behaviours (i.e. contact angles and velocity) as the production vehicle surfaces. In this work we describe the development and validation of an early-stage simulation approach using a Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) Code (PreonLab). This includes its calibration against fundamental experiments to provide models for the flow of water over automotive surfaces and their subsequent application to a tailgate system simulation which includes fully-detailed surrounding vehicle geometry. This approach

Gaylard, Adrian Philip, Weatherhead, Duncan

Light weight Haulage Load body for Sustainable Mobility applications

2025-01-8216To be published on 04/01/2025

To develop a Light weight load body structure for Electric haulage vehicle application without affecting strength & durability of the product. Conventional haulage load body given for diesel vehicle application weight is approximately 20% of vehicle Kerb weight. Payload carried by customer does not get affected much. Electric vehicle Kerb weight is comparatively higher than diesel vehicle, due to battery packs & its mounting structures. So the payload carried by customer is getting affected. Hence load body weight must be reduced to 10-15% of Kerb weight. By considering past field failure data, customer loading pattern, durability trials & CAE static structural analysis, light weight load body is designed with optimized sections & HSS material. To delight the customers, Number of Floor cross members & sideboard pillars not reduced which is their first impression before buying any haulage vehicle. Multiple iterations & design failure mode effective analysis was done before finalizing

Lakshminarayanan, Karthik

Analysis of Back-EMF Protection Strategies for PM Synchronous Motor Based 2W/3W Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8565To be published on 04/01/2025

The use of electric vehicles (EVs) has been on the rise in recent years and this trend is expected to continue in the upcoming years. There are several reasons for the increasing popularity of EVs, including environmental concerns, advances in technology, and government incentives. The 2W/3W EV powertrain comprises components such as the Battery, Traction Motor, Motor Controller, Charger, and DC-DC converter, etc. Essential components which impact the power, efficiency, and range of the vehicle are a motor (generally PMSM or BLDC) and a motor controller. PMSMs can produce more output power than BLDC motors of the same size, making them suitable for high-power applications. While the EV powertrain allows for greater flexibility in designing electric vehicle architectures, it also exhibits new challenges in meeting all the essential requirements. When a motor rotates, as per Lenz’s law, an opposing voltage (Back-EMF) is generated in a motor whose magnitude is proportional to its angular

Mohan, Midhun, Shinde, Rushikesh, Magar, Pradip

A Minimalist High-Power Boost Charging Solution Integrated Into Electric Drives

2025-01-8560To be published on 04/01/2025

The drive power and charging performance of leading electric vehicles (EVs) continue to advance, with high-performance EVs elevating their high-voltage platform ranges from below 500V to 800V and even 900V. To be compatible with existing public charging stations of lower voltage, vehicles with high-voltage platforms often equip a boost charge device. However, this boost charge device incurs additional costs, weight, and space requirements. Most mature solutions employ an additional DC-DC boost converter, which, however, results in low charging power at a high cost. Some new approaches utilize the power switching devices and motor inductance of electric drives to form a boost converter circuit, using a three-phase current in-phase control strategy for charging. This method requires external inductors to reduce charging current ripples. Alternatively, to minimize current ripple without external inductors, a two-phase parallel and one-phase series topology is used, albeit at the expense

Yuan, Baocheng, Ma, Yong, Xie, Xi, Liu, Shaowei, Guan, Tianyu, Ge, Kai, Zheng, Lifu, Xu, Xu

On the potentially misleading evaluation of CO2 emissions for hybrid-electric vehicles

2025-01-8537To be published on 04/01/2025

The adoption of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is becoming more popular during the last few years due to government incentives and favourable legislation both for automotive companies and final users. This type of vehicle claims very low carbon dioxide emissions while eliminating the range anxiety associated with battery electric vehicles thanks to the on-board range extender being able to recharge the battery throughout the journey. Unfortunately, the low emissions values are more representative of the particular mathematical model implemented by the legislation than the measured real driving emissions. Specifically, the legislation does not take into account the CO2 embedded in production of the batteries or of the electrical energy stored in it. This work analyses these aspects by means of a numerical model of the BMW i3 94Ah vehicle. The results obtained are collected from simulations conducted over the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) by using the commercial

Turner, James, Vorraro, Giovanni

Analysis of the design space for battery and fuel cell powered electric trucks

2025-01-8600To be published on 04/01/2025

A diverse set of solutions will likely be needed to decarbonize the commercial truck sector in US. Battery powered vehicles definitely has a predominant role in this, but there are several areas where fuel cell trucks are more advantageous for the consumer. This study examines several prominent medium and heavy duty applications, designed for different driving range requirements to identify the design space where battery and fuel cell trucks are attractive. The impact of purchase price, fuel cost, vehicle usage are also considered in this analysis. Since future costs cannot be accurately predicted, this study includes parametric sweeps with certain high and low values to examine the uncertainty of the observations. This work examines the top 10 truck classes based on vehicle population, fuel usage and driving distances. It also considers some of the bus applications such as coach, transit and school buses. The vehicle usage information taken from VIUS as well as inputs from the 21CTP

Vijayagopal, Ram, Birky, Alicia

Application of Model-based Horizon Prediction to Enhance Control Algorithm Performance by Compensating for Time Delays in Automotive Drivelines

2025-01-8574To be published on 04/01/2025

Accurate estimation of crucial quantities in automotive drivetrain systems is essential for optimizing performance, durability, and emissions. However, the presence of time delays, arising from tasks scheduling and communication latency between control units, can significantly hinder the effectiveness of advance control algorithms. Closed-loop performance is often limited by the equivalent time delay between the control action command, its effect on the system, and the measurement of the reaction. Frequently, commands and measurements originate from different sources, requiring precise coordination to accurately estimate the driveline response. This paper presents a novel model-based approach that integrates Kalman filtering with horizon prediction techniques to effectively address time-delay compensation. By leveraging the descriptive capabilities of physics-based models, the proposed method enables to overcome synchronization misalignment between commands, actuations and measurements

Rostiti, Cristian, Patel, Nadirsh, Catkin, Bilal

Comprehensive Techno-Economic Analysis of Battery-Electric Trucks: Evaluating Battery Aging Impact for Regional Delivery Missions

2025-01-8591To be published on 04/01/2025

This study offers a comprehensive techno-economic assessment of battery-electric trucks, accounting for battery aging in the total cost of ownership (TCO) model. Due to the pressing regulations regarding emissions, battery electric vehicles are emerging as a solution for trucks, especially in Europe. Given the profit-oriented perspective of the customers purchasing these vehicles and the high uncertainty surrounding the cost-effectiveness of battery-electric trucks, several studies have focused on estimating their TCO. However, these studies overlook or overly simplify the impact of battery aging. This work introduces cost terms associated with aging, quantified over the vehicle's lifetime through an empirical battery degradation model. These often neglected costs include payload loss, battery residual value, and battery replacement. A case study was developed with a truck from VECTO group 9 for regional delivery missions, considering different payloads and battery pack sizes. To

Costantino, Trentalessandro, Acquarone, Matteo, Miretti, Federico, Spessa, Ezio

Overview of Battery-Integrated Modular Multilevel Converter Topologies for Automotive Applications

2025-01-8557To be published on 04/01/2025

The rise in global temperatures due to greenhouse gas emissions has led to a transition to alternative energy carriers especially in automotive applications. A key component in this transition is the battery pack, which contains several parallel and/or series-connected cells. The available energy and power of the battery pack are determined not only by the cell type, size, and configuration but also by the battery management system. To improve the control and energy utilization of the pack, battery-integrated modular multilevel converters (BI-MMCs) are presented. Five BI-MMC topologies for three main battery-integrated system configurations, namely, 3-phase, 6-phase low voltage, and 6-phase high voltage systems are evaluated for a 400 kW 40-ton commercial vehicle. The evaluation includes a comparative assessment of the number of submodules, battery, capacitor, and semiconductor losses for all BI-MMC topologies with 1 to 12 cascaded cells per submodule against a conventional 2-level

Balachandran, Arvind, Jonsson, Tomas, Eriksson, Lars

Optimal usage of engine torque to engage a disconnect device in situations where battery power is not available

2025-01-8578To be published on 04/01/2025

This paper introduces a novel approach to optimize battery power usage and optimal engine torque for wheel end disconnect device engagement under power constrained scenarios for range extended hybrid vehicles. Range extended hybrid architecture provides benefits of BEV architecture and relief the range anxiety that BEV drivers often have. The wheel end disconnect device helps improve the efficiency of the battery power usage when it is disconnected and provides better drivability and performance to fulfill driver demand when it is connected. Under power constraint scenario, the disconnect device engagement could take too long or eventually fail to engage and result in degradation for drivability and vehicle level performance. This novel approach is utilizing engine to either generate more power to spin up the disconnect motor faster under discharge limited case or generate less power to allow the disconnect motor to spin down under charge limited case. The effectiveness of this

Sha, Hangxing, Madireddy, Krishna Chaitanya, Banuso, Abdulquadri, Khanal, Shishir, Rock, Joe, Patel, Nadirsh

Cost Analysis of Battery Electric and Fuel Cell Powertrains for Class 8 Heavy-Duty Trucks in Real-World Scenarios: A 2024, 2035 and 2050 Perspective

2025-01-8592To be published on 04/01/2025

This study evaluates the performance of alternative powertrains for Class 8 heavy-duty trucks under a variety of real-world driving conditions, cargo loads, and operating ranges. Energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and the Levelized Cost of Driving (LCOD) were assessed for different powertrain technologies in 2023, 2035, and 2050, considering anticipated technological advancements. The analysis was conducted using simulation models that accurately reflect vehicle dynamics, powertrain components, and energy storage systems, leveraging real-world driving data. The Argonne National Laboratory's POLARIS, SVTrip, Autonomie, and TechScape software were used in an integrated simulation workflow for this analysis. Additionally, a sensitivity analysis was conducted on fuel and battery costs to understand their impact on economic outcomes. The study considered a hydrogen cost of $4/kg in 2035 and 2050, three AEO2023 low, medium, high diesel cost scenarios, and electricity costs ranging

Mansour, Charbel, Bou Gebrael, Julien, Kancharla, Amarendra, Freyermuth, Vincent, Islam, Ehsan Sabri, Vijayagopal, Ram, Sahin, Olcay, Zuniga, Natalia, Nieto Prada, Daniela, Alhajjar, Michel, Rousseau, Aymeric, Borhan, Hoseinali, El Ganaoui-Mourlan, Ouafae

A data-driven synthetic population approach to estimate multi-noise lifetime durability loads for the sustainable design of electric vehicles

2025-01-8295To be published on 04/01/2025

Designing for the durability of motor vehicles requires accounting for various stress factors, including tractive loads, thermal loads, and structural loads. For electric vehicle propulsion systems, it's crucial to consider not just the magnitude of these loads but also their temporal sequence throughout the vehicle’s lifespan. The order and timing of these loads influence factors such as charge and discharge cycles, and active motor heating, which ultimately impact the damage to components like the cell and the inverter. Traditionally, lifetime loads for durability assessments are derived from a single user load profile that represents a cumulative damage equivalent to the desired warranty threshold. This profile is typically based on historical usage data, user scenarios, and industry experience but may not capture the diverse failure modes of different propulsion components. This approach also adds material mass, size, and capacity increasing lifecycle emissions, reducing

Ramakrishnan, Sankaran, khapane, Prashant

Methods for fatigue under Random Vibration excitation for components of an Electric Vehicle

2025-01-8233To be published on 04/01/2025

A vehicle travels on roads with various profiles of surface roughness that are best characterized by a random process. The random vibration not only subjects passengers to the unpleasant physical shakes and noises perceived, but also imparts the fatigue damage to components installed on it. The ability to predict fatigue damage at the early design stage to prevent unwanted durability problems down the road is very important in today’s design process, especially for an electronic vehicle. Although the random vibration analysis for a dynamic response for a linear system subjected to random excitations is fairly straightforward in the frequency-domain, the prediction of the fatigue damage as a result of those random responses is still an arena drawing a lot of research efforts. Different from the conventional approach to deal with the damage based on the stress or strain responses in a time-domain, the most effective method of predicting the fatigue in random vibration is to obtain the

Yang, Zane, Fouret, Charles

Easy Bike Solar PV System Charging Station Design and Simulation

2025-01-8119To be published on 04/01/2025

Design and Simulation of an easy bike charging station in Lubbock, Texas is discussed in this paper. This study outlines the utilization of an easy bike charging station integrated with solar photovoltaic (PV) and battery energy storage systems (BESS) to improve grid stability by regulating voltage and frequency. The charging station is designed to have 24 DC fast charging ports and charge each easy bike simultaneously having the capacity to charge up to 100 easy bikes daily. The integration of the battery energy storage system is to ensure consistent power availability at all times, even during periods of low solar radiation. The paper shows the aspects of grid stability, which includes voltage and frequency regulation. System Advisor Model (SAM) was used in this study, and IEEE standard compliance was ensured in all calculations

SHODIMU, ADEDOLAPO LATIFAT

Telematics-based Managed EV Charging: A pilot case study for utility bulk and distribution grid services

2025-01-8122To be published on 04/01/2025

Growth in the EV market is resulting in an unprecedented increase of electrical load from EV charging at the household level. This has led to concern for electric utilities' ability to upgrade electrical distribution infrastructure at an affordable cost and sufficient speed that can keep up with EV sales. Adoption of EVs in the California market has outpaced the national average and offers early insight for other regions of the United States. The Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD) partnered with two Distributed Energy Resource (DER) aggregators, the OVGIP (recently formed as ChargeScape) and Optiwatt, to deliver a vehicle telematics-based active managed charging pilot. This pilot was launched in Summer 2022, with approximately 1,200 EVs enrolled over two years including Tesla, Ford, BMW, and GM electric vehicles. The goal of this pilot was to evaluate the business case for mitigating EV grid impacts and delivering additional grid services providing both EV drivers and the

Liddell, Chelsea, Schaefer, Walter, Dreffs, Kora, Moul, Jacob, Kay, Carol, Aswani, Deepak

Multi-disciplinary Electric Cargo Scooter Battery Design, Simulation and Validation

2025-01-8123To be published on 04/01/2025

Evaluating the structural strength & thermal performance of electric vehicle battery pack is crucial for enhancing safety & performance. For electric cargo scooter, the battery pack must withstand significant vibrational forces, shocks from impacts & accidental drops all of which can compromise the battery's structural integrity. A failure in this regard could lead to dangerous outcomes such as short circuits, fire, or even explosions, making the robustness of the battery pack crucial for both safety and performance. Conducting physical vibration, shock, and drop tests on a battery pack can result in hazardous situations, necessitating stringent safety measures and specialized equipment, which can be prohibitively expensive and time consuming. The present work focuses on computer-aided virtual simulations at design stage to evaluate the structural integrity, thermal safety & ease of manufacturing of a battery pack assembly, to optimize battery design and reduce prototyping and physical

Shinde, Pranav, Balachandran, Karthik, Gandhi, Chaitanya, Mishra, Sonu, Deshmukh, Harish, Karve, Madhura, Chittur, Srikrishna, Das, Alok

A study on the influence of compression pads on the safety and life of a lithium-ion cell module

2025-01-8132To be published on 04/01/2025

The demand for eco-friendly electric powertrains has increased significantly in recent years. Cells are the most crucial component of a battery pack, directly influencing the dimensions, range, lifespan, performance, and cost of electric vehicles. Lithium-ion cells outperform other cell chemistries due to their higher energy density, allowing for more compact and lightweight designs while providing longer operational ranges. It is crucial that lithium-ion cell packaging complies with assembly requirements to maximize its lifespan and ensure operational safety. Assembly force requirements of lithium-ion cells are critical to ensure optimal cell performance throughout its lifetime & enhance the longevity of the battery pack. The compression pad between cells ensures appropriate cell assembly pressure. The service life is how long a lithium-ion cell can operate effectively, while the cyclic life refers to the number of charge-discharge cycles before cell functional degradation. The cell

Varambally, Vishakha, Sithick basha, Abubakker, Chalumuru, Madhu, Sasikumar, K

Comprehensive mechanical characterization of prismatic lithium-ion cells

2025-01-8129To be published on 04/01/2025

As electric vehicles (EVs) become increasingly prevalent, ensuring the safety of their battery systems is paramount. Lithium-ion batteries, the cornerstone of modern EV technology, present unique safety challenges due to their high energy density and the potential for catastrophic failure under certain conditions. The importance of understanding and mitigating these risks cannot be overstated, particularly as the industry strives to meet growing global demand while adhering to stringent safety standards. Battery safety is not just a technical concern but a critical factor in public acceptance and the widespread adoption of EVs. This study presents an extensive series of experimental tests conducted on prismatic cells from two different manufacturers. These tests include flat punch, hemispherical punch, and three-point bending tests, all designed to assess the cells’ structural integrity and failure modes. Key areas of interest include the behavior of the cell casing, jellyroll, and

Patanwala, Huzefa, Song, Yihan, SONAR, Mahesh, Belur Sheshadri, Anantharam, Sahraei, Elham

Investigation of Impedance Evolution for Lithium Plating Detection During Multi-Stage Constant Current Fast Charging of Lithium-Ion Batteries

2025-01-8124To be published on 04/01/2025

The lengthy charging times of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) significantly affect their acceptance. Reducing charging time requires high-power fast charging. However, such fast charging can trigger various side reactions, leading to safety and durability issues. Among these, lithium plating is a major concern as it can reduce battery capacity and potentially cause internal short circuits or even thermal runaway. Currently, multi-stage constant current charging (MCCC) protocols are widely adopted. However, the difficulty in effectively detecting lithium plating during the MCCC process significantly limits the charging power. Therefore, it is urgent to explore a method to detect lithium plating during the MCCC process. In this study, the impedance evolution during the MCCC procedure was first investigated. Then a method based on the impedance variation patterns was proposed to detect lithium plating. Besides, the corresponding mechanism was further investigated

Shen, Yudong, Wang, Xueyuan, Wu, Hang, Wei, Xuezhe, Dai, Haifeng

Research on the Thermal Performance of Thick Film Heater for Electric Vehicle Battery

2025-01-8154To be published on 04/01/2025

The life of power battery and its discharge efficiency in electric cars will be significantly reduced in a low temperature environment. Therefore, in order to ensure its working mileage and safety, heating the power battery is required. Heat pump air conditioners and PTC-based onboard heaters are usually way to heat the power battery under lower temperature so far. In low temperature environment, due to the lower heating efficiency of the heat pump air conditioner, onboard heaters are widely used in electric cars. A specific thick film heater(TFH) for electric vehicles is investigaed in this study, and its three dimensional heat tansfer analysis model is established. The heat transfer and fluid performace of the TFH is analied using a computational fluid dynamics software. The performance of TFH is measured on a test bench, and the measured data is used to validate the developed model. Using the established model, the heating efficiency of TFH is studied for different inlet

Guan, Wenzhe, Guo, Yiming, Wu, Xiaoyong, Wang, Dongdong, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Design of an Air-Liquid Coupled Thermal Management System for Battery Packs in Energy Storage Cabinets

2025-01-8168To be published on 04/01/2025

Efficient thermal management is critical for ensuring the performance and safety of large-capacity battery packs. Traditional air or liquid cooling methods often fail to provide sufficient cooling and to maintain uniform temperature distribution. To address these limitations, a novel hybrid air-liquid cooling system was developed in this study. A 3D model of the proposed cooling structure was constructed. Heat transfer and fluid flow resistance were analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations based on the developed model. The model was validated through experimental measurements. These included discharge temperature rise measurements on individual battery cells and flow resistance tests on the liquid cooling plate. The thermal performance of the air-liquid hybrid cooling system was evaluated at various discharge rates and compared with only air or liquid cooling methods. Results indicated that the hybrid cooling system significantly enhanced heat dissipation. At a

Li, Hao, Guo, Yiming, Zhou, Fupeng, Li, Kunyuan, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Study on Energy Consumption and Emission Characteristics of EHC Coupled DOC+SDPF+SCR-ASC System under WLTC and RDE

2025-01-8498To be published on 04/01/2025

With the tightening of emission regulations, electrically heated catalytic converters (EHC) are an important technical solution for diesel vehicles to address the challenges of cold start and RDE emission reduction. This paper investigates the impact of EHC coupled exhaust aftertreatment system (DOC+SDPF+SRR-ASC) on the energy consumption and emission characteristics of light-duty diesel vehicles based on the World Light Vehicle Test Cycle (WLTC) and Real Driving Emissions (RDE). The research results show that under WLTC conditions, compared to EHC off, the time for the SDPF inlet temperature to reach 180 ℃ when EHC on is 44 seconds earlier. The CO emission value of diesel vehicles is 67.5 mg/km, the THC emission value is 49.8 mg/km, the NMHC emission value is 42.5 mg/km, and the NOx emission value is 28.7 mg/km, which is far below the limit requirements of CHINA VI B. Among them, the average urea injection rate increased by 1.1 mg/s, and the overall NOx conversion efficiency increased

Kang, Lulu, Zhao, Zhiguo, Lou PhD, Diming

Improved three-way catalyst with the ignition layer for reducing cold emissions

2025-01-8482To be published on 04/01/2025

Exhaust gas regulations, such as Tier4, Euro7, and China7, are being strengthened. In addition to the regulated values during specified driving patterns, emission is required to be reduced at various usage patterns. Among these, the cold emission account for a significant portion of the total emission and improving catalytic purification performance during cold start is strongly demanded. To address this, we are being needed to use large amounts of precious metals. In this study, we focus on the cold emission and explain the new catalyst which introduces the ignition layer aimed at the effective utilization of Pd. The ignition layer is the new technology that aims to improve cold start performance by arranging Pd, which has high activity at low temperatures, on the front side, upper layer, and in high density. However, there are some concerns such as reduced activity of the Rh layer and increased sulfur impact. As these counter measure, a porous structure is introduced to maintain gas

Nishio, Takahiro, Takagi, Nobuyuki, Tojo, Takumi, Fujita, Naoto, Mori, Mizuho, Toda, Yosuke

Modelling and Simulation of a Fuel Cell Powertrain for Extreme H Applications

2025-01-8008To be published on 04/01/2025

This paper aims to model and simulate a design specification for a fuel cell electric powertrain tailored for Extreme H motorsport applications. A comprehensive numerical model of the powertrain was constructed using GT-Suite, integrating the 2025 Extreme H regulations, which include specifications for the fuel cell stack, electric motors, hydrogen storage, and battery systems. A detailed drive cycle representing the real-world driving patterns of Extreme E vehicles was developed, utilising kinematic parameters derived from literature and real-world data. The performance of the Extreme H powertrain was benchmarked against the Toyota Mirai fuel cell vehicle to validate the simulation accuracy under the same racing conditions. The proposed design delivers a maximum power output of 400 kW, with 75 kW supplied by the fuel cell and 325 kW by the battery, ensuring optimal performance within the constraints set by the Extreme H 2025 regulations. Additionally, the design maintains an optimal

Moreno Medina, Javier, Samuel, Stephen

Study of High-Power and High-Energy Lithium-ion Batteries: From Parameter Analysis to Physical Modeling and Experimental Validation

2025-01-8372To be published on 04/01/2025

This study presents a comparative analysis of high-power (HP) and high-energy (HE) INR21700 lithium-ion batteries, which are Samsung 30T (3.0Ah) and 50E (4.9Ah) respectively, examining their design differences and performance characteristics. First, this paper conducted a literature review about battery teardown data, summarized key parameters and revealed that the HP cell has higher porosity, thicker current collectors, and thinner electrode coatings compared to the HE cell. Additionally, this HE cell incorporates approximately 6% silicon oxide in its graphite anode to increase energy density. Second, extensive cell-level tests were conducted, including High Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) and constant-current discharge tests at various C-rates (0.05C, 0.5C, 1C, and 2C) across temperatures from -20°C to 40°C, as well as aging tests. Results demonstrated that the HP cell maintains a low terminal voltage drop (<0.2V) during 2C discharge from open circuit voltage at 25°C and 40°C

Yao, Qi, Kollmeyer, Phillip, Chen, Junran, Panchal, Satyam, Gross, Oliver, Emadi, Ali

Experimental Analysis of Battery Thermal Management Techniques for Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries Using MATLAB Simulink, Simscape, and Stateflow Simulations

2025-01-8165To be published on 04/01/2025

The integration of lithium-ion batteries into electric vehicles represents a significant advancement in the automotive industry. These batteries are widely utilized in energy storage systems. The extended life cycle, low self-discharge rates, high energy density, and eco-friendliness of lithium-ion batteries are well-known. However, Lithium-ion batteries are highly sensitive to temperature, adversely affecting their performance, lifespan, and safety. Therefore, effective thermal management is critical to ensuring optimal operating conditions and mitigating the risk of thermal runaway. To address this, experimental study was conducted on various battery thermal management techniques, including active, passive, and hybrid approaches. These techniques were investigated for their cooling efficiencies under different operating conditions. The study utilized MATLAB Simulink, Simscape, and Stateflow to simulate the electro-thermal behavior of cylindrical lithium-ion battery cells, battery

Thangaraju, Shanmuganathan

Electric Vehicle Dynamic Operation Simulation with Data-driven and Physical-based Models

2025-01-8604To be published on 04/01/2025

Aiming at the complexity of the dynamic operation simulation of electric vehicles (EVs), this paper proposes a dynamic operation simulation model that integrates data-driven and physical-based principles. This model framework combines the advantage of interpretability from the physical model while leveraging the strength of rapid simulation under dynamic operating conditions of the electric vehicles from the data-driven model. The physical model part covers key aspects such as vehicle dynamics modeling, regenerative braking system, temperature model, and battery state estimation model. The data-driven part extracts key features and labels based on actual vehicle operation data, and establishes a capacity-life prediction model for the power pack of an electric vehicle by using the long-short-term memory model (LSTM). By combining the physical model with a data-driven approach, this model effectively simulates dynamic changes in vehicle cabin temperature, battery pack temperature, and

Jing, Hao, HU, Jianyao, Ouyang, Jianheng, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn)

Advanced Aftertreatment System Meeting Future HD CNVII Legislation II

2025-01-8478To be published on 04/01/2025

With the increasing clarity of the CNVII emission legislation, it is foreseeable that CNVII will further tighten the emissions of major pollutants such as nitrogen oxide (NOx), nitrous oxide (N2O) and PN. Together with the implementation of stage IV of fuel consumption legislation in January 2025, which requires engine fuel consumption reduction or thermal efficiency improvement, it will inevitably lead to the further deterioration of its pollutant emissions and reduction of exhaust temperature, posing greater challenges to the aftertreatment system (ATS) in terms of NOx removal during engine cold start and suppressing N2O formation. This study is an extension of our earlier investigation of “Advanced Aftertreatment System Meeting Future HD CNVII Legislation” (Wang, Y., Chen, S., Zhang, J., Chen, J. et al., "Advanced Aftertreatment System Meeting Future HD CNVII Legislation," SAE Technical Paper 2024-01-2379, 2024, https://doi.org/10.4271/2024-01-2379.), a novel copper-based corrugated

wang, Yan, Fu, Guangxia, Chen, Shuyue, ABERG, Andreas, Jiang, Shuiyan, Zhang, Jun

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