Browse Topic: Electrical systems

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Comprehensive Review on Strategies for Preventing and Managing Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles2025-32-0099To be published on 11/03/2025
The rapid growth of electric vehicle adoption has elevated lithium-ion batteries as a cornerstone of modern transportation. However, this advancement is accompanied by increasing incidents of thermal runaway, a hazardous failure process involving uncontrolled temperature rise, combustion, or explosion. Particularly in space-constrained platforms such as electric two-wheelers, the risk is intensified due to limited thermal buffers and cost-driven design constraints. This study presents a comprehensive review and experimental investigation into strategies for preventing and managing thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries. It begins by analyzing global incident trends and correlating them with the expanding electric vehicle market. The research examines the fundamental mechanisms of thermal runaway, emphasizing the roles of battery aging, material degradation, internal defects, and abuse conditions. A range of thermal safety enhancement approaches is critically reviewed, including
Jain, Gaurav, PREMLAL, P, Pathak, Rahul, Gore, Pandurang
Technical Paper
Measurement of the liquid fuel film on the combustion chamber wall of a gasoline engine using a novel capacitance sensor2025-32-0018To be published on 11/03/2025
During a cold start and warm-up operation of an SI gasoline engine, a liquid fuel film is formed on the intake port and piston walls. The liquid fuel film attached to the wall increases exhaust unburned HC, particulate matter (PM) emissions, and oil dilution. It is essential to investigate the formation process of the fuel liquid film to reduce exhaust emissions and improve thermal efficiency. Compact fuel film measurement sensors are required for application in the production engine measurement. In this study, a liquid film sensor detecting changes in capacitance due to the liquid film has been developed. The newly developed liquid film sensor was installed and demonstrated into the combustion chamber wall of a single-cylinder gasoline engine. As a result, the liquid film behavior on the combustion chamber wall was successfully detected.
Kuboyama, Tatsuya, Nakajima, Takeru, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Takayama, Satoshi, Nakabeppu, Osamu
Technical Paper
Methodology of Minimum Energy Starting for SI Engine2025-32-0090To be published on 11/03/2025
In a general purpose of small SI engine, it is required to reduced fuel consumption under the operating conditions of repeated start and stop. In other words, the energy distribution during starting from 0 rpm to idling speed is an important factor of information. The SI engine needs to be driven by the motor at the starting, and its electrical energy must be minimized. However, the engine itself needs to accelerate during starting, and its electrical energy is affected by compression, friction and moments of inertia. The purpose of this research is to clarify experimentally the starting condition that minimizes this electrical energy. This research has made it possible to divide and measure the frictional and compressional loss and the loss due to the moment of inertia during engine acceleration. Specifically, the effect of the moment of inertia was eliminated by using a motor to keep the engine in a constant state of rotation. This allows the electrical energy used by friction to be
Matsuura, Yusuke, Tanaka, Junya
Technical Paper
Machine Learning-Enhanced Electrical Circuit Model Parametrization for Battery Cells: Reducing Experimental Workload Through GITT Testing with Altair RapidMiner®2025-32-0097To be published on 11/03/2025
This study addresses the challenge of reducing the experimental workload involved in characterizing battery cell behavior as a function of state of charge and temperature. Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique tests were carried out in a climate chamber across a wide temperature range, from -20 °C to 70 °C, with 10 °C intervals. The voltage and current response data collected from these tests were used to train several machine learning algorithms. The trained models could then be used to predict the cell voltage response every 5 °C from -15 °C to 55 °C. While the models were experimentally validated at 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C, the predicted voltages across this range contribute to enhancing the characterization process. In particular, the inclusion of these predicted voltage profiles—combined with the experimental data collected every 10 °C from -20 °C to 70 °C—allows for the creation of more accurate lookup tables for the parameters of the equivalent circuit model. These
Giuliano, Luca, Peretto, Lorenzo, Canella, Nicholas, Nefat, Damir
Technical Paper
Safety Critical Series Arc Detection and Measurement in Medium and High Voltage DC Grids2025-32-0012To be published on 11/03/2025
Direct current (DC) systems are increasingly used in small power system applications ranging from combined heat and power plants aided with photovoltaic (PV) installations to powertrains of small electric vehicles. A critical safety issue in these systems is the occurrence of series arc faults, which can lead to fires due to high temperatures. This paper presents a model-based method for detecting such faults in medium- and high-voltage DC circuits. Unlike traditional approaches that rely on high-frequency signal analysis, the proposed method uses a physical circuit model and a high-gain observer to estimate deviations from nominal operation. The detection criterion is based on the variance of a disturbance estimate, allowing fast and reliable fault identification. Experimental validation is conducted using a PV system with an arc generator to simulate faults. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the method in distinguishing fault events from normal operating variations. The
Winkler, Alexander, Mayr, Stefan, Grabmair, Gernot
Technical Paper
Development of a Fuel Cell System for Small Mobility Applications with Severe Load Fluctuations2025-32-0038To be published on 11/03/2025
In recent years, small electric mobility powered by fuel cells have been proposed as a way to achieve a carbon neutral society. One reason for the proposal is that fuel cells have an advantage over battery electric vehicle (BEV) in traveling range and refueling time. This study develops a hybrid system combining a fuel cell and a lithium-ion capacitor (LiC) for small electric mobility applications with severe load fluctuations. The proposed system achieves a 53% reduction in size, a 50% reduction in weight, and a 23% improvement in acceleration performance compared to a configuration using a lithium-ion battery (LiB) as the secondary battery, while also reducing load fluctuations in the fuel cell. Although LiCs tend to be compact, lightweight, and capable of high output, they have limited discharge capacity. To address this, a prototype hybrid system combining a fuel cell and an LiB was initially constructed to verify the system’s ability to suppress load fluctuations through current
suzuki, masaya, Nakata, Nobuhiro
Technical Paper
Strategies for Improving Energy Consumption for Electric Vehicles.2025-32-0092To be published on 11/03/2025
The global transition toward sustainability and decarburization has positioned Electric Vehicles (EVs) at the forefront of future mobility. While EVs inherently offer lower emissions compared to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, optimizing their energy efficiency remains a critical challenge to ensure their viability, affordability, and widespread adoption. With global EV sales surpassing 10 million units in 2022 representing over 14% of the global vehicle market. Energy efficiency has emerged as a cornerstone in addressing key concerns such as range anxiety, charging infrastructure, operational costs and overall environmental impact. This paper embarks on a comprehensive journey, beginning with the historical evolution of EVs and identifying the multifaceted energy losses that occur during vehicle operation. By mapping the energy distribution within a typical EV, the study lays a foundational understanding of where and how inefficiencies arise. It then explores current
Jain, Gaurav, PREMLAL, P, Pathak, Rahul, Gore, Pandurang
Technical Paper
Development of Electronic Control in Strong Hybrid Motorcycle2025-32-0091To be published on 11/03/2025
In response to the growing demand for environmental performance, the mobility industry is actively developing electrification, and in particular, the use of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) in commuting motorcycles is advancing. However, in the case of vehicles for leisure, which require high riding performance, there are problems such as cruising range and charging time, and there are currently few mass-produced models. Therefore, we proposed a hybrid motorcycle to achieve both environmental performance and high riding performance by means other than BEV. The proposed vehicle is equipped with a strong type hybrid system in which an engine and a drive motor are connected in parallel via a hydraulic electronically controlled clutch. It is possible to run only by the motor (EV driving) or by a hybrid running powered by both the engine and the motor (HEV driving). In order to improve environmental performance, it is necessary to develop a function for switching between EV and HEV driving
Obayashi, Kosuke, Terai, Shohei, Jino, Kenichi, Kawai, Daisuke
Technical Paper
Electrification potential of Small ICE Powertrain Applications2025-32-0094To be published on 11/03/2025
The reduction of the CO2 footprint of transport vehicles is a major challenge to minimize the harmful impact of technology on the environment. Besides passenger cars and light and heavy-duty vehicles, this affects also the two-wheeler category and the non-road mobile machinery (NRMM). One promising path for the de-carbonisation is the transition from fossil-fuel powered ICE powertrains to electric powertrains. Several examples of electrified powertrains showcase possibilities for small hand-held powertools or small mopeds and scooters. As the powertrain categories two-wheeler and NRMM are very diversified and consist of various sub-categories and sub-classes with many different applications, the feasibility of electrification for the whole category cannot be judged by few examples. In this publication a methodology for assessing the electrification potential of small NRMM and two-wheelers is shown. The method uses 4 different factors, which determine the feasibility for electrification
Schmidt, Stephan, Schacht, Hans-Juergen, Weller, Konstantin, Absenger, Johann Friedrich
Technical Paper
Development of a Self-Adjusting Engine Out NOx Prediction Model Using Tailpipe O2 Measurements2025-01-0381To be published on 10/07/2025
On-Board Diagnostic (OBD) strategies utilize a predictive model to estimate engine out NOx levels for a given set of operating conditions to ensure the accuracy of the Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) sensor. Furthermore, this model is also used to determine urea dosing quantities in situations where the NOx sensor is unavailable such as cold starts or as a reaction to a NOx sensor plausibility failure. Physics-based NOx prediction models guarantee high levels of accuracy in real-time but are computationally expensive and require measurements generally not available on commercial powertrains making them difficult to implement on controllers. Consequently, manufacturers tend to adopt a mathematical approach by estimating NOx under standard operating conditions and use a variety of correction factors to account for any changes that can influence NOx production. Such correction factors tend to be outcomes of base engine calibration settings or outputs of models of other related sub systems and may
Sunder, Abinav, Suresh, Rahul, Polisetty, Srinivas
Technical Paper
Development of a virtual test rig to evaluate thermal management of a battery-electric vehicle under a heating-cooling mode2025-01-0413To be published on 10/07/2025
This work presents a systematic approach to developing a virtual test rig for evaluating the thermal performance of battery electric vehicles. A mass-produced battery-electric sport utility vehicle is tested in a chassis dynamometer, and the measured vehicle performance data are used as boundary conditions for the complete vehicle model. The detailed lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack model with its cooling system was developed and calibrated with various transient driving cycle data. The HVAC model is developed using a simplified controller to maintain the cabin temperature at 25 °C during both heating and cooling modes. The complete vehicle model is used to compare the thermal performances of the BEV under cabin heating and cooling modes for various transient driving cycles. The simulated results show that using an external cabin air circulation model can reduce the battery energy consumption and dissipated heat by 9.9% and 2.4%, respectively.
Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin
Technical Paper
Passive solution for Battery Disconnect Unit thermal management for electric vehicle fast charging: numerical study and experimental validation2025-01-0420To be published on 10/07/2025
Charging time is a major problem with electric vehicles development and use. The difficulty of finding a charging station and especially the duration needed for a full charge are becoming more and more important topics in electric vehicles selling points. Fast-charging is more and more used on new developed vehicles but also on existing vehicles. One of the limits of fast-charging electric vehicles is the overheating of the different components in the car, the station, and the charging system. One of the key components in this system is the battery disconnect unit. This element is responsible for monitoring, activating and deactivating the high voltage battery system. It is essential to maintain it at convenient temperatures and prevent it from overheating. These components are designed today for normal charging power, but with increasing charging powers and reducing charging time, thermal management of these components become essential. This paper presents a passive way to allow the
Salameh, Georges, Goumy, Guillaume, Chalet, David, Dubouil, Rémi, Frecinaux, Anthony, Palluel, Marlène, Ratajczack, Christelle, Noiseau, Pascal
Technical Paper
The Role of EV Charging Infrastructure in Shaping Energy Pricing and Consumer Behavior – Case Study in Saudi Arabia2025-01-0421To be published on 10/07/2025
As the electric vehicle (EV) industry grows rapidly in Saudi Arabia, driven by the development of companies such as Ceer, Lucid, and Tesla, there is an increasing need to evaluate and adapt electricity tariff structures to address changing demand patterns. This study explores the interaction between EV charging infrastructure, electricity pricing strategies, and consumer behavior, aiming to provide insights that support the sustainable expansion of the electric mobility ecosystem in the Kingdom. The methodology incorporates demand-supply analysis, energy consumption forecasting, and comparative assessments of tariff models implemented in other countries, with Saudi Arabia serving as a case study aligned with Vision 2030 objectives. Although EV adoption is expected to increase electricity demand, the Kingdom’s generation capacity, which reached 453 TWh in 2023 and is projected to exceed future consumption, ensures a stable and sufficient supply. Currently, public EV charging services
AlJuhani, Haneen Radi A, Bedywi, Lama Mohammed A, AbdulNour, Bashar
Technical Paper
ML-Based System-Level Optimization of an EV Cooling System2025-01-0376To be published on 10/07/2025
The cooling system of an automobile requires heavy consideration in the design phase, particularly for electric vehicles which have more heat sources than a conventional internal combustion engine. It is in the designer’s best interests to create a cooling system that maintains operating temperatures within optimal limits while consuming less power for better mileage. Furthermore, there are hard limits for EV battery pack temperature that must be maintained to avoid thermal runaway. With the advent of many thermal 1D-CFD commercial simulation software, it has been made possible to simulate these cooling systems with a high degree of accuracy, allowing for several design iterations to be tested and analysed without requiring costly and time-consuming physical testing. These software packages, however, still fall short of creating optimal design iterations of the cooling circuits. This can mainly be attributed to limited optimization algorithms available in the software. Rerunning
Paul, Kavin, Ganesan, Arul, Mansour, Youssef
Technical Paper
Efficient Prediction of Electric Vehicle Battery Temperature2025-01-0419To be published on 10/07/2025
Maintaining the temperature of lithium-ion batteries within electric vehicles across a wide range of driving scenarios and ambient temperatures is critical for ensuring both safety and long battery life. However, accurately predicting the temperature of batteries that thermally interact with dynamic systems—such as drive cycles, cooling systems, and vehicle components—can be computationally expensive and too slow for the iterative nature of design processes. To address this, our research employs a combination of 1D thermal modeling, a modified lumped capacitance approach, and experimental testing to develop a fast and reliable framework for analyzing battery thermal performance. The model captures the interaction between the drive cycle, cooling plate, coolant flow, thermal interface material, and battery geometry and properties. This hybrid approach balances accuracy and computational efficiency, enabling rapid exploration of thermal design strategies during early-stage vehicle
Builes, Isabel, Bachman, John Christopher, Medina, Mario
Technical Paper
Impact of the Range Extender Engine Configuration on Powertrain Performance and Vehicle Integration2025-01-0386To be published on 10/07/2025
The light-duty transportation sector is experiencing a worldwide push towards reduced carbon intensity. One pathway that has been developed focuses on replacing internal combustion engine-based vehicles with full-electric battery electric vehicles (BEV), which offer local CO2-free mobility. However, batteries offer a limited mobility range and require unfavorable long recharging times, leading to a limited range perception among some customers. Range-extended electric vehicles (REEV) utilize a small internal combustion engine to mitigate the range concerns of BEVs, while also enabling a battery size reduction with its associated improvements in cost, weight, and manufacturing CO2 intensity. A previous study by the authors discussed evaluation criteria for range extenders and compared additive technology options to enable cost-, efficiency, or power-optimized REEV applications using a modular approach. This study contrasts the dedicated range extender engine and associated modular
Hoth, Alexander, Peters, Nathan, Bunce, Mike, Marion, Joshua, Silvano, Peter, Pothuraju Subramanyam, Sai
Technical Paper
Enhancing Robustness of Electro-Hydraulic Brake-by-Wire Actuators via Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control2025-01-0341To be published on 09/15/2025
In recent years, motorsport has increasingly focused on environmental concerns, leading to the rise of hybrid and fully electric competitions. In this scenario, electric motors and batteries take a crucial role in reducing the environmental impact by recovering energy during braking. However, due to inherent limitations, motors and battery cannot fully capture all braking power, necessitating the use of standard friction brakes. To achieve an efficient balance between electric motors and friction brakes, the brake pressure can no longer be directly controlled by the driver. Instead, it must be computed by the Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) and sent to a smart actuator, i.e. the Brake-By-Wire (BBW), which ensures that the required pressure is applied. The standard approach to achieve precise pressure control is to design a nested Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control architecture, which requires an accurate nominal model of the system dynamics to meet the desired tracking
Gimondi, Alex, Dubbini, Alberto, Riva, Giorgio, Cantoni, Carlo
Technical Paper
Preliminary Multi-Physics Modelling and Characterization of a Magneto-Rheological Brake2025-01-0347To be published on 09/15/2025
Magneto-Rheological Fluid (MRF) is a smart material used in several applications for its ability to switch from fluid behaviour to solid-like conditions if a magnetic field is present. The dependency of viscosity on magnetic field makes this fluid suitable for braking system of electric vehicles, thanks to its high controllability and response time in the whole operative range. The main parameters that influence the behaviour of the fluid, and so the braking action of the system, are magnetic field and rotational velocity. In general, the variable physical properties make it complicated to simulate the system and its behaviour in different operating conditions. Therefore, it is usually necessary to build a physical prototype to experimentally verify the response of the braking system at different driving conditions. This paper presents the development of a virtual model of Magneto-Rheological Brakes (MRB) whose validity is extended to different driving conditions. This can be
De Luca, Elena, Imberti, Giovanni, de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Carello, Massimiliana
Technical Paper
An Investigation of a Battery Module Thermal Behaviour Based on CFD Simulations and Experimental Tests2025-24-0144To be published on 09/07/2025
Battery management systems are the key component in electric vehicles (EVs), which are increasingly replacing internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in the automotive industry. Battery management systems mainly focus on battery thermal management, efficiency, battery life and the safety conditions. Generally, lithium-ion batteries have been chosen in EV cars. Therefore, the internal resistance of Li-ion batteries plays a crucial role in the thermal behaviour. Most of the published studies rely on 0D-1D models to analyse single cell thermal behaviour depending on the internal resistance at different ambient temperatures and charging/ discharging rates, and on the cooling system However, these models, though fast, cannot provide detailed information about the temperature distribution within a cell or a module. Full 3D CFD-CHT simulations on the other hand, are very time consuming and require highly qualified computers, but allow a deeper understanding of the cell/module thermal
Karaca, Cem, Olmeda, Pablo, Margot, Xandra, Postrioti, Lucio, Baldinelli, Giorgio
Technical Paper
Design of a Reconfigurable Winding Switch for an In-Wheel Automotive Motor2025-24-0130To be published on 09/07/2025
A design is presented for a mechanical switchgear, intended for reconfiguring the windings of an electric machine whilst in operation. The design is a result of the EM-TECH project funded under Horizon Europe, and includes integration onto an in-wheel automotive motor. The motor features 6 phase fractions, which can be reconfigured by the switchgear between series-star or parallel-star arrangements, thereby doubling the torque or speed range of the electric machine. The effect on the operating envelope of the machine is similar to the addition of a 2-speed transmission, but with an added mass of only 1.5kg – around one tenth of the equivalent transmission. As well as the extended operating envelope, the reconfigurable winding motor offers benefits in efficiency and power density. Previous studies have shown the technical feasibility of such devices using semiconductor switches. Although these studies have confirmed the performance of the technology, such semiconductor solutions have
Vagg, Christopher, Thomas, Luke, Pickering, Simon, Herzog, Matic, Trinchuk, Danylo, Romih, Jaka
Technical Paper
Practical Mixed Parameter Obtention Framework for Li-Ion Battery Electrochemical and Degradation Models Based on Parameter Classification and Physical Measurement2025-24-0141To be published on 09/07/2025
Prediction of EV performance through lifetime is a crucial task. However, accurate prediction of states of LIBs remains a challenge due to the complexity of detailed electrochemical models, absence of a single universally accepted approach for the identification of model parameters and limitations in invasive and non-invasive parameter obtention methods. Classification and estimation of the most relevant parameters under different steps will enhance the identifiability of parameters in P2D models operating under various conditions. On the other hand, reliable estimation of the internal state of batteries can be drawn with proper integration of material parameters into the battery model. In this study, a systematic classification framework of parameter obtention was proposed through multi-steps for P2D electrochemical and degradation models. Furthermore, a practical mixed approach is developed for parameter obtention of P2D models with optimization-based calibration methodology and
Mehranfar, Sadegh, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Garcia, Antonio, Micó, Carlos, Elkourchi, Imad, Bekaert, Emilie, Herran, Alvaro, Konno, Juho
Technical Paper
Multilevel control strategy design and optimization for fuel cell hybrid heavy-duty vehicles2025-24-0107To be published on 09/07/2025
The heavy-duty transportation sector is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, highlighting the urgent need for zero-emission solutions. This research develops a multilevel control architecture that optimizes fuel economy and minimizes emissions in fuel cell hybrid heavy-duty vehicles, equipped with proton exchange membrane fuel cell and battery pack as main power sources. The detailed fuel cell system model incorporates reactants and thermal dynamics, including air supply, hydrogen flow, water management and their effects on reaction kinetics, membrane conductivity, water balance, performance and durability. The low-level control strategy is designed using a physics-based approach that accounts for critical constraints, including temperature, membrane water content and differential pressure between the cathode and anode. By identifying optimal setpoints for key control variables, this methodology enables the development of accurate control maps for actuator management
Bove, Giovanni, Aliberti, Paolo, Simone, Christian, Sorrentino, Marco, Pianese, Cesare
Technical Paper
Advanced Plasma-based Ignition Strategy for Future Spark Ignition Engines2025-24-0020To be published on 09/07/2025
Internal combustion engines will continue to play an important role in transportation for decades to come because of the high onboard energy density. For present passenger vehicles, efforts have been made to reduce the cold start emissions and improve engine efficiency. To reach such goals, lean and diluted mixtures are needed to reduce the chemical reactivity of the mixture, so a higher engine compression ratio can be used to improve thermal efficiency. The decreased flame temperature of the lean/diluted mixtures are also beneficial for NOx reduction. Strong in-cylinder flow is needed to increase flame propagation speed for efficient and complete combustion process. Strong ignition sources are needed to provide robust ignition to support the combustion process. In this paper, the application of advanced plasma-based ignition strategies are reviewed, with special attention to the on-demand plasma energy profiling, which has flexible control over discharge duration and current
Yu, Xiao, Leblanc, Simon, Reader, Graham, Zheng, Ming
Technical Paper
Combined Virtual and Experimental Approach to Develop Highly Efficient Metallic Catalyst for New World Wide Emission Legislation2025-24-0080To be published on 09/07/2025
The market penetration of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) in Europe is not following the foreseen scenario. This is related to several factors, such as uncertainty of the second-hand value of BEV, real driving range under cold conditions and availability of charging stations. Even if the European Community is still planning a full ban of Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) by 2035. In the rest of the world a more technology neutral approach is being pursued with car manufacturers developing different powertrain architectures, from mild- to full-hybrid and Range Extenders (REEX). In this context the different emission regulations, and the wide range of powertrain architectures, the focus of the development will be the increase of catalyst efficiency without any big impact on exhaust aftertreatment cost. In this work the authors have used a 1D simulation approach to support the optimization of metallic TWC substrate for the High Power Cold Start use case. Additionally, a 3D CFD was used
Montenegro, Gianluca, Della Torre, Augusto, Marinoni, Andrea, Onorati, Angelo, Klövmark, Henrik, Laurell, Mats, Pace, Lorenzo, Konieczny, Katrin
Technical Paper
Battery datasets for neural network-based State-of-Health estimators: a review and implementative workflow2025-24-0139To be published on 09/07/2025
Correct management of the battery systems for electric vehicles, at pack, module and cell level, has critical importance to ensure safe and efficient operation. Proper control at cell level, requires estimation of battery statuses, such as the State-of-Charge and the State-of-Health, as they cannot directly measured during vehicle operation. With the increasing advances in sensor availability, edge computing and the development of big data, data-driven approaches have gained increasing interest. In particular, due to their great flexibility and potential in mapping non-linear relations within data, application of machine learning (ML) and neural networks (NNs) in SoH estimation have been thoroughly investigated. The numerous studies available in literature leveraged extracted different features from data to train NNs, or directly used measurements signal as input. Additionally, many studies available in literature are based on a limited number of publicly available datasets, which
Chianese, Giovanni, Capasso, Clemente, Veneri, Ottorino
Technical Paper
Use of Model-Based Datasets and Neural-Networks to support Real-Time Driving Suggestions System for Components Preservation in Battery Electric Vehicles2025-24-0115To be published on 09/07/2025
Nowadays, Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are considered an attractive solution to support the transition towards more sustainable transportation systems. Although their well-known advantages in terms of overall propulsion efficiency and exhaust emissions, the diffusion of BEVs on the market is still reduced by some technical bottlenecks. Among those, the uncertainty about the expected durability of the vehicle's onboard battery packs plays a key role in affecting customer choice. In this context, this paper proposes the use of model-based datasets for training a driving support system based on machine learning techniques to be installed on board. The objective of this system is to acquire vehicle, environmental, and traffic information from sensor’ networks and provide real-time smart suggestions to the driver to preserve the remaining useful life of vehicle components, with particular reference to the battery pack and brakes. For the generation of the training dataset, first, a set
Bernardi, Mario Luca, Capasso, Clemente, Iannucci, Luigi, Sequino, Luigi
Technical Paper
Evaluating safety behavior of Li-ion batteries regarding negative electrode composition2025-24-0149To be published on 09/07/2025
Li-ion battery performance is highly dependent on the electrode materials. The composition of the negative and positive electrodes influences crucial aspects of the Li-ion cell, including energy density, ageing behavior and thermal stability. Recent Li-ion technologies include the use of composite graphite-silicon negative electrodes to improve the energy storage capacity of the otherwise graphite-only negative electrode. This article evaluates the impact of negative electrode composition (standard graphite vs. Si-Gr) on the performance of two recent technologies of Li-ion batteries from the same manufacturer, focusing on electrical performance and safety behavior. The studied technologies are the LG M50LT and LG M58T, the latest one introducing a considerable increase of capacity, passing from 4.80 to 5.65 in nominal capacity. This article abords the comparison of both technologies in electric performance, electrode composition, cell design and thermal stability. Electrical
Cruz Rodriguez, Jesus Armando, Lecompte, Matthieu, Redondo-Iglesias, Eduardo, Pelissier, Serge, Abada, Sara
Technical Paper
A comprehensive electro-thermal and fluid-dynamic model for liquid-cooled lithium-ion cells: development and experimental validation2025-24-0145To be published on 09/07/2025
The temperature evolution of lithium-ion cells under operation has a significant impact on their performance, efficiency, and aging. Modeling the thermal status of lithium-ion cells is crucial to predict and prevent undesired working conditions or even failures. In this context, this paper presents a mathematical model to predict the transient temperature distributions of a lithium-ion polymer battery (LiPo) cooled by forced convection via a specially designed channel plate for liquid cooling. For the battery modeling, Newman’s pseudo-2D approach was used to perform a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. It assumes that the porous electrode is made of equally sized, isotropic, homogeneous spherical particles, which results in smooth, uniform intercalation/de-intercalation of lithium inside the electrode. Also, the channel plate geometry and the cooling liquid fluid-dynamic behavior were simulated with a commercial code based on the finite volume method. The model has been set
Ferrari, Cristian, Magri, Luca, Sequino, Luigi
Technical Paper
Methodological approach to Battery Electric Vehicle design: Energy-Based model development from a detailed Digital Twin2025-24-0098To be published on 09/07/2025
On the path to the decarbonization of the transport sector, the development of electric vehicles (EVs) is crucial to meeting the targets set by international regulatory bodies. EVs operate with zero tailpipe emissions and offer high energy efficiency and flexibility; however, challenges remain in achieving a fully sustainable electricity supply. In this context, powertrain design plays a fundamental role in determining vehicle performance and mission feasibility, which are strongly influenced by operating conditions and application characteristics, such as driving profiles and ambient temperature. A key challenge is the optimal sizing of components, particularly the battery pack and the electric motor. Therefore, a structured and methodological approach to powertrain design is essential to ensuring an optimal configuration. To this end, the project focuses on an integrated approach based on a master-and-slave modeling framework applied to a light-duty commercial vehicle at two levels
Bartolucci, Lorenzo, Cennamo, Edoardo, Grattarola, Federico, Lombardi, Simone, Mulone, Vincenzo, Tribioli, Laura, Aimo Boot, Marco
Technical Paper
ACTIVE TEMPERATURE CONTROL STRATEGIES WITH LIQUID COOLING THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR LI-ION BATTERIES2025-24-0148To be published on 09/07/2025
Nowadays, electric vehicles (EVs) are considered one of the most promising solutions for reducing pollutant emissions related to the road transportation sector. Although these vehicles have achieved a high level of reliability, various challenges about Li-ion storage systems and their thermal management systems remain unresolved. This work proposes a numerical and experimental study of a lithium-ion storage cell with a scaled battery thermal management system (BTMS). In particular, a channel plate for liquid cooling is specifically designed and manufactured for the cell under test. The BTMS is based on the development of an indirect liquid cooling system with optimal control of the coolant flow rate to fulfill the thermal requirements of the system. A lumped parameters approach is used to simulate the electro-thermal behavior of the system and to analyze the effects of real-time control strategies on the temperature of the cell under test. An ad-hoc experimental test rig is set up for
Capasso, Clemente, Castiglione, Teresa, Perrone, Diego, Sequino, Luigi
Technical Paper
When Electric Vehicles Sleep: Investigating Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Precooling in Extreme Temperature Conditions2025-24-0146To be published on 09/07/2025
Effective thermal management is essential for optimizing the performance and longevity of lithium-ion battery packs, particularly in electric vehicles facing extreme temperature conditions. This study investigates the performance of an indirect liquid cooling system used for pre-cooling stationary electric vehicle battery packs, focusing on scenarios such as vehicle sleep mode in high-temperature conditions. The cooling system, which utilizes a water-glycol mixture flowing at 1.2 L/min, was tested on a battery pack consisting of 36 prismatic battery cells in a thermally isolated chamber, subjected to initial temperatures of 50.0°C, 60.0°C, and 69.5°C. To assess the thermal behavior, 25 thermocouples were strategically positioned on the battery surface, and inlet coolant temperature was monitored via an additional thermocouple. An exponential cooling response was observed across all temperature cases, with maximum temperature difference between the hottest and coldest cells reaching 7.6
Darvish, Hossein, Carlucci, Antonio Paolo, Ficarella, Antonio, Laforgia, Domenico
Technical Paper
Analysis of DC Current and Voltage Ripples of Electrical Drivetrains for HV Electrical System Emulation2025-24-0135To be published on 09/07/2025
State-of-the-art testing of traction inverters is conducted using PHIL-based testbeds. These systems, which include a battery emulator and an E-Motor Emulator (EME), offer significant advantages over dynamometer testbeds in terms of test duration, reproducibility, parameterization and protection of the unit under test. In these advanced systems, the physical modeling of the AC side (e-motor) is highly detailed, accounting for factors such as iron saturation effects, current harmonics, and loss models. However, the DC side models are limited to a constant voltage and an internal resistance model, neglecting other components like additional traction inverters or DC/DC converters connected to the HV electrical system and their impact on voltage and current ripples – high-frequency oscillations in the current that can arise from power electronic systems. This research project aims to address this gap by developing an HV electrical system emulator that considers these influences. This
Merath, Stefan, Winzer, Patrick, Reick, Benedikt
Technical Paper
Effect of PEM Fuel Cell Technology Advancement on the Energy Efficiency of a Heavy-Duty Vehicle2025-24-0111To be published on 09/07/2025
Advancements in fuel cell stack technology—such as improved power density, catalyst utilization, and durability—have significantly enhanced system efficiency and reduced hydrogen consumption in heavy-duty fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). In parallel, innovations in auxiliary subsystems, including air supply management, thermal regulation, and energy storage integration, have minimized parasitic losses, optimized fuel usage, and improved battery state-of-charge dynamics. These technological improvements collectively influence vehicle operation under varying load conditions, affecting both transient response and overall energy efficiency. To systematically assess these impacts, this study evaluates key performance metrics such as compressor-related energy losses, fuel utilization, and battery performance. The current vehicle simulation model relies on an outdated fuel cell system based on technology from 20 years ago, which no longer accurately reflects the efficiency potential of
Dursun, Beyza, Johansson, Max, Tunestal, Per, aronsson, Ulf, Eriksson, Lars, Andersson, Oivind
Technical Paper
Development and parametrization of a physics-based ageing model for Li-ion battery cells2025-24-0140To be published on 09/07/2025
Although significant progress has been made on developing electrochemical models of Li-ion batteries performance, there is a significant gap in predictive, physics-based modelling of the degradation mechanisms. In this work, we perform a systematic experimental and modelling study to explore the potential of predictive battery ageing models. A commercial NMC pouch cell is initially characterized in detail using tear-down analysis, electrical and electrothermal tests to obtain the electrochemical model parameters and validate its fidelity in a large range of operating conditions in terms of temperature, state-of-charge and load. The cell is then exposed to accelerated ageing operating conditions and its performance is monitored regularly to obtain its degradation rate in terms of capacity and resistance. The aged cell is also characterized by tear-down and optical techniques. The experimentally obtained test database is used to develop and validate the mathematical models that describe
Koltsakis, Grigorios, Spyridopoulos, Spyridon, Chatziioannou, Panteleimon, Tentzos, Michail
Technical Paper
Effects of the battery pack temperature on the energy management strategy and fuel consumption of a series hybrid quadricycle2025-24-0101To be published on 09/07/2025
Nowadays, a push towards decarbonisation to reduce the problem of environmental pollution is increasingly pressing. In the current automotive context, a tendency among the cars manufacturer to consider the development of hybrid vehicles is growing. Indeed, thanks to the battery downsizing due to the presence of the range extender (REx), a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) allows to overcome the limitations of pure electric vehicles (EV) such as the infrastructure which is linked to the battery charging process. Moreover, the performance of battery in terms of efficiency and operating limits are strictly related to the temperature of battery pack and to the energy management strategy (EMS). The proposed work aims to analyse the performance of a series hybrid vehicle (S-HEV) depending on the temperature of battery pack and the EMS. The considered S-HEV is equipped with a hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine that is used as REx. First, a lumped thermal model of the battery pack is
Cervone, Davide, Sicilia, Massimo, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare
Technical Paper
Methanol cold start for a serial hybrid powertrain2025-24-0074To be published on 09/07/2025
Green methanol is a renewable fuel with many advantages when used in a spark ignition combustion process. Methanol has a comparatively high enthalpy of vaporization, leading to lower combustion temperatures (com-pared to gasoline combustion) and, hence, lower wall heat losses as well as a reduced tendency to pre-ignition. Therefore, a brake efficiency of more than 40 % and furthermore minimal emissions are possible. The serial combination with an electric powertrain provides a disconnection of the load demand of the powertrain and the operating point of the combustion engine. In this case, a high volumetric and gravimetric power density, easy energy storage, and proven infrastructure of fuel distribution is combined with electric driving, high efficiencies, minimal emissions and a closed carbon cycle for the energy provision. Nevertheless, the high flash point of methanol at 11°C indicates a challenging cold start. The described procedure enables the cold start of pure methanol down to
Dobberkau, Maximilian, Werner, Ronny, Atzler, Frank
Technical Paper
Effects of piston preheating and friction reduction on cold-start charge preparation for DI methanol engine: an in-cylinder CFD study2025-24-0040To be published on 09/07/2025
Methanol is gaining interest as a renewable fuel for ICE application. A challenge for this fuel is its evaporation rate at low temperatures, making cold start at low environment temperature problematic. The first combustion cycles are characterized by a low combustion chamber temperature and high engine friction. In a previous work, a practical idea is presented to both pre-heat the pistons and pre-condition the gliding working surfaces, reducing friction. In this article, an in-cylinder CFD model is used to study the charge preparation of a DI methanol ICE until end of compression. The model is calibrated in-house against measurements of a warm methanol engine. The piston temperature is varied within the rage expected by the pre-heating – pre-lubricating device. The friction decrease is translated into the reduced amount of fuel needed to generate the IMEP required to idle the engine. Engine initial starting conditions at -20°C, 0°C and +20°C are considered. For these global
Bovo, Mirko, Mubarak Ali, Mohammed Jaasim
Technical Paper
An eco-charging strategy for heavy-duty electric vehicles via graph optimization2025-24-0116To be published on 09/07/2025
The adoption of heavy-duty electric vehicles (HDEVs) presents significant challenges in trip planning due to high energy consumption, limited battery capacity, and the reduced availability of high-power charging stations. Unlike passenger EVs, HDEVs require careful coordination of routing and charging decisions to ensure both operational efficiency and feasibility. This work proposes a graph-based optimization framework for eco-charging strategies that jointly optimizes energy consumption, travel time, and charging costs while considering road, traffic, and infrastructure constraints. The methodology relies on constructing first a routing graph, where nodes represent waypoints, and edges represent road links with attributes such as speed limits, traffic conditions, and energy consumption. This graph is then extended into a hypergraph, where nodes incorporate information about both vehicle location and state-of-charge (SOC), while edges represent either driving or charging actions. The
Zonetti, Daniele, Sciarretta, Antonio, De Nunzio, Giovanni
Technical Paper
A Critical Assessment of Phase Change Materials for Boosting EV Efficiency2025-24-0147To be published on 09/07/2025
Effective thermal management in battery packs is a key technology for enhancing the efficiency and longevity of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Traditional active cooling systems can consume significant amounts of energy, thereby impacting the vehicle's overall efficiency. This paper explores the use of phase change materials (PCMs) as a complementary cooling technology, enabling both an improved active and an extended passive conditioning of battery packs. By leveraging the unique properties of PCMs, it is possible to partially operate the battery system without active cooling, thus reducing the overall energy consumption and improving vehicle autonomy. The phase change phenomenon further offers the benefit of a homogeneous temperature distribution within the battery pack. This study addresses the potential of PCMs as a thermal management solution for battery packs by firstly identifying suitable materials meeting requirements specific to such application. In addition, the paper
Fandakov, Alexander, Nolte, Oliver, Herzog, Alexander, Sens, Marc
Technical Paper
A 0D Methodology for Estimating Critical Parameters in Thermal Runaway Tests of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Closed Volumes2025-24-0150To be published on 09/07/2025
The growing push for electrification, driven by the need to reduce emissions associated with combustion engines, has accelerated the adoption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, this rapid development raises significant safety concerns, particularly regarding thermal runaway events. This study presents a zero-dimensional (0D) methodology for estimating critical parameters during thermal runaway tests conducted in sealed volumes, such as canister-based experiments where both gas composition and pressure are analyzed. The proposed methodology relies on 0D combustion calculations, incorporating experimentally observed vent gas compositions and vented mass quantities. The primary results establish approximate values for critical parameters, providing an order-of-magnitude estimation of overpressure during tests. These findings are crucial for the proper pre-dimensioning of test facilities designed for thermal runaway experiments in confined volumes. As a key conclusion, this study
Garcia, Antonio, Micó, Carlos, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Gómez-Soriano, Alejandro
Technical Paper
Condensate Formation in Exhaust Systems during Cold Start2025-24-0081To be published on 09/07/2025
In order to minimize tailpipe emissions of vehicles with combustion engines, highest conversion rates of modern exhaust gas aftertreatment systems are indispensable. Especially at low ambient temperatures, gaseous emissions increase due to inhomogeneous mixture formation and incomplete combustion. Simultaneously, formation of condensate on exhaust gas-carrying components is stimulated due to temperatures dropping below the dew point. Depending on exhaust gas composition, ambient and local surface component temperatures along with engine operating conditions, the acidic or alkaline aqueous condensates contain a small fraction of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Nevertheless, in an acidic environment, for example, the hydrocarbons of the condensates can be polymerized, forming insoluble deposits that become progressively less reactive with time. These deposits may harm components of exhaust gas duct as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valves and/or coolers or exhaust gas
Knapp, Sebastian, Hagen, Fabian P., Wagner, Uwe, Bockhorn, Henning, Trimis, Dimosthenis, Koch, Thomas
Technical Paper
Thermal Characterization of a High-Power Lithium-Ion Pouch Cell and Surface Temperature Prediction for Motorsport Applications2025-24-0142To be published on 09/07/2025
Accurate cell thermal characterisation is vital for battery modelling and thermal management, especially in motorsport, where minor temperature estimation errors can have severe consequences. Conventional methods for determining key thermal parameters, such as the specific heat capacity, often require costly calorimeters or destructive testing. Recent studies propose an alternative approach using a 1D lumped thermal network to solve the thermal balance of a heat-generating cell. However, these studies often overlook critical aspects of the heat generation equation, particularly the entropic term, which is essential for capturing nonlinear thermal behaviour, especially under dynamic cycling conditions. This study presents a cost-effective approach for rapid cell thermal characterisation and accurate surface temperature prediction. A pouch LCO cell was first tested to determine the entropic coefficient, followed by experiments under two convective conditions to evaluate its specific heat
Sciortino, Davide Domenico, Schommer, Adriano, Costa, Andre
Technical Paper
In situ DRIFT-MS insight into the thermal evolution of battery materials2025-24-0151To be published on 09/07/2025
Currently, the Li-ion battery is the reference technology adopted by most of automotive manufacturers (OEMs) to ensure the energy storage required for electrified vehicles. However, these batteries can be the source of incidents with potentially severe consequences, commonly referred to as thermal runaway (TR). Thermal runaway mechanisms are generally studied at the macroscopic scale through the analysis of the gases and heat emitted during this event. However, the chemical reactions occurring at the surface, interface, and interphase of the battery's constituent materials remain poorly documented. Obtaining information on the thermal decomposition processes of battery materials is challenging and rarely accessible. In this work, we propose an analytical approach to characterize the evolution of battery materials during a temperature increase from 20 to 350 °C in controlled atmosphere. The developed experimental setup combines diffuse reflectance infrared FT (DRIFT) analysis at the
Lecompte, Matthieu, Rivallan, Mickael, Girod, Nicolas, Clemencon, Isabelle, Chaudoy, Victor, Tant, Sylvain
Technical Paper
Comparing different electrical architectures for a parallel PEMFC-battery hybrid electric lightweight vehicle2025-24-0110To be published on 09/07/2025
In the field of hybrid powertrains for sustainable mobility, fuel cells are a promising solution to improve the performance of battery electric vehicles by implementing PEMFCs as REx. The selection of proper power electronics, such as converters, is fundamental to guarantee tight control and electrical stability. In this paper, a comparison between different electrical architectures of an electric hybrid PEMFC/battery vehicle is proposed: a light battery electric quadricycle (EU L6e) with four in-wheel motors is hybridized with a 3 kW open-cathode PEMFC as REx in parallel layout. The battery accounts for a bi-directional DC/DC converter to stabilize the voltage at 48V, needed by EMGs. A passive architecture is firstly considered, with the PEMFC stack connected to the battery poles; the second architecture is a semi-active one, with the PEMFC connected after the battery DC/DC converter; the last considered layout is active, with a unidirectional DC/DC converter between PEMFC and
Sicilia, Massimo, Cervone, Davide, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare
Technical Paper
Simulation Driven thermal optimization of an innovative battery system2025-24-0138To be published on 09/07/2025
BATSS project objective is to design a safe, effective and sustainable battery pack. To achieve these goals the final battery system (BS) will be mechanically, electrically and thermally optimized using cutting edge technology. Consequently, the battery system includes innovative 4695 cylindrical cells and advanced thermal management, carried out with the Miba FLEXCOOLER®. This work will focus on the BS thermal optimization using simulation tools. This numerical approach includes both system simulation and 3D modeling of the battery pack. First 0D model ability to satisfactorily represent electro-thermal behavior of the chosen cells will be demonstrated. The retained modeling approach is an empirical equivalent circuit model. This model parameters are calibrated thanks to dedicated experiments conducted in the framework of BATSS project. Then, 0D simulation of a downscaled module will be presented. This simulation includes all thermally relevant BS components cells, FLEXCOOLER® and
Chevillard, Stephane, Popp, Hartmut, Galarza, Igor, Petit, Martin
Technical Paper
Self-Controlled Electrically Powered Semitrailer02-19-01-000207/28/2025
In this article, the hybrid drive is discussed of the combination of conventional tractors with electrified trailers, usually referred to as E-trailer. We demonstrate that this approach offers the possibility of achieving fuel savings exceeding 20%. For regional trips, about half of this reduction is achieved without offline charging, i.e., without applying electric energy from the E-trailer battery. For motorway dominant trips, more use is required of the battery energy. A new control strategy is proposed, validated through simulations, in which only three control parameters are required, which can be tuned effectively to achieve maximum fuel reduction under certain trip and loading conditions. This control strategy adjusts the E-trailer torque request, based on the requested power for the tractor diesel engine, being estimated through a smart kingpin sensor. It ensures that the E-trailer supports the tractor propulsion when significant power is required, and recovers energy when the
Pauwelussen, Joop, Kural, Karel, Hetjes, Bas
Journal Article
Design of a Wide-Input Single-Phase Full-Bridge Power Converter for a Free-Piston Engine2025-01-505407/21/2025
Free-piston engines are new and efficient energy conversion devices that eliminate mechanical crankshafts. A wide-input power converter was needed as an electronic crankshaft for a free-piston engine to achieve efficient power generation control. A 20 kW single-phase full-bridge power converter that can operate over a wide-input voltage range was proposed in this paper to solve this problem. A current controller was designed by discussing the current flow of the power converters in four working modes, including forward electric, reverse electric, forward generation, and reverse generation. A model that considers the parasitic inductance on the wires in the circuit and the parasitic inductance and capacitance of each pole of the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) switch was established in this paper, and the accuracy of the model was verified through simulation in MATLAB/Simulink. The main parameters of the power converter, such as the absorption resistance and capacitance of the
Li, Mengfei, Xu, Zhaoping, Liu, Liang
Technical Paper
SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine 6000 rpm Stepped Power TestJ2488_202507 (Current)07/21/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice is intended as the definition of a standard test, but it may be subject to frequent change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This should be kept in mind when considering its use. The SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine is used to evaluate the friction characteristics of automatic transmission plate clutches with automotive transmission fluids. It can also be used to conduct durability tests on wet friction systems. The specific purpose of this document is to define a 6000 rpm stepped power test for the evaluation of wet friction system performance variation as a function of power level. This procedure uses an initial engagement speed of 6000 rpm and is intended as a standard procedure for common use by both suppliers and end users. The only variables selected by the supplier or user of the friction system are: a Friction material b Fluid c Reaction plates These three variables must be clearly identified when reporting the results of using
Automatic Transmission and Transaxle Committee
Recommended Practice
Seven Conductor Cable - Truck and BusJ1067_202507 (Current)07/21/2025
This SAE Standard establishes the minimum construction and performance requirements for seven conductor 1/8-1/10-5/12 cable for use on trucks, trailers and converter dollies for 12 VDC nominal applications. Where appropriate, the standard refers to two types of cables (Type F and S, described later in the standard), due to the variation in the performance demands of cables used in flexing and stationary applications.
Truck and Bus Electrical Systems Committee
Technical Standard
15 Pole Connector Between Towing Vehicles and Trailers with 12 Volt Nominal SupplyJ2691_202507 (Current)07/21/2025
This SAE Standard establishes the minimum construction and performance requirements for a 15 pole connector between towing vehicles and trailers, for trucks, trailers, and dollies, for 12 VDC nominal applications in conjunction with SAE J2742. The connector accommodates both power and ISO 11992-1 signal circuits along with dual ground wires to accommodate grounding requirements within the constraints of the SAE J2691 terminal capacity.
Truck and Bus Electrical Systems Committee
Technical Standard
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