Browse Topic: Electrical systems

Items (16,408)

Evolutionary Path to Vehicle Zonal E/E Architecture

2026-01-0071To be published on 04/07/2026

The automotive industry is undergoing a major transition in Electrical/Electronic (E/E) architecture, evolving from traditional distributed and domain-based designs to zonal configuration. The rapid growth of software-driven functionality, cross domain function integration, and demands for centralized management have exposed the limitations of distributed and domain-based designs in complexity, scalability, and cost. Zonal E/E architecture addresses these challenges by consolidating computing and I/O resources into high-performance controllers distributed across physical zones of the vehicle, greatly reducing wiring complexity, improving modularity, and enabling scalable, software-defined vehicles. However, this transition cannot be immediate because vehicle design and electrical system solutions have been built on decades of distributed and domain-based development. Moreover, the enabling technologies for realizing zonal E/E architecture, such as high-speed automotive Ethernet, zonal

Jiang, Shugang

Signal Integrity in Distributed BMS: Reliable SPI and Ethernet Communication for Next-Gen EVs

2026-01-0171To be published on 04/07/2026

Distributed battery management systems (BMS) are critical for scaling electric vehicle packs to hundreds of cells, but reliable high-speed communication between modules remains a challenge. Daisy-chained SPI and CAN FD are widely deployed today, while Ethernet is being evaluated for next-generation systems that require higher bandwidth, synchronization, and diagnostics. This paper examines the signal integrity (SI) challenges facing distributed BMS communication, including skew, jitter, crosstalk, and electromagnetic interference (EMI) across PCB traces and wiring harnesses. HyperLynx and SPICE-based simulations are combined with experimental results on a 192-cell test platform to quantify the impact of layout constraints, impedance mismatches, and harness parasitics. Results show that poor SI design can reduce signal margins by more than 18 dB, leading to data corruption and diagnostic failures. Co-design strategies for PCB routing, termination, and shielding are proposed, achieving

Abdul Karim, Abdul Salam

Driver response times to turn-in-path events from real world responses in SHRP-2 data

2026-01-0545To be published on 04/07/2026

This study analyses of driver behavior in Turn-In-Path (TIP) scenarios using the Second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP2) naturalistic driving dataset. A total of 259 real-world incidents, including both crashes and near-crashes, were examined to evaluate human driver perception-response times (PRT) and avoidance behaviors when another vehicle (the principal other vehicle, or POV) turns into the path of a straight-moving subject vehicle (SV). The combined analysis includes TIP events involving POVs turning from intersecting roads to either cross or merge into the SV’s lane. Each event was reviewed to identify the triggering threshold that prompted an emergency response, with measurements taken from video and telematics data. Response time was measured across two different starting points. Key variables included time to conflict, POV behavior (e.g., stopped vs. rolling), SV driver engagement in secondary tasks, and environmental factors such as lighting and roadway geometry

Dinakar, Swaroop, Muttart, Jeffrey, Maloney, Timothy, Adhikari, Bikram

Quantifying Accuracy and Robustness to Guide Fidelity Selection for Multi-fidelity Vehicle Dynamics Models

2026-01-0149To be published on 04/07/2026

Accurate and reliable simulation models are essential for design, development, and performance evaluation during virtual vehicle testing. However, fidelity assessment and validation remain a challenge. While error metrics are used to evaluate simulations, they alone do not capture how reliable predictions are, or how robust models are to varying driving scenarios and modeling assumptions. This work develops a systematic quantitative approach for evaluating vehicle dynamics model fidelity, moving beyond traditional visual or qualitative comparisons. A dimensionless fidelity metric is proposed that integrates error and uncertainty into a single measure, enabling objective accuracy assessment of variable-fidelity simulations. This framework supports fidelity selection in vehicle dynamics, providing clearer insight into tradeoffs between computational cost and achievable accuracy, and advancing the goal of reliable virtual testing. This approach is demonstrated on an open-loop vehicle

Emara, Mariam, Balchanos, Michael, Mavris, Dimitri

Method of Estimating Electric Vehicle Charge Time Based on Neural Networks

2026-01-0382To be published on 04/07/2026

Accurate prediction of electric vehicle charging time is critically hindered by dynamic, non-linear factors including battery aging which is indicated by the State of Health (SOH), substantial power diversion to thermal management systems in extreme temperatures, fluctuating user-defined accessory loads, and hardware limitations of the charging infrastructure. Traditional estimation methods, reliant on static models or predefined calibrations, fail to adapt to these real-world variables, leading to inaccurate predictions and user dissatisfaction. This paper presents a novel data-driven estimation framework utilizing a tailored feedforward neural network architecture specifically designed for this complex task. The model processes a sensitive set of inputs—including initial State of Charge (SOC), SOH, battery temperature, charging station power level and user-selected target SOC—to effectively capture the intricate, non-linear interdependencies governing the charging process. The

Xie, Zhentao, shojaei, Sina, Weslati, Feisel

Electrified Propulsion System Balancing for Light Duty Full Size Truck and Sport Utility Vehicles: A 2026 North American Market Perspective

2026-01-0412To be published on 04/07/2026

Achieving the stringent EPA CAFE 2032 standards for light-duty full-size trucks and SUVs in North American poses significant challenges. While Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) offer a clear path to zero tailpipe emissions, their widespread adoption in this segment faces hurdles including range anxiety, payload/towing capabilities, and traditional truck/SUV use cases. This paper investigates a balanced approach, focusing on optimizing propulsion system design with appropriate hardware content, can effectively meet future fuel economy and emissions standards. This investigation examines advanced BEVs and hybrid electric vehicle architectures, including full hybrids (HEVs), and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) tailored for full-size trucks and SUVs. Considerations include the optimal sizing of internal combustion engines, electric motors, and battery packs to deliver robust performance while maximizing energy efficiency. This paper analyzes the integration of technologies such as electrified

Babcock, Dillon, Robinette, Darrell

Operational Feasibility of Battery Swapping in U.S. Transit: A Case Study of King County Metro

2026-01-0402To be published on 04/07/2026

Battery swapping technology has emerged as a promising alternative to conventional plug-in charging for electric bus fleets, offering rapid turnaround times and improved vehicle availability. This paper investigates whether battery swapping can be integrated into U.S. public transit bus operations without disrupting existing timetables. A Seattle based public transit agency- King County Metro is taken as a case study in this paper. Using General Transit Feed Specification data from King County Metro, a MATLAB model was built that reconstructs blocks and layovers, extracts dwell-time opportunities, and performs block distance and block time analyses to understand operational rhythms. A mathematical energy model was developed that maps route mileage, efficiency, and layover availability to swap decisions, using a look-ahead rule that defers exchanges whenever the next feasible layover can still be reached while respecting a minimum state-of-charge. The workflow estimates how many swaps

Vadlapatla, Taraka Rishi, Jankord, Gregory, D'Arpino, Matilde

Effects of Obstacle Height and Vehicle Roll Behavior on Electric Vehicle Side Impact Safety

2026-01-0405To be published on 04/07/2026

Electric vehicles (EVs) face unique safety challenges under pole side impact conditions, largely due to the presence of floor-mounted battery packs. Existing regulatory test procedures, such as Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 201, primarily address occupant injury using full-height cylindrical obstacles. These procedures were originally developed for internal combustion vehicles (ICVs). However, real-world roadside crashes frequently involve obstacles of varying heights, such as guardrails, curbs, and median bases. While these obstacles pose limited risk to the passenger compartment, they can intrude into the battery pack and trigger thermal runaway. This study investigates the influence of obstacle height on EV pole side impacts. Finite element simulations of a commercially available sedan were conducted against rigid obstacles of different heights. Results reveal a non-monotonic trend of battery intrusion governed by the interplay between rollover dynamics and

Ma, Chenghao, Xing, Bobin, Zhou, Qing, Xia, Yong

Impedance Characterization of an Automotive Battery Pack

2026-01-0381To be published on 04/07/2026

Parasitic inductance and capacitance of the battery pack can affect the performance of the electric powertrains. Characterizing these parasitic phenomena in an automotive battery pack is therefore crucial to ensuring performance and reliability. In this work, geometric models of a production automotive battery pack are developed to simulate the parasitic inductance of the busbar system, the parasitic inductance of individual modules, and other critical components. For these simulations, several assumptions and simplifications are introduced to reduce model complexity, while preserving the main electromagnetic behavior of the system. The impact of the different components on the battery pack impedance is investigated to evaluate parasitic capacitances, thereby simulating the worst-case scenario. Laboratory procedures are developed to accurately measure parasitic impedance, providing a reliable comparison between experimental data and analytical models and supporting the overall validity

Misley, Marco, D'Arpino, Matilde, ZHU, Di, Zhang, Liwen

Techno-Economic Evaluation of Electified Vehicle Options in Drayage Fleets

2026-01-0454To be published on 04/07/2026

The transition of drayage fleets from diesel to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) poses both opportunities and uncertainties, especially regarding long-term economic viability. While total cost of ownership (TCO) is a useful benchmark, fleet operators and investors are equally concerned with investment performance metrics such as payback period and Internal Rate of Return (IRR), which better reflect financial risks and investment return timelines. This study proposes a comprehensive framework to evaluate the economic feasibility of transitioning from diesel to BEVs, jointly analyzing TCO parity conditions, payback periods, and IRRs under different technology, cost, and operational scenarios. Building on a previously developed cost modeling tool, the analysis incorporates evolving battery prices, energy costs, vehicle performance characteristics and other assumptions from 2025 to 2050. Real-world duty cycle data from a Class 8 drayage fleet at the Port of Savannah is used to capture

Sun, Ruixiao, Sujan, Vivek, Goulet, Nathan, Wang, Qixing

Passive Soot Regeneration Observations on a GPF-equipped vehicle for PM exhaust emission control.

2026-01-0366To be published on 04/07/2026

The gasoline particulate filter (GPF) will be a common technology adopted by EPA Tier4 emission compliant vehicles, starting as early as model year 2017 in North America. For those Tier-4 compliant gasoline-powered powertrains, their GPF solutions will require that the captured soot can be safely removed through passive oxidation. This clean-out process is driven by occasional fuel-cut events, such as engine motoring, which would provide an excess of oxygen in the exhaust gas flow to the hot, soot-loaded GPF. Here, a study has been conducted where a modern vehicle with a 3L engine displacement was upfitted with appropriately sized GPFs for soot capture in the dual-bank exhaust line. These GPFs were weighed to track their soot-load trends between representative real-world driving routes, where sensor data and ECU parameters were recorded. Thus, characterization of the passive soot regeneration process in the GPF was linked to the preceding exposure of gaseous flow temperatures, oxygen

Craig, Angus, Warkins, Jason

Understanding the Effects of Process Parameters on the Dispense Uniformity of Elastomeric Silicone Coating Material for Automotive Manufacturing.

2026-01-0239To be published on 04/07/2026

As electric vehicle (EV) manufacturing scales, innovative approaches have been evolving for battery fire protection materials to mitigate thermal runaway hazards, including fire and blast protective coatings. These materials often exhibit high-viscosity and must be deposited with uniform thickness and stable geometry to ensure reliable thermal barriers and battery pack integration. In practice, coating uniformity (uniform thickness, edge fidelity, and minimal sag/run prior to cure) is highly sensitive to dispense conditions, including nozzle slot width, nozzle length, effective dispense height (stand‑off), nozzle sweep speed, and volumetric dispense rate. Establishing robust process understanding early is therefore essential to avoid start‑up scrap, rework, and variability downstream. This paper presents a combined computational and experimental methodology to optimize and de‑risk dispensing of elastomeric battery fire protection (BFP) coatings. We develop a physics‑informed modeling

Hossain, Arif, Repollet Pedrosa, Milton H., Norquest, Kade, Mcmichael, Jonathan, Ng, Sze-Sze, Aradhyula, Pranavi, Thomas, Ryan, Gorin, Craig, Dietsche, Laura, Kenney, James A.

Plug-in Electric Vehicles Adoption: A Review of Forecasting Methodologies, Policy Impacts, and Future Trajectories in Major Global Markets

2026-01-0455To be published on 04/07/2026

Accurate forecasting of Plug-in Electric Vehicle (PEV) market sales share is vital for evidence-based policymaking, yet existing studies employ diverse and often fragmented methodologies, creating a need for systematic review to clarify their analytical foundations and comparative strengths. This study classifies mainstream forecasting methodologies into theory-driven and data-driven approaches, providing a review of five representative models' merits, limitations, and potential directions. Analysis reveals that leading approaches increasingly employ cross-scale model coupling, theory-data fusion, and modular design to harness complementary strengths, improving model robustness and predictive accuracy. Furthermore, the study compares PEV policies and market forecasts in China, the United States, and Europe—the world's three largest automotive markets. The findings indicate a strong linkage between forecast convergence and policy stability. China demonstrates the highest policy

Luo, Wei, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn), Zhou, Pan, Wang, Tianpeng, Qian, Xiaodong

Guidelines for Interior Material Selection to Enhance Thermal Safety in Electric Vehicles

2026-01-0249To be published on 04/07/2026

Due to the rapid advancement of electric vehicles, the role of material selection has become very critical for ensuring passenger safety, particularly in mitigating risks associated with Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery thermal runaway. Unlike internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, electric vehicles require interior materials that provide superior fire resistance, thermal insulation, and minimal smoke emission to protect vehicle occupants in extreme thermal events. This paper examines the importance of selecting fire-resistant materials, thermally stable polymers, and low-toxicity materials that can slow fire propagation, reduce interior temperatures, and reduce hazardous gas emissions. Through the integrating of materials with high thermal stability, self-extinguishing properties, and heat-reflective coatings, manufacturers can enhance vehicle interior safety, improve passenger protection, and optimize energy efficiency.

El-Sharkawy, Alaa, Taha, Nahla, Asar, Mona, Sheta, Mai

AI-Driven Data Consistency and Relationship Inference System for Agile Component Library Management

2026-01-0109To be published on 04/07/2026

Reliable component libraries are the foundation of the engineering process and the starting point for all intelligence within CAD tools. In practice, however, libraries created and maintained by librarians often contain incomplete, inconsistent, or outdated data. This paper introduces the component data consistency and relationship inference AI system, developed within Amoeba software, which addresses these challenges by improving component library quality. The system uses AI to infer component attributes such as component type, gender, color, material, etc. Moreover, it can identify relationships such as the family a connector is associated with based on its attributes and geometry. The system improves data consistency in areas such as resolving mismatched wire size constraints imposed by the connector and cavity components. It also utilizes computer vision to identify common connector footprints, cavity sizes, and 2D symbol geometries. Deployed within Amoeba software, the system has

Phan, Dung, Horvat, Bryan

Improving Winter Driving Range of EVs with a Novel Desiccant Device: Ceramic Humidity Regulator (CHR)

2026-01-0117To be published on 04/07/2026

With Rapid growth of Electric Vehicles (EVs) in the market, challenges such as driving range, charging infrastructure, and reducing charging time needs to be addressed. Unlike traditional Internal combustion vehicles, EVs have limited heating sources and primarily uses electricity from the running battery, which reduces driving range. Additionally, during winter operation, it is necessary to prevent window fogging to ensure better visibility, which requires introducing cold outside air into the cabin. This significantly increases the energy consumption for heating and the driving range can be reduced to half of the normal range. This study introduces the Ceramic Humidity Regulator (CHR), a compact and energy-efficient device developed to address driving range improvement. The CHR uses a desiccant system to dehumidify the cabin, which can prevent window fogging without introducing cold outside air, thereby reducing heating energy consumption. CHR is based on desiccant dehumidification

Sakai, Naoki, Takahiko, Nakatani, Shinoda, Narimasa, Ihara, Yukio, Wakida, Norihiro, Kato, Kyohei, Anoop, Reghunathan-Nair

The Impact of Extreme Ambient Temperatures on Electric Vehicle Performance in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

2026-01-0133To be published on 04/07/2026

The rapid expansion of Saudi Arabia’s electric vehicle sector driven by manufacturers such as CEER Lucid Tesla and BYD necessitates evaluating vehicle performance under extreme thermal conditions. This study investigates the impact of high ambient temperatures on electric vehicle operation by analyzing a 60 kWh NMC battery pack under representative Riyadh summer conditions of up to 47 °C using MATLAB Simulink simulations. The results show that elevated temperatures accelerate state of charge (SOC) depletion and increase battery internal resistance. To maintain safe operating limits the BTMS must operate continuously consuming up to 20 percent of the available energy. Cooling demand increases nonlinearly with temperature exceeding 40 kW at 50 °C which leads to significant parasitic losses and a 15 to 20 percent reduction in driving range. At the system level this increased energy demand raises charging frequency and intensifies electricity load during peak summer periods thereby

Bedywi, Lama Mohammed A, AlJuhani, Haneen, Duan, Chen, AbdulNour, Bashar

Simulation of Conjugate Heat Transfer using the Lattice Boltzmann Method

2026-01-0135To be published on 04/07/2026

Flow simulation with conjugate heat transfer, which involves fluid flow, conduction, and radiation in solid components, is a critical capability that helps engineers design and evaluate cooling systems for heat-generating components such as brakes, powertrains, batteries, and power electronics for both gasoline and electric vehicles. For this study, we utilize PowerFLOW™, featuring its novel native thermal solver, which models both fluid and solid domains within a single model. For the flow domain, we use the Lattice Boltzmann Method with VLES turbulence modeling based on the RNG k-epsilon method. And for the solid domain, the finite volume method with second-order accuracy for thermal conduction and a surface-to-surface radiation for the surfaces. This approach not only leads to a more integrated and streamlined workflow but also enables an accurate modeling of conduction and radiation. In this study, we demonstrate the accuracy of the conjugate heat transfer simulation methodology

Mukutmoni, Devadatta, Shock, Richard, Li, Han, Wanderer, John

Energy-Efficient Predictive Cruise Control in Heavy-Duty Electric Trucks with Optimization of the Penalty Factor as a Function of Payload

2026-01-0042To be published on 04/07/2026

Heavy-duty Class 8 battery electric trucks not only offer a significant reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to conventional diesel trucks but can also provide significant savings in fuel costs. To further enhance the energy and freight efficiency, Predictive Cruise Control (PCC) algorithms can be developed that generate optimal acceleration profiles for the vehicle by minimizing a cost function which combines both energy consumption and deviation from the desired velocity. A critical component of the cost function is the penalty factor, which governs the trade-off between energy use and travel time, which are two conflicting objectives in freight logistics. Selecting an appropriate penalty factor is essential, as freight deliveries are time-sensitive but minimizing energy consumption remains a priority. Moreover, variations in payload significantly affect vehicle dynamics and energy usage, making it critical to adapt the penalty factor to different payload conditions

Safder, Ahmad Hussain, Villani, Manfredi, Wang, Eric, Khuntia, Satvik, Nelson, James, Meijer, Maarten, Ahmed, Qadeer

Innovative Smart Switch Architecture Catering to 12 Volts to 48 Volts Battery Bus Requirements

2026-01-0064To be published on 04/07/2026

Electronics is rapidly entering all automotive subsystems, performing control and monitoring tasks apart from making the entire vehicle intelligent.. Interface with the external automotive ecosystem needs careful attention during the system design. It defines how seamlessly the electronic unit interacts with the rest of the vehicle. It needs to do so in an effective manner without compromising on cost and other automotive application constraints. This paper focuses on the “ smart switch building block” that forms the heart of an automotive output interface echo system. Its importance stems from the fact that a smart switch is an indispensable building block for any electronic control system driving external loads. As various novel electrical and electronics architectures are entering various vehicle segments need for a single reusable solution that will cater to 12 Volts to 48 Volts battery buses is increasingly being felt. However, no prevalent solution meets this requirement. Even

Vaidya, Vishwas Manohar

New Inverter Switching Control Method to Enhance Sound Quality for Electric Vehicles

2026-01-0437To be published on 04/07/2026

Conventional inverter control uses a fixed switching frequency, which leads to a high-pitched switching noise in electric vehicles (EVs) that does not vary with vehicle speed. Although EVs are generally much quieter than traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, some EV owners complain about the lack of dynamic driving sound feedback. A new patented technology has been developed to enhance EV sound quality by dynamically controlling the inverter switching frequencies. This technology generates dynamic propulsion sound with new "switching order" features at multiple harmonics, with the pitch proportional to vehicle speed. A fixed pulse ratio between the switching frequency and the electric motor RPM is implemented to control the switching order. This reduces switching losses during low-speed operation and provides boosted acoustic feedback to the driver during acceleration, which enhances driving experience during sports driving. Furthermore, a special "EV shifting" sound

He, Song, Gagas, Brent, Welchko, Brian, Ball, Kerrie, Gong, Cheng

Optimization of a Feedforward Neural Network Machine Learning Battery Model for an Automotive Pouch Cell

2026-01-0386To be published on 04/07/2026

Modern battery management systems have a critical need for highly accurate battery terminal voltage models, which are a key component of algorithms which estimate or predict power capability, range, temperature, and other factors. While electro-chemical and equivalent circuit models are widely used for this purpose, they typically struggle to capture the complex, non-linear dynamics and degradation effects inherent in real-world battery operation, necessitating frequent recalibration. This study addresses these limitations by proposing a robust, data-driven approach for terminal voltage estimation using a feedforward neural network (FNN) machine learning model. An LG E66 cell, a high-performance lithium-ion battery with a Nickel Cobalt Manganese (NCM) cathode, was selected for this study due to its prevalent use in light duty electric vehicles. Data collected at temperatures ranging from 40 °C to -20 °C is used to train and test the models, with model error reported for HWFET, UDDS

Dehury, Biswanath, Nahidmobarakeh, Lucas, Panchal, Satyam, Gross, Oliver, Kollmeyer, Phillip

Novel SOH Estimation Using the Differential Force Signal for Li-ion Batteries under Constraint Conditions

2026-01-0388To be published on 04/07/2026

Accurate estimation of the State of Health (SOH) is crucial for ensuring the safety and reliability of lithium-ion batteries. Compared to conventional electrical signals, battery swelling behavior offers significant advantages as it contains richer aging-related information. This study investigates the aging characteristics of batteries under external mechanical constraints, and proposes an innovative SOH estimation method based on differential force (DFDV) analysis. Cycling tests were conducted on fully constrained LFP prismatic batteries under 0.2 MPa. Throughout the testing, both mechanical and electrical signals were synchronously monitored and recorded. The research systematically analyzes the swelling behavior and aging patterns of batteries. Through incremental capacity analysis (ICA), the aging behavior and underlying mechanisms under room-temperature and constrained conditions were revealed. Simultaneously, mechanical signal analysis demonstrated a strong correlation between

Niu, Zhice, ZHANG, Shan, Xia, Yong

Behavioral Determinants of Electric Vehicle Battery Degradation: Evidence from Large-Scale Real-world Operations

2026-01-0458To be published on 04/07/2026

Electric vehicles (EVs) are central to sustainable transport, yet battery service life remains a limiting factor for cost and adoption. Distinct from traditional laboratory-based simulations that often fail to capture the complexity of field conditions, this study investigates how EV user behavior—including driving style and charging demands—influences capacity using large-scale, real-world operational data from daily EV usage. A data-driven framework is developed to quantify driving and charging behaviors through multidimensional feature extraction at the vehicle level and estimate battery State-of-Health (SOH) trajectories, enabling direct linkage between individual behavior patterns and degradation outcomes. Results reveal substantial heterogeneity in aging rates explicitly driven by diverse user behaviors: under identical urban conditions, vehicles with a radical driving style exhibit approximately 81% faster SOH decline per 20,000 km than those with a moderate style ; regarding

Liu, Tianyi, Jing, Hao, Zhu, Jiankuan, Chen, Yongjian, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn), Qian, Xiaodong

A Novel Power-Split Hybrid Electric Architecture for Off-Road Tracked Vehicles: Design and Performance Evaluation.

2026-01-0258To be published on 04/07/2026

Tracked off-road vehicles operate at low speeds with high tractive effort and frequent skid-steer maneuvers, conditions that push torque and power demand to extremes and exacerbate powertrain efficiency losses. Electrification can improve energy conversion and mobility for such duty cycles. This paper introduces a novel power-split hybrid electric architecture for a tracked vehicle and benchmarks it against three designs: a conventional mechanical driveline, a series hybrid, and a P2 parallel hybrid. To enable fair, architecture-agnostic comparisons, a supervisory controller based on Stochastic Dynamic Programming (SDP) schedules engine operation and power flow across all layouts under representative off-road scenarios, including skid-steer events, with varying terrain and power-demand profiles. Results show higher energy conversion efficiency (lower fuel use) for the proposed power-split architecture, followed by the parallel, then series, and lastly conventional configuration across

Ghate, Atharva, Sundar, Anirudh, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam, Barron, Morgan, Castanier, Matthew P.

Identifying pressure drop and heat transfer correlations for a liquid-cooled lithium-ion battery pack model of electric vehicles under hot-cold driving

2026-01-0394To be published on 04/07/2026

The performance of a full lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack with its cooling system depends on the pressure drop and heat transfer from the cell to ambient air through coolant, cooling flow channels, air gaps, and pack cases. Predicting the LIB pack responses (i.e: voltage, SOC, temperature) requires accurate predictions of the thermal performance between the cells and ambient air and cooling flow behaviour inside the pack, respectively, since the pack has several thousand cells, cooling channels, and channel pipe bends. This work presents a systematic approach to identifying heat transfer and pressure drop ∆P correlations that capture the real-time thermal-electrical performance of a mass-produced LIB pack under constant speed (in winter) and transient driving (in summer). A vehicle test is conducted using a Tesla Model Y, a long-range, dual-motor model equipped with a 75-kWh LIB pack. The LIB pack's thermal and electrical performance is recorded under both constant speed and transient

Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin

Ambient and Initial Temperature Effects on Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) Range and Energy Consumption Rate Modeled in FASTSim

2026-01-0277To be published on 04/07/2026

Ambient and initial temperatures have a significant impact on the energy consumption rate of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) due to auxiliary loads and the dependence of battery efficiency on temperature. Quantifying these impacts can help BEV owners, communities, and researchers understand and prepare for the impact of temperature on BEV vehicles, especially as adoption increases. We used NREL's FASTSim 3 to investigate the impacts of a two-dimensional design-of-experiment that swept ambient and initial temperature in simulating a compact BEV hatchback over UDDS (city) and HWFET (highway) US EPA drive cycles. Compared to a 22 ° C ("cozy") initial / ambient temperature baseline in UDDS, a cold initial / cold ambient temperature (-7 ° C) resulted in a 221% increase in the energy consumption rate, a cozy initial / cold ambient temperature resulted in a 94% increase, a hot initial (45 ° C) / hot ambient (40 ° C) temperature resulted in a 40% increase, and a cozy initial / hot ambient

Baker, Chad, Steuteville, Robin, Holden, Jake, Gonder, Jeffrey, Carow, Kyle

Dual-loop voltage control of electric vehicle DWPT systems based on robust right coprime factorization and deep Q-networks

2026-01-0208To be published on 04/07/2026

This paper proposes an adaptive robust voltage-control framework for dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) systems, explicitly targeting the problem of voltage stabilization under time-varying and uncertain load resistance typical in vehicular charging scenarios. The proposed architecture adopts a dual-loop structure: an inner loop that enforces provable stability via operator-theoretic robust right coprime factorization, and an outer loop that provides high-precision tracking through a data-driven deep reinforcement learning policy. In the inner-loop design, the receiver-side BUCK converter within an LCC-S DWPT topology is modeled in operator form and decomposed into right coprime factors. A controlled operator representation that accounts for unknown disturbances is formulated, and nonlinear control operators are synthesized based on the Bézout identity together with Lipschitz-type conditions. This design ensures bounded-input–bounded-output (BIBO) stability of the inner closed loop

Chen PhD, Jingjun, Zhang PhD, Yizhe, Dai, Yunlong, Wang PhD, Xingyu, Wu, Guangqiang

Thermal Management of Battery Modules under Fast Charging

2026-01-0399To be published on 04/07/2026

Battery modules operate under diverse and complex conditions, such as driving cycles and fast charging. In these scenarios, effective thermal management is critical to ensuring safety and extending the battery's lifespan. Fast-charging scenarios present a particular challenge due to the complex current control strategies that strongly influence cell temperature distribution, making thermal uniformity a key concern. This study presents a coupled electrochemical-thermal simulation framework based on the DCiR (direct current internal resistance) model to examine heat generation and temperature responses during fast charging. The model incorporates heat conduction pathways and the structural layout of the module, enabling the evaluation of thermal mismatch risks and the optimization of module design and charging strategies. The findings offer practical insights for battery thermal management and the development of advanced fast-charging strategies.

Xiao, Fangzhi, CHEN, Guijie, ma, Shihu, Hu, Xiao, SONG, Shujun, Wakale, Anil Bhaurao

In-Use Life Digital Twin and Swappable Use Case for Battery Durability

2026-01-0397To be published on 04/07/2026

In-Use Life Digital Twin and Swappable Use Case for Battery Durability By: Patricia Laskowsky, Josue Albarran, Justin Bunnell, and Andrew Zettel Abstract The UN GTR 22 is required as part of the Environmental Protection Agency’s legislative rulemaking for multi-pollutants emission standards for model years 2027 and later light-duty and medium duty vehicles. The EPA claims it has the right to govern requirements on ZEVs and BEVs. ZEVs, in their viewpoint, are “emission related” because it enables the vehicle to produce zero emissions. With the adoption by the EPA under its Tier 4 regulations of the UN GTR 22, comes several new tracking DIDs, Data Identifiers. These DIDs are tied battery durability and energy tracking They track conditions and usages of electric vehicles that may accelerate the loss of electric range and/or loss of efficiency of the propulsion energy storage and delivery. More specifically, tying these trackers to EPA emission related discussion, the loss of electric

Laskowsky, Patricia, Bunnell, Justin, Zettel, Andrew, Albarran, Josue

Towards Plating-Free Charging: Lightweight Prediction of Lithium Plating Current Limits

2026-01-0387To be published on 04/07/2026

Lithium plating is a critical barrier to fast charging in electric and hybrid-electric vehicles, occurring at high state of charge (SOC) or low temperatures when Li⁺ deposits as metallic lithium on the anode surface instead of intercalating into graphite. At low temperatures, plated lithium may form dendrites that pierce the separator and trigger thermal runaway, while at high SOC, irreversible plating accelerates capacity fade by depleting cyclable lithium. Despite extensive study, lithium plating remains difficult to incorporate into battery management systems (BMS) due to computational complexity and the challenge of real-time detection, leading to reliance on conservative lookup maps. This work presents a lightweight empirical model for predicting plating-free charging limits in lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) cells. A high-fidelity pseudo-2D electrochemical model was exercised across a wide range of charge rates and temperatures to capture the coupled effects of SOC

Sundar, Anirudh, Ghate, Atharva, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Barron, Morgan, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam

Thermal Finite Element Modelling and Prediction of Laser Welded Battery Packs

2026-01-0385To be published on 04/07/2026

Battery modules consist of battery cells electrically joined at the terminals by conductive busbars. Laser welds are the most consistent and controllable process to create these connections on a large scale due to their control over power, laser width, speed, wobble, and overlap, and their quality is critical to battery pack performance. Tuning these parameters for an application typically requires weld trials to reach desired weld width, penetration, and strength without overheating the battery cell and weakening the dielectric insulators around the terminals. Poorly welded cells in a module can result in increased electrical resistance, causing greater joule heating and accelerated cell aging, and poorly welded modules can lead to uneven aging and unpredictable performance. To better understand the laser welding process, a modelling approach was developed to predict weld properties to reduce production time, costs, and potential cell damage. The 3D finite element model was calibrated

Contreras, Luis, Hoffmeyer, Matthew, Abidin, Zainal

Development of a virtual test rig to evaluate thermal management of a battery-electric vehicle under battery heating-cooling modes

2026-01-0416To be published on 04/07/2026

A battery-electric vehicle (BEV) has multiple powertrain components (battery, inverter, e-motor), a thermal management system (compressor, heat exchanger, cabin heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning), and a vehicle body, among others. Vehicle testing is time-consuming, and also changing powertrain components during the testing and design process is costly. Simulation models (aka virtual or simulation test rig) have been widely used for efficient vehicle design. This work presents a systematic approach to developing a virtual test rig to evaluate the thermal performance of battery-electric vehicles. A Tesla Model Y is tested in a chassis dynamometer, and the measured vehicle performance data are used as boundary conditions for the complete vehicle model. The detailed lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack model, including its cooling system, was developed and calibrated using various transient driving cycle data. The HVAC model uses a simplified controller to maintain the cabin temperature

Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin

Thermal Performance of Natural Fiber Hybrid Composites for Automotive Insulation Applications

2026-01-0244To be published on 04/07/2026

This study investigates the thermal conductivity of natural-fiber-based hybrid polymer composites with potential automotive insulation applications. With the increasing demand for lightweight, sustainable, and thermally efficient materials in vehicle cabins, under-hood systems, and electric vehicle battery enclosures, natural fiber composites present a promising alternative to conventional glass-fiber composites. Three distinct composite configurations were fabricated: pure glass, glass-jute hybrid, and glass-jute-coir hybrid, using general-purpose polyester resin as the matrix. The composites were manufactured using the hand lay-up method. Thermal conductivity measurements were conducted using the ASTM C177 guarded hotplate method on composite plates. Results indicate that the hybrid composite with glass, jute, and coir fibres has the lowest thermal conductivity, making it the most effective for insulation applications. This study demonstrates that natural fibre-reinforced composites

Mache, Ashok, Salve, Aniket, Chinchanikar, Satish, Borse, Hardik, Deshmukh, Omkar, Mahadikpatil, Siddhi, Kulkarni, Aparna

Investigation of CDI and TCI Ignition Charactertistics for Lean Hydrogen–Air Mixtures in a Constant Volume Combustion Chamber

2026-01-0327To be published on 04/07/2026

The discharge characteristics of ignition systems strongly influence the formation of flame kernels under lean-burn conditions. In this study, two ignition strategies are compared. A capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) system characterized by discharge energy of 1–5 mJ with discharge current around 300 mA and short discharge duration (~50 μs). A transistor coil ignition (TCI) system delivering discharge energy of 30–50 mJ with lower discharge current (~100 mA) and millisecond-scale discharge duration. These two systems represent distinct discharge current profiles, namely “high-current/short-duration” and “low-current/long-duration.” The influence of discharge current profile on flame kernel formation and early flame development in lean hydrogen–air mixtures is investigated. Experiments are conducted in a constant-volume combustion chamber with hydrogen–air mixtures at various global equivalence ratios. Both quiescent and flow conditions are considered. High speed shadowgraph imaging is

Cong, Binghao, Jin, Long, Yu, Xiao, Zheng, Ming

Thermal Characterization of an Automotive High Voltage Junction Box

2026-01-0390To be published on 04/07/2026

The high voltage battery junction box (HVJB) controls and protects the high voltage connections of the battery pack to the traction, auxiliary and charging systems. HVJBs are composed of busbars, contactors, fuses and other protection systems. The health of the HVJB is paramount to ensure performance and reliability of electric vehicles. However sensing and monitoring in the HVJB is often lacking due to cost, causing limited capability of the vehicle controller to estimate the status and health of the unit. This publication focuses on the experimentation of an automotive HVJB to characterize the operation and build the foundation for the development of prognostic algorithms for HVJB. A production HVJB has been acquired and heavily instrumented. Extensive testing are performed in adiabatic and in ambient conditions at various current levels for various durations of operation. The testing setup was calibrated and iterated based on preliminary results, and the testing conditions were

Arigo, Sam, Borgerson, Joe, D'Arpino, Matilde, ZHU, Di, Zhang, Liwen

A CFD Based Multi-Physics Modeling Approach to Predict Vent Gas Flow Paths due to Can Melting during Prismatic Cell Thermal Runaway

2026-01-0407To be published on 04/07/2026

As the automotive industry increasingly adopts high-energy-density pouch cells, ensuring vehicle safety against catastrophic thermal runaway (TR) has become paramount. Predicting the complex failure sequence of pouch cells, requires high-fidelity simulation tools that can capture tightly coupled physical phenomena. This paper presents a comprehensive, three-dimensional multi-physics Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) framework designed to simulate the entire TR event. The simulation originates with a multi-step Arrhenius chemical kinetics model to calculate the heat and gas generated by the primary exothermic reactions. This process drives a rapid increase in internal temperature and pressure, which is resolved by the model’s fluid dynamics solver. The initial vent opening is triggered when this internal pressure exceeds a predefined mechanical burst threshold, simulating a realistic seal rupture. Concurrently, a Conjugate Heat Transfer (CHT) analysis calculates the temperature

Mukherjee, Swarnava, Schlautman, Jeff, Srinivasan, Chiranth

Mechanical Properties of Elastomeric Foam-Based Compression Pads for Battery Pack Applications

2026-01-0247To be published on 04/07/2026

With the increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) worldwide, ensuring the long-term reliability and performance of the battery systems has become a paramount engineering challenge. Lithium-ion cells exhibit dimensional changes throughout their operational life, characterized by reversible “breathing”—expansion and contraction during charge and discharge cycles—and irreversible swelling due to aging. Compression pads are critical components for ensuring the lifetime performance of battery packs. The primary function of a compression pad is to act as a compliant cushion between cells. It accommodates these volumetric fluctuations by exerting consistent and optimized pressure. By absorbing the stress from cell expansion and maintaining structural integrity within the module, compression pads mitigate degradation mechanisms and ultimately maximize the durability and safety of the battery system over thousands of cycles. This paper highlights the importance of tailoring elastomeric

Deng, Weilin, Gunashekar, Subhashini

Physical Test Validated Multi-level Power Electronics for Next-generation Electrified Vehicles Charging & Efficiency Improvement

2026-01-0435To be published on 04/07/2026

Improving the energy efficiency of electrified vehicles remains a central objective in modern electric powertrains. Multi-level converters (MLCs) are widely recognised for lowering conversion losses relative to two-level inverters and improving total harmonic distortion (THD) in the sinusoidal supply to motors with a consequent reduction in motor losses. Despite this, sustained production-oriented validation at the integrated system level remains limited. This work introduces a multi-level converter architecture of the Battery Integrated Modular Multi-Level Converter (BIMMC) topology using Cascaded H-Bridge (CHB) architecture. It offers improvements in all key metrics of performance, cost, package size, mass and robustness compared to the current state-of-the-art two-level inverter system with distributed functions for charging available in the market today. The overall solution is highly functionally integrated. It supports four major functions required in electric vehicles without

Bao, Ran, Kalaiselvan, Prashanth, Rener, Kristof, Hallam, Philip, Shi PhD, Kai, Yue, William, Ma, He, Grimshaw, Andrew, Patel, Simon

Modeling Non-Uniform Temperature Distribution in Lithium-Ion Batteries

2026-01-0120To be published on 04/07/2026

Effective thermal management is critical to the performance, lifespan, and safety of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles (EV). Transient and non-uniform temperature distributions within cells accelerate degradation, cause pack imbalance, and reduce efficiency. Localized hotspots, in particular, promote lithium plating, solid electrolyte interface (SEI) growth, and other failure mechanisms. Persistent non-uniformities increase the likelihood of thermal runaway under high-stress operation. To address these challenges, this work develops a one-dimensional thermal model that captures heat generation and dissipation under dynamic operating conditions, incorporating both conduction within the cell and active convective cooling. Using a DFSS-based approach, we evaluate design and cooling strategies that minimize temperature differentials while maintaining acceptable operating ranges. The findings provide practical guidance for battery thermal management system design, emphasizing

El-Sharkawy, Alaa, Asar, Mona, Serpento, Stan, Sheta, Mai

Low-voltage electric vehicle with increased electrical safety and distributed charging system

2026-01-0396To be published on 04/07/2026

Abstract - Reducing the high-voltage BEV to a household level of 120-240 volts is considered in the article as an effective means of solving the problems of electrical safety, maintenance and minor repairs of an electric vehicle in household conditions, distributed power supply of BEV with walking distance for the driver. The analysis of the low-voltage electric drive is performed under the assumption that the battery has a nominal voltage of 200 volts. The issues of transforming a high-voltage machine (400 volts) into a low-voltage one (200 volts) by switching the stator phase sections from serial to parallel connection without changing the overall and energy characteristics are considered. It is shown that a two-motor unit with induction machines with a capacity of 50 kilowatts can provide 100 kilowatts in long-term and up to 200 kilowatts in peak modes. The article considers the issues of implementing a low-voltage inverter and modern trends in distributed power supply for BEVs

Smolin PhD, Victor, Sobolevskiy, Anatoliy, Volovich, Georgy

Advancing Safe Battery Design through Experimental Cell Characterization of Thermal, Electrical and Mechanical Properties

2026-01-0408To be published on 04/07/2026

Lithium-ion batteries are critical to electric vehicles and grid-scale energy storage. Safe design of battery systems relies on accurate simulation of battery thermal runaway under electrical, thermal, and mechanical abuse. A predictive battery simulation requires the characterization of electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties of the battery at the full cell and cell-component levels. In this study, a commercial cell from an electric vehicle was disassembled, and testing was conducted to support both homogenized and detailed computational models. At the cell level, electrical properties were characterized using Hybrid Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) testing to assess the cell power capability. Cell punch tests were conducted to characterize mechanical behavior under deformation. These tests were used to develop a multi-physics homogenized cell model. On the other hand, detailed cell modeling that includes different component layers could help users understand localized cell

Challa, Vidyu, Rostami-Angas, Masoud, kong, Kevin, Wang, Leyu, Reichert, Rudolf, Kan, Cing-Dao

Electrochemical-Thermal Simulation for Evaluating Indirect and Immersion Cooling in High-Power EV Charging

2026-01-0403To be published on 04/07/2026

With the rapid advancement of electric vehicle (EV) fast-charging technology, battery thermal management faces increasingly critical challenges due to elevated heat generation and stringent safety requirements. Immersion cooling has emerged as a promising solution because of its superior heat dissipation and uniform temperature distribution compared to conventional indirect cooling methods. This study develops an electro-thermal coupled simulation framework for evaluating indirect and immersion cooling performance under high-power charging conditions. A pseudo-two-dimensional (P2D) electrochemical battery model of an electric vehicle was developed in GT-Suite and validated against vehicle on-board charging data. In parallel, an immersion cooling system model was developed and validated using battery bench test results. This model was subsequently integrated into the vehicle model to allow comparisons with a conventional indirect cooling system under high-power DC fast-charging scenario

Guo, Yuyang, Rockstroh, Toby, Haenel, Patrick, Oezdag, Erdal, Bodemann, Basil, Toghyani PhD, Somayeh

Novel Steel Tubular Side Sill Reinforcement Design and Validation for Enhanced Crash Performance in EVs

2026-01-0478To be published on 04/07/2026

Increased use of Electrical vehicles (EVs) brings in unique structural design challenges particularly in Side Impact scenarios when the battery pack is near the sill region therefore elevating the possibility of Electrical Module penetration and triggering thermal runway event resulting from the crash. Thus, Electric Vehicles present unique structural design challenges. This study intends to evaluate a novel tubular structure design for side sill reinforcement and its performance benefits over a traditional aluminum side sill reinforcement currently commonly utilized for battery protection in EV vehicles body components. The proposed Steel side sill design mainly focuses on structural rigidity and improved load transfer during side pole impact crash cases and address manufacturing complexity and cost reduction opportunity. Multiple iterations for Steel side sill reinforcement design were carried out using finite element analysis with software like LSDYNA Hyper works to propose optimal

Kusnoorkar, Harsha, Khutorsky, Alex, Penumetsa, Vivek, Koraddi, Basavaraj

NVH characterization of new PWM strategies

2026-01-0224To be published on 04/07/2026

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique is widely used to drive AC machines at variable speed, however it generates high frequency harmonics which degrade sound quality. In the last decades, different PWM strategies have been designed to limit switching loss, and/or harmonic generation. Among them, discontinuous strategies are based on the injection of a zero-sequence signal, that strongly impacts the resulting voltage spectrum. An analytic formulation of the zero-sequence signal is proposed by the authors. It allows the creation of new PWM strategies, that can be easily experimented. In this paper, a preliminary study is performed with six new PWM strategies based on this analytic formulation. They are implemented on a basic test bench to perform a NVH characterization. Sound quality metrics are used to qualify the sound signature they produce. The resulting SPL is comparable with that of existing strategies, however their timbre is different in terms of low-frequency content and

Wanty, Salomé, Delpoux, Romain, Glesser, Martin, Totaro, Nicolas, Parizet, Etienne, Degrendele, Karine

Research on Structural Simulation Design of Lithium-Ion Battery Liquid Cooling Plates Based on Multi-Objective Topology Optimization

2026-01-0121To be published on 04/07/2026

Abstract：As the energy density of electric vehicle power batteries continues to increase, efficient and uniform heat dissipation has become critical to their safety and performance. The liquid cooling plate serves as the core component of the battery thermal management system, with its flow channel structure directly impacting heat dissipation efficiency and system energy consumption.Current liquid cooling plate flow channel designs often rely on empirical methods, making it challenging to simultaneously optimize both heat dissipation uniformity and flow resistance performance. This paper focuses on a single lithium battery as the research subject, employing a topology optimization approach to design the liquid cooling plate flow channel structure.Optimization targets include minimizing pressure drop at inlet/outlet and minimizing temperature difference across the contact surface between the plate and battery. Under constant inlet cross-sectional dimensions and flow velocity, numerical

Ma, Honghui, Zheng, Yuqing, Yang, Minghao

Advanced Integrated Chassis Control for Improved Energy Efficiency and Driving Experience in Electric Vehicle Applications

2026-01-0643To be published on 04/07/2026

Complexity of modern ground vehicles grows constantly, since car manufacturers want to provide functionality, while customers are expecting innovation and recent technologies to be integrated into the latest models released to the market. Recent advances in hard- and software opened the gates for new means of vehicle control and operation. Especially the transition to electric propulsion systems and decoupled chassis actuators offer completely new opportunities of dynamics control and manipulation. This paper presents an approach for integrated chassis and vehicle motion control in (battery) electric vehicle applications by using new and innovative controllers as well as mechatronic chassis systems. In several experiments on public roads with a fully instrumented vehicle demonstrator, that features in-wheel based rear-wheel drive and a hybrid brake-by-wire-system, the proposed control is tested under real environmental and traffic conditions with respect to aspects like energy

Heydrich, Marius, Mitsching, Thomas, Ivanov, Valentin

Path Following Strategy for Multi-Axle Vehicles via Nash Game-Based Coordinated Control of AFS and DYC

2026-01-0629To be published on 04/07/2026

Due to their complex structure and large inertia, multi-axle hub electric drive vehicles often suffer from response delays and insufficient control sensitivity. To improve path tracking accuracy and handling stability under high-speed and low-adhesion conditions, this paper proposes a coordinated control strategy that integrates a three-dimensional stability assessment with a Nash game-based approach for active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC) systems. A path tracking control model tailored for multi-axle vehicles is developed, and a robust Tubular Model Predictive Control (Tube-MPC) method is employed to enhance trajectory tracking performance under model uncertainties and external disturbances. Within the prediction horizon of Tube-MPC, the system continuously evaluates whether the vehicle state remains within the stable region. If the state exceeds this region, a Nash game-based coordination mechanism is activated to formulate a multi-objective control game

Lv, Xin, Liu, Zuyang, Shen, Yanhua, Wang, Kaidi

Study on performance parameters of retarder in mountain condition of hybrid electric vehicle

2026-01-0617To be published on 04/07/2026

In mountain driving scenarios, the continuous braking demands of vehicles pose significant challenges to the performance and reliability of braking systems. Traditional fuel-powered vehicles primarily rely on friction brakes for deceleration, which face issues such as high thermal fade risks and severe brake wear. While pure electric vehicles can utilize motor energy recovery to provide braking force and recover energy, their braking capacity is limited by the maximum regenerative torque of the motor. Moreover, when the battery State of Charge (SOC) is high, the energy recovery function may be restricted or disabled to protect the battery, leading to a sharp reduction or complete loss of braking torque—a safety hazard. Range-extended hybrid vehicles combine the advantages of both engine and electric drive systems. During long downhill operations, their motors can also serve as priority decelerators for efficient energy recovery. However, similar to pure electric vehicles, their motor

duan, xianqi, Tan, Gangfeng, Li, LiuYuanHeng, Tian, Tian, Yang, Yong

Look-ahead Information based Predictive Cruise Controller for Energy Efficient Powertrain Operation of Heavy-Duty Electric Trucks

2026-01-0039To be published on 04/07/2026

Heavy-duty electric trucks represent a growing innovation in the transport and logistics sector, aiming to reduce emissions and reliance on fossil fuels. A major challenge with battery electric trucks is the long recharging time which takes significantly longer than refueling conventional diesel trucks. This limitation highlights the importance of optimizing powertrain operations to reduce energy losses and maximize efficiency. One effective approach is implementing optimal speed control through a predictive cruise controller. By anticipating road conditions, traffic, and elevation changes, the predictive cruise controller can adjust the truck’s speed in real time to minimize energy consumption, enhancing the range and reducing the need for frequent charging. Many problem formulations for electric trucks focus primarily on minimizing the energy required at the wheels, often overlooking the impact of powertrain efficiencies. This simplification neglects critical factors such as the

Safder, Ahmad Hussain, Villani, Manfredi, Khuntia, Satvik, Nelson, James, Meijer, Maarten, Ahmed, Qadeer

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