Browse Topic: Electrical systems

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Loss Model and Finite Element Analysis Thermal Model of a Production Fast Charging Battery Module2026-01-0123To be published on 04/07/2026
Accurate modeling of battery temperature rise during fast charging is challenging due to uncertainty around cell heat generation and the thermal characteristics of the materials and interfaces which make up the battery pack. High fidelity thermal models are critical to attaining the best battery pack design, since they enable a multitude of cooling and packaging approaches to be considered prior to building a prototype. In this study, a 3D finite element analysis (FEA) thermal model of a production fast charging battery module is created. A loss model is parameterized as input for the FEA model. A key part of the loss model is the entropic heating coefficient (EHC), which is the change of open circuit voltage with respect to temperature. The EHC is measured by waiting for the cell voltage to reach steady state at various temperatures in 5% and 10% state of charge intervals over its capacity. This is then corrected numerically by accounting for unwanted discharge or rebounds. The EHC is
Thornton, Jack, Kollmeyer, Phillip, Panchal, Satyam, Gross, Oliver
Dual Battery Pack System for Multi-Voltage Electric Vehicle Operation2026-01-0392To be published on 04/07/2026
Electric Vehicles (EV) have become a major focus in the automotive industry. This paper introduces a propulsion system design, which supports the Wide Torque Band (WTB) concept to boost the power density of PM (permanent magnet) motors in EV Trucks resulting in performance, efficiency, and cost benefits. The WTB drive requires an 800V battery for vehicle operation. The chosen solution combines two 400V battery packs to create a selectable 400V/800V DC bus. The electrical hardware and controls to manage the dual battery packs in either series (800V) or parallel (400V) mode are presented in this paper. A prototype battery management system (BMS) along with existing production Voltage, Current, Temperature Monitoring (VITM) hardware are applied to perform mode switching, safety, and cell balancing. The success of this dual pack hardware enables high voltage dynamometer testing of a new 800V DU (Drive Unit) and inverters for EVs. The flexibility of switching between two voltage levels (400
Zhu, Yongjie, Lee, Chunhao, Gopalakrishnan, Suresh, Namuduri, Chandra
Multi-stage Packaging and Routing Optimization for Automotive Component Layout, Wire Harness and Duct Route Design2026-01-0507To be published on 04/07/2026
Modern vehicle design involves complex considerations and tradeoffs between system integration and layout which have a direct impact on performance, efficiency, and cost. The placement of equipment including control boards, motors, and fans as well as the routing of ducts and wire harnesses poses a time-consuming and intricate problem for design engineers. This paper presents an automated methodology to determine the optimal component packaging configuration, duct routing, and wire harnessing layout to maximize component packing density and minimize the total routing length. A two-stage optimization framework has been developed where the first stage packages the components within the design space with considerations for space utilization, component overlap, proximity relationships, point-to-point accessibility, and component mounting. The second stage implements a custom A-star path-finding algorithm and gradient based optimization to determine the optimal route layout between port
LeFrancois, Richard, Kim, Il Yong
Techno-economic assessment of battery recycling and cascade use for legal and illegal recyclers in China2026-01-0456To be published on 04/07/2026
With the rapid popularization of electric vehicles (EVs), the battery recycling industry is undergoing rapid growth. While the Chinese government has implemented a white-list mechanism under which only approved recyclers are allowed to process retired batteries, the presence of small-scale illegal battery recycling vendors has posed challenges to this mechanism. This study compares the techno-economic performance of battery recycling between legal and illegal recyclers in China, and discusses strategies to eliminate illegal operations. Our research covers two battery chemistries: lithium nickel-manganese-cobalt oxide (NMC) and lithium iron phosphate (LFP), as well as two technological pathways: resource recycling and cascade utilization. Under the base case, the costs of illegal vendors are 35-46% lower than that of legal companies. Although legal companies achieve high resource utilization, their overall economic performance lags behind due to their high costs associated with
Du, Shilong, Li, Haoyang, Dou, Hao, Hao, Han
Low-voltage electric vehicle with increased electrical safety and distributed charging system2026-01-0396To be published on 04/07/2026
Abstract - Reducing the high-voltage BEV to a household level of 120-240 volts is considered in the article as an effective means of solving the problems of electrical safety, maintenance and minor repairs of an electric vehicle in household conditions, distributed power supply of BEV with walking distance for the driver. The analysis of the low-voltage electric drive is performed under the assumption that the battery has a nominal voltage of 200 volts. The issues of transforming a high-voltage machine (400 volts) into a low-voltage one (200 volts) by switching the stator phase sections from serial to parallel connection without changing the overall and energy characteristics are considered. It is shown that a two-motor unit with induction machines with a capacity of 50 kilowatts can provide 100 kilowatts in long-term and up to 200 kilowatts in peak modes. The article considers the issues of implementing a low-voltage inverter and modern trends in distributed power supply for BEVs
Smolin PhD, Victor, Sobolevskiy, Anatoliy, Volovich, Georgy
Advancing Safe Battery Design through Experimental Cell Characterization of Thermal, Electrical and Mechanical Properties2026-01-0408To be published on 04/07/2026
Lithium-ion batteries are critical to electric vehicles and grid-scale energy storage. Safe design of battery systems relies on accurate simulation of battery thermal runaway under electrical, thermal, and mechanical abuse. A predictive battery simulation requires the characterization of electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties of the battery at the full cell and cell-component levels. In this study, a commercial cell from an electric vehicle was disassembled, and testing was conducted to support both homogenized and detailed computational models. At the cell level, electrical properties were characterized using Hybrid Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) testing to assess the cell power capability. Cell punch tests were conducted to characterize mechanical behavior under deformation. These tests were used to develop a multi-physics homogenized cell model. On the other hand, detailed cell modeling that includes different component layers could help users understand localized cell
Challa, Vidyu, Rostami-Angas, Masoud, kong, Kevin, Wang, Leyu, Reichert, Rudolf, Kan, Cing-Dao
Modeling Non-Uniform Temperature Distribution in Lithium-Ion Batteries2026-01-0120To be published on 04/07/2026
Effective thermal management is critical to the performance, lifespan, and safety of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles (EV). Transient and non-uniform temperature distributions within cells accelerate degradation, cause pack imbalance, and reduce efficiency. Localized hotspots, in particular, promote lithium plating, solid electrolyte interface (SEI) growth, and other failure mechanisms. Persistent non-uniformities increase the likelihood of thermal runaway under high-stress operation. To address these challenges, this work develops a one-dimensional thermal model that captures heat generation and dissipation under dynamic operating conditions, incorporating both conduction within the cell and active convective cooling. Using a DFSS-based approach, we evaluate design and cooling strategies that minimize temperature differentials while maintaining acceptable operating ranges. The findings provide practical guidance for battery thermal management system design, emphasizing
El-Sharkawy, Alaa, Asar, Mona, Serpento, Stan, Sheta, Mai
Novel Steel Tubular Side Sill Reinforcement Design and Validation for Enhanced Crash Performance in EVs2026-01-0478To be published on 04/07/2026
Increased use of Electrical vehicles (EVs) brings in unique structural design challenges particularly in Side Impact scenarios when the battery pack is near the sill region therefore elevating the possibility of Electrical Module penetration and triggering thermal runway event resulting from the crash. Thus, Electric Vehicles present unique structural design challenges. This study intends to evaluate a novel tubular structure design for side sill reinforcement and its performance benefits over a traditional aluminum side sill reinforcement currently commonly utilized for battery protection in EV vehicles body components. The proposed Steel side sill design mainly focuses on structural rigidity and improved load transfer during side pole impact crash cases and address manufacturing complexity and cost reduction opportunity. Multiple iterations for Steel side sill reinforcement design were carried out using finite element analysis with software like LSDYNA Hyper works to propose optimal
Kusnoorkar, Harsha, Khutorsky, Alex, Penumetsa, Vivek, Koraddi, Basavaraj
Optimizing EV Battery Models for Full Vehicle Simulations2026-01-0389To be published on 04/07/2026
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) demands accurate yet computationally efficient battery models that can be integrated into full vehicle simulations. At the cell level, mechanical battery models often employ fine-scale elements to capture localized deformation and failure phenomena. While such detailed discretization enables high-fidelity predictions, it also imposes significant computational costs that become prohibitive when scaling up to pack-level or full-vehicle crash and durability simulations. This research addresses the challenge by systematically simplifying cell-level mechanical models to reduce computational burden while preserving predictive accuracy. We propose an approach in which larger elements and reduced complexity representations are introduced without compromising the model’s ability to replicate experimentally observed behaviors. The methodology emphasizes model validation against targeted loading conditions, ensuring that the essential mechanics
Sahraei, Elham, Brar, Bavneet, Parmar, Dhruv, Muralidharan, Umachandran
Thermal Insulation Materials Used in Battery Pack Assembly: A Review of Materials, Test Methods, and Key Considerations2026-01-0406To be published on 04/07/2026
Electric vehicle (EV) battery packs have undergone substantial advancements in recent years, driven by engineering design improvements, material innovations, and increasingly stringent regulatory enforcement. These developments have enabled battery packs to become more energy-dense, which is essential for extending driving range and improving overall vehicle performance. However, with increased energy density comes a heightened risk of thermal events, such as thermal runaway, which continue to raise concerns regarding vehicle safety, reliability, and long-term durability. This review focuses on the critical role that thermal insulation materials play in mitigating the impact of such thermal events within EV battery systems. It presents an overview of commonly used thermal insulation materials, emphasizing their chemical composition, thermal resistance, and mechanical integrity under extreme conditions such as high temperatures and physical stress. The ability of these materials to
Ng, Sze-Sze, Dhyani, Abhishek, Gorin, Craig, Jeon, Junho, Nuguri, Sravya, Repollet Pedrosa, Milton, Rylski, Adrian, Shete, Abhishek, Steinbrecher, Jacob, Thomas, Ryan
Comparison of Cyclic Aging and Coulombic Efficiency Measurements for Varied SOC Windows in Lithium-Ion Batteries.2026-01-0380To be published on 04/07/2026
State-of-charge (SOC) operating windows critically influence the long-term performance and reliability of lithium-ion batteries. While conventional cyclic aging studies across varying SOC ranges provide valuable insights into capacity fade and resistance growth, they often require extended testing periods to produce meaningful trends. Coulombic Efficiency (CE), defined as the ratio of discharge to charge capacity per cycle, has emerged as a promising early-life diagnostic tool for identifying parasitic side reactions and projecting long-term degradation. In this work, we present a comparative study of cyclic aging and CE behavior across multiple SOC windows (0–100%, 20–80%, 40–60%, and 80-100%) using eight 21700 NMC cells cycled at 25 °C on both a conventional cycler and an ultra-high precision cycler. Capacity retention, internal resistance evolution, and CE profiles were analyzed to establish correlations between SOC window and degradation rates. Results are expected to indicate that
Hussein, Huda, Panchal, Satyam, Gross, Oliver, Kollmeyer, Phillip, Emadi, Ali, Arora, Dipan
Proactive Faulty Detection in EV Batteries Via Hybrid method: Cell-to-Cell Variation Pattern And Physics-Based Model insights.2026-01-0391To be published on 04/07/2026
This study presents a distinct methodology for the early detection of faulty cells in electric vehicle (EV) battery systems, leveraging temporal voltage deviation patterns under real-world charging scenarios alongside outputs from a physics-based model. A comparative longitudinal analysis was conducted on a fleet of ten EVs—five exhibiting stable performance and five demonstrating early-stage anomalies characterized by intermittent transitions from drive to neutral mode. These behavioral cues were investigated as precursors to deeper battery degradation. The analysis focused on cell-level voltage dispersion during the mid-to-high state-of-charge (SoC) range (approx. 20–30% to full charge). Vehicles in healthy condition consistently displayed minimal voltage differentials among cells, whereas those with latent faults showed markedly higher variance, particularly between the highest and model-expected voltages. Notably, this voltage divergence was often accompanied by a modest yet
Jawle, Bharat Sanjay, Selvakumar, Ashwin, Puttoji Rao, Nagaraj Kumar
Modeling of Cold Start Processes in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells2026-01-0496To be published on 04/07/2026
In this work, a numerical study is carried out to analyze the cold start process of a three-dimensional proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) which uses a three-parallel serpentine flow channel design. The investigation is mainly focused on the ice formation during subfreezing startup and how this ice influences the operation of the fuel cell. For this purpose, a transient ice formation model is developed in a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) environment. The model considers sublimation and de-sublimation processes inside the gas diffusion layer and the catalyst layer. To account for the influence of ice on the electrochemical reactions, the local transfer current is reduced depending on the fraction of ice volume present in the porous regions. Validation of the model is performed with available experimental data, and the comparison shows that the model can successfully reproduce both the successful and the failed cold start cases under different initial temperatures. The study
ma, Shihu, Champhekar, Omkar, Han, Chao
Path Following Strategy for Multi-Axle Vehicles via Nash Game-Based Coordinated Control of AFS and DYC2026-01-0629To be published on 04/07/2026
Due to their complex structure and large inertia, multi-axle hub electric drive vehicles often suffer from response delays and insufficient control sensitivity. To improve path tracking accuracy and handling stability under high-speed and low-adhesion conditions, this paper proposes a coordinated control strategy that integrates a three-dimensional stability assessment with a Nash game-based approach for active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC) systems. A path tracking control model tailored for multi-axle vehicles is developed, and a robust Tubular Model Predictive Control (Tube-MPC) method is employed to enhance trajectory tracking performance under model uncertainties and external disturbances. Within the prediction horizon of Tube-MPC, the system continuously evaluates whether the vehicle state remains within the stable region. If the state exceeds this region, a Nash game-based coordination mechanism is activated to formulate a multi-objective control game
Lv, Xin, Liu, Zuyang, Shen, Yanhua, Wang, Kaidi
Study on performance parameters of retarder in mountain condition of hybrid electric vehicle2026-01-0617To be published on 04/07/2026
In mountain driving scenarios, the continuous braking demands of vehicles pose significant challenges to the performance and reliability of braking systems. Traditional fuel-powered vehicles primarily rely on friction brakes for deceleration, which face issues such as high thermal fade risks and severe brake wear. While pure electric vehicles can utilize motor energy recovery to provide braking force and recover energy, their braking capacity is limited by the maximum regenerative torque of the motor. Moreover, when the battery State of Charge (SOC) is high, the energy recovery function may be restricted or disabled to protect the battery, leading to a sharp reduction or complete loss of braking torque—a safety hazard. Range-extended hybrid vehicles combine the advantages of both engine and electric drive systems. During long downhill operations, their motors can also serve as priority decelerators for efficient energy recovery. However, similar to pure electric vehicles, their motor
duan, xianqi, Tan, Gangfeng, Li, LiuYuanHeng, Tian, Tian, Yang, Yong
Advanced Integrated Chassis Control for Improved Energy Efficiency and Driving Experience in Electric Vehicle Applications2026-01-0643To be published on 04/07/2026
Complexity of modern ground vehicles grows constantly, since car manufacturers want to provide functionality, while customers are expecting innovation and recent technologies to be integrated into the latest models released to the market. Recent advances in hard- and software opened the gates for new means of vehicle control and operation. Especially the transition to electric propulsion systems and decoupled chassis actuators offer completely new opportunities of dynamics control and manipulation. This paper presents an approach for integrated chassis and vehicle motion control in (battery) electric vehicle applications by using new and innovative controllers as well as mechatronic chassis systems. In several experiments on public roads with a fully instrumented vehicle demonstrator, that features in-wheel based rear-wheel drive and a hybrid brake-by-wire-system, the proposed control is tested under real environmental and traffic conditions with respect to aspects like energy
Heydrich, Marius, Mitsching, Thomas, Ivanov, Valentin
Look-ahead Information based Predictive Cruise Controller for Energy Efficient Powertrain Operation of Heavy-Duty Electric Trucks2026-01-0039To be published on 04/07/2026
Heavy-duty electric trucks represent a growing innovation in the transport and logistics sector, aiming to reduce emissions and reliance on fossil fuels. A major challenge with battery electric trucks is the long recharging time which takes significantly longer than refueling conventional diesel trucks. This limitation highlights the importance of optimizing powertrain operations to reduce energy losses and maximize efficiency. One effective approach is implementing optimal speed control through a predictive cruise controller. By anticipating road conditions, traffic, and elevation changes, the predictive cruise controller can adjust the truck’s speed in real time to minimize energy consumption, enhancing the range and reducing the need for frequent charging. Many problem formulations for electric trucks focus primarily on minimizing the energy required at the wheels, often overlooking the impact of powertrain efficiencies. This simplification neglects critical factors such as the
Safder, Ahmad Hussain, Villani, Manfredi, Khuntia, Satvik, Nelson, James, Meijer, Maarten, Ahmed, Qadeer
Impact of C-rates on Electrical Behavior of Li-ion Batteries under Coupled Temperature-load Conditions2026-01-0383To be published on 04/07/2026
The utilization of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles becomes increasingly common. Battery performance degradation is influenced by both temperature and boundary constraints. Monitoring the usable cell capacity (UCC) under real-world operating conditions is essential for ensuring accurate state-of-health estimation. Capacity tests in laboratory settings are typically conducted at low C-rates to approximate equilibrium conditions, whereas in real vehicle applications, charging currents are often much higher. This discrepancy in charge/discharge rates frequently results in deviations between laboratory characterization and on-board BMS capacity estimation. To investigate the impact of C-rates under coupled temperature-load conditions, we conducted long-term cycling tests on LFP/graphite pouch cells at 25 °C and 45 °C under different constrained conditions. The UCC was evaluated at different test rates (1/20C, 1/3C, and 1C) as an indicator of aging. The results show that
ZHANG, Shan, Niu, Zhice, Xia, Yong
Optimizing Custom Hybrid Solutions for Low-Volume Specialist Equipment2026-01-0479To be published on 04/07/2026
Off-road vehicles are typically powered by diesel engines, sized to cover the highest peak loads in their dutycycles. Such engines can be downsized, using hybridization to supplement engine power for short periods. However, many applications are low-volume and specialized, making it impractical to deploy heavy engineering resources to optimize every one. For this reason, manufacturers tend to produce maid-of-all-work vehicles to cover every situation. This paper demonstrates the benefits of custom hybridization for specialist applications. It also introduces a simulation tool to benefit OEMs who seek to provide custom low-volume vehicles based on common platforms. The simulation tool is a fast, low-cost, cloud-based software package under development at ZeBeyond, provisionally named "ePop Cloud". It allows many different architectures to be evaluated rapidly at the product planning stage, and can be quickly set up and used by engineers who are not specialists in simulation. An
De Salis, Rupert, Fons, Daniel
Enabling Sustainable E-Mobility: An Edge–Cloud Collaborative Framework for Lifecycle Health Management of Electric Vehicle Batteries2026-01-0460To be published on 04/07/2026
The rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is a cornerstone of the transition to sustainable transportation. However, uncertainty regarding battery degradation remains a significant obstacle, hindering vehicle energy efficiency, operational safety, and the recovery of end-of-life value. Accurate estimation of the battery state of health (SOH) and prediction of the remaining useful life (RUL) are therefore critical for sustainable vehicle lifecycle management. This study proposes an edge–cloud collaborative intelligent framework for in-vehicle deployment that leverages a Transformer-based architecture to jointly model SOH and RUL. The cloud-side model retains the full configuration to capture long-term degradation trajectories for high-accuracy RUL prediction. A lightweight edge-side model, engineered via pruning and knowledge distillation, delivers millisecond-level inference for real-time SOH estimation onboard the vehicle. To ensure efficiency, only four core health indicators are
Gao, Weimin, Lv, Zhilong, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn)
A Dataset for Visual Classification of Buldging Pouch Battery Cells2026-01-0393To be published on 04/07/2026
The rapid advancement of lithium-ion battery technologies, particularly pouch cells, has driven significant growth in electric vehicles, mobile devices, and renewable energy storage. However, pouch cells are especially susceptible to mechanical deformation and failure, including bulging caused by internal gas formation—a common indicator of cell aging or imminent failure. In this study, we developed a dataset of bulging pouch battery cells to support real-time diagnostics and safety monitoring in industrial and laboratory environments.
Alkawasmie, Mohammad, Farooqui, Saad, Algalham, Dheya, Rahman, Mahfilur, Challa, Karthikeya, Maxim, Bruce, Shen, Jie
Protection of Megawatt-Scale DC Charging Infrastructure for Heavy Duty Vehicles: A Review of Current Technologies and Future Roadmap2026-01-0400To be published on 04/07/2026
Abstract Direct Current (DC) fast charging enables the direct delivery of megawatt (MW) scale power to the large battery systems of heavy-duty electric vehicles (EVs), such as trucks, buses, and construction machinery. This contrasts with Alternating Current (AC) charging, which is constrained by the limited capacity of onboard chargers. The feasibility of ultra-fast DC charging has been driven by advancements in semiconductor technology offering higher voltage and current handling capabilities as well as improvements in battery energy density. Ongoing research indicates continued growth in both semiconductor power handling and battery storage capacity, further strengthening the case for ultra-fast DC charging. Key benefits include significantly higher charging efficiency, drastically reduced charging times, and lower driver fatigue. However, unlike AC systems, DC charging infrastructure presents unique protection challenges. These challenges arise from the rapid rise of DC fault
Rahman, Md Rakib-Ur, Dobrzynski, Daniel
EV Propulsion Drive Converter SiC Power Device Over-Temperature Protection under Low Motor Speed Operation2026-01-0436To be published on 04/07/2026
Monitoring power device temperature in an electric vehicle propulsion drive converter is extremely important to achieve full power delivery within the maximum power capability envelope. Usually, on-die temperature sensors are installed on Si-IGBT power devices in electric vehicle propulsion drive converters to enable monitoring device temperature and achieve over-temperature protection. Currently, SiC MOSFET is a promising power device in power converters of electric drives because of its lower loss, higher switching speed, higher voltage capability, and higher junction temperature limit in comparison with widely used Si-IGBT. However, SiC MOSFET is a more expensive device, so the present technology trend is trying to reduce its chip size. Installation of an on-die temperature sensor on SiC MOSFET will significantly increase its cost and complexity. So presently, there is no junction temperature sensor installed in SiC MOSFET due to which there is great difficulty protecting SiC MOSFET
Thongam, Jogendra Singh, Ge, BAOMING, Bradford, Steven, Kulkarni, Milind
Adhesion Strength of Coatings in Battery Structural Joints2026-01-0238To be published on 04/07/2026
In the design of Rechargeable Energy Storage System (RESS) structures, including battery trays, module side plates, and end plates, there are multiple conflating factors, including: Mechanical requirements necessitating the use of electrically conductive materials (steel and aluminum); proximity between battery module structure and battery cells, necessitating the use of electrical isolation coatings; and module and pack designs that retain cells via the use of Structural Adhesive Material (SAM). Inherently, with this design approach, organic coatings are placed in a new and perilous position. In a sense, the coating becomes a supplement to an adhesive. As virtual analysis tools have become more sophisticated, there is increasing reliance on these tools to predict the occurrence of structural failures in various load cases. Factors in test method, paint pretreatment, and topcoat affecting adhesion of organic coatings in structural adhesive joints are discussed, including: Adhesive
Moceri, Charles, Harper, Jared
Modeling the Battery Supply Chain for Traceability: A Proof of Concept for SAE J33272026-01-0379To be published on 04/07/2026
This presentation centers on a proof of concept of SAE J3327, a standard for creating a digital traceability record for electric vehicle (EV) batteries. The presenters have been leading the development of the standard, which harmonizes with the European Union’s Digital Product Passport for batteries. It establishes a consistent vocabulary and procedure for creating a digital record of important battery information including critical mineral sourcing, processing and manufacturing of cells and packs. The standard has a publication date of fourth quarter, 2025 and will be accompanied by this technical paper. The paper guides users through mapping the battery supply chain, which is characterized by complexity: multiple locations, mixing of materials, numerous processing and manufacturing steps.
Menchaca, Frank
Simplified Thermal Runaway Propagation Modeling to Enable Mass-Optimized Battery Pack Design2026-01-0404To be published on 04/07/2026
This paper presents a simplified approach to model thermal runaway propagation in a multi-cell battery pack, with the goal of designing a safe and lightweight pack for mass-sensitive applications. The key parameters which characterize single-cell thermal runaway, including heat release profile, apparent cell emissivity and mass loss, were extracted from empirical nail penetration tests. This characterization was used to drive a three-dimensional thermal model of a 19-cell hexagonal sub-pack with a center trigger cell. To enable rapid design exploration, a symmetry-based computationally simplified domain was used for a full-factorial Design of Experiments (DOE) varying cell spacing, epoxy thickness, heat spreader thickness, and cup geometry. The DOE results were used to identify dominant heat-transfer mechanisms, capture main and interaction effects, and determine mass-efficient design levers governing peak-neighbor cell temperature during propagation. Insights from the DOE study
Kalyankar, Apoorv, Owen, Elliot, Strohmaier, Kyle, Mardall, Joseph
Assessing Energy Use, Cost, and Emissions of Small Regional Rail Vehicles: Methodology and Case Study on a German Track2026-01-0419To be published on 04/07/2026
The decarbonization of regional rail remains a pressing challenge in the European Union, where nearly half of the 200,000 km network remains unelectrified. Lightweight, single-car railbuses historically provided efficient service on such lines, but modern replacements are scarce. This work evaluates a standardized 30-ton, 16 m railbus platform for unelectrified regional service, focusing on propulsion system design and trade-offs between range, cost, and emissions. A MATLAB/Simulink drive-cycle model was developed to simulate energy consumption under realistic operating conditions. The Erfurt–Rennsteig route in Germany (130 km round trip, gradients up to 6 %) was selected as a representative case study. The model incorporates sub-models for traction motors, lithium-ion batteries (LFP and LTO), fuel storage, fuel cells, and ICE gensets across multiple fuel options (diesel, gasoline, methane, ethanol, methanol, HVO, FAME, and hydrogen). Battery lifetime is estimated using a combined
Ahrling, Christoffer, Tuner, Martin, Gainey, Brian, Torkiharchegani, Amir, Scharmach, Marcel, Hertel, Benedikt, ALAKÜLA, Mats
Accelerating Electrification Through Modular Propulsion: GM’s Strategy for BEV and BET Platforms2026-01-0410To be published on 04/07/2026
General Motors continues to advance its electrification strategy through the development of scalable Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) and Battery Electric Truck (BET) platforms. This paper highlights GM’s latest BEV and BET products that leverage shared Drive Unit (DU), Rechargeable Energy Storage System (RESS), and integrated power electronic (IPE) components across multiple vehicle programs. By adopting a modular and commonized propulsion architecture, GM achieves significant benefits in manufacturing efficiency, cost optimization, and product flexibility. The shared DU, RESS, and IPE components are engineered to meet diverse performance requirements while maintaining high standards of energy efficiency, thermal management, and durability. This approach enables rapid deployment of electrified solutions across various segments, from passenger vehicles to full-size trucks, without compromising on capability or customer experience. The paper outlines the technical rationale behind
Liu, Jinming, Sevel, Kris, Anwar, Mohammad, Oury, Andrew, Welchko, Brian, Gagas, Brent
A Dataset for Visual Classification of Battery Fire and Smoke2026-01-0569To be published on 04/07/2026
Battery fires pose a significant risk across a wide range of applications, including electric vehicles, consumer electronics, and grid-scale energy storage systems. Early detection of fire and smoke is critical to preventing catastrophic failures and ensuring human safety. In this study, we developed a synthetic dataset of battery fire and smoke images in the context of a simple battery pack. The primary application of this dataset is to support the development of a machine learning–based visual classification system capable of accurately detecting battery fires and smoke in real time at an early stage. The intended outcome is a deployable classification system that enhances battery safety through rapid visual identification of hazardous conditions.
Govilesh, Vidarshana, Gunasekaran, Aswin, Challa, Karthikeya, Maxim, Bruce, Shen, Jie
Predictive Modeling and Sensitivity Analysis of Thermal Runaway in 800V Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Module Using DFSS Methodology2026-01-0124To be published on 04/07/2026
Thermal runaway in high-voltage lithium-ion battery modules should focus on critical safety and design challenges in electric vehicle applications, which need predictive methods that enhance passenger safety and support regulatory compliance. The primary purpose of a lithium-ion battery in an electric vehicle is to provide reliable energy storage while maintaining safe operation under different operating conditions. This study proposes a Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) methodology to virtually predict and correlate thermal runaway and its propagation in an 800V high-power lithium-ion battery module. Conventional propagation analysis relies heavily on physical testing, whereas the DFSS-based virtual framework enables cost-effective evaluation at early design stages. Input factors included are heat transfer pathways, which are sensitive to the temperature changes, as well as thermal propagation time. Control factors are the design or process parameters that engineers use to establish the
Dixit, Manish, Raja, Vinayak, Gudiyella, Soumya
Real-Time Observations of the Effect of Fuel Dilution in an Engine Transient Friction Rig. Along with Real-Time Observations of Fuel Entering and Leaving Internal Combustion Engine Oil, over both Standard Engine, ICE and Hybrid, HEV Dynamic Drive Cycles.2026-01-0351To be published on 04/07/2026
Hybrid electric vehicles with an increasing level of electrification, are becoming a major part of the global energy transition. To achieve lower engine tailpipe exhaust emissions and improve total fuel consumption, typically the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) control system efficiently and frequently switches between the internal combustion engine and electric motor drive, with multiple stops and restarts of the internal combustion engine. A consequential result of this switching is typically slower, or even incomplete engine warm up times, depending on the engine speed, load pattern and run time of the vehicle drive cycle. Along with the speed and load transient control, the engine stop and start processes are also challenging to control, with respect to cold start fuel and combustion by-products entering the oil. Consequently, contamination enters the engine oil but may not completely leave. These effects are highly transient over the drive cycle with contaminants, in particular fuel
Butcher, Richard, Bradley, Nathan, Thedering, Dennis
NVH characterization of new PWM strategies2026-01-0224To be published on 04/07/2026
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique is widely used to drive AC machines at variable speed, however it generates high frequency harmonics which degrade sound quality. In the last decades, different PWM strategies have been designed to limit switching loss, and/or harmonic generation. Among them, discontinuous strategies are based on the injection of a zero-sequence signal, that strongly impacts the resulting voltage spectrum. An analytic formulation of the zero-sequence signal is proposed by the authors. It allows the creation of new PWM strategies, that can be easily experimented. In this paper, a preliminary study is performed with six new PWM strategies based on this analytic formulation. They are implemented on a basic test bench to perform a NVH characterization. Sound quality metrics are used to qualify the sound signature they produce. The resulting SPL is comparable with that of existing strategies, however their timbre is different in terms of low-frequency content and
Wanty, Salomé, Delpoux, Romain, Glesser, Martin, Totaro, Nicolas, Parizet, Etienne, Degrendele, Karine
A Comprehensive Modelling tool for Heavy-Duty Hybrid Fuel Cell/Battery Powertrains2026-01-0430To be published on 04/07/2026
The global transition towards sustainable transportation is driving the development of efficient, low-emission propulsion systems. Battery-electric solutions are effective in urban contexts but face limitations in heavy-duty and long-haul applications due to the size and weight of the required energy storage. Hybrid battery/fuel cell powertrains offer a promising alternative for such use case, reducing vehicle mass and charging times while maintaining high energy efficiency. This study presents a zero-dimensional MATLAB/Simulink model of a parallel hybrid fuel cell/battery system for heavy-duty vehicles. The model encompasses the main vehicle subsystems, including the fuel cell stack with auxiliaries, the battery pack, the electric drive, the transmission and vehicle longitudinal dynamics, coordinated through a rule-based energy management strategy. Two representative vehicle configurations were analysed: a Group 2 urban delivery vehicle, and a Group 5 long-haul truck. Model validation
Montecchi, Gianluca, Martoccia, Lorenzo, D'Adamo, Alessandro
A Scalable and Accessible Remote Testing Framework for Automotive Development2026-01-0191To be published on 04/07/2026
With the rise of software-defined vehicles and the emergence of cyber threats to vehicular systems, developing teams are compelled to conduct extensive testing on both virtual and physical prototypes at an accelerated pace. This new development landscape necessitates diagnostic tools that are both precise and adaptable. However, proprietary systems dominate this field, often hindering accessibility for students and researchers due to high costs and restrictive licensing. This paper presents the design and implementation of an open-source, low-cost remote testing system tailored for automotive development and diagnostics. The proposed system utilizes Arduino and Raspberry Pi processing units, along with relay-based switching modules, to provide secure remote control of vehicle components through a web-based dashboard equipped with authentication, scheduling, and real-time synchronization capabilities. The tested prototype showcased robust scalability, secure session handling, and
Pries, Andrew, Mohammad, Utayba
A Study on Fail-Safe and Limp-Home Strategies for Electric Drive Failures in P1-P2 (P)HEVs2026-01-0427To be published on 04/07/2026
Hyundai Motor Company’s TMED-II hybrid system adopts a P1–P2 parallel motor layout, which improves power distribution flexibility but increases reliance on electric drive components. Failures in motors, inverters, or other power electronics can critically affect drivability and safety, making robust Fail-Safe strategies essential. This study proposes a three-stage, sequential Limp-Home strategy for P1–P2 HEVs under P2 motor system failure. Unlike conventional methods that open the main relay and rely solely on the engine, the proposed approach keeps the high-voltage (HV) system active whenever possible to maintain performance, safety, and comfort. Stage 1 – P1 motor-based SOC control: Keeps the main relay closed and uses the P1 motor to maintain SOC within set limits. Overcharge is mitigated by operating the motor in discharge mode, and over-discharge is mitigated through regenerative operation. Engine torque is adjusted to match motor torque demand, preserving launch performance and
Rho, Jeongwon, Park, Sangcheol, Oh, Sung Hwan
Advancing Sustainable Electric Vehicles: A Simulation-Driven Study on Rare Earth-Free Motors and Battery Technologies2026-01-0242To be published on 04/07/2026
As electric vehicles (EVs) become more popular, the growing dependence on rare earth materials in their motors and batteries has raised concerns about supply risks, environmental impact, and rising costs. Finding alternatives to these materials is essential to making EVs more sustainable and affordable for everyone. This study aims to explore new motor designs and battery chemistries that reduce or eliminate the use of rare earth elements. We will focus on promising options like induction and wound rotor motors, as well as ferrite and iron-nitride magnets that can replace traditional rare earth magnets in EVs. On the battery side, we will look at lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP) and sodium-ion batteries, which offer a safer and more cost-effective alternative while maintaining good performance. A big part of this work involves using advanced simulations to predict how these new materials and designs will perform. This lets us optimize the components before building physical prototypes
Saraswat, Shubham, Vishe, Prashant
CFD Modelling of Cell Formation Gas and Venting During the EV’s Battery Manufacturing Process2026-01-0384To be published on 04/07/2026
The electric battery is a critical component of electric vehicles (EVs), where high power demands pose significant operational challenges. One such challenge is gas generation within the porous anode layer, which can lead to pressure buildup inside the battery. The complex interfacial dynamics at the microscale play a crucial role in determining the effectiveness of gas venting and the resulting pressure evolution. This study addresses this issue through a two-pronged simulation approach. First, gas generation within a representative anode microstructure is investigated using a Volume of Fluid (VOF) framework that resolves tortuous flow passages. The simulations reveal that gas generation in such microstructures can lead to pressure rises of several thousand Pascals, with interfacial behavior primarily governed by surface tension effects. Second, a high-level battery pack simulation is performed using a porous media approach to evaluate system-scale gas venting and localized
Mahyawansi, Pratik J., Schlautman, Jeff, Viswanath, Priyanka, Srinivasan, Chiranth
Quantifying Accuracy and Robustness to Guide Fidelity Selection for Multi-fidelity Vehicle Dynamics Models2026-01-0149To be published on 04/07/2026
Accurate and reliable simulation models are essential for design, development, and performance evaluation during virtual vehicle testing. However, fidelity assessment and validation remain a challenge. While error metrics are used to evaluate simulations, they alone do not capture how reliable predictions are, or how robust models are to varying driving scenarios and modeling assumptions. This work develops a systematic quantitative approach for evaluating vehicle dynamics model fidelity, moving beyond traditional visual or qualitative comparisons. A dimensionless fidelity metric is proposed that integrates error and uncertainty into a single measure, enabling objective accuracy assessment of variable-fidelity simulations. This framework supports fidelity selection in vehicle dynamics, providing clearer insight into tradeoffs between computational cost and achievable accuracy, and advancing the goal of reliable virtual testing. This approach is demonstrated on an open-loop vehicle
Emara, Mariam, Balchanos, Michael, Mavris, Dimitri
Standalone Battery Pack Thermal Behavior Simulation and Experimental Correlation in a Controlled Environment2026-01-0125To be published on 04/07/2026
Battery thermal management is crucial for ensuring the safety, efficiency, and longevity of lithium-ion battery packs, particularly in electric vehicles (EVs). The primary purpose of a lithium-ion battery in an electric vehicle is to store and provide electrical energy for vehicle propulsion while maintaining safety under different operating conditions. This work proposes a thermal correlation between 1D CFD simulation and experimental test data under passive environmental heat exchange conditions without active coolant flow of a battery pack comprising four modules. An environmental exchange test was conducted using a 50% state of charge (SOC) battery pack, which is stabilized at 25°C to assess passive heat dissipation, thermal soak behavior, temperature distribution, and potential thermal runaway risks. The simulation predictions correlate well within a 1.5°C range compared to test results using ambient temperature and flow inputs, which confirms the reliability of the modeling
Nayaka, Sateesh Kumar, Dixit, Manish, Gudiyella, Soumya
Evolutionary Path to Vehicle Zonal E/E Architecture2026-01-0071To be published on 04/07/2026
The automotive industry is undergoing a major transition in Electrical/Electronic (E/E) architecture, evolving from traditional distributed and domain-based designs to zonal configuration. The rapid growth of software-driven functionality, cross domain function integration, and demands for centralized management have exposed the limitations of distributed and domain-based designs in complexity, scalability, and cost. Zonal E/E architecture addresses these challenges by consolidating computing and I/O resources into high-performance controllers distributed across physical zones of the vehicle, greatly reducing wiring complexity, improving modularity, and enabling scalable, software-defined vehicles. However, this transition cannot be immediate because vehicle design and electrical system solutions have been built on decades of distributed and domain-based development. Moreover, the enabling technologies for realizing zonal E/E architecture, such as high-speed automotive Ethernet, zonal
Jiang, Shugang
AI-Driven Data Consistency and Relationship Inference System for Agile Component Library Management2026-01-0109To be published on 04/07/2026
Reliable component libraries are the foundation of the engineering process and the starting point for all intelligence within CAD tools. In practice, however, libraries created and maintained by librarians often contain incomplete, inconsistent, or outdated data. This paper introduces the component data consistency and relationship inference AI system, developed within Amoeba software, which addresses these challenges by improving component library quality. The system uses AI to infer component attributes such as component type, gender, color, material, etc. Moreover, it can identify relationships such as the family a connector is associated with based on its attributes and geometry. The system improves data consistency in areas such as resolving mismatched wire size constraints imposed by the connector and cavity components. It also utilizes computer vision to identify common connector footprints, cavity sizes, and 2D symbol geometries. Deployed within Amoeba software, the system has
Phan, Dung, Horvat, Bryan
Improving Winter Driving Range of EVs with a Novel Desiccant Device: Ceramic Humidity Regulator (CHR)2026-01-0117To be published on 04/07/2026
With Rapid growth of Electric Vehicles (EVs) in the market, challenges such as driving range, charging infrastructure, and reducing charging time needs to be addressed. Unlike traditional Internal combustion vehicles, EVs have limited heating sources and primarily uses electricity from the running battery, which reduces driving range. Additionally, during winter operation, it is necessary to prevent window fogging to ensure better visibility, which requires introducing cold outside air into the cabin. This significantly increases the energy consumption for heating and the driving range can be reduced to half of the normal range. This study introduces the Ceramic Humidity Regulator (CHR), a compact and energy-efficient device developed to address driving range improvement. The CHR uses a desiccant system to dehumidify the cabin, which can prevent window fogging without introducing cold outside air, thereby reducing heating energy consumption. CHR is based on desiccant dehumidification
Sakai, Naoki, Takahiko, Nakatani, Shinoda, Narimasa, Ihara, Yukio, Wakida, Norihiro, Kato, Kyohei, Anoop, Reghunathan-Nair
Electrochemical-Thermal Simulation for Evaluating Indirect and Immersion Cooling in High-Power EV Charging2026-01-0403To be published on 04/07/2026
With the rapid advancement of electric vehicle (EV) fast-charging technology, battery thermal management faces increasingly critical challenges due to elevated heat generation and stringent safety requirements. Immersion cooling has emerged as a promising solution because of its superior heat dissipation and uniform temperature distribution compared to conventional indirect cooling methods. This study develops an electro-thermal coupled simulation framework for evaluating indirect and immersion cooling performance under high-power charging conditions. A pseudo-two-dimensional (P2D) electrochemical battery model of an electric vehicle was developed in GT-Suite and validated against vehicle on-board charging data. In parallel, an immersion cooling system model was developed and validated using battery bench test results. This model was subsequently integrated into the vehicle model to allow comparisons with a conventional indirect cooling system under high-power DC fast-charging scenario
Guo, Yuyang, Rockstroh, Toby, Haenel, Patrick, Oezdag, Erdal, Bodemann, Basil, Toghyani PhD, Somayeh
Energy-Efficient Predictive Cruise Control in Heavy-Duty Electric Trucks with Optimization of the Penalty Factor as a Function of Payload2026-01-0042To be published on 04/07/2026
Heavy-duty Class 8 battery electric trucks not only offer a significant reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to conventional diesel trucks but can also provide significant savings in fuel costs. To further enhance the energy and freight efficiency, Predictive Cruise Control (PCC) algorithms can be developed that generate optimal acceleration profiles for the vehicle by minimizing a cost function which combines both energy consumption and deviation from the desired velocity. A critical component of the cost function is the penalty factor, which governs the trade-off between energy use and travel time, which are two conflicting objectives in freight logistics. Selecting an appropriate penalty factor is essential, as freight deliveries are time-sensitive but minimizing energy consumption remains a priority. Moreover, variations in payload significantly affect vehicle dynamics and energy usage, making it critical to adapt the penalty factor to different payload conditions
Safder, Ahmad Hussain, Villani, Manfredi, Wang, Eric, Khuntia, Satvik, Nelson, James, Meijer, Maarten, Ahmed, Qadeer
Innovative Smart Switch Architecture Catering to 12 Volts to 48 Volts Battery Bus Requirements2026-01-0064To be published on 04/07/2026
Electronics is rapidly entering all automotive subsystems, performing control and monitoring tasks apart from making the entire vehicle intelligent.. Interface with the external automotive ecosystem needs careful attention during the system design. It defines how seamlessly the electronic unit interacts with the rest of the vehicle. It needs to do so in an effective manner without compromising on cost and other automotive application constraints. This paper focuses on the “ smart switch building block” that forms the heart of an automotive output interface echo system. Its importance stems from the fact that a smart switch is an indispensable building block for any electronic control system driving external loads. As various novel electrical and electronics architectures are entering various vehicle segments need for a single reusable solution that will cater to 12 Volts to 48 Volts battery buses is increasingly being felt. However, no prevalent solution meets this requirement. Even
Vaidya, Vishwas Manohar
Simulation of Conjugate Heat Transfer using the Lattice Boltzmann Method2026-01-0135To be published on 04/07/2026
Flow simulation with conjugate heat transfer, which involves fluid flow, conduction, and radiation in solid components, is a critical capability that helps engineers design and evaluate cooling systems for heat-generating components such as brakes, powertrains, batteries, and power electronics for both gasoline and electric vehicles. For this study, we utilize PowerFLOW™, featuring its novel native thermal solver, which models both fluid and solid domains within a single model. For the flow domain, we use the Lattice Boltzmann Method with VLES turbulence modeling based on the RNG k-epsilon method. And for the solid domain, the finite volume method with second-order accuracy for thermal conduction and a surface-to-surface radiation for the surfaces. This approach not only leads to a more integrated and streamlined workflow but also enables an accurate modeling of conduction and radiation. In this study, we demonstrate the accuracy of the conjugate heat transfer simulation methodology
Mukutmoni, Devadatta, Shock, Richard, Li, Han, Wanderer, John
A Study on the Engine Vibration Control of Parallel Hybrid Vehicle based on the On-line Estimation of Engine Torque Fluctuations2026-01-0002To be published on 04/07/2026
For a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) with a crankshaft-integrated e-motor, the e-motor can be utilized to compensate for typical combustion engine vibrations. This paper presents a feedforward engine vibration control methodology based on efficient real-time estimation of engine torque fluctuation, primarily derived from in-cylinder pressure profiles obtained through steady-state dynamometer tests at various operating points. The measured pressure profiles are decomposed into motoring pressure and combustion pressure components, where the motoring pressure component is further decomposed into idle speed pressure and throttle-associated motoring pressure components. These pressure components are converted into corresponding fluctuating torque elements. The resulting torque profiles are tabulated, then scaled and shifted according to the torque demand and ignition angle under real driving conditions, thereby enabling estimation of the pressure torque and subsequently total torque
Park, Keychun
Beyond PFAS: Unlocking the Potential of R290 and R744 for EV Efficiency2026-01-0127To be published on 04/07/2026
The anticipated PFAS ban in the US by 2029 has created a need to evaluate alternative refrigerant solutions for automotive thermal management systems. This work compares three candidates—Propane (R290), Carbon Dioxide (R744), and R1234yf—through system-level testing and demonstration projects. R1234yf remains the current industry baseline. Test results show that Propane (R290) delivers comparable efficiency while offering a significantly lower global warming potential. However, its flammability presents integration challenges, not present with R1234yf or R744. CO₂ (R744) demonstrated promising performance as well. In AVL’s Refrigerant Cooling Project, direct CO₂ cooling battery plate simplified the thermal system architecture and provided adequate cooling capacity during high charging loads. To address safety concerns with Propane, AVL developed mitigation measures including rapid leak detection, robust containment strategies, and optimized circuit layouts designed to reduce ignition
bires, Michael, Possegger, Jonathan
Predictive Battery Preconditioning Strategy Considering Charging Time, Battery Degradation, and Energy Consumption2026-01-0126To be published on 04/07/2026
During fast charging, battery temperature plays a critical role in determining charging time, battery degradation, and auxiliary energy consumption. If the battery is not within the optimal temperature range at the start of charging, performance can deteriorate significantly. To enable optimal performance, the battery must be thermally preconditioned before arriving at the charging station. This work presents an optimal battery preconditioning strategy that considers charging time, battery degradation, and energy consumption. The approach utilizes route-based velocity prediction and optimizes the battery thermal management strategy on the way to the charging station using nonlinear programming. The optimization is based on precomputed maps that represent charging time, degradation, and energy consumption as functions of battery temperature and state of charge at the start of charging. These maps are generated through fast charging simulations using a validated high-fidelity simulation
Acker, Lukas, Hofmann, Peter, Konrad, Johannes
Research on Structural Simulation Design of Lithium-Ion Battery Liquid Cooling Plates Based on Multi-Objective Topology Optimization2026-01-0121To be published on 04/07/2026
Abstract：As the energy density of electric vehicle power batteries continues to increase, efficient and uniform heat dissipation has become critical to their safety and performance. The liquid cooling plate serves as the core component of the battery thermal management system, with its flow channel structure directly impacting heat dissipation efficiency and system energy consumption.Current liquid cooling plate flow channel designs often rely on empirical methods, making it challenging to simultaneously optimize both heat dissipation uniformity and flow resistance performance. This paper focuses on a single lithium battery as the research subject, employing a topology optimization approach to design the liquid cooling plate flow channel structure.Optimization targets include minimizing pressure drop at inlet/outlet and minimizing temperature difference across the contact surface between the plate and battery. Under constant inlet cross-sectional dimensions and flow velocity, numerical
Ma, Honghui, Zheng, Yuqing, Yang, Minghao
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