Browse Topic: Tests and Testing

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Performance and Combustion Characteristics of Coryton SUSTAIN Classic Super 80 Carbon-Neutral Fuel Versus E95 in a 1980s Fiat 500 Engine2026-37-0033To be published on 06/09/2026
The energy transition requires a rapid reduction in the use of fossil fuels, whose combustion generates substantial greenhouse-gas emissions. In Europe, transport alone accounts for roughly a quarter of total greenhouse-gas emissions, with road transport being the predominant component. In this context, the use of biofuels has emerged as a potential solution for limiting further increases in CO₂ emissions. However, most studies available in the literature evaluate the performance of these fuels on modern engines, while their effects on historic carburetted engines remain largely unexplored. This is particularly significant given the large fleet of historic vehicles across Europe, supported by a long-standing tradition of vehicle preservation, associations, and classic car collectors. The main historic-vehicle federations advise caution and the use of low-ethanol formulations so as not to damage elastomers, fuel tanks, and carburettor float bowls. For this reason, a few suppliers have
Tarchiani, Marco, Fossati, Federico, Raspanti, Sandro, Baroni, Alberto, Ferrara, Giovanni, Romani, Luca
A predictive methodology for 3D-CFD simulation of piston thermal field in sustainable high-performance engines2026-37-0002To be published on 06/09/2026
In recent years, especially in high performance engines, the thermal stress of pistons has gradually increased due to the implementation of various technologies, aimed at meeting emission reduction and specific power increase requirements. If the heat is not properly dissipated, cracking and plastic deformation of the material as well as formation of hot spots triggering self-ignition can occur. To overcome these problems, one or more jets of oil are directed towards the piston undercrown region, impacting at high speed. This technique ensures immediate cooling and allows the engine performance to be increased without compromising the useful life. In order to optimize the oil jet effectiveness, 3D-CFD can be proficiently adopted. In this regard, the aim of this work is to define a robust numerical methodology able to simulate oil jet impingement and piston thermal field. In particular, a 3D-CFD Volume-of-Fluid (VoF) simulation is used to numerically assess the oil jet impact and
Duni, Andrea, Berni, Fabio, Breda, Sebastiano, Fontanesi, Stefano, Gilioli, Filippo
Effect of strap-on geometry on the aerodynamics of multibody launch vehicle2026-26-0727To be published on 06/01/2026
Strap-on boosters play a crucial role in heavy launch vehicles by providing additional liftoff thrust without major changes to the baseline design, enabling launch with existing propulsion systems. However, strap-on boosters introduce additional pressure drag and alters the overall aerodynamics of the vehicle. While efforts have been previously made to derive empirical relationships to predict the aerodynamics of different strap-on configurations, most are case-specific and primarily limited to estimating drag coefficients (CD) [1]. Strap-on geometry has a vital role in flow field interference effects. The present study focuses on primary non-dimensional geometric parameters such as (1) strap-on core diameter ratio (Ds/Dc), (2) strap-on core length ratio (Ls/Lc), and (3) strap-on-core radial gap (Xg/Dc). The results are used to derive an empirical relationship which can be applied during preliminary design stage of a launch vehicle to predict axial force coefficient (CA), normal force
Muraleedharan, Archana P., G, Ramana Bharathi, S, Gnanasekar
Neural Network-Enabled Synthetic Air Data System: Development and Validation2026-26-0720To be published on 06/01/2026
Synthetic Air Data System (SADS) provides a smart solution that can be used to predict critical air data parameters in the absence of conventional air data sensors. Traditional air data sensors, such as pitot-static tubes and vanes, are generally expensive, require regular maintenance, and can fail in harsh weather conditions. In addition, these sensors, along with their processor and computers, add weight to the aircraft. To address these issues, a synthetic air data system is proposed using a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN). Several flight variables were checked for Pearson correlation coefficient with respect to the angle-of-attack and angle-of-sideslip, and thereafter, input features were selected based on the thresholding technique. The proposed neural network has two hidden layers and regularization technique was implemented by adding two dropout layers to each hidden layer to prevent overfitting of the model. The neural network was trained using actual flight test data
Sahu, Sanju, C, Poornima, Kaliyari, Dushyant, TK, Khadeeja Nusrath, Hebbar, Archana
Automated Flight Maneuver Recognition for Intelligent Flight Simulator2026-26-0713To be published on 06/01/2026
The rapid growth in the number of aircrafts and pilots emphasizes the need for an AI-enabled training framework that can offer precise, automated examination of flight maneuvers, thereby optimizing the pilot’s training efficiency and minimizing iterations of the conduct of flight maneuvers thereby reducing the training time of the pilot for a flight. This paper introduces a novel hybrid methodology to intelligently detect manoeuvres performed during a flight using signal processing and machine learning techniques. A general framework is developed that can be used for all kinds of flight phases and aircraft types. The framework is implemented in a two-step approach. Firstly, Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT) of the signals of interest for different manoeuvres are generated, to find the time at which a manoeuvre happens during a sortie. CWT looks at the energy levels in the transformed signal and uses smart thresholding technique to pick out only the parts with high energy, to extract
Sahu, Akash, C, Poornima, C, Aravindh, Kaliyari, Dushyant, TK, Khadeeja Nusrath
System and Method of Strain Emulation using a Beam Load Cell Test Setup2026-26-0743To be published on 06/01/2026
This novel method deals with emulation of Strain of a Structural Measurement System which includes software validation, acceptance tests and training. Current methods for simulating strain and force data for developing and verifying data acquisition (DAQ) software typically rely on costly electronic simulators or specialized hardware, making it challenging and expensive for developers, researchers, and small organizations to test their solutions under realistic conditions. To verify DAQ software, multiple specialized hardware solutions are deployed, that include Electronic Simulators, Commercial DAQ Modules and Hydraulic/Pneumatic test rigs. These technologies pose a challenge with limited flexibility and scalability options for small-scale prototyping, especially in budget-constrained scenarios. The sensors on these equipment may or may not be company approved inducing acceptance challenges. Our invention is an inexpensive, scalable, and mechanically simple alternative. Using a 3D
Murthy, Harsha, Bhat Venkatesh, Aditi, K Padmanabhan, Rahul, Madhu, Sheetal, Garag, Naveen
Leveraging True Altitude Data to Improve Static Pressure Calibration from Dynamic Manoeuvres2026-26-0729To be published on 06/01/2026
Accurate calibration of aircraft air data systems is essential for reliable measurement of flow angles, altitude, and airspeed, particularly during dynamic flight manoeuvres where errors can become significant. Externally mounted vanes and probes are used to measure flow angles, local pressures and temperature, respectively. However, because these sensors are positioned close to the aircraft fuselage, they operate within disturbed local flow fields that differ notably from the free-stream conditions. As a result, their outputs require Position Error Corrections (PEC) to accurately estimate free-stream parameters such as pressure, temperature, and flow angles. The pre-flight PEC data or calibration tables for these sensors are generated based on the CFD predictions/wind tunnel experiments. All the flight-measured local variables from air data sensors need to pass through the air data computers, which contain these lookup tables, to obtain the free stream information. Despite the pre
TK, Khadeeja Nusrath, Patel, Dr. Ambalal V, J, Prabhavathi Bhai
Accelerating aircraft verification and certification through an integrated virtual and physical testing approach2026-26-0710To be published on 06/01/2026
Aircraft verification and certification entails a variety of testing tasks and requires coordination among numerous stakeholders across different disciplines to ensure alignment on requirements. Historically, certification strategies have relied on both physical testing and high-fidelity simulation. The integration of these complementary approaches is essential to address their respective blind spots and to support credible certification evidence. A key challenge lies in the rigorous correlation of simulation models with physical test data. Flutter verification, for instance, is a critical component in defining the aircraft’s flight envelope and plays a foundational role in certifying safe operational boundaries. In this work, the process of freedom from flutter verification starting from the pre-test analysis is demonstrated. This work introduces a novel approach to combining simulation and test data with the aim to accelerate and streamline the verification process leading to more
Hallez, Raphael, Yadabettu, Dayanand Kumar, de Boer, Jens, Aspasiou, Vicky
Design of Acoustical Features for a quitter Aero-engine Test Facility2026-26-0787To be published on 06/01/2026
Indoor aero-engine test facilities (AETF) are generally used to evaluate the performance of both the newly manufactured and repaired/overhauled engines. Aero Engine Research & Design Center (AERDC) has already commissioned several facilities for testing of turbofan engines of around 40 kN thrust class which powers fighter aircrafts. A request has been received from a customer for installation and commissioning of a new test facility for testing of a similar class engine, with a challenge to make it acoustically better than the existing test facilities. The target was set to reduce the sound pressure level (SPL) in the control room and around the test facility as compared to the existing ones. To meet this requirement, a modified layout with a U-type (vertical intake and exhaust) configuration was planned along with specially designed high and low frequency silencers at the intake, exhaust system with an exhaust basket, splitters in the vertical exhaust chamber, and sound absorbing
Gouda, Bansidhar
Research on Trajectory Tracking of Test Target Vehicles Based on an Improved Model Predictive Control Algorithm13-07-01-00024/17/2026
To address the performance testing requirements of autonomous vehicles (AVs), this study proposes a model predictive control (MPC) algorithm specifically designed for low-ground-clearance test target vehicles (TTVs) to achieve trajectory tracking control. First, the kinematic model of the TTV is established, and its state-space equations are derived. An objective optimization function incorporating both error weighting and control weighting is designed. Simulation analysis reveals the influence of the control error weighting ratio (CEWR) on both straight-line and curved trajectory tracking performance: For straight-line tracking, increasing the CEWR from 10 to 25 reduces the overshoot, but increases the distance required to reach the target trajectory by 4.7%. A similar pattern is observed in curved trajectory tracking. To overcome the limitations of the fixed CEWR, an improved MPC algorithm integrating fuzzy control is proposed. This algorithm dynamically adjusts the CEWR in real time
Ji, Shaobo, Lu, Yueqi, Liao, Guoliang, Chen, Zhongyan, Li, Meng, Lyu, Chengju, Zhang, Zhipeng
Acceptance Criteria - Magnetic Particle, Fluorescent Penetrant, and Contrast Dye Penetrant InspectionAS3071C (Current)4/16/2026
To establish the acceptance criteria for discontinuities as revealed by magnetic particle or liquid penetrant examination of aircraft utility parts as in 1.2.
E-25 General Standards for Aerospace and Propulsion Systems
Transformer-Based Deep Learning Framework for Efficient Prediction of Automotive Wind Noise2026-01-02224/7/2026
Aerodynamic wind noise is a critical challenge in modern automotive development, particularly with the rise of vehicle electrification and intelligent mobility, where cabin acoustic comfort is a key quality metric. While reliable, traditional methods like wind tunnel experiments and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations are both costly and time-consuming. To address these challenges, we propose a novel Transformer-based framework for rapid and accurate wind noise prediction. Several model improvements, including the physical attention, geometry wave number embedding, hybrid FPS-random downsampling method and frequency separation output heads are properly employed to reduce the GPU memory cost and improve the prediction accuracy. This framework is pre-trained on a large-scale acoustic dataset of nearly 1,000 diverse vehicles generated using Improved Delayed Detached Eddy Simulation (IDDES). From a vehicle's point cloud coordinates, the model directly predicts the surface
Tang, Weishao, Liu, Mengxin, Qin, Ling, Duan, Menghua, Wang, Chengjun, Zhang, Yufei, Wang, Qingyang
Evaluation of PAEB Performance of a GM Vehicle Using EDR and Ground Truth Data2026-01-00544/7/2026
In order to determine the on-board EDR data recording characteristics of a GM vehicle, a 2023 GMC Sierra Denali was tested in several Pedestrian Automatic Emergency Braking (P-AEB) scenarios. Using a variety of test tools, including the STRIDE robotic platform and its onboard data systems, a GPS/IMU installed in the vehicle, and several camera units, the vehicle was put into collision imminent scenarios in which the crash avoidance systems were actuated. The flags in the EDR data, the order in which EDR events were written, and the correlation between the EDR and data recorded by the aforementioned external acquisition systems were examined for each test case. Testing was done in both forward and reverse scenarios and at low speeds only. These results provide a picture of the current state of the additional data available in current EDRs installed on GM vehicles equipped with P-AEB capability, as well as an insight into the accuracy and meaning of that data which should prove
Bartholomew, Meredith, Arnett, Michael, Guenther, Dennis
A Vehicle-Integrated Validation Method for Weather-Strip Sealing Performance in Automotive Closure Systems2026-01-02004/7/2026
Weather-strip sealing systems are critical to automotive closure performance, influencing water- and dust-tightness, aerodynamic noise control, and overall NVH quality. Conventional validation often relies on flat or straight JIG-based tests that inadequately represent the curved, angled, and non-uniform geometries of real closures such as doors, tailgates, hoods, roofs, and fixed or movable glass. This disparity limits the predictive accuracy of sealing performance in actual vehicles. This study proposes a vehicle-integrated validation framework that mirrors true geometric and contact conditions. The methodology combines finite element analysis (FEA) of both flat JIG and full-vehicle CAD geometries with experimental JIG tests, establishing a baseline for pressure distribution, compression load, and sealing contact behavior. A comparative analysis highlights significant deviations between flat-section predictions and vehicle-specific closure profiles. Results demonstrate that the
Ganesan, Karthikeyan, Seok, Sang Ho
Kissing Bonds Inspection by Comparing Natural Frequencies Using Digital Holography2026-01-02074/7/2026
Accurate detection and evaluation of kissing bonds in composite materials is essential to ensure the integrity of the component structure, but traditional NDT (non-destructive testing) methods struggle to identify imperfect bonds and zero-volume debonds. In this study, a vibration analysis method based on holography was applied to detect kissing bonds by monitoring the changes in natural frequencies of the same sample before and after fatigue loading. Both pristine and kissing bond samples were tested under identical conditions, and their vibration characteristics (natural frequency, amplitude, and mode shape) were measured using holography. The experimental results show for the intact sample exhibited no changes in natural frequency amplitude or mode shape after fatigue loading, confirming that the applied fatigue test did not affect the integrity of its adhesive layer. In contrast, for the sample with a kissing bond, after fatigue loading, the natural frequency decreased by up to 22
Gao, Zhongfang, Fang, Siyuan, Gerini-Romagnoli, Marco, Yang, Lianxiang
Vehicle Deceleration Levels during Wet-to-Dry Transitions on an Asphalt Surface with a High Proportion of Aggregate2026-01-05424/7/2026
The braking performance of a vehicle at varying levels of road wetness is an important factor in collision reconstruction. Here we quantify the deceleration levels of two modern vehicles equipped with antilock brake systems (ABS) on a wetted asphalt surface with a high proportion of exposed, large-sized aggregates as the road naturally dried over time. We also compare our current results to prior tests on asphalt with a small proportion of small-sized aggregate. Two ABS-equipped vehicles were maximally braked on an asphalt road surface as the road naturally transitioned from a saturated wet state to a completely dry state. Road wetness was visually categorized from photographs taken during testing. Overall, we found that deceleration levels on wet asphalt were significantly less than deceleration levels on dry asphalt (average dry: 0.902g and 0.962g; average wet: 0.787g and 0.818g for the two vehicles). Within the wetness categories we used, there was either no significant difference
Ahrens, Matthew, Arnold, Nikolas, Miller, Ian, Siegmund, Gunter P.
Collision Avoidance Testing of the Waymo Automated Driving System2026-01-05194/7/2026
This paper describes Waymo's Collision Avoidance Testing (CAT) methodology: a scenario-based testing method that evaluates the safety of the Waymo Driver Automated Driving Systems' (ADS) intended functionality in conflict situations initiated by other road users that require urgent evasive maneuvers. Because SAE Level 4 ADS are responsible for the dynamic driving task (DDT), when engaged, without immediate human intervention, evaluating a Level 4 ADS using scenario-based testing is difficult due to the potentially infinite number of operational scenarios in which hazardous situations may unfold. To that end, in this paper we first describe the safety test objectives for the CAT methodology, including the collision and serious injury metrics and the reference behavior model representing a non-impaired eyes on conflict human driver used to form an acceptance criterion. Afterward, we introduce the process for identifying potentially hazardous situations from a combination of human data
Kusano, Kristofer, Beatty, Kurt, Schnelle, Scott, Favaro, Francesca, Crary, Cam, Victor, Trent
Aerodynamic Proximity Effects between the DrivAer and AeroSUV Standard Models, Part 2 – Adjacent-Lane and Lateral-Offset Interactions2026-01-06064/7/2026
Aerodynamic interactions between two 30%-scale passenger vehicles in close proximity were examined experimentally in a large wind tunnel, with a focus on longitudinal separations up to two vehicle lengths, lateral separations up to one lane width, and combinations thereof. Part 1 of this paper described the longitudinal following (platooning) configurations of these results, while this paper concentrates on adjacent-lane influences and lateral-offset effects when platooning at a single separation distance. Test models were based on the DrivAer and Aero-SUV open-access geometries, each with slant-back (Notchback or Fastback) and square-back (Estateback) variants. This provided four distinct model pairings, not all of which were tested in each positional arrangement. Adjacent-lane results matched the trends from a smaller-scale study in a different wind tunnel using the same geometry pair, with small-but-distinct differences attributed to different blockage ratios in the two wind-tunnel
McAuliffe, Brian, Ghorbanishohrat, Faegheh
Extreme Scale Automotive Aerodynamic Simulations2026-01-05974/7/2026
Achieving an optimal balance between simulation accuracy and computational efficiency remains a central challenge in automotive aerodynamics. While the adoption of AI and machine learning (ML) methods in vehicle development is expected to grow significantly, the demand for highly scalable, computationally efficient, and accurate computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods persists. The emergence of GPU (graphics processing unit) technology presents new opportunities to deliver cost-effective, high-fidelity, scale-resolving simulations to industrial users. A comprehensive evaluation of Simcenter STAR-CCM+’s parallel scalability and accuracy across extensive CPU and GPU resources was executed on the Frontier supercomputer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL). Steady-state and transient aerodynamic scalability simulations were executed using the DrivAer notchback vehicle configuration. Simulation accuracy was evaluated through transient simulations employing the SST-DDES turbulence
Larsson, Torbjörn, Grover, Ronald O., Landi, Simone, Altmann, Peter, McManus, Liam, Dowding, Steven
The Stellantis North America Aero-Acoustic Wind Tunnel Upgrade2026-01-06094/7/2026
The Stellantis North America Aero-Acoustic Wind Tunnel (AAWT) has been upgraded with a cutting-edge 5-belt Moving Ground Plane (MGP) system, featuring an 8.5-meter center belt and four Wheel Spinning Unit (WSU) belts with advanced coatings for durability and visibility. The expanded 9.4-meter turntable enables ±90° yaw and supports vehicles with wheelbases from 1800 mm to 4500 mm and weights up to 5000 kg, accommodating the full Stellantis North America product range. The original 2-stage boundary layer control system was retained, with new tertiary slots added for improved flow quality. A high-stiffness, six-component Horiba balance with integrated calibration weights and tractive force measurement ensures accurate and precise measurements. Facility enhancements include a 550 m2 building addition for equipment and vehicle prep, a dedicated compressor container for clean air supply, and a vehicle underbody wash booth for efficient cleaning. Commissioning confirmed that flow quality
Lounsberry, Todd, Ladouceur, Brent, Fadler, Gregory
Wind-Tunnel Study of the Traffic-Wake Impacts for Road-Vehicle Aerodynamics2026-01-06134/7/2026
When driving in traffic, the wakes of leading vehicles reduce the wind speed experienced by a following vehicle, lowering its drag relative to isolated driving. These wake effects can persist to large inter-vehicle distances, on the order of hundreds of meters, while lateral convection due to cross winds can influence vehicles in adjacent lanes. Wind tunnel testing was conducted at 30% scale for light- and heavy-duty-vehicle models in a large wind tunnel with a traffic-wake simulation system, expanding upon a previous study that examined only heavy vehicles. Three variants of the DrivAer model, four variants of the AeroSUV model, and three variants of a zero-emission heavy-duty-truck model were tested with a range of simulated wake conditions that varied the type, forward distance, and lane position of the wake-source vehicle(s), for a range of yaw angles up to 11°. Results show drag reductions of up to about 10% for the heavy-duty-truck model, and up to about 20% for the passenger
McAuliffe, Brian, Ghorbanishohrat, Faegheh, Barber, Hali
Introduction to Catesby Aero Research Facility, CARF, the Coast-Down Tunnel Proving Ground2026-01-06114/7/2026
This paper reports on the Catesby Aero Research Facility (CARF), which began commercial operation in 2019, and summarizes facility characteristics and associated measurement technologies, with an emphasis on vehicle-mounted component-force measurement devices. CARF is a proving ground converted from a former railway tunnel approximately 2.74 km in length and surfaced with high-quality tarmac. The road-surface quality was specified to be comparable to that of SUBARU's proving ground and was achieved using established construction methods. The course is approximately straight with a small longitudinal grade. Key course specifications include an approximately 40 m2 blockage area, a 6 m road width (maximum 8.4 m), flatness σ < 0.5 mm, and a gradient of 0.57%. Relative to outdoor coast-down testing, the tunnel length enables continuous measurement to very low speeds, thereby improving repeatability. A six-component force sensor integrated into the hub unit enables on-road measurement of
Shimoyama, Hiroshi
Study of the Vortex Flow over a Generic Open-Wheel Race-Car2026-01-06494/7/2026
Open wheel race cars present a challenge to the aerodynamic designer because of the numerous wakes and vortices created by the various body components. The present study follows the development of a high-downforce race car and investigates possible vortex manipulations to increase its aerodynamic efficiency. The tools used for this study involved computational fluid dynamics and small-scale wind tunnel testing. Once the basic geometry of the racecar was finalized, cost effective measures were tested to improve its downforce to drag ratio. As an example, by fine tuning the position of different body components, such as the rear wing location relative to the underfloor diffuser exit, vehicle’s aerodynamic performance can be modified. The results of both the wind tunnel and the computational investigations indicated that such simple modifications can positively improve the race-car downforce to drag ratio. Also, once the baseline vehicle’s geometry was frozen and observing that the
Okpysh, Christian, Katz, Joseph, Shute, Robin
Parametric Aerodynamic Design and Development of a Formula 1 2026 Front Wing with Wind Tunnel Validation2026-01-06464/7/2026
The front wing of a Formula 1 car is one of the most important aerodynamic components in design development. Particularly, as it is the first to interact with the upcoming airflow, the aerodynamic flow structures generated will have a strong interaction with the remainder of the car’s components. In 2026, the Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile will introduce new regulations that incorporate new aerodynamic philosophies for the front wing, including active aerodynamics. This paper presents a design methodology study for the development of a Formula 1 2026 front wing, compliant with Issue 9 of the technical regulations. A computational-based, structured optimisation series was conducted to enhance the aerodynamic performance of a front wing concept with a focus on improving downforce, maximising efficiency, and enhancing trailing flow for the remainder of the car. The final front wing concept at 40%, running at 30 m/s, generated 189 N of downforce and 19 N of drag. Active
Jacoulot, Santiago, Soares, Renan F., Marshall, David W.
The Development of an Experimental Methodology for the Measurement of Aeroelastic Components2026-01-06484/7/2026
In high-end motorsport engineering, aerodynamic devices such as front and rear wings are prone to aeroelastic deformations under certain conditions, which can be exploited for vehicle performance gains. Considering the complex interactions between the aerodynamics and structures, experimental evaluation can prove to be a time-effective approach for design, optimisation, research and development regarding aeroelastic bodies. This study presents the development and experimental validation of a deformation tracking system using depth-sensing LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) camera technology. The system is based on the use of reflective markers mounted on a given model of interest; this project, a front wing model with a flexible, 3D printed flap element was used as a benchmark. Surface deformation is captured by post-processing point cloud data to extract three-dimensional displacement vectors. A series of controlled measurement tests were first conducted to assess accuracy and
Altinbas, Koray, Soares, Renan F.
Effects of Obstacle Height and Vehicle Roll Behavior on Electric Vehicle Side Impact Safety2026-01-04054/7/2026
Electric vehicles (EVs) face unique safety challenges under pole side impact conditions, largely due to the presence of floor-mounted battery packs. Existing regulatory test procedures, such as FMVSS 214, primarily address occupant injury using full-height cylindrical obstacles. These procedures were originally developed for internal combustion vehicles (ICVs). However, real-world roadside crashes frequently involve obstacles of varying heights, such as guardrails, curbs, and median bases. While these obstacles pose limited risk to the passenger compartment, they can intrude into the battery pack and trigger thermal runaway. This study investigates the influence of obstacle height on EV pole side impacts. Finite element simulations of a commercially available sedan were conducted against rigid obstacles of different heights. Results reveal a non-monotonic trend of battery intrusion governed by the interplay between rollover dynamics and structural stiffness. Theoretical analyses were
Ma, Chenghao, Xing, Bobin, Zhou, Qing, Xia, Yong
Characterization of a Low-Cost Insulator Substrate for Traction Power Modules2026-01-01194/7/2026
Demand for cost-effective automotive traction inverters requires improved power module packaging. This paper presents a packaging method using an epoxy composite insulator applied directly to the cold plate surface, replacing Direct Bonded Copper (DBC) and Active Metal Brazed (AMB) substrates. This integration removes the substrate-to-cold plate solder interface and eliminates two material layers from the thermal path. The epoxy composite demonstrates a dielectric strength greater than 60 kV/mm. Thermal resistance (junction-to-coolant) measured approximately 0.17 K∙cm2/W. Electrical characterization showed a relative permittivity of 3.9, which is lower than standard ceramics and results in reduced parasitic capacitance. Initial thermal cycling tests indicated no significant degradation in thermal or electrical performance. These results suggest the epoxy composite insulator could be a promising alternative for traction power modules.
Chen, Yu, Mena-Garcia, Javier, Chen, Hao, Xiao, Kewei, Gupta, Man Prakash, Degner, Michael
Machine Learning-Based Gear Defect Detection in Electric Vehicle Drive Units Using End-of-Line Vibration Analysis2026-01-06374/7/2026
The final assembly of electric vehicle (EV) drive units includes an essential End-of-Line (EOL) test to ensure both component integrity and Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) quality. This screening process, which uses dynamometers to measure vibration signals, is critical for identifying defects before a drive unit is installed in a vehicle. A significant source of failure during this test is gear defects, which can arise from manufacturing or handling issues. Traditional EOL testing methods rely on time-domain analysis and the impulsiveness of vibration signatures to detect these defects, a technique with inherent limitations in accuracy. This paper introduces and evaluates a novel approach using Machine Learning (ML) to analyze vibration signals for improved gear defect detection. We discuss the methodologies of both the traditional time-domain and the proposed ML-based techniques. Finally, we provide a comprehensive comparison of their respective efficiency and accuracy
Arvanitis, Anastasios, Michaloliakos, Anargyros
Swept Collector Design for the HALO Wind Tunnel2026-01-06084/7/2026
Modern aeroacoustic wind tunnels are required to have flat axial static pressure distribution, very low background noise levels, and minimal low-frequency pressure fluctuations. These characteristics enable accurate measurement of aerodynamic forces acting on a vehicle as well as identification of noise sources. The collector of an open-jet or ¾ open-jet wind tunnel plays a critical role in achieving these goals. Collector self-generated noise contributes to the overall background noise level in the test section, and this contribution has become more significant as other noise sources, such as the main fan, have been addressed through improvements to acoustic treatment. Ever-increasing attention to detail is required to manage noise signatures as the overall facility noise floor is lowered. Furthermore, aspects of collector design that may be beneficial to aerodynamics or pressure fluctuation tend to be some of the worst offenders for noise generation. A new collector configuration was
Best, Scott, Nagle, Paul
A Cloud-Vehicle Integrated Closed-Loop Testing Framework for Intelligent Chassis2026-01-00514/7/2026
Vehicle system testing serves as a critical phase in obtaining road certification for prototype vehicles. While direct road testing with physical vehicles yields the most authentic data, this approach entails significant costs, challenges in reproducing extreme scenarios, and inherent safety risks. In contrast, virtual vehicle-based testing technologies represent advanced simulation methodologies for enhancing development efficiency and quality, effectively mitigating risks associated with complex real-world operating conditions and hazardous physical testing. However, virtual vehicle models often rely on idealized parameters, limiting their ability to reflect real-world dynamics and resulting in lower credibility of test outcomes. Furthermore, as evidenced in current mainstream virtual testing software, environmental simulations predominantly remain confined to the visual domain, with limited direct interaction between dynamic environmental changes and virtual vehicle responses. To
Liao, Yinsheng, Cheng, Qing Hua, Qu, Wenying, Wang, Zhenfeng, Wu, Yan, He, Chengkun, Zhang, Junzhi, Lu, Yukun
Effects of Temperature and Mechanical Load on Li-Ion Battery Aging: Insights from Multi-Rate Reference Performance Test2026-01-03834/7/2026
As the utilization of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles expands, monitoring the usable cell capacity (UCC) is essential for ensuring accurate state-of-health (SOH) estimation. Battery performance degradation is influenced by temperature and constraints. Capacity tests in laboratory settings are typically conducted at low C-rates to approximate equilibrium conditions, whereas in real vehicle applications, charging currents are often much higher. This discrepancy in rates frequently results in deviations between laboratory characterization and on-board Battery Management Systems (BMS) capacity estimation. To investigate how C-rate of diagnostic Reference Performance Test (RPT) modulates aging effects under temperature and mechanical loading, we conducted long-term cycling tests on lithium iron phosphate/graphite pouch cells at 25°C and 45°C under different constrained conditions. The cycling protocol is a tiered multi-rate protocol. Cells were aged at Block1 under 1C, and UCC
Zhang, Shan, Niu, Zhice, Xia, Yong
Energy Management Strategy for Hybrid Mining Trucks Based on Global SOC Planning and Neural Network Optimal Control2026-01-04464/7/2026
Hybrid mining trucks, as core equipment for mine transportation, face high energy consumption and significant fluctuations in power demand during cyclic operations due to prolonged exposure to demanding operating conditions characterized by heavy loads and variable working conditions. To address the issues of high energy consumption and significant fluctuations in power demand during the cyclic operation of mining trucks, this paper proposes a hybrid mining truck energy management strategy based on global SOC (State of Charge) planning and neural network optimization control. First, a powertrain model was developed for a typical operating cycle of a hybrid mining truck, and its accuracy was validated by comparing it with experimental data. Using dynamic programming algorithms to plan the SOC for single-cycle operations provides a rational reference for energy allocation across different operational phases of mining trucks during a single cycle. Next, using the powerful nonlinear
Yang, Jianyu, Zhao, Zhiguo, Chen, Huiyong, Li, Tao, Zhuang, Wenyu, Shen, Peihong, Tang, Peng
On-Road Vehicle Testing and Characterization2026-01-01954/7/2026
Vehicle testing for fuel economy and emissions is typically performed indoors over standard dynamometer drive schedules to minimize variability and maximize repeatability of the results. In contrast, during on-road operation, operational parameters such as vehicle speed and acceleration and environmental factors such as temperature and wind will change unpredictably. These factors influence vehicle fuel economy and emissions, making on-road operation much more variable than dynamometer results. However, even though on-road conditions may be unpredictable, the on-road operational data can still be used to characterize vehicle performance. This paper describes the development of an on-road vehicle test methodology, with a focus on accounting for on-road factors with a high degree of accuracy while requiring only an achievable and reasonable amount of data. To develop this methodology, a 2016 Honda Civic was instrumented and driven multiple times over a route covering urban, rural, and
Moskalik, Andrew, Barba, Daniel
BEV Incremental CO 2 Emissions in a Ranked Order Electric Grid2026-01-04244/7/2026
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) have been sold as ‘Zero Emissions Vehicles’ (ZEV) by governments to reduce transportation CO2. While they are not ZEV because they run on grid electricity, they could be ‘effectively ZEV’ if the incremental CO2 is ‘very small’. At the national level, this is estimated using following metrics: (1) Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle (ICEV) fuel consumption, from the total US gasoline consumption divided by the total fleet miles driven, 25 mpg or 350 g CO2/mi, (2) Strong Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) about one third less, 240 g CO2/mi. (3) BEV energy consumption, using data from systematic on-road testing of a wide range of vehicles, estimated at 40 kWh/100 mi for a US sales mix. (4) Electricity marginal CO2: in a ranked order grid, zero-CO2 sources are prioritized and supplemented by fossil sources. IEA hourly data show that the US 48 contiguous states are self-contained, with zero-CO2 sources providing a third of total demand. The response to hourly
Phlips, Patrick
Evaluating the Impact of Drag Coefficient Changes on Driving Energy Using a Probability Distribution Model of Yaw Angle Based on Empirical Data from North American Highway2026-01-06154/7/2026
This study estimates the impact on driving energy of differences in aerodynamic characteristics for yaw angle from natural wind during North American Highway mode driving. A previous study [1] clarified the potential to estimate the fuel consumption impact of natural wind by integrating the drag coefficient yaw characteristics and yaw angle occurrence probability. The natural wind was measured on a vehicle while driving a representative North American Highway test course [2]. Driving energy is predicted from the obtained yaw probability and the drag coefficient yaw sweep data in a wind tunnel. Measurements were conducted every weekday for 8 hours in 2023, covering 70% of the traffic volume. The validity of the measurement period was evaluated by the deviation from the annual average of wind direction and speed. Since yaw probability varies depending on the road environment, it is necessary to weigh the road environment type probability when calculating the driving energy. The
Onishi, Yasuyuki, Nucera, Fortunato, Nichols, Larry, Metka, Matt
A Study on the Relationship between Impact Conditions and Head Injury Criterion (HIC) in Powered-Two-Wheeler to Car Crashes2026-01-05714/7/2026
Road Traffic crash statistics highlight the importance of reducing fatalities among Powered-Two-Wheeler (PTW) riders, and suggest the necessity of a robust method to evaluate PTW crashworthiness performance. The objective of this study is to clarify the relationship between impact conditions and the Head Injury Criterion (HIC) to establish a fundamental basis for determining representative crash configurations for safety. A total of 1,272 PTW-front to car-side impact simulations were conducted by using production car and PTW models. HIC was used as a metric indicating likelihood of head injury. Velocities, impact angle, and impact locations were varied to create response surfaces. The surfaces were evaluated in terms of their accuracy in identifying the representative impact conditions. In addition, head trajectories were analyzed to clarify the kinematics until head impact. The Finite Element (FE) simulations produced the following findings. The HIC distribution by Head Impact Target
Yanaoka, Toshiyuki, Gunji, Yasuaki, Zulkipli, Zarir Hafiz, Matsushita, Tetsuya, Carroll, Jolyon, Puthan, Pradeep, Mohd Faudzi, Siti Atiqah, D-Wing, Kak, Miyazaki, Yusuke
MBSE-Driven XIL Workflow for Energy Evaluation of Automated Vehicles: From Simulation to VIL Testing2026-01-02894/7/2026
With the increasing market penetration of automated vehicles, there is a critical need for credible and repeatable methods to quantify their energy impacts. This paper presents a Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE)-driven Anything-in-the-Loop (XIL) methodology for quantifying the powertrain energy consumption and potential savings from various controls for automated vehicles in realistic road scenarios while preserving high-fidelity powertrain behavior. The novelty of this approach lies in its use of a unified MBSE backbone (AMBER: Argonne National Laboratory’s [Argonne’s] MBSE-centric platform for transportation energy analysis) to automate the seamless and traceable progression from pure simulation to Vehicle-in-the-Loop (VIL) testing. This work utilizes Argonne's multi-vehicle simulation tool, RoadRunner, which automatically constructs closed-loop road scenarios (road geometry, vehicle sensors, other vehicles, and traffic controls) and connects them to Argonne’s validated, high
Jeong, Jongryeol, Sharer, Phillip, Di Russo, Miriam, Das, Debashis, Zhang, Yaozhong, Karbowski, Dominik
Development of a Tire Blowout Experimental Platform for Dynamics and Control Validation2026-01-02024/7/2026
Tires are critical to vehicle dynamics, transmitting traction, braking, and cornering forces to the road. A tire blowout, the sudden and rapid loss of inflation pressure due to puncture or structural failure, can cause severe instability, rollover, or collisions. Understanding vehicle response during blowout events is essential for developing robust safety systems and control strategies. Earlier developed simulation models are used to study and understand vehicle behavior during blowouts, but there is a lack of on-road testing platforms to validate these models experimentally. In this paper, an experimental platform integrating a tire blowout device and an instrumentation system has been developed to address this gap. The blowout device consists of multiple solenoid valves mounted on the wheel surface and powered by a 12V power supply. All valves can be triggered at the same time using an RF remote, producing rapid and synchronized deflation. As an extension of this implementation, an
Kanthala, Maha Vishnu Vardhan Reddy, Krishnakumar, Ashwin, Lin, Wen-Chiao, Chen, Yan
Digital Twin Aerodynamics Model Validation for HALO Wind Tunnel2026-01-06104/7/2026
A simulation-based aerodynamics model of the Honda Automotive Laboratories of Ohio (HALO) Wind Tunnel, a three-quarter open-jet (ground plane) configuration opened in 2022 for full-scale automotive testing, was initiated to support data fusion for more accurate surrogate models in vehicle engineering programs. The objective was to demonstrate that a matched set of boundary values between the physical wind tunnel and the three-dimensional numerical model yield correct responses for several key flow field quantities, starting with the baseline empty tunnel case: (1) streamwise static pressure distribution, (2) evolution of the free shear layers downstream of the nozzle exit plane, and (3) ground-plane boundary layer development. Pressure-based measurement probes were deployed in these regions using a four-axis overhead traverse to acquire validation data in the large facility, including instrument verification between a 14-hole probe and Pitot-static rake. Detached eddy simulation (DES
Patel, Sajan, Disotell, Kevin, Eagles, Naethan
SUNRISE - A Harmonised Safety Assurance Framework For Connected, Automated Mobility Systems2026-01-00604/7/2026
Safety assurance of Cooperative, Connected, and Automated Mobility (CCAM) systems is a crucial factor for their successful adoption in society, yet it remains a significant challenge. The SUNRISE project has consolidated previous and on-going efforts, and developed a harmonised Safety Assurance Framework (SAF) designed to operationalise the UNECE New Assessment/Test Method (NATM), targeting a wide range of stakeholders including (but not limited to) certifiers, regulators, manufacturers, suppliers, researchers, and assessors. It incorporates a scenario-based approach, underpinned by the system’s Operational Design Domain (ODD) and behaviour for safety assessment. In line with NATM, the SAF consists of multiple pillars: the Audit of manufacturer processes and Safety Management Systems, In-Service Monitoring and Reporting (ISMR) to ensure continued safety during deployment, and Performance Assurance to generate and evaluate safety evidence pre-deployment. While all pillars are integral
Zhang, Xizhe, Khastgir, Siddartha, de Vries, Stefan, Hillbrand, Bernhard, Op den Camp, Olaf, Bolovinou, Anastasia, Bourauel, Bryan, Ehrenhofer Gronvall, John Fredrik, Menzel, Thaddäus, Nieto, Marcos, Stettinger, Georg, Jennings, Paul
Embedded Real-Time Control of a Distributed Trailer Propulsion System with Regenerative Braking for Net Neutral Load Towing2026-01-00654/7/2026
Towing imposes substantial efficiency penalties on both battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, reducing range by 30-50%. This paper presents a proof-of-concept embedded control architecture for distributed trailer propulsion that actively regulates drawbar force to reduce towing loads. Unlike proprietary e-trailer systems requiring specialized hardware, the proposed implementation demonstrates feasibility using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components and open-source software. The distributed architecture employs dual Raspberry Pi 4B single-board computers communicating via ROS 2 at 20 Hz. The trailer-mounted controller executes a Simulink-generated control node coordinating load cell acquisition (HX711 ADC), motor CAN bus telemetry, and throttle commands to a 5 kW BLDC traction motor powered by a 5 kWh LiFePO4 battery pack. A vehicle-mounted controller logs OBD-II/CAN validation data. The control pipeline implements cascaded EWMA/Hampel
Joshi, Gaurav, Adelman, Ian, Liu, Jun, Donnaway, Ruthie
Aerodynamic Proximity Effects between the DrivAer and AeroSUV Standard Models, Part 1 – Same-Lane Interactions2026-01-06054/7/2026
In this paper, the effects of aerodynamic interactions on the drag of a longitudinally-arranged two-vehicle system are examined by considering the influence of separation distance, cross winds, vehicle size and shape. Testing was undertaken at 30% scale in a large wind tunnel with road-representative freestream turbulence. Separation distances of 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 vehicle lengths (L) were examined over a range of yaw angles between ±15°. A highlight of the current study is the characterization of platoon drag-reduction benefits for different sizes and shapes of the lead and follower models, by using a DrivAer model and an Aero-SUV model, each with slant-back (Notchback or Fastback) and square-back (Estateback) variants, providing four distinct model pairings. Drag reduction for the lead model appears to be affected mainly by the size of the follower model, while the follower model shows a much greater sensitivity to shape of the lead model. Larger drag reductions were observed at most
McAuliffe, Brian, Ghorbanishohrat, Faegheh
Challenges to Ranking Diesel Fuels for NO x Emissions Using a Constant-Volume Combustion Chamber2026-01-03484/7/2026
The market is witnessing an unprecedented proliferation of low-emission fuel components. To effectively evaluate the suitability of these novel fuels for engine applications, fuel blenders and original equipment manufacturers require rapid and reliable assessment methodologies. Traditionally, such evaluations rely on comprehensive engine testing, which, while thorough, is both time-intensive and costly. In response to the growing diversity of emerging fuel options, this work aims to establish a streamlined screening approach capable of effectively replicating the outcomes of full-scale engine testing. We examined the use of a constant volume combustion chamber for the measurement of fuel effects on NOx emissions, with the goal of developing a method to rapidly screen or rank fuels in a small - volume experiment. A small amount of fuel was injected into air at 650°C and 20 bar, where it ignited and burned. The chamber was sampled post-combustion using a chemiluminescence NOx analyzer
Luecke, Jon, Rahimi, Mohammad, Mohamed, Samah, Naser, Nimal, Chausalkar, Abhijeet, McCormick, Robert
A Correction Method to Estimate Wake Effects for Aerodynamic Performance Metrics2026-01-06014/7/2026
Wake effects modify the aerodynamic performance of a road vehicle when driving in traffic. Analysis of wind-tunnel measurements conducted in flows with wake characteristics, using a traffic-wake-simulation system, suggests that conventional uniform-wind performance coefficients can be scaled, using wake-flow-field information, to predict the influence of wake effects. This paper presents a flow-field-averaging method that estimates a dynamic-pressure correction and yaw-angle correction for application to uniform-wind data, to account for changes in performance due to wake effects. This first-order method is shown to provide reasonably-good accuracy when reverse correcting the wind-tunnel wake-effects measurements. Drag-coefficient data for light-duty-vehicle models, which showed wake effects exceeding 20%, were corrected to within 5% of uniform-wind values, while data for heavy-duty-vehicle models, which showed wake effects exceeding 15%, were corrected to within 2% of uniform-wind
McAuliffe, Brian
Establishing a Standard S-Factor: Improving Accuracy and Flexibility in SOC Corrections for HEV Testing2026-01-04224/7/2026
Hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV) fuel economy test procedures require that the net energy change (NEC) of the battery not interfere with measuring accurate fuel consumption results. SAE J1711-2010 required the NEC to stay within 1% of fuel energy consumption, assuming that residual changes in state of charge (SOC) would have negligible impact. In practice, however, the asymmetry between fuel and electricity conversion efficiencies means that an imbalance of one unit of battery energy can translate into a likely fuel consumption error of roughly three units. A standard S-Factor, a dimensionless ratio of marginal fuel change to marginal NEC change, was introduced in J1711-2023 to improve SOC correction procedures. The method improves upon the previous J1711 (2010) accuracy by correcting all results for NEC changes and expands the NEC-to-fuel ratio (NECFR) window, enabling HEVs to use electric propulsion more aggressively and potentially achieve higher fuel economy in testing and real-world
Duoba, Michael
Data-Driven Objective Road-Driving Classification for Durable Design of Vehicles2026-01-01814/7/2026
Design for durability in the automotive industry depends on a clear understanding of how road surfaces and driving characteristics affect structural road loads and fatigue. Traditionally, road surface classification has been subjective (e.g., city, highway, rural), and done through driving instrumented vehicles over a small selection of roads. The variations in driving characteristics that are often consequent to the road surface quality are rarely accounted for in designing vehicle level durability tests. This makes it difficult to establish targets for durability testing that accurately match the wide variations in real-world roads and driving. This paper presents a data-driven approach to objectively classify road surface and driving characteristics using metrics derived from existing road response metrics like Vibration Dose Value (VDV) and statistical estimates of vehicle speed and acceleration. Data collected at the proving grounds on gravel roads, smooth roads, city-like roads
Shaurya, Shubham, Ramakrishnan, Sankaran, Demiri, Albion, Khapane, Prashant
Development of an Advanced Tensile Testing Method for HDPE Composites in High Draw Molded Hollow Circular Regions: Effect of Sample Preparation, Asymmetry, Thermal Conditions, Pull Speeds and Fixture Parameters2026-01-02044/7/2026
High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) and Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol (EVOH) composite, particularly in high draw molded hollow circular configuration, present unique challenges in evaluating mechanical performance under tensile stress due to anisotropic deformation, geometric asymmetry, and localize thermal gradient. This study introduces an advanced tensile testing methodology designed specifically to assess such regions with greater precision and reproducibility. The method incorporates refines sample preparation protocols, tailored fixture geometry, and adjustable pull speed to accommodate varying thermal histories and draw ratios inherent to molded sections. Systematic variation of asymmetrical, temperature conditions, and clamping techniques revealed significant impact on tensile strength, elongation at break, and strain distribution. Findings emphasize the necessity of customized testing frameworks for molded composites geometries and demonstrate that
Bhalerao, Saurabh Shankar
From Static Ground to Moving Ground Wind Tunnels: Feature Selection for Reliable Estimation of Drag Coefficient Discrepancies2026-01-02034/7/2026
Moving ground wind tunnels offer a more accurate test environment for ground vehicle drag coefficient measurement due to their highly realistic representation of the boundary layer phenomenon. However, historically most vehicles have been tested on static ground wind tunnels. As a result, the measured drag coefficient of these vehicles may not be sufficiently realistic for certification purposes. Therefore, it is valuable to build statistical models to estimate moving ground wind tunnel drag coefficient by using information from a static ground wind tunnel and other relevant vehicle characteristics such as presence of aerodynamic devices (spoilers, air dams, etc.). However, to build accurate statistical models, appropriate predictive features must be identified as a first step. In this paper, an aerodynamic feature selection study has been conducted to identify vehicle characteristics that contribute to drag coefficient estimation discrepancies between a static- and a moving ground
Singh, Yuvraj, Jayakumar, Adithya, Rizzoni, Giorgio
Aerodynamic Development of Maruti Suzuki Victoris2026-01-06024/7/2026
MSIL (Maruti Suzuki India Limited), India’s leading automotive manufacturer, offers a diverse range of SUVs (Sports Utility Vehicles) in its portfolio. Traditionally, SUVs are associated with an assertive stance and a commanding road presence; however, this bold design language often compromises aerodynamic drag performance. Over the past decade, demand for this segment has surged, while CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel Economy) regulations have become increasingly stringent. To address this growing market need, MSIL conceptualized a new SUV - Victoris - targeted to deliver best-in-class aerodynamic efficiency in MSIL SUV portfolio. This paper details the aerodynamic development process using CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) and full-scale WTT (Wind Tunnel Testing). Initially, the aggressive styling of Victoris negatively impacted drag performance. Strategic exterior surface refinements and integration of aero components enabled recovery of aerodynamic efficiency. Key interventions
Dey, Sukanta, Singh, Shekhar, Kumar, Chandan, Alphonse, Felix Regin
An Updated Correlation Study between the Full-Size Wind Tunnels of General Motors, Ford Motor Company, and FCA US LLC2026-01-06124/7/2026
As automotive aerodynamic testing facilities evolve to capture more real-world behavior, updating the correlation between old and new technologies is essential. Recently, the three-member consortium of the United States Council for Automotive Research (USCAR) - General Motors, Ford Motor Company, and FCA US LLC - transitioned from full-size static ground plane facilities to 5-belt moving ground plane wind tunnel facilities. The primary objective of this study was to update the correlation data sets to maintain consistent and robust data sharing among companies, which is the cornerstone of USCAR efforts. To achieve this, a set of updated correlation data sets were calculated to replace the original correlation study results from 2008. Additionally, the methodology for applying correlation equations was revised from using averaged wind tunnel data to employing direct wind tunnel-to-wind tunnel correlation equations. In a two-phase correlation effort conducted in 2022 and 2025, the three
Nastov, Alexander, Lounsberry, Todd, Madin, Trevor, Langmeyer, Gregory, Fadler, Gregory, Skinner, Shaun, Horton, Damien
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