Browse Topic: Tests and Testing

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Numerical Investigation of Aerodynamics Performance of Spoiler on Racing Car2026-28-0049To be published on 02/01/2026
Technology has paved the way for motorsports to advance exponentially. The main area of focus in modern automobiles and race cars is Aerodynamics. It plays a crucial role in vehicle dynamics due to the need for stability at high speeds under varying environments. The Research and development of aerodynamics have come a long way, with the use of basic, inverted air-foils to generate downforce, thus pushing the car to the ground for better contact patch, to unending development of diffusers to improve ground effect, reducing drag with minimal sacrifice of downforce. Previous papers have conducted studies of various air-foil designs for inverted rear wings, and various diffuser designs as well. With various methodologies conducted and parameters obtained, our paper is all about the modification of design of an inverted double-element rear wing and integration with a diffuser with vertical skirts, underneath. The main intent is to enhance downforce with such design and apply in high
Damodaran, Darshan, Ganesan, Balaji, Raja, Vijayanandh, GANESAN, Santhosh Kumar, G, Boopathy, PUSHPARAJ, CATHERINE VICTORIA
Evolution of a Novel Hybrid Stab-Link for a Born Electric Sports Utility Vehicle2026-28-0001To be published on 02/01/2026
The present study details the design evolution and failure analysis of a novel hybrid stabilizer bar link (stab link) developed for the front suspension of a born electric sports utility vehicle (SUV) platform characterized by higher gross vehicle weight (GVW), increased wheel travel, and constrained packaging space. To address these challenges, a unique hybrid stab link was designed featuring dual plastic housings at both the metal ball joint ends, connected by a steel tube, and achieving a 30% weight reduction while offering enhanced articulation angles for extremely lower turning circle diameter (TCD) of the vehicle, compared to the conventional stab link. The unique hybrid stab failed under complex loading conditions during accelerated durability testing (ADT), prompting a comprehensive investigation. The failure analysis included road load data acquisition across various stab bar diameter configurations evolved during suspension tuning, different stabilizer link designs evolved
SELVENDIRAN, P, J, Ramkumar, NAYAK, Bhargav, M, Sudhan, Patnala, Avinash
An Integrated Model Approach for Predicting Vehicle Dynamics Performance during HiL Validation2026-28-0044To be published on 02/01/2026
In the automotive industry, increasing noise regulations are influencing product sales and passenger comfort, creating a need for more effective noise testing methods. Hardware-in-Loop (HiL) based virtual acoustic testing serves as a critical step before Driver-in-Loop testing, allowing for the assessment of noise levels inside and outside the vehicle under various conditions before real-world testing is performed. This study addresses the conversion of a physical vehicle model in the AMESim environment into FMU-RT (Linux) format, and the translation of a powertrain control system from Simulink to C++ code. Key challenges in the FMU-RT conversion include the integration of appropriate submodels for each component and enabling the interfaces necessary for SCANeR and virtual acoustic testing. In the C++ code conversion, challenges involved configuring the correct parameters, ensuring the model runs at a fixed time step and sampling time of 1 ms, and resolving issues related to the
visuvamithran, Rishikesan, CHOUGULE, Sourabh, Srinivasan, Rangarajan, LAURENT, Nicolas
Multi-Band Frequency Approach to Correlate Proving Ground and Road Simulator for an Electric Two-Wheeler2026-26-0556To be published on 01/16/2026
Real-world usage subjects two-wheelers to complex and varying dynamic loads, necessitating early-stage durability validation to ensure robust product development. Conducting a full life-cycle durability testing on proving grounds is time-consuming, extremely difficult for the riders involved, and costly, which is why accelerated testing using rigs such as the road simulator system have become a preferred approach. The use of road simulators necessitates, accurately measured inputs and precise simulation to ensure proper actuation of the rig, thereby enabling realistic representation of road undulations. Road Load Data Acquisition (RLDA) is used to measure various inputs such as displacement, acceleration, strain, and predicted forces from the road which are then used to simulate real-world conditions in a road simulator. This paper covers two important aspects essential for achieving an accurate and clear representation of road simulation in a 4-DOF road simulator, encompassing both
Ganju, Shubham, V, Vijayamirtharaj, Prasad, Sathish, R S, Mahenthran
An analysis of material damping characteristics: A comparison of Oberst Bar Method and Center Impedance Method and their relationship to Component Level.2026-26-0317To be published on 01/16/2026
Damping materials exhibit advantageous mechanical and acoustic characteristics that enhance the structural integrity of systems. These materials find extensive applications across various industries, including automotive, aerospace, and building acoustics, and are widely employed in the development of soundproofing materials. The damping characteristics of materials primarily pertain to the dissipation of vibrational energy, the reduction of oscillations, and the controlling and subsequent attenuation of vibration-induced noise emanating from structures. To improve both structural integrity and acoustic performance, it is crucial to accurately assess the damping properties of these materials. The Oberst bar test method is a standard method used in the automotive, railway and building industry for initial optimization of damping material However, questions have arisen about the degree to which the outcomes of the Oberst test truly reflect real-world applications. Numerous experimental
Kamble, Prashant Prakash, Joshi, Manasi, Jain, Sachinkumar, Harishchandra Walke, Nagesh
Testing and Validation of Future Mobility Vehicles using Realistic Digital Twin of Road Corridors and Tires2026-26-0580To be published on 01/16/2026
Recent development in Real Time Modelling & Driving simulator technology has made it possible to real time evaluation of vehicle/ tire performance like NVH, Ride-comfort, HMI and ADAS etc. objectively and subjectively using driving simulator. Many OEMs worldwide are adapting this technology for speeding up their tire and vehicle development by reducing decision making time and optimization of the performance by suitable design changes in initial phase of conceptualization. In order to use this technology, there is requirement of good digital twin of the vehicle, tire, road surfaces Test tracks & realistic Road Corridors. Focus of the current paper is on Digital Twin of Road Corridors. Digital Twin of road corridor comprises of various elements viz. the digitized road profile 3D (X-Y-Z) and road infrastructure elements that includes basic elements like road, barricades, signal, signage etc. along with infrastructure furniture like building, bus stops, flyovers etc. Digital twin of road
Joshi, Omkar Prakash, Shinde, Vikram, Pawar, Prashant R
Facilitating Virtual Testing at an Industrial Level by Simulation Data Management2026-26-0440To be published on 01/16/2026
Automotive OEMs can derive significant cost savings by reducing the quantity of physical crash tests and thereby accelerate product development, when they follow the Euro NCAP Virtual Testing guidelines. It helps in optimizing the overall vehicle development process via more efficient simulations, as well as facilitates in early adoption of new safety regulations. In this pursuit, companies must comply with strict Euro NCAP requirements, which includes transparency and traceability of virtual tests. A major challenge therein is model validation – which requires highly precise detailing and extensive use of data for accurately replicating real physics of the problem. Deploying these workflows into an existing simulation process can be a complicated and time-consuming task, particularly when integrating various simulation and testing methods. A powerful simulation and process data management system (SPDM) can thereby assist companies to automate their entire simulation process, ensures
Thiele, Marko, Sharma, Harsh
Advancing Automotive Radar Characterization: OTA HIL Testing for Enhanced ADAS Safety2026-26-0043To be published on 01/16/2026
The increasing demand for reliable Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems (ADAS) and autonomous driving technologies necessitates the precise validation of automotive radar sensors. Traditional on-road testing, while effective, presents challenges such as limited repeatability, high costs, and safety concerns. To address these limitations, this paper introduces an Over-the-Air (OTA) Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) methodology for radar characterization, providing a controlled and repeatable lab-based validation approach. This methodology enables dynamic testing of key radar parameters, including range estimation, angle of arrival measurement, Doppler velocity analysis, and object detection accuracy. The proposed setup supports diverse testing scenarios, such as variable target distances, relative speeds, multiple object simulation, and environmental effects, ensuring a comprehensive evaluation of radar behaviour under complex and safety-critical conditions. Through OTA testing, developers can
Jadhav, Tejas, Karle, Ujjwala, Paul, Harshit, SNV, Karthik
Multi-Model Analysis of O-Ring Compression and Relaxation Force Predictions Using Machine Learning and CAE Simulations2026-26-0466To be published on 01/16/2026
O-rings play a critical role in ensuring leak-proof seals in a wide range of engineering systems. Accurate prediction of their compression and relaxation behavior under various material and geometric configurations is essential for optimal design and reliability. This study presents an analysis of machine learning techniques to predict two key performance outputs, compression force and relaxation force (after 10 minutes) trained on computer-aided engineering (CAE) simulation data. The experimental setup was represented in CAE simulation and the results were compared with experimental data conducted at ZF test facilities. Simulation results correlated well with the experimental data (deviation was less than the 5%). To create a dataset for training machine learning (ML) models, realistic ranges for the input parameters such as hardness and geometrical parameters were determined, and simulation data were generated using design of experiments (DOE). Multiple ML models were developed and
Kosgi, Durgaprasad, Alva, P Pancham, Dangeti, VenkataKrishna Pavan
Use Of Digital Wind Tunnel For Improved Aerodynamic Prediction2026-26-0372To be published on 01/16/2026
In the automotive industry, external aerodynamic evaluations in digital environments are commonly conducted using simplified, large box tunnels with vehicle being static. These approaches are computationally efficient and ensure faster turnaround times. To closely replicate physical wind tunnel testing or real-world conditions, these simulations are often augmented with moving ground and rolling tire configurations. While such setups provide valuable directional feedback for aerodynamic drag improvements, they frequently exhibit significant discrepancies when compared to physical wind tunnel test data. It is observed that key factors such as wind tunnel blockage effects, boundary layer suctions, when not properly accounted for, distort the local flow field dynamics and introduce errors in the simulations. With OEMs aiming to accelerate time-to-market for new vehicle launches, many aspire to minimize reliance on physical testing and maximize use of digital methods for design sign-off
sharma, Sandeep Kumar, Chalipat, Sujit, Maiyya, Sandeep
A High-Fidelity Transient Fluid-Structure-Interaction Methodology for Evaluation of Rear Bumper Flutter of a Vehicle2026-26-0410To be published on 01/16/2026
The need for fuel efficient and pedestrian safe cars leads to the use of thinner and lighter car exteriors. Interaction of these exterior car components at high speed with an aerodynamic load can lead to undesirable aero-elastic vibration and flutter. Early identification and mitigation of such vibration can bring significant cost and time benefit, by reducing dependence on prototype testing and recalibration of prototype tooling at later stages. The present work demonstrates a transient Fluid-Structure-Interaction based numerical methodology for estimation of aerodynamic-induced flutter of the rear bumper of an SUV. The proposed method performs coupled-high fidelity transient full vehicle aerodynamic Finite Volume based and dynamic rear bumper structural Finite Element based simulations required for flutter estimation. The method has been put through a two-step validation against experimental wind tunnel test data of a prototype car with modified bumper for the specific test-case. The
CHOUDHURY, SATYAJIT, Yenugu, Srinivasa, Walia, Rajat, Zander, Daniel, Gullapalli, Atchyut, BALAN, ARUN, Astik, Pritesh
Comprehensive Engine Testing Methodologies for Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Validation with Combustion & Performance Evaluation techniques2026-26-0256To be published on 01/16/2026
Validation of hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine (H2 ICE) is critical to assess its feasibility as sustainable transportation with zero carbon emissions. This experimental analysis conducted on Ashok Leyland's 6cylinder 2V engine to evaluate the engine performance & durability with hydrogen fuel. Combustion behaviour of hydrogen ICE needs to be closely monitored during continuous operation of validation testing, due to its unique properties compared to other conventional fuels. During engine run, a pre-ignition source can cause knock event leading to instant failure of critical parts like piston assembly, spark plug, liner, valves & cylinder head. Also, hotspots inside IMF leads to backfire affecting the air intake & fuel injection assembly. This study emphasizes the significance of precise instrumentation of thermocouples across engine on cylinder head, intake manifold & exhaust manifold, to detect performance detoriation and combustion abnormalities causing knocking
Vasudevan, Sindhuja, J, Narayana Reddy, Bolar, Yogesh Ganesh, Pandey, Sunil, N, Harish, N R, Varatharaj, Karthikeyan, K, Kumar D, Kishore
Migration from MIDC to WLTP in India: Challenges & Solutions for a Small Commercial Vehicle2026-26-0215To be published on 01/16/2026
In line with global peers (EU, Japan etc.), the Automotive Industry Standard (AIS) Committee in India has decided to adopt "World harmonized Light vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP)" for M and N category vehicles with GVW not exceeding 3500 kg. As a result, "World harmonized Light-duty vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC )" is set to replace currently applicable "Modified Indian Drive Cycle (MIDC)" in the next couple of years. The draft CAFE III & CAFE IV norms for CO2 emission limits, which are set to be implemented in 2027 and 2032 respectively refer to a shift to WLTP from MIDC. This migration to WLTP is in sync with the demand for test procedures to replicate real driving conditions more appropriately. Further, with the Indian automotive sector growing at a robust CAGR of ~9%, the move to WLTP along with stricter emission norms is going to help the government take a major step towards India's COP26 pledge to achieve net zero emissions by 2070. WLTC cycle being much more dynamic with higher
Pawar, Bhushan, Ehrly, Markus, Sandhu, Rouble, Emran, Ashraf, Berry, Sushil
Development of Component Level Testing Method for Passenger Car Wheels2026-26-0504To be published on 01/16/2026
In the design of automotive wheels, safety is a crucial factor. Wheels contribute to a vehicle handling, braking and overall driving performance. Wheel are designed to withstand the weight of the vehicle and force generated during driving. It is the medium which isolates the obstacles coming from roads. Impact tests are usually performed after the wheel has been already designed and first prototypes have been produced. The test involves 90-degree free fall dynamic impact to determine the wheel resistance to deformation, cracking and overall structural failure. Its best method to captured the exact results during and post impact. These results are contributes the major role in development of automotive wheel rims. Most of the OEM’s are validating the wheels in virtual environment as FEA analysis software and LS Dyna. In this paper detailed procedure of testing of wheels at component level is presented. This work determines the development of test procedure for passenger car wheels in
Roham, Prasad, Bagade, Mohan, Sinnarkar, Nitin, Pawar, Prashant R, Shinde, Vikram
Analysis and identification of discrepancies between test data and simulation results using an automated EV range analysis tool2026-26-0470To be published on 01/16/2026
With growing consumer interest in electric vehicles due to their advantages over traditional internal combustion engine cars, including instant torque and enhanced safety, comprehensive testing of these vehicles has become crucial. Engineers are faced with the challenge of managing the large amounts of data generated during testing. This work aims to develop an automated framework for data processing and simulation of on-road test data and generate reports to monitor inconsistencies. To achieve this, range tests were conducted across various regions and each test data was processed using the EV range analysis tool to check for inconsistencies if any. It was observed that there was a mismatch between the tested and simulated range at expressways. This was due to the unrealistic extrapolation of the vehicle’s coastdown forces above 120 kmph. Hence, tests were conducted to measure the coastdown forces of the vehicle above 120 kmph which was then used in simulation to estimate the range
S, VIVEK, T, LAKSHMI PRASAD BEKAL, Krishnan, Karthikeyan N.
Enhancing Thermal Comfort and Vehicle Energy Efficiency: A Simulation Study Using GT ISE + TAITherm2026-26-0458To be published on 01/16/2026
The automotive industry is encountering difficulties in balancing occupant thermal comfort with HVAC system energy efficiency, particularly under the hot Indian conditions, to meet user expectations and address range anxiety in electric vehicles. Front-loaded comfort-based approach simulations during the development stages have the potential to increase energy savings compared to the stages required at the end of product design. The focus of the current research targets HVAC energy consumers, such as blower flow rates, temperatures, and Cabin heaters, and investigates how these factors influence occupant overall comfort. Additionally, design elements like glass properties and the impact of solar radiation on human comfort are studied at the early concept stages to adopt an energy-based approach for comfort optimization. Simulations are conducted using GT-SUITE and GT-TAITherm software, integrated with CFD field maps platforms to obtain exact flow field predictions. The simulation
BAVIRISETTI, SAI SAMPATH KUMAR, Chothave, Abhijeet, Gummadi, Gopakishore, Khan, Parvej, Thiyagarajan, Rajesh, Raju, Kumar, A Sr, Mahesh
AI-Driven Predictive Methodology for Bolt Integrity in Vehicle Durability Testing2026-26-0648To be published on 01/16/2026
The application of AI/ML techniques to predict truck tailgate bolt loosening represents a major innovation for the automotive industry, aligning with the principles of Industry 4.0. Traditional physical testing methods are both expensive and time-consuming, often identifying issues late in the development process and necessitating costly design changes and prototype builds. By harnessing AI/ML, manufacturers can now analyze tailgate slam and bolt preload data to accurately forecast potential bolt loosening issues. This predictive capability not only enhances quality and safety standards but also significantly reduces the costs associated with tooling and builds. The AI/ML tool described in this paper can simulate a variety of load conditions and predict bolt loosening with over 90% accuracy, considering factors such as changes in loads, bolt diameters, washer sizes, and unexpected masses added to the tailgate. It provides valuable design insights, such as recommending optimal bolt
Sivakrishna, Masani, Das, Mahat, Singh, Abhinav, karra, Manasa, Shienh, Gurpreet, Luebke, Amy
Accelerating EV Thermal Controls Development: A Rapid controls prototyping framework using Speedgoat2026-26-0685To be published on 01/16/2026
In the era of software-defined vehicles, the complexity and requirements of automotive systems have increased significantly. Thermal management systems have become more complicated, incorporating multiple functions and strategies within software frameworks. This shift poses substantial challenges, increased development efforts and extending timelines in creating an efficient thermal management system for EVs. Fulfilling them in the early stages of design makes it more challenging due to the unavailability of key components such as fully developed ECU hardware, the battery pack, and the motor. To address this, a novel framework has been designed that combines virtual simulation with physical emulation, enabling the testing and validation of thermal control strategies without fully matured system and ECU hardware. The framework uses the Speedgoat platform as the central controller which hosts the control and thermal models developed in Simulink and Simscape. Speedgoat is physically
Chothave, Abhijeet, S, Bharathan, S, Ananth, Gangwar, Adarsh, Khan, Parvej, Gummadi, Gopakishore, Kumar, Dipesh
Investigation and Reduction of Road Noise due to transient road inputs in Electric Vehicle2026-26-0358To be published on 01/16/2026
Higher road noise is perceived in the cabin when the test vehicle encounters road irregularities like bump or pothole in the public roads. The sudden transfer of transient road inputs inside the body caused objectionable cabin noise. Measurements are conducted on the test track at different road surfaces to identify the patch where the objective data well correlated with the noise measured at the public road. Wavelet analysis is carried out to identify the frequency zones since the events are transient in nature. Transfer Path Analysis (TPA) is conducted in both time domain and frequency domain to identify the nature of the noise and the limitation in each of the methodologies are explained. The dominant path through which the transient road forces are transferring inside the body are also identified. Based on the outcome of TPA, various countermeasures like reduction of dynamic stiffness of suspension and cradle bushes , structural modifications on the path are proposed to reduce the
S, Nataraja Moorthy, Rao, Manchi, Selvam, Ebinezer, Raghavendran, Prasath
Integration of virtual testing methods in automotive safety: Methodology validation for rollover protection system (ROPS)2026-26-0375To be published on 01/16/2026
During recent years, the integration of virtual testing methodologies has gained significant importance in vehicle development for the passive safety evaluation. The accuracy of simulation results depends basically on the correct replication of physical test into the virtual model, for example to assign the realistic material properties from the structural components and following the boundary conditions replicated from real conditions. In this study the safety standards ISO 3471_2008 and ANSI ROHVA/OPEI-2016 have been considered as references of the safety validation process of hollow section roll-over protective structure (ROPS) integrated into a vehicle. A key objective is to stablish a virtual test methodology that could be applicable across different standards considering various industry markets, as for example European, American and Asian. A sensitivity analysis is necessary to evaluate what are the main aspects that gives significant deviations in results and in which we can
Laso Rodríguez, Manuel, Hanumantha, Chandrashekhar, Singh, Amit Kumar, Lal, Kundan
Design Robustness of Electronic Locking Differential for enhanced off-road performance2026-26-0502To be published on 01/16/2026
The Electronic Locking Differential (ELD) is a critical component for enhancing off-road vehicle performance by ensuring optimal traction in challenging terrains. This paper addresses intermittent engagement issues observed in the ELD system during off-road trials, which impacted its reliability and functionality. It presents a comprehensive study of design robustness improvements implemented to resolve these concerns and optimize the ELD’s performance, ensuring enhanced customer satisfaction in demanding off-road environments. The analysis begins with identifying factors contributing to the intermittent engagement and disengagement of the ELD system upon actuation. These factors include residual magnetism, material properties, temperature effects, and the stack-up characteristics of transfer path components under various boundary conditions. To address these challenges, three key design modifications were introduced: (1) reduction of residual magnetism through an increased air gap
S, Mohd Imtiaz, AP, Baaheedharan, Ghumare, Dheeraj, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Jain, Saurabh Kumar
Test method and set up development for electric parking brake performance and durability validation in vehicle level as per RWUP2026-26-0505To be published on 01/16/2026
The Objective is to develop a testing load case which can assess vehicle electric parking brake (EPB) performance and durability at vehicle level in different project development phases. In current scenario the EPB become one of a primary feature available in many passenger vehicles helps customers to apply this secondary braking system to hold the vehicle when parked. So, it is particularly important to evaluate this feature close to RWUP for the vehicle service life and studying the result before vehicle launch. The test method should be capable of capturing failures related to physical concerns, electrical characteristics, actuation time, gradient vehicle hold, effectiveness during vehicle running and durability. The most important challenge in this test method development is it should simulate the actual sequence followed by user in field on vehicle. A completely automated test set up integrating PLC and COBOT with closed loop feedback developed and discussed in this paper. During
DHANAPAL, M R, Vijayakumar, Narayanan, MAHESH, B, B, VENKATASUBRAMANIAN, Arthanathan, Sankaranarayanan
Power loss evaluation in 4WD axle and correlation with Testing results2026-26-0107To be published on 01/16/2026
In the tractor, the efficiency depends on the transmission system, of all the losses major contribution is given by the transmission elements. To improve the efficiency, it became crucial to monitor the areas of power losses. Power loss in transmission refers the reduction in amount of power which being generated from the engine source to the final drive elements. There are various parameters and factors influence this condition, analyzing those conditions helps in identifying & improving the higher contributing components for driveline power loss. This study presents a comparative analysis of theoretical and experimental data regarding power loss in the gear train of a 70HP 4WD front axle. The investigation incorporates theoretical power loss calculations for individual components, including the bevel gear, bearings, thrust washer and seal arrangements. To evaluate and validate the power losses in the 4WD axle, a Gear Train Endurance test was conducted in a controlled laboratory
Jayapal, Jayaraj, Mahapatra, Soumya Ranjan, Sethi, Suvendu Kumar, JOSHI, SHRIKANT, BANGE, PRASHANT
ALLOY WHEEL RIM LINEAR CRASH VALIDATION WITH BENCH LEVEL TEST PROCEDURE2026-26-0574To be published on 01/16/2026
Crash test plays a very crucial role in determining the passenger safety along with driver safety in most modern vehicles. This has become a prominent factor for many buyers to choose a safe car. During crash test, many components tend to fail. Amongst them, the major safety critical component which hampers the drivability of a vehicle is Wheel and Tyre Assembly. With the introduction of low aspect tyres, the failure rate of these assemblies has increased. A very high importance is given to ensure these parts withstand the subjection load as it is directly related to function of vehicle. Many methods are available to test the Wheel and Tyre assembly to ensure they pass the crash criteria. We have developed a novel test method which can simulate the crash pattern in the rig/bench level. The method employs a mechanical actuator which can be operated at designated load application to ensure the assembly undergoes the anticipated failure. The process is repeated with different types of
Medaboyina, HarshaVardhan, Singh, Ram Krishnan, SUNDARAM, RAGHUPATHI, Jithendhar, Ashokan
Development of a New Methodology for Measuring the Dimensions of Lighting Components in Construction Equipment Vehicles (CEVs) as per IS/ISO 12509:2004 using 3-Dimensional Planar Laser.2026-26-0145To be published on 01/16/2026
The light and light signalling devices installation test as per ISO 12509:2004 for Earth Moving Machinery / Construction Equipment Vehicles (CEV’s) is a mandatory test to ensure the safety of both road users and operators. Considering the shape and size of CEV’s, accurate measurement of lighting installation requirements is crucial for ensuring safety and regulatory compliance. The international standard ISO 12509:2004 specifies detailed criteria for these installations, including precise dimensional measurements of lighting components to guarantee optimal visibility and safety. Considering shape and Size of CEV’s, the accurate measurement of lighting installation requirements is crucial for regulatory compliance. ISO 12509:2004 outlines specific criteria for these installations requirements of lighting components, including the precise measurement of various dimensions to ensure optimal visibility and safety. Among these dimensional requirements, the dimension 'E' i.e., the “distance
Ghodke, Dhananjay Sunil, Belavadi Venkataramaiah, Shamsundara, Tambolkar, Sonali Ameya
Application framework with multi-tiered approach in validating UI based animation in automotive product.2026-26-0586To be published on 01/16/2026
As part of their market segmentation strategy, each OEM is using UX (user experience) as a crucial aspect for product differentiation. Though there are many parts to UX, the one which would have a profound effect on the user is through animation of real-world aspects on the instrument panel, like falling snowflakes when it’s snowing outside, real time traffic conditions as part of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) or even a unique welcome or farewell message. The unique and realistic nature of such implementations and customizing it to the needs of market segments introduces a lot of complexity in evaluating the correctness of implementation with respect to design. In this paper, we would extensively evaluate the current practices in analyzing the test basis, test environment needs, test data and test methods used in testing animation. However, the primary focus of this paper is to introduce a novel multi-tiered approach towards evaluating animations - where we would introduce
Kandrattha A, Mohammed Azharuddin, Kulkarni, Apoorva
A Scientific approach to identify the source of intermittent steering rattle noise and implementing the design solutions2026-26-0346To be published on 01/16/2026
Body-on-frame vehicles are well-regarded for their durability and off-road capabilities, but their structural design often makes them more vulnerable to noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) issues. Vibrations originating from uneven roads are transmitted through the suspension and steering assemblies, sometimes resulting in rattles or other disturbances. These vibrations can be amplified by the inherent flexibility in the body-to-frame mounting system. In such vehicles, the steering system plays a critical role in driver comfort and is highly sensitive to vibrational inputs from the road surface, especially on coarse or uneven terrain. Occasionally, these inputs result in subtle rattle noises that are perceptible only to the driver and may not be detected under controlled testing environments. This poses a challenge for engineers trying to isolate and resolve such intermittent NVH phenomena. Identifying the source requires a combination of real-world driving evaluations, structural
Ramesh Chand, Karan Kumar, Gopinathan, Haridoss, Kabdal, Amit
Crash Pulse Characterization for the Passenger Vehicle Fleet in India.2026-26-0029To be published on 01/16/2026
A crash pulse is the signature of the deceleration experienced by a vehicle and its occupants during a crash. The deceleration-time plot or crash pulse provides key insights into occupant kinematics, occupant restraints, occupant loading and efficiency of the structure in crash energy dissipation. Analysing crash pulse characteristics like shape, slope, maximum deceleration, and duration helps in understanding the impact of the crash on occupant safety and vehicle crashworthiness. This paper represents the crash pulse characterization study done for the vehicles tested at ARAI as per the ODB64 test protocol. Firstly, the classification and characterization of the crash pulses is done on the basis of the unladen masses of the vehicles. The same are further analysed for suitability of mathematical waveform models such as Equivalent Square Wave (ESW), Equivalent Triangular Wave (ETW), Equivalent Sine Wave (ESW), Equivalent Haversine Wave (EHSW) as well as EDTW (Equivalent dual trapezia
Mishra, Satish, Kulkarni, Dileep, Borse, Tanmay, Mahindrakar, Rahula Ashok, Mahajan, Rahul, Jaju, Divyan
Tractor Clutch wear simulation by Inhouse development2026-26-0572To be published on 01/16/2026
To develop an accelerated Clutch test simulation method at inhouse laboratory as System level of validation to replicate field phenomena in short time with controlled repeatability and increased test accuracy. Wet clutch is one of the M&M technology project for higher hp(75) tractors. Currently Mahindra having dry clutch system in higher hp tractors & presently Wet clutch development in progress for higher HP tractors for increasing clutch life & to reduce clutch pedal operation as per customer requirement, hence new test rig to be developed for validating new tractor wet clutch system as per RWUP. Previously tractor clutch system is completely evaluated through field testing on tractor level. Thus, there are several drawbacks in field testing like more waiting time to avail seasons, more testing time, evaluation of limited number of samples, non-availability of complete tractor on time, less accuracy, less repeatability of test results, unsafe conditions of rider, higher human fatigue
D, Yashwanth, Raja, R, Udayakumar, S, M, Jeevaharan, Vijayakumar, Narayanan
Steel-based Laminates for Lithium-ion Pouch Cell of Electric Vehicles2026-26-0186To be published on 01/16/2026
Aluminium foils have gained traction with EV battery manufacturers for their pouch cell format. Over the years it has evolved as a material of choice, but it is still plagued by issues of stress concentration, swelling due to lower strength and stiffness of base aluminium layer. Preliminary investigation revealed that laminates using steel foil material (thickness <0.1mm) could be a potential candidate for EV pouch cell casing. Thus, steel-based laminate was developed meeting key functional requirements (e.g. barrier performance, insulation resistance, peel strength, electrolyte resistance, formable without cracking at edges, and heat sealing compliant). This innovative patented steel-based laminate was further used to manufacture pouch cell prototypes (maximum capacity 2.5Ah) for key performance tests (e.g. cell cycling, nail penetration and thermal runaway). The study paves the way for a low cost, sustainable and flexible yet strong steel-based laminate packaging material solution
Singh, Pundan Kumar, Raj, Abhishek, Kumar, Ankit, Chatterjee, Sourabh, Verma, Rahul Kumar, Samantaray, Bikash, Gautam, Vikas, Pandey, Ashwani
Post-EOL Cybersecurity Validation for Automotive Production ECUs2026-26-0608To be published on 01/16/2026
ISO/SAE 21434 emphasizes comprehensive cybersecurity risk management throughout the automotive lifecycle. However, specific guidance on validating cybersecurity measures at the production level remains limited. This paper addresses the gap in production-stage validation, particularly after End-of-Line (EOL) flashing, which includes configurations of security hardware and software protection (e.g., UCB confirmation, JTAG, and P-flash password settings). Problem articulation: Current automotive cybersecurity validation methods, despite adherence to ISO/SAE 21434, lack specific procedures for the production stage. The existing system-level validation using the ASPICE V-model (e.g., SWE.6, SYS.5) does not ensure the integrity and functionality of cybersecurity features in the final manufactured unit post-EOL flashing. This gap poses a risk of vulnerabilities being introduced during the EOL process, compromising critical security measures. Proposed solution: To mitigate the cybersecurity
Chakraborty, Sucheta, Kulanthaisamy, Nagarajan, Sankar, Ganesh
Adoptive safety solutions in Road Simulators for commercial vehicle structural validation2026-26-0533To be published on 01/16/2026
Road Simulators used to carry out accelerated structural durability validation of a vehicle. As a commercial vehicle manufacturer, for our commercial vehicles structural validation, we are using 8 poster road simulators. We use road load data, torture track data, synthetic profiles or events as the input test data. From a mini 4 wheeler trucks to high capacity 8 wheeler truck, and any bus variant is being tested at road simulator. All the vehicle variants are tested with prescribed road and load conditions for the pre-determined life. Each wheel of the vehicle is positioned on the wheel pan of the hydraulic actuators so that each actuator excites the corresponding vibration data. The vehicle is being restrained as per the manufacturers recommendation. Manufacturer recommendations widely addresses the risks associated with the test rigs. In addition to that there are risks associated with the vehicle running, vehicle handling, vehicle positioning. For example, when durability test
Arumugam, Paramasivam, N, Gopi Kannan, N, Mahendra, Muthu kumar, Pandurangan, Singh, Laxman, Tiwari, Manish, V, Subash
Evaluation of Methods used to Determine Vehicle Center of Gravity Height2026-26-0513To be published on 01/16/2026
This paper contains a study of the measurement accuracies of two methods commonly used by vehicle industries and other stakeholders to determine vehicle center of gravity (CG) height. The two methods, which both appear in international standards, are the Axle Lift method and the Stable Pendulum method. The Stable Pendulum method requires a dedicated swinging platform mechanism, but it is generally considered to be more accurate than the Axle Lift method. Both methods rely on equations for computing CG height that are based on static balance models of a vehicle tested at various pitch angles. For each method, the accuracy of the resulting CG height computations is a function of the individual measurements needed in the model equations. The individual measurements needed depend on the method used, but they include weights, angles, and distance measurements. A theoretical error analysis study is presented that provides insight into the accuracy of both methods given the uncertainty in the
Heydinger, Gary, Zagorski, Scott, Bartholomew, Meredith, Andreatta, Dale
A fluid-structure- interaction based methodology to evaluate aero-thermal performance of deformable air guides2026-26-0364To be published on 01/16/2026
An air guide in a car directs fresh air onto the Heat Exchangers (HXs) to facilitate efficient thermal management. It is of paramount importance that the air guide creates a proper sealing and prevents any leakage of the incoming fresh air. It is achieved in two ways – 1) In the design condition, the air guide is manufactured in a way so that it overlaps/intersects with the surrounding components 2) the air-guide is made flexible with a highly elastic rubber seal at the edge. When the air-guide is assembled, the rubber portion of the air-guide deforms to produce a proper fit leading to a sealed air-intake pathway. At high-speed condition as well as high airflow conditions by the radiator fan during idling/stationary, like DC charging – incase of BEV, etc., the air guide encounters high pressure. Being elastic and flexible, these conditions make the air guide susceptible to deformation with potential leakage of incoming air. Digital evaluation of the air guide deformation at different
GADASU, RAVISHASTRI, CHOUDHURY, SATYAJIT, Umesh, Acharya Vaibhav, Kumar, Saravanan, Yenugu, Srinivasa, Zander, Daniel, Beesetti, Siva, Hattarke, Mallikarjun
AI-Driven Digital Twin for Enhanced Suspension Assembly Testing in Automotive Vehicles2026-26-0445To be published on 01/16/2026
This paper presents the development and application of a digital twin for the suspension assembly of Automotive vehicle, a critical component in evaluating the performance and durability of automotive systems. The digital twin, a virtual replica of the physical suspension assembly, is created using advanced simulation techniques and physical test data integration. By leveraging machine learning algorithms, the digital twin provides a comprehensive and dynamic model that accurately reflects the behavior and performance of the physical system under various conditions. The primary objective of this study is to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of suspension assembly testing by enabling predictive maintenance, real-time monitoring, and optimization of test parameters. The digital twin allows for the identification of potential issues before they occur, reducing downtime and maintenance costs. Additionally, it facilitates the exploration of different test scenarios and conditions without
Sonavane, Pravinkumar, Patil, Amol
Study, design, electro-chemical testing and validation of fuel cell fixture of single cell assembly towards custom stationary application.2026-26-0265To be published on 01/16/2026
Fuel cell - as name suggests, it generates energy from fuel (Hydrogen). A three-input system produces three different outputs: electrical energy, heat, and pure water. Fuel cell can produce decent power depending on design of active area and possible current density. Overall required power output which is generated by a series of cells stacked together. The design once meets all the required performance parameters at single cell level, can be extrapolated to stack level design. The present work elaborates successful testing and validation of a compact, light weigh single cell fuel cell fixture. Further the design will be scaled to a fuel cell stack design with a capacity of 5 kW to cater various stationary application such as back-up/ stand-alone power generator for remote location. The same design philosophy will also be implemented in fuel cell stack design for automobile applications. The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is heart of the fuel cell which produces the output while
Pandit`, Abhishek Rajshekhar, Chougule, Abhijeet, Khot, Ranjit, chaudhari, Shirish
Integration and Proving Ground Evaluation of a Connected Highway Pilot System2026-26-0136To be published on 01/16/2026
Highway Pilot (HWP) systems, classified as SAE Level 3 Automated Driving Systems (ADS), represent a potential advancement for safer and more efficient highway drives. In this work, the development of a connected HWP prototype is presented. The HWP system is deployed in a real test vehicle and designed to operate autonomously in highway environments. The implementation presented in this paper covers the complete setup of the vehicle platform, including sensor selection and placement, hardware integration and communication interfaces for both autonomous functionality and Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) connectivity. The software architecture follows a modular design, composed of modules for perception, decision-making and motion control to operate in real-time. The prototype integrates Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communication, such as Cooperative Awareness Messages (CAM), to enhance situational awareness and improve the overall system behaviour. The modular structure allows new functionalities
Domingo Mateu, Bernat, Leiva Ricart, Gisela, Facerias Pelegri, Marc, Perez, Marc
Towards AI-Driven Automated Driving Systems: Homologation perspective2026-26-0133To be published on 01/16/2026
This paper examines the challenges and opportunities in homologating AI-driven Automated Driving Systems (ADS). As AI introduces dynamic learning and adaptability to vehicles, traditional static homologation frameworks are becoming inadequate. The study analyzes existing methodologies, such as the New Assessment/Test Methodology (NATM), and how various institutions address AI incorporation into ADS certification. Key challenges identified include managing continuous learning, addressing the "black-box" nature of AI models, and ensuring robust data management. The paper proposes a harmonized roadmap for AI in ADS homologation, integrating safety standards like ISO/TR 4804 and ISO 21448 with AI-specific considerations. It emphasizes the need for explainability, robustness, transparency, and enhanced data management in certification processes. The study concludes that a unified, global approach to AI homologation is crucial, balancing innovation with safety while addressing ethical
Lujan Tutusaus, Carlos, Hidalgo, Justin
Comparison of Bharat NCAP Crash test scenarios with real road accidents in India2026-26-0024To be published on 01/16/2026
This study is conducted to analyse the significance of BNCAP crash test protocol in the real road accidents in India. Accident data from on-the-spot investigation (Road Accident Sampling System India) and Government of India’s, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways official road accident statistics 2023 is used together to understand the real road accidents in India. The current BNCAP crash test protocol is compared against the real road accidents and the frequency of the same in discussed in this paper. A seven-step calculation method is developed to analyse real accidents together with existing crash tests by using similar crash-characteristics like impact area, overlap and direction of force. This method makes the real accident comparable with the corresponding crash test by calculating the impact energy during the collision between the real accident and a collision under crash test conditions. Relevant parameters in real accidents that significantly influence the test scenario
Moennich, Joerg, Lich, Thomas, Kumaresh, Girikumar
High-Frequency Dynamic Stiffness Measurements of Automotive Elastomers for Electric Vehicles2026-26-0312To be published on 01/16/2026
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has intensified the demand for advanced elastomeric materials capable of meeting stringent noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) requirements. Unlike internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs lack traditional powertrain-induced masking noise. In the automotive industry the dynamic stiffness of elastomers for internal combustion engines are determined traditionally using hydraulic test rigs up to test frequencies of max. 1000 Hz. Measurements in excess of these frequencies were not possible and are only carried out using computerized FE or CAE calculation models. Electric drive systems generate distinct tonal noise components in the high-frequency range up to 10 kHz , which are well perceptible even at low sound pressure levels. Consequently, the dynamic stiffness characteristics of elastomers up to 3000 Hz are critical for optimizing NVH performance. This study focuses on the high-frequency dynamic stiffness testing of automotive
Bohne, Christian, Gröne, Michael
Vehicle Self-Soiling from Exterior Cleaning Mechanisms2026-26-0425To be published on 01/16/2026
The automotive industry is rapidly advancing towards autonomous vehicles, making sensors such as cameras, LiDAR, and RADAR critical components for ensuring constant information exchange between the vehicle and its surrounding environment. However, these sensors are vulnerable to harsh environmental conditions like rain, dirt, snow, and bird droppings, which can impair their functionality and disrupt accurate vehicle maneuvers. To maintain sensor performance, cleaning systems are implemented in vehicles. Testing sensor cleaning mechanisms under various weather conditions and vehicle operating situations is essential. One crucial aspect of testing is tracking the trajectory of the cleaning fluid to ensure it does not cause self-soiling of vehicle or affect other field of view, such as the windshield. While wind tunnel tests are valuable, digitalizing this process is vital for making design decisions early in vehicle development. This work presents a digital methodology to test the self
Mane, Suvidya, Makam, Sri Lalith Madhav, Varghese, Rixson, Desu, Harsha
Hybrid Topology Selection & Optimization of a Compact SUV to Meet Future CO2 Norms - an Indian Case Study2026-26-0077To be published on 01/16/2026
Rising environmental concerns and stringent emissions norms are pushing automakers to adopt more sustainable technologies. There is no single perfect solution for any market and there are solutions ranging from biofuels, green hydrogen to electric vehicles. For Indian market, especially in the passenger car segment, hybrid vehicles are favoured when it comes to manufacturers as well as with consumer because of multiple reasons such as reliability, performance, fuel efficiency and lower long-term cost of ownership. For automakers planning to upgrade their fleets in the context of upcoming CAFE III (91.7 g CO2 / km) & CAFE IV (70 g CO2 / km) norms, hybridization emerges as the next natural step for passenger cars. Lately, various state governments have also promoted hybrid vehicle sales by offering certain targeted tax breaks which were previously reserved for EVs exclusively. Current study focuses on various parallel hybrid topologies for an Indian compact SUV, which is the highest
Emran, Ashraf, Sandhu, Rouble, Keizer, Ruben, Warkhede, Pawan
Analysis of Energy Consumption for Heating City Electric Buses and Ways to Reduce It2026-26-0156To be published on 01/16/2026
For regions with cold climates, the driving range of electric buses becomes a significant obstacle to the broader adoption of this type of transport. The increased energy consumption affects not only the range of autonomous operation but also the lifespan of battery packs, the scheduling of bus departures, and the load on the charging infrastructure. In this context, finding ways to reduce the energy consumption of the climate control system is an actual issue. The aim of the presented research is to experimentally and computationally determine the energy consumption for heating the driver's cabin and passenger compartment of an electric bus during the autumn-winter operation period, as well as to identify and analyze ways to reduce this energy consumption. To determine the air temperature in the passenger compartment, a mathematical model based on heat balance equations was used. This model was validated using data from real-world tests. The research was conducted at a proving ground
Kozlov, Andrey, Terenchenko, Alexey, Stryapunin, Alexander
Qualitative and Quantitative Correlation Study for Exterior Aerodynamics for Automotive Vehicle2026-26-0407To be published on 01/16/2026
The objective of the exterior aerodynamic performance assessment of automotive vehicles is to reduce the aerodynamic drag pressure and rear side wake zone, which improves overall energy consumption of the vehicle. Almost 30 to 40% of the energy is required to overcome the drag force and wake zone pressure offered by the air on the automotive vehicle. With the increase in high performance computing power (HPC) and its affordability, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has become a popular and more effective tool for aerodynamic design and analysis in the automobile industry. In the real-world scenario, automotive vehicle is subjected to varying wind and operating conditions which affect its aerodynamic characteristics, and therefore it is difficult to reproduce such physical phenomenon in a conventional wind tunnel. Hence, the entire aerodynamic assessment was done in wind tunnel which is equipped with advanced aerodynamic assessment techniques like wheel rotations, boundary layer
Chalipat, Sujit, Biswas, Kundan, Tare, Kedar
Performance Analysis of Filter Resistance, Louver Airflow, and Fan Heat Dissipation to protect Swapping station Charger2026-26-0177To be published on 01/16/2026
Efficient thermal management in electric vehicle (EV) charging stations is critical for ensuring the reliability, safety, and longevity of power electronics. This study presents a comprehensive bench test analysis of three key parameters influencing charger cooling efficiency: filter resistance, louver airflow, and fan heat dissipation. A test bench was developed to measure pressure drop, temperature gradients, and air velocity variations across multiple filter types, louver orientations, and fan configurations. The results show that higher-efficiency filters (e.g., HEPA, MERV13) significantly reduce airflow, increasing thermal stress on electronic components, while optimized louver angles improve directional airflow, reduce turbulence, and enhance cooling performance. High-performance axial and centrifugal fans with adaptive control mechanisms further contribute to effective heat dissipation, maintaining stable operating temperatures under varying load conditions. This study provides
S, Sri Saran, chinnanna, Manjunath, Ajith, Arjun, B, Viswanathan, Kulkarni, Mukund, R, Vigneshwaran, Dhachinamoorthi, Sivanantham
Digital Twin-Enhanced Chassis Dynamometer for EV Drivetrain Testing2026-26-0363To be published on 01/16/2026
Accurate prediction of drivetrain performance and energy efficiency in electric vehicles (EVs) remains a challenge due to the limitations of conventional chassis dynamometer testing, which often overlooks dynamic vehicle-roller interactions, suspension responses, and regenerative braking effects. This paper presents a novel digital twin-enabled testing framework using a compact, two-roller chassis dynamometer integrated with real-time multibody dynamics and electromechanical co-simulation. The physical test bench is coupled with a virtual model of the EV, including suspension geometry, rear-to-front axle load distribution, tire–roller contact mechanics, and motor-inverter dynamics. By enabling bi-directional data exchange between the physical and virtual domains, the system emulates real-world load shifts, torque demand variations, and energy recovery under standardized drive cycles. This integrated approach enhances simulation fidelity, supports certification-compliant testing, and
Kumar, Akhilesh, V, Yashvati
Novel Approach on Material characterization Testing of various Wiring Harness2026-26-0548To be published on 01/16/2026
The automotive wiring harness (length of 4-5 km) is a very important and complex system in the development of a modern car due to a lot of new electric & electronic components and sensors. It is a very sensitive material unlike metals and is considered as a composite which is highly anisotropic in nature, as it consists of several different layers of copper/aluminum strands and insulation. Because of insulation, wiring harness exhibits viscous plastic behavior which is crucial in determining the durability and long-term performance of the cables. Material properties play an important role in determining the behavior of wiring harness after assembly into the car. Wiring harness may undergo Bending, Torsion and Tension loads, causing the stress and strain in the individual electrical wires. The lack of CAE validation of the wiring harness routing may lead to extra costs for the automotive OEMs over a period. This paper describes the novel method of Testing the Cables and Bundles used in
Beesetti, Siva, Kalkala Balakrishna, Prasad, James Aricatt, John, SHAH, Dipam, Tas, Onur, Krogmann, Stephan
Development of a Fuel Injector Driver for Accelerated Testing2026-26-0564To be published on 01/16/2026
This paper presents the design and development of a cost-effective fuel injector driver for accelerated testing of injectors. The driver accurately simulates injection patterns across various vehicle operating conditions. It can be programmed with injection maps for different engines, test cycles as per part drawings, predefined engine running cycles, and manual control where the frequency and duty cycle of PWM pulses are user-defined. The device can also be operated remotely via a Wi-Fi access point. This setup played a pivotal role for rapid comparative analyses among different suppliers, aiding in the final product selection. Accelerated testing was performed under various operating cycles, with performance evaluations done periodically. Conducting such tests at the vehicle level or on engine test benches would involve significant time and cost. However, the rapid development of the microcontroller-based test setup enabled quick initiation and completion of testing in a short span
Bhatt, Pancham, Agrawal, Adheesh, Kuchhal, Abhinav
Automated evaluation of drive file simulation accuracy2026-26-0528To be published on 01/16/2026
In the area of structural durability testing using servo-hydraulic actuators, developing drive files for the actuators is a major step. Testing outcomes depend on ensuring the simulation accuracy of each drive file. These drive files are developed in an iterative process for different test track surfaces at different road and load combinations till the time we achieve better correlation. Evaluation of simulation accuracy of the drive files is an extensive manual review process, making it time-consuming and resource-intensive. To address this challenge, an application has been developed to automate the comparison of actuator signals with predefined target signal files. This tool enables quick and accurate analysis of each drive file in a test run, facilitating a comprehensive review of signal deviations. Each test run has thousands of drive files based on road-load mix and actuator settings. This application helped us significantly optimize the simulation workflow by reducing the manual
SONI, YASH, Katake, Vrishali, Mullapudi, Dattatreyudu, Chaskar, Mithun
Thermal Shock Test Rig for CNG Shut-off Valve2026-26-0526To be published on 01/16/2026
In Automobile, Gasoline Engines are being used along with electrically operated shut-off valve installed at the roof of bus in case of higher capacity of CNG systems. In order to start/ stop CNG supply from cylinder for running of engine/ safety/ servicing an electrical operated ignition switch/ key controlled CNG Shut-Off Valve is placed just after the cylinders. There have been few failures of these CNG shut-off valves in field application. On investigation, it was observed that the CNG shut-off valve gets failed due to water ingress in coils from the cracks on surface generated due to spray of water (due to daily washing of bus and rain) on heated shut-off valves. In order to validate this field failure and subsequent validation of modified design, a need was felt to use a test rig which can exactly simulate the water spray based thermal shocks. However, there was no low cost facility available to simulate the field service condition for validation. Therefore, a low cost test set-up
Srivastava, Pravin Kumar, Vivekanand, Vivekanand, Kumar, Satish
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