Browse Topic: Tests and Testing

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Assignment Criteria for Function Allocation to Commercial Aviation System Security Domains2025-01-0156To be published on 05/02/2025
Aircraft cabin management is characterized by operational and business processes. Both are defined as a logical sequence of activities that occur during the flight. While the operational process includes activities to ensure flight safety, such as take-off, cruise and landing, the business process activities are related to adding value to the customer, i.e. the passenger. They are to be certified by the authority as a part of the aircraft type certification. These processes are defined by the airline and are described as part of the airline’s business model. While the scope of operational processes for passenger safety within the aircraft cabin should remain as unchanged as possible, the increasing competitive pressure on airlines is leading to a constantly rising number of services in the cabin. To prevent compromising cabin safety from increased cabin crew workload during the cruise phase, there is a growing trend toward digitizing operational and business processes. The digitized
Hintze, Hartmut, Blecken, Marvin, God, Ralf, Pereira, Daniel
Technical Paper
Integrating for Safety – A Proposed Approach to the Integration of Propulsion Battery Systems in Hybrid Electric Aviation2025-01-0148To be published on 05/02/2025
In the last year we have witnessed a notable surge in the designs and in the guidance material for electric and hybrid aircraft. FAA and EASA have continued to evaluate the safety of Propulsion Battery Systems (PBS), with a focus on thermal runaway containment testing. As a result, a harmonization white paper was issued to provide a certification path for Thermal Runaway (TR) Hazards, followed by an EASA certification memorandum on the acceptable approaches for the certification of Electric/Hybrid Propulsion Systems (EHPS). And just recently, an FAA Advisory Circular (draft) was issued for the “powered-lift” aircraft that feature these propulsion battery systems. In spite of the advances made by electric/hybrid aircraft manufacturers and the aviation authorities, there is still a missing piece of the puzzle. Mainly, we are still not confident in our ability to properly integrate the PBS into the EHPS architecture, in such a way where safety is never compromised, no matter the hazard
Hanna, Michael, Walker, Cherizar
Technical Paper
Innovative High-Performance Active Dampers for Effective Mitigation of Helicopter Main Rotor Vibrations2025-01-0163To be published on 05/02/2025
Helicopter vibrations, primarily generated by the main rotor-gearbox assembly, are a major source of concern due to their impact on structural integrity, cockpit instrument durability, and crew comfort. These vibrations are mainly transmitted through the gearbox’s rigid support struts to the fuselage, leading to increased cabin noise and potential damage to critical components. This paper presents a solution for vibration mitigation which involves replacing traditional gearbox support struts with low-weight, high-performance active dampers. Developed by Elettronica Aster S.p.A., these active dampers are designed as electro-hydraulic actuators embedded within a compliant structure. The parallel nested configuration of the system enables high power densities and effective vibration control, significantly reducing the transmission of harmful vibrations to the fuselage. The comprehensive model-based design process is detailed, describing the development and use of a high-fidelity physics
Bertolino, Antonio Carlo, Sorli, Massimo, Porro, Paolo Giovanni, Galli, Claudio
Technical Paper
Enhancing Airworthiness Security: SysML-Based Approach to Modelling Security Scope Definitions2025-01-0172To be published on 05/02/2025
Airworthiness certification of aircraft requires an Airworthiness Security Process (AWSP) to ensure safe operation under potential unauthorized interactions, particularly in the context of growing cyber threats. Regulatory authorities mandate the consideration of Intentional Unauthorized Electronic Interactions (IUEI) in the development of aircraft, airborne software, and equipment. As the industry increasingly adopts Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) to accelerate development, we aim to enhance this effort by focusing on security scope definitions – a critical step within the AWSP for security risk assessment that establishes the boundaries and extent of security measures. However, our findings indicate that, despite the increasing use of model-based tools in development, these security scope definitions often remain either document-based or, when modeled, are presented at overly abstract levels, both of which limit their utility. Furthermore, we found that these definitions
Hechelmann, Adrian, Mannchen, Thomas
Technical Paper
Determining Worst-Case Execution Time Bounds for Multi-core Processors2025-01-0155To be published on 05/02/2025
Demonstrating deadline adherence for real-time tasks is a common requirement in all safety norms, including ISO 26262 and DO-178C. Timing verification has to address two levels: the code level (worst-case execution time) and the scheduling level (worst-case response time). Determining which methodology is suited best depends on the characteristics of the target processor. All contemporary microprocessors try to maximize the instruction-level parallelism by sophisticated performance-enhancing features that make the execution time of a particular instruction dependent on the execution history. On multi-core systems, the execution time additionally is influenced by interference effects on shared resources caused by concurrent activities on the different cores, which are not controlled by the scheduling algorithm. In the avionics domain, the new FAA AC 20-193 / EASA AMC 20-193 guidance documents formalize predictability aspects of multi-core systems and derive adequate measures for timing
Kaestner, Daniel, Gebhard, Gernot, Huembert, Christian, Pister, Markus, Wegener, Simon, Ferdinand, Christian
Technical Paper
Image Processing-Based Chip Detection by KIZKI Algorithm and Its Optimization2025-01-0168To be published on 05/02/2025
The process of producing aircraft parts involves the drilling of aluminum alloys. This creates a large amount of chips, which are removed using air, but sometimes they still remain within the holes. This is checked by inspectors through visual inspection. However, the quality of human inspection varies based on skill level and fatigue. Thus, image-based inspection should be used to stabilize and further improve inspection quality. This study aims to build a framework for chip detection based on image processing. Taking into account on-site implementation, the system must have low installation and running costs and be standalone. Therefore, we adopt the KIZKI algorithm, which satisfies these conditions. KIZKI means awareness in Japanese. This is a model of human peripheral vision and saccades. It does not require training like AI and can achieve high-speed and high-performance detection using a low-performance computer. In other words, there is no need for a computer with an expensive
Iinuma, Marin, Sato, Junya, Tsuji, Masahiko
Technical Paper
The Why of Development Assurance2025-01-0154To be published on 05/02/2025
In the domain of aircraft certification, Development Assurance is what some would call a useful tool to gain confidence in the development of complex systems, and what others would call a necessary evil. But what does it actually do? Why is it necessary for certification of modern aircraft? What, epistemologically, does it bring to the table? This paper aims to show why development assurance activities, at all levels from aircraft to item, close the epistemological holes created when complex systems are chosen for implementation. It will map the different sources and types of uncertainty encountered in system verification and explain how each type is dealt with within a certification context, working from simple mechanical systems up to complex and highly integrated systems using software and airborne electronic hardware and beyond. It will show that Development Assurance, far from being an arbitrary set of activities, systematically brings personal and corporate expertise to bear to
Laflin, Cory R.
Technical Paper
A New Test Rig for Electrically Actuated Landing Gear and Brake of a Small Transport Aircraft2025-01-0161To be published on 05/02/2025
Performing highly representative tests of aircraft equipments is a critical feature for gaining utmost confidence on their ability to perform flawlessly in flight under the entire spectrum of operating conditions. This can also contribute to accelerate the certification process of a new equipment. A research project (E-LISA) was performed in recent years, as part of the european funded Clean Sky 2 framework, with the objective of building an innovative facility for testing an electrically actuated landing gear and brake for a small air transport. The project eventually led to the development and construction of an Iron Bird able to reproduce in a realistic and comprehensive way a full variety of landing test cases consistent with certification specifications and landing histories available in the repository of the airframer. The Iron Bird that was eventually developed is a multi-functional intelligent and easy reconfigurable facility integrating hardware and software allowing to
De Martin, Andrea, Bertolino, Antonio, Jacazio, Giovanni
Technical Paper
Optimization of the Numerical Spray Modeling for Polyoxymethylene Dimethyl Ethers for Combustion Prediction in CONVERGE2025-01-502604/03/2025
Different approaches are undertaken to mitigate the impact of the transport sector on climate change. Alongside electrifying powertrains, sustainable e-fuels such as polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (OME) are considered a promising bridging technology for different applications. However, this requires that the engines are optimized for the new fuels. Accordingly, this study aims to optimize the numerical spray modeling of OME in CONVERGE. Based on the KH–RT break-up model, the spray simulations of three different commercial injectors for heavy-duty applications are analyzed regarding the predictability of the liquid and gaseous penetration lengths and the total simulation time. A sensitivity analysis is conducted for the turbulence model, mesh size, and spray parameters prior to optimizing the spray model and validating it with experimental results. While each parameter individually influences the different phases of the injection event, the sensitivity analysis reveals that the break
Zepf, Andreas, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte
Technical Paper
Examination of the Data Structures of the Bendix® Data Recorder2025-01-871204/01/2025
Bendix® EC-80™ and certain EC-60™ ABS control units contain an event data recorder called the Bendix® Data Recorder (BDR). Raw BDR data is obtained using commercially available software, however, the translation of the raw data into an event report has only been performed by the manufacturer. In this paper, the raw data structures of the commercially available datasets are examined. It is demonstrated that the data follows uniform and repeatable patterns. The raw BDR data is converted into a conventional report and then validated against translation reports performed by the manufacturer. The techniques outlined in this research allow investigators to access and analyze BDR records independently of the manufacturer and in a way previously not possible.
DiSogra, Matthew, Hirsch, Jeffrey, Yeakley, Adam
Technical Paper
Design and Evaluation of an Adjustable Ackermann Rate Steering System for Formula Student Racing Cars2025-01-800004/01/2025
FSAE is a competition designed to maximize car performance, in which the steering system is a key subsystem, and the steering system performance directly affects the cornering performance of the car. The driver relies on the steering system for effective handling, which is also crucial for cornering and achieving faster lap times. Therefore, while improving the performance of the steering system, it is crucial to match the vehicle design to the driver's habits. Traditionally, steering systems typically use an Ackermann rate between 0% and 100% to offset the slip angle caused by tire deformation, thus achieving the purpose of reducing tire wear. Calculations have shown that a 40-60% Ackermann rate provides a similar compensation effect with little difference in tire wear. The traditional steering design method also does not consider the driver's driving habits and feedback, which is not conducive to the improvement of the overall performance of the car. In FSAE's figure-of-eight loops
Wu, Hailin, Li, Mingyuan
Technical Paper
Validation of SLA Control Arm Bushing Fatigue Life Under Multi-Channel Road Load Input2025-01-823504/01/2025
Continuing prior work, which established a simulation workflow for fatigue performance of elastomeric suspension bushings operating under a schedule of 6-channel (3 forces + 3 moments) road load histories, the present work validates Endurica-predicted fatigue performance against test bench results for a set of multi-channel, time-domain loading histories. The experimental fatigue testing program was conducted on a servo-hydraulic 3 axis test rig. The rig provided radial (cross-car), axial (for-aft), and torsional load inputs controlled via remote parameter control (rpc) playback of road load data acquisition signals from 11 different test track events. Bushings were tested and removed for inspection at intervals ranging from 1x to 5x of the test-equivalent vehicle life. Parts were sectioned and checked for cracks, for point of initiation and for crack length. No failure was observed for bushings operated to 1 nominal bushing lifetime. After 3 nominal bushing lifetimes, cracks were
Mars, Will, Barbash, Kevin, Wieczorek, Matthew, Pham, Liem, Braddock, Scott, Steiner, Ethan, Strumpfer, Scott
Technical Paper
Leveraging Traffic-in-the-Loop Simulations to Assess the Impact of Traffic on Vehicle Energy Consumption2025-01-805404/01/2025
The advancements in vehicle connectivity and the increased level of driving automation can be leveraged for the development of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) that improve driver safety and comfort while optimizing the energy consumption of the vehicle. In the development phase of energy-efficient ADAS, modeling and simulation are used to assess the potential benefits of these technologies on energy consumption. However, there is a lack of standardized simulation or test frameworks to quantify the benefits. Moreover, the driving scenario and the traffic conditions are often not explicitly modeled when simulating energy-efficient ADAS, even though they have a major impact on the attainable energy benefits. This paper presents the development and implementation of a closed-loop traffic-in-the-loop simulator designed to evaluate the performance of vehicles under realistic traffic conditions. The primary objective is to qualitatively assess how varying traffic conditions
Grano, Elia, Villani, Manfredi, Ahmed, Qadeer, Carello, Massimiliana
Technical Paper
Compensation Algorithm Development in Platform for Pedestrian ADAS Testing2025-01-806604/01/2025
Test procedures such as EuroNCAP, NHTSA’s FMVSS 127, and UNECE 152 all require specific pedestrian to vehicle overlaps. These overlap variations allow the vehicle differing amounts of time to respond to the pedestrian’s presence. In this work, a compensation algorithm was developed to be used with the STRIDE robot for Pedestrian Automatic Emergency Braking tests. The compensation algorithm uses information about the robot and vehicle speeds and positions determine whether the robot needs to move faster or slower in order to properly overlap the vehicle. In addition to presenting the algorithm, tests were performed which demonstrate the function of the compensation algorithm. These tests include repeatability, overlap testing, vehicle speed variation, and abort logic tests. For these tests of the robot involving vehicle data, a method of replaying vehicle data via UDP was used to provide the same vehicle stimulus to the robot during every trial without a robotic driver in the vehicle.
Bartholomew, Meredith, Nguyen, An, Helber, Nicholas, Heydinger, Gary
Technical Paper
Effectiveness of Nail Penetration for Thermal Propagation Test in Battery Packs and Vehicles2025-01-812804/01/2025
The number of electric vehicles (EVs) has significantly increased in recent years. Safety performance of EVs is at least at the same level as that of conventional vehicles. To evaluate battery safety and ensure passenger protection, several standard tests and regulations for EV batteries have been established, including IEC 62660-3, ISO 6469-1, and UN/ECE/R100 Revision 3. ISO 6469-1:2019/Amd 1 specifies thermal propagation (TP) test to evaluate battery robustness against thermal runaway (TR) in a single cell. Moreover, UN/ECE/R100 Revision 3 aims to provide sufficient egress time to protect passengers in the event of a TR in a single cell. Typically, these tests initiate TR in a cell within a battery pack using either a heater or nail. In the heater method, if the gap between cells is larger than the heater’s thickness and there are no installation constraints due to components, almost any cell can be chosen as the initiating cell. However, if the gap between cells is smaller than the
Maeda, Kiyotaka, Takahashi, Masashi
Technical Paper
A New Methodology to Characterize the Influence of Paint Baking and Pre-Straining on the Tensile Properties of Third Generation Advanced High Strength Steels2025-01-822304/01/2025
The current ASTM A653 standard for determining the bake hardening index (BHI) of sheet metals can lead to premature fracture at the transition radius of the tensile specimen in high strength steel grades. In this study, a new test procedure to characterize the BHI was developed and applied to 980 and 1180 MPa third generation advanced high strength steels (3G-AHSS). The so-called KS-1B methodology involves pre-straining over-sized tensile specimens followed by the extraction of an ASTM E8 sample, paint baking and re-testing to determine the BHI. Various pre-strain levels in the range of 2 to 10% were considered to evaluate the KS-1B procedure with select comparisons with the ASTM A653 methodology for pre-strain levels of 2 and 8%. Finally, to characterize the influence of paint baking at large strain levels, sheared edge conical hole expansion tests were conducted. The tensile mechanical properties of the 3G steels after paint baking were observed to be sensitive to the pre-strain with
Northcote, Rhys, Berry, Avalon, Narayanan, Advaith, Tolton, Cameron, Lee, Haea, Smith, Jonathan, McCarty, Eric, Butcher, Cliff
Technical Paper
Comparative Kinematic Performance Testing to SAE J3230 on a Dynamometer and Test Track2025-01-879204/01/2025
SAE J3230 provides Kinematic Performance Metrics for Powered Standing Scooters. These performance metrics include many tests which require specific conditions including flat pavement with a near zero slope, drivers of specific height and weights, and data acquisition equipment. In order to determine the efficacy of replicating SAE J3230 tests in a laboratory setting, a device called the Micromobility Device Thermo-Electric Dynamometer was used alongside outdoor tests to provide a comparison of scooter performance in these two testing applications. Based on the testing outcomes, it can be determined whether SAE J3230 and similar standards for other micromobility devices can be replicated in a lab-based setting, saving time, operator hazard, and providing more thorough data outputs.
Bartholomew, Meredith, Andreatta, Dale, Zagorski, Scott, Heydinger, Gary
Technical Paper
A Sled Test Methodology for 25% Offset Crash Tests2025-01-873704/01/2025
Sled crash tests are an important tool to develop automotive restraint systems. Compared with full-scale crash tests, the sled test has a shorter development cycle of the restraint system and lower cost. The objective of the present study is to create a cost-effective sled test methodology, calculate the optimal static yaw angle and loading curves, and analyze the motion response and injuries of the dummy in the small overlap crash test. The effectiveness of the proposed methodology was verified under two typical small overlap frontal crash modes: “energy-absorption” and “sideswipe”. The results show that with the calculated yaw angle α, the HIC was different from the small overlap crash model, but all remaining indices were within 5% of the injury criteria. All International Organization for Standardization (ISO) values between the combined accelerations of all parts of the dummy and those of the basic model exceeded 0.75, and some values were above 0.8. Therefore, the proposed sled
Yu, Liu, Chen, Jianzhuo, Wan, Ming Xin, Fan, Tiqiang, Yang, Peilong, Nie, Zhenlong, Ren, Lihai, Cheng, James Chih
Technical Paper
A Zero-Emissions Braking System: Experimental Setup, System Characterization and Model Validation2025-01-825004/01/2025
Following the current need of the automotive sector on reducing secondary emissions coming from non-exhaust sources, this paper presents an innovative zero-emissions magneto-rheological braking system, specifically designed to reach future brake emission targets while maintaining safety brake performance. In particular, the article focusses on the experimental setup design to evaluate a full-sized brake prototype under real load conditions and it presents the first experimental results. The zero-emission braking prototype has been developed for reaching performance compatible with the automotive application, specifically a segment-A vehicle, being able to generate enough braking torque as to perform an emergency brake maneuver without any other traditional braking system. A central aspect to confirm the system’s performance is the development of a test bench engineered for assessing the magneto-rheological braking technology. Detailed insights into the comprehensive strategy
Tempone, Giuseppe Pio, De Carlo, Matteo, Carello, Massimiliana, de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Imberti, Giovanni
Technical Paper
Tire Wear Life Prediction Using Machine Learning Technique2025-01-875704/01/2025
As global warming and environmental problems are becoming more serious, tires are required to achieve a high level of performance trade-offs, such as low rolling resistance, wet braking performance, driving stability, and ride comfort, while minimizing wear, noise, and weight. However, predicting tire wear life, which is influenced by both vehicle and tire characteristics, is technically challenging so practical prediction method has long been awaited. Therefore, we propose an experimental-based tire wear life prediction method using measured tire characteristics and the wear volume formula of polymer materials. This method achieves practical accuracy for use in the early stages of vehicle development without the need for time-consuming and costly real vehicle tests. However, the need for improved quietness and compliance with dust regulations due to vehicle electrification requires more accuracy, leading to an increase in cases requiring judgment through real vehicle tests. To address
Ando, Takashi
Technical Paper
Study on an Urban Ramp Driving Cycle Using Self-Organizing Map Neural Network2025-01-825904/01/2025
To tackle the issue of lacking slope information in urban driving cycles used for vehicle performance evaluation, a construction method for urban ramp driving cycle (URDC) is formulated based on self-organizing map (SOM) neural network. The fundamental data regarding vehicles driving on typical roads with urban ramp characteristics and road slopes were collected using the method of average traffic flow, which were then pre-processed and divided into short-range segments; and twenty parameters that can represent the operation characteristics of vehicle driving on urban ramp were selected as the feature parameters of short-range segments. Dimension of the selected feature parameters was then reduced by means of principal component analysis. And a SOM neural network was applied in cluster analysis to classify the short-range segments. An URDC with velocity and slope information were constructed by combination of short-range segments with highly relevant coefficients according to the
Yin, Xiaofeng, Wu, Zhimin, Liang, Yiming, Wang, Peng, Xie, Yu
Technical Paper
Research on Seakeeping Performance of Amphibious Rescue Vehicle Based on CFD2025-01-879504/01/2025
Amphibious vehicles are widely used in civil and military scenarios due to their excellent driving performance in water and on land, unique application scenarios and rapid response capabilities. In the field of civil rescue, the hydrodynamic performance of amphibious vehicles directly affects the speed and accuracy of rescue, and is also related to the life safety of rescuers. In the existing research on the hydrodynamic performance of amphibious vehicles, seakeeping performance has always been the focus of research by researchers and amphibious vehicle manufacturers, but most of the existing research focuses on the navigation performance of amphibious vehicles in still water. In actual application scenarios, amphibious vehicles often face complex water conditions when performing emergency rescue tasks, so it is very important to study the navigation performance of amphibious vehicles in waves. Aiming at the goal of studying the navigation performance of amphibious vehicles in waves
Zhang, Yu
Technical Paper
Multi-Source Error Analysis for Loading Disk of Suspension Kinematics & Compliance Test Bench2025-01-829104/01/2025
The suspension Kinematics & compliance (K&C) characteristic test bench can simulate the excitation of the road to the wheels under various typical working conditions in a quasi-static manner on the bench, enabling the measurement of the K&C characteristics of the suspension system without knowing the specific suspension structure form, parameters, etc., assisting in the entire design process of the vehicle. In this paper, aiming at various geometric source errors existing in the processing and assembly process of the K&C characteristic test bench, an evaluation method based on the homogeneous transformation matrix is proposed to establish the position error of the center of the end loading disk in the series motion chain. Firstly, the mapping relationship between the position error of the end loading disk in the series mechanism kinematic chain and the assembly error is established by using the homogeneous transformation matrix. Then, the change matrix of the coordinate system from the
Sun, Haihua, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
A Study of Tire Handling and Ride Performance Map According to Tire Tread Wear State2025-01-876004/01/2025
The electric vehicle market, vehicle ECU computing power, and connected electronic vehicle control systems continue to grow in the automotive industry. The results of these advanced and expanded vehicle technologies will provide customers with increased cost savings, safety, and ride quality benefits. One of these beneficial technologies is the tire wearing prediction. The improved prediction of tire wear will advise a customer the best time to change tires. It is expected that this prediction algorithms will be essential part for both the optimization of the chassis control systems and ADAS systems to respond to changed tire performance that varies with a tire’s wear condition. This trend is growing, with many automakers interested in developing advanced technologies to improve product quality and safety. This study is aimed at analyzing the handling and ride comfort characteristics of the tire according to the depth of tire pattern wear change. The handing and ride comfort
Kim, Changsu, Kwon, Seungmin, Sung, Dae-Un, Ryu, Yonghyun, Ko, Younghee
Technical Paper
Research on the Motor Mode Control based on the Shut off Test in Dual Motor Hybrid System2025-01-857604/01/2025
In order to improve the safety and reliability of the inverter used in hybrid vehicles and reduce the risk of inverter failure, based on the functional safety ISO26262 development process and software architecture, a safe shutdown path scheme is designed in this paper. Firstly, after entering the initialization mode, on the basis of adding the inverter control signal feedback mechanism on the inverter control system, this scheme designs the control methods and specific processes of the shutdown path test and insulation detection. The shutdown path test and insulation detection designed in this scheme are implemented during the control initialization process, including designing the hardware diagnostic safety mechanism and the unique output shutdown path test method. If the shutdown path test or insulation detection fails, the risk of IGBT out of control can be avoided; the detection mechanism of this system can effectively reduce the failure rate and potential failure rate of faults
Jing, Junchao, Liu, Yiqiang, Zuo, Botao, Huang, Weishan, Dai, Zhengxing
Technical Paper
Spectral Estimation to Quantify Road/Track Surface Degradation2025-01-825204/01/2025
Track testing methods are utilized in the automotive industry for emissions and fuel economy certification. These track tests are performed on smooth road surfaces which deteriorate over time due to wear and weather effects, hence warranting regular track repaves. The study focuses on the impact of repaving on track quality and surface degradation due to weather effects. 1D surface profiles and 2D surface images at different spatial frequencies were measured at different times over a span of two years using various devices to study the repave and degradation effects. Data from coastdown tests was also collected over a span of two years and is used to demonstrate the impact of track degradation and repaving on road load characterization parameters that are used for vehicle certification tests. Kernel density estimation and non-parametric spectral estimation methods are used to visualize the characteristic features of the track at different times. In the pre-processing stage, outliers
Singh, Yuvraj, Jayakumar, Adithya, Rizzoni, Giorgio
Technical Paper
LLM-Powered Fuzz Testing of Automotive Diagnostic Protocols2025-01-809104/01/2025
Modern vehicles contain tens of different Electronic Control Units (ECUs) from several vendors. These small computers are connected through several networking busses and protocols, potentially through gateways and converters. In addition, vehicle-to-vehicle and internet connectivity are now considered requirements, adding additional complexity to an already complex electronic system. Due to this complexity and the safety-critical nature of vehicles, automotive cyber-security is a difficult undertaking. One critical aspect of cyber-security is the robust software testing for potential bugs and vulnerabilities. Fuzz testing is an automated software testing method injecting large input sets into a system. It is an invaluable technique across many industries and has become increasingly popular since its conception. Its success relies highly on the “quality” of inputs injected. One shortcoming associated with fuzz testing is the expertise required in developing “smart” fuzz testing tools
McShane, John, Celik, Levent, Aideyan, Iwinosa, Brooks, Richard, Pesé, Mert D.
Technical Paper
Sensor Cluster for Recording the Spread of Emissions in the Wake of a Vehicle2025-01-849204/01/2025
Progressive emission reductions and stricter legislation require a closer look at the emission behaviour of a vehicle, in particular non-exhaust emissions and resuspension. In addition to the analysis of emissions in isolation, it is also necessary to consider the impact of transport routes and dispersion potential. These factors provide insight into the movement of dust particles and, consequently, the identification of particularly vulnerable areas. Measurements using low-cost environmental sensors can increase the level of detail of dispersion analyses and allow a statement on the distribution of emissions in the vehicle's wake, as several measuring points can be covered simultaneously. A newly developed measurement setup allows vehicle emissions to be recorded in a plane behind the vehicle in a measurement area of 2 by 2 metres. The measuring grid consisting of 16 sensors (4x4 grid) can be variably positioned up to 1 metre from the rear of the vehicle. The sensors detect fine dust
Kunze, Miles, Ivanov, Valentin, Gramstat, Sebastian
Technical Paper
Mitigating Paint Blistering Defects in Aluminum Casted Parts: A QC Story Approach Utilizing Computed Tomography2025-01-822904/01/2025
Blistering in aesthetic parts poses a significant challenge, affecting overall appearance and eroding brand image from the customer's perspective and blister defects disrupt painting line efficiency, resulting in increased rework and rejection rates. This paper investigates the causes and effects of blistering, particularly in the context of internal soundness of Aluminum castings, emphasizing the crucial role of Computed Tomography in defect analysis. Computed Tomography is an advanced Non-Destructive Testing technique used to examine the internal soundness of a material. This study follows a structured 7-step QC story approach, from problem identification to standardization, to accurately identify the root Cause and implement corrective actions to eliminate blister defect. The findings reveal a strong link between internal soundness and surface quality. Based on the root cause, changes in the casting process and die design were made to improve internal soundness, leading to reduced
D, Balachandar, Nataraj, Naveenkumar
Technical Paper
On-Road Investigation of Energy Saving Opportunity for Autonomous Light-Duty Vehicles through Automated Vehicle-Following in Safe Distance Scenarios2025-01-802904/01/2025
Reducing aerodynamic drag through Vehicle-Following is one of the energy reduction methods for connected and automated vehicles with advanced perception systems. This paper presents the results of an investigation aimed at assessing energy reduction in light-duty vehicles through on-road tests of reducing the aerodynamic drag by Vehicle-Following. This study provides insights into the effects of lateral positioning in addition to intervehicle distance and vehicle speed, and the profile of the lead vehicle. A series of tests were conducted to analyze the impact of these factors, conducted under realistic driving conditions. The research encompasses various light-duty vehicle models and configurations, with advanced instrumentation and data collection techniques employed to quantify energy-saving potential. The study featured two sets of L4 capable light duty vehicles, including the Stellantis Pacifica PHEV minivan and Stellantis RAM Truck, examined in various lead and following vehicle
Poovalappil, Aman, Robare, Andrew, Schexnaydre, Logan, Santhosh, Pruthwiraj, Bahramgiri, Mojtaba, Bos, Jeremy P., Chen, Bo, Naber, Jeffrey, Robinette, Darrell
Technical Paper
Dynamic Driving Task Assessment Scores for Scenarios Navigated by an OEM ADS-Equipped Vehicle2025-01-867204/01/2025
One of the major issues facing the automated driving system (ADS)-equipped vehicle (AV) industry is how to evaluate the performance of an AV as it navigates a given scenario. The development and validation of a sound, consistent, and transparent dynamic driving task (DDT) assessment (DA) methodology is a key component of the safety case framework (SCF) of the Automated Vehicle – Test and Evaluation Process (AV-TEP) Mission, a collaboration between Science Foundation Arizona and Arizona State University. The DA methodology was presented in earlier work and includes the DA metrics from the recently published SAE J3237 Recommended Practice. This work extends and implements the methodology with an AV developed by OEM May Mobility in four diverse, real-world scenarios: (1) an oncoming vehicle entering the AV’s lane, (2) vulnerable road user (VRU) crossing in front of the AV’s path, (3) a vehicle executing a three-point turn encroaches into the AV’s path, and (4) the AV exhibiting aggressive
Wishart, Jeffrey, Rahimi, Shujauddin, Swaminathan, Sunder, Zhao, Junfeng, Frantz, Matt, Singh, Satvir, Como, Steven Gerard
Technical Paper
Research on the Thermal Performance of Thick Film Heater for Electric Vehicle Battery2025-01-815404/01/2025
A specific thick film heater (TFH) for electric vehicles is investigaed in this study, and its three dimensional heat tansfer analysis model is estab-lished. The heat transfer and fluid performance of the TFH is analyzed using a computational fluid dynamics soft-ware. The performance of TFH is measured on a test bench, and the measured data is used to validate the developed model. Using the established model, the heating efficiency of TFH is studied for different inlet temperatures and flow rates, and the influence of the fin spoiler structure on TFH heating efficiency and the heating board temperature is investigated. The result indicates that the spoiler structure has a large effect on the board heating temperature, but has little effect on the heating efficiency. An orthogonal experimental design method is used to optimize the design of the fins and water channels, and the purpose is to reduce the board heating temperature for preventing over burning. Under the 25°C inlet
Guan, Wenzhe, Guo, Yiming, Wu, Xiaoyong, Wang, Dongdong, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Technical Paper
Aggressive Autonomous Control on Snow and Ice2025-01-804004/01/2025
In cold and snowy areas, low-friction and non-uniform road surfaces make vehicle control complex. Manually driving a car becomes a labor-intensive process with higher risks. To explore the upper limits of vehicle motion on snow and ice, we use an existing aggressive autonomous algorithm as a testing tool. We built our 1:5 scaled test platform and proposed an RGBA-based cost map generation method to generate cost maps from either recorded GPS waypoints or manually designed waypoints. From the test results, the AutoRally software can be used on our test platform, which has the same wheelbase but different weights and actuators. Due to the different platforms, the maximum speed that the vehicle can reach is reduced by 1.38% and 2.26% at 6.0 m/s and 8.5 m/s target speeds. When tested on snow and ice surfaces, compared to the max speed on dirt (7.51 m/s), the maximum speed decreased by 48% and 53.9%, respectively. In addition to the significant performance degradation on snow and ice, the
Yang, Yiming, Bos, Jeremy P.
Technical Paper
Characterisation and Variabilities of Sprays Produced by Tyres Rotating on Wet Surfaces2025-01-876304/01/2025
Understanding the formation and behaviour of sprays and aerosols generated by vehicles traveling on wet surfaces is crucial due to their impact on vehicle soiling, visibility, and autonomous driving. These sprays and aerosols can reduce visibility for other drivers, contribute to traffic accidents, and reduce the operational capabilities of sensors for driving assistance systems and future autonomous vehicles. Despite the critical importance of understanding the physical properties of these sprays and aerosols for the testing and validation of sensors used in environmental perception and recognition, field data on this subject remains limited. The formation and behaviour of these sprays and aerosols are complex. A fraction of the trailing droplets and ligaments originates directly from the tyres, while the remainder is generated upon the impact of the particles ejected from the tyres with the vehicle’s wheel houses and other surfaces, resulting in either coalescence or further
Otxoterena, Paul, Kallhammer, Jan-Erik, Eriksson, Peter, Ronelov, Erik
Technical Paper
Integrated Nonlinear Observer and Prescribed Performance Control for a Four In-Wheel Motor-Driven Electric Vehicles Based on Stability Boundary and Road Information2025-01-829804/01/2025
To effectively improve the performance of chassis control of a four in-wheel motor (IWM)-driven electric vehicles (EVs), especially in combing nonlinear observer and chassis control for improving road handling and ride comfort, is a challenging task for the IWM-driven EVs. Simultaneously, inaccurate state-based control and uncertainty with system input, are always existing, e.g., variable control boundary, varying road input or control parameters. Due to the higher fatality rate caused by variable factors, how to precisely chose and enforce the reasonable chassis prescribed performance control strategy of IWM-driven EVs become a hot topic in both academia and industry. To issue the above mentioned, the paper proposes a novel observer-based prescribed performance control to improve IWM-driven EVs chassis performance under the double lane change steering. Firstly, a nonlinear nine degree-of-freedom of full-car model is developed to describe vehicle chassis dynamics, and the proposed
Wang, Zhenfeng, Long, Jiarong, Li, Shengchong, Zhang, Xiaoyang, Zhao, Binggen
Technical Paper
Impact of Thermal and Electrical Dissimilarities on Battery Module Aging2025-01-817304/01/2025
Battery cell aging and loss of capacity are some of the many challenges facing the widespread implementation of electrification in mobility. One of the factors contributing to cell aging is the dissimilarities of individual cells connected in a module. This paper reports the results of several aging experiments using a mini-module consisting of seven 5 Ah 21700 lithium-ion battery cells connected in parallel. The aging cycle comprised a constant current-constant voltage charge cycle at a 0.7C C-rate, followed by a 0.2C constant current discharge, spanning the useful voltage range from minimum to maximum according to the cell manufacturer. Charge and discharge events were separated by one-hour rest periods and were repeated for four weeks. Weekly reference performance tests were executed to measure static capacity, pulse power capability and resistance at different states of charge. All diagnostics were normalized with respect to their starting numbers to achieve a percentage change
Swarts, Andre, Salvi, Swapnil S., Juarez Robles, Daniel
Technical Paper
A Novel Hybrid Approach for Segmenting Drivers Based on Their Driving Style2025-01-820504/01/2025
Drivers present diverse landscapes with their distinct personalities, preferences, and driving habits influenced by many factors. Though drivers' behavior is highly variable, they can exhibit clear patterns that make sorting them into one category or another possible. Discrete segmentation provides an effective way to categorize and address the differences in driving style. The segmentation approach offers many benefits, including simplification, measurement, proven methodology, customization, and safety. Numerous studies have investigated driving style classification using real-world vehicle data. These studies employed various methods to identify and categorize distinct driving patterns, including naturalist differences in driving and field operational tests. This paper presents a novel hybrid approach for segmenting driver behavior based on their driving patterns. We leverage vehicle acceleration data to create granular driver segments by combining event and trip-based methodologies
Chavan, Shakti Pradeep, Chinnam, Ratna Babu
Technical Paper
Research on Road-Sense Simulation Algorithm and Analysis of Its Effect on Different Steering Wheels2025-01-875304/01/2025
With the continuous development of automotive intelligence, there is an increasing demand for vehicle chassis systems to become more intelligent, electronically controlled, integrated, and lightweight. In this context, the steer-by-wire system, which is electronically controlled, offers high precision and fast response. It provides greater flexibility, stability, and comfort for the vehicle, thus meeting the above requirements and has garnered widespread attention. Unlike traditional systems, the steer-by-wire system eliminates mechanical components, meaning the road feel cannot be directly transmitted to the steering wheel. To address this, the road feel, which is derived from the vehicle's state or integrated with environmental driving data, must be simulated and transmitted to the steering wheel through a road feel motor. This motor generates feedback that mimics the road feel, similar to that experienced in a conventional steering system. This simulation enhances the driver's
Li, Shang, Kaku, Chuyo, Zheng, Hongyu, Zhang, Yuzhou
Technical Paper
On the Critical Importance of Physical Modelling for the Analysis of Coast-Down Data2025-01-877404/01/2025
Novel experimental and analytical methods were developed with the objective of improving the reliability and repeatability of coast-down test results. The methods were applied to coast-down tests of a SUV and a tractor-trailer combination, for which aerodynamic wind-tunnel data were available for comparison. The rationale was to minimize the number of unknowns in the equation of motion by measuring rolling and mechanical resistances and wheel-axle moments of inertia, which was achieved using novel experimental techniques and conventional rotating-drum tests. This led to new modelling functions for the rolling and mechanical resistances in the equation of motion, which was solved by regression analysis. The resulting aerodynamic drag coefficient was closer to its wind-tunnel counterpart, and the predicted low-speed road load was closer to direct measurements, than the results obtained using conventional methods. It is anticipated that applying the novel techniques to characterize the
Tanguay, Bernard, de Souza, Fenella
Technical Paper
Adapting the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) Framework to Automated Vehicle Development2025-01-867104/01/2025
Abstract The technological advancements in the automotive industry have seen a significant leap with the introduction of automated driving system (ADS)-equipped Vehicles (AVs), with potential for enhanced safety, efficiency, and mobility. As the development of an AV transitions from the stages of conceptual design to deployment, assessing the maturity of the technology through a structured framework is crucial. This paper proposes the adaptation of the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) framework originally developed by NASA (and adopted widely in a variety of industries) to the AV industry to provide a consistent, understandable, and transparent method to describe an AV product’s stage of development. The TRL framework is mated to the existing safety case framework (SCF) developed in the Automated Vehicle – Test and Evaluation Process (AV-TEP) Mission, a collaboration between Science Foundation Arizona and Arizona State University. The claim that the AV is ready to transition from one
Swaminathan, Sunder, Wishart, Jeffrey, Zhao, Junfeng, Russo, Brendan, Rahimi, Shujauddin
Technical Paper
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS): Assessing the Efficacy of Non-Impact Testing for Evaluating the Performance of Frontal Collision Mitigation Technology2025-01-805604/01/2025
As Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) systems become standard equipment in more light duty vehicles, the ability to evaluate these systems efficiently is becoming critical to regulatory agencies and manufacturers. A key driver of the practicality of evaluating these systems’ performance is the potential collision between the subject vehicle and test target. AEB performance can depend on vehicle-to-vehicle closing speeds, crash scenarios, and nuanced differences between various situational and environmental factors. Consequently, high speed impacts that may occur while evaluating the performance of an AEB system, as a result of partial or incomplete mitigation by an AEB activation, can cause significant damage to both the test vehicle and equipment, which may be impractical. For tests in which impact with the test target is not acceptable, or as a means of increasing test count, an alternative test termination methodology may be used. One such method constitutes the application of a late
Kuykendal, Michelle, Easter, Casey, Koszegi, Giacomo, Alexander, Ross, Paradiso, Marc, Scally, Sean
Technical Paper
A Novel Method for Evaluating on-Road Drag Changes Using Constant Power Measurements2025-01-876404/01/2025
This paper introduces a new approach for measuring changes in drag force across different vehicle configurations using an on-road testing technique. The method involves fixing the vehicle’s power across configurations and then measuring the resulting speed differences. A detailed formulation is provided on how these speed variations can be used to calculate the change in drag force for each configuration. The OBD II port is used to access and record additional data necessary for the calculations. The method is applied to both a passenger car and a commercial van to evaluate drag changes for different vehicle add-ons. A roof sign was installed at various positions along the roof of the vehicles to assess drag increases, while novel rear appendages were fitted to both vehicles to evaluate the resulting drag reductions. Detailed CFD simulations were performed on the road-tested configurations to compare the simulated drag changes with those measured on the road. Excellent agreement was
Connolly, Michael Gerard, Ivankovic, Alojz, O'Rourke, Malachy J.
Technical Paper
Research on Segmented Latency Testing Method for in-Vehicle Real-Time Systems Based on DDS Middleware2025-01-808304/01/2025
With the rapid development of intelligent connected vehicles, their open and interconnected communication characteristics necessitate the use of in-vehicle Ethernet with high bandwidth, real-time performance, and reliability. DDS is expected to become the middleware of choice for in-vehicle Ethernet communication. The Data Distribution Service (DDS), provided by the Object Management Group (OMG), is an efficient message middleware based on the publish/subscribe model. It offers high real-time performance, flexibility, reliability, and scalability, showing great potential in service-oriented in-vehicle Ethernet communication. The performance of DDS directly impacts the stable operation of vehicle systems, making accurate evaluation of DDS performance in automotive systems crucial for optimizing system design. This paper proposes a latency decomposition method based on DDS middleware, aiming to break down the overall end-to-end latency into specific delays at each processing stage
Yu, Yanhua, Luo, Feng, Ren, Yi, Hou, Yongping
Technical Paper
Development of Prediction Model for Vehicle Road Load Using Machine Learning2025-01-825804/01/2025
In the modern automotive industry, improving fuel efficiency while reducing carbon emissions is a critical challenge. To address this challenge, accurately measuring a vehicle’s road load is essential. The current methodology, widely adopted by national guidelines, follows the coastdown test procedure. However, coastdown tests are highly sensitive to environmental conditions, which can lead to inconsistencies across test runs. Previous studies have mainly focused on the impact of independent variables on coastdown results, with less emphasis on a data-driven approach due to the difficulty of obtaining large volumes of test data in a short period, both in terms of time and cost. This paper presents a road load energy prediction model for vehicles using the XGBoost machine learning technique, demonstrating its ability to predict road load coefficients. The model features 27 factors, including rolling, aerodynamic, inertial resistance, and various atmospheric conditions, gathered from a
Song, Hyunseung, Lee, Dong Hyuk, Chung, Hyun
Technical Paper
The Guangzhou Automotive Group Co. Aerodynamic, Acoustic, and Thermal Wind Tunnel2025-01-878804/01/2025
The Guangzhou Automotive Group Co., Ltd (GAC Group) wind tunnel, located in Guangzhou, China, is a state-of-the-art facility that uniquely integrates world-class aerodynamic flow quality, acoustic capability, and thermal conditions into a single system for the development of passenger vehicles. This closed return, ¾ open jet wind tunnel features a nozzle with a cross-section of 20 m2 and a 2.5 MW fan, capable of delivering a maximum wind speed of 200 km/h. The wind tunnel is equipped with a ±90° turntable, a boundary layer control system, and a 5-belt moving ground plane system for aerodynamic tests. Comprehensive acoustic treatments in the test section and throughout the wind tunnel circuit establish a hemi-anechoic test environment with minimal background noise levels for acoustic tests. For thermal tests, the wind tunnel includes a 4-wheel chassis dynamometer system downstream of the turntable, with temperature control ranging from 20°C to 60°C and humidity control between 15% and
Bender, Trevor, Nasr Esfahani, Vahid, Liu, Zheng, Yang, Hui, Li, Shuya, Song, Xin, Liu, Man, Ma, Zhijian
Technical Paper
Accurate Terms and Definitions for Simulation, Accelerated Reliability and Durability Testing, and Successful Efficiency Prediction2025-01-820204/01/2025
This paper reviews the current situation in the terms and definitions that influence the development of testing and prediction in automotive, aerospace and other areas of engineering. The accuracy of these terms and definitions is very important for correct simulation, testing and prediction. This paper aims to define accurate terms and definitions. It also includes the author’s recommendations for improving this situation and preparing new standards.
Klyatis, Lev
Technical Paper
Fixture Stiffness Impact on Spindle Coupled Multi-Axial Input Durability Test for Front or Rear Axle with Non-isolated Subframes2025-01-825604/01/2025
The half vehicle spindle-coupled multi-axial input durability test has been broadly used in the laboratory to evaluate the fatigue performance of the vehicle chassis systems by automotive suppliers and OEMs. In the lab, the front or rear axle assembly is usually held by fixtures at the interfaces where it originally connects to the vehicle body. The fixture stiffness is vital for the laboratory test to best replicate the durability test in the field at a full vehicle level especially when the subframe of the front or rear axle is hard mounted to the vehicle body. In this work, a multi-flexible body dynamics (MFBD) model in Adams/Car was utilized to simulate a full vehicle field test over various road events (rough road, braking, steering). The wheel center loads were then used as inputs for the spindle coupled simulations of the front axle with a non-isolated subframe. Three types of fixtures including trimmed vehicle body, a rigid fixture with softer connections and a rigid fixture
Gao, Jianghua, Smith, Derek, Zhang, Xin, Yu, Xiao
Technical Paper
Synchronizing Real-Time Control in Centralized Automotive E/E Architectures2025-01-807204/01/2025
Automotive technologies have been rapidly evolving with the introduction of electric powertrains, Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Over-The-Air (OTA) upgradability. Existing decentralized architectures are not an optimal choice for these applications, due to significant increases in cost and complexity. The transition to centralized architectures enables heavy computation to be delegated to a limited number of powerful Electronic Control Units (ECUs) called domain or zone controllers. The remaining ECUs, known as smart actuators, will perform well defined and specific tasks, receiving new parameters from the dedicated domain/zone controller over a network. Network bandwidth and time synchronization are the two major challenges in this transition. New automotive standards have been developed to address these challenges. Automotive Ethernet and Time Sensitive Networking (TSN) are two standards that are well-suited for centralized architectures. This paper presents a
Ayesh, Mostafa, Bandur, Victor, Pantelic, Vera, Wassyng, Alan, Wasacz, Bryon, Lawford, Mark
Technical Paper
Empirical Analysis on Machine Vision Recognition of Green Bike Lanes for Vulnerable Road Users Safety2025-01-801704/01/2025
Deliberate modifications to infrastructure can significantly enhance machine vision recognition of road sections designed for Vulnerable Road Users, such as green bike lanes. This study evaluates how green bike lanes, compared to unpainted lanes, enhance machine vision recognition and vulnerable road users safety by keeping vehicles at a safe distance and preventing encroachment into designated bike lanes. Conducted at the American Center for Mobility, this study utilizes a vehicle equipped with a front-facing camera to assess green bike lane recognition capabilities across various environmental conditions including dry daytime, dry nighttime, rain, fog, and snow. Data collection involved gathering a comprehensive dataset under diverse conditions and generating masks for lane markings to perform comparative analysis for training Advanced Driver Assistance Systems. Quality measurement and statistical analysis are used to evaluate the effectiveness of machine vision recognition using
Ponnuru, Venkata Naga Rithika, Das, Sushanta, Grant, Joseph, Naber, Jeffrey, Bahramgiri, Mojtaba
Technical Paper
Effect of Aftermarket Modifications on ADAS Functionality – 2021 Ford F-150 Light Vehicle2025-01-805704/01/2025
Both automotive aftermarket vehicle modifications and Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are growing. However, there is very little information available in the public domain about the effect of aftermarket modifications on ADAS functionality. To address this deficiency, a research study was previously performed in which a 2022 Chevrolet Silverado 1500 light truck was tested in four different hardware configurations. These included stock as well as three typical aftermarket configurations comprised of increased tire diameters, a suspension level kit, and two different suspension lift kits. Physical tests were carried out to investigate ADAS performance of lane keeping, crash imminent braking, traffic jam assist, blind spot detection, and rear cross traffic alert systems. The results of the Silverado study showed that the ADAS functionality of that vehicle was not significantly altered by aftermarket modifications. To determine if the results of the Silverado study were
Bastiaan, Jennifer, Muller, Mike, Morales, Luis
Technical Paper
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