Browse Topic: Fuels and Energy Sources

Items (37,465)

Enhancing Efficiency in Megawatt-Scale EV Charging via Adaptive Multi-Agent Control of DC/DC Converters

2026-01-0769

To be published on 07/01/2026

The rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) with longer driving range demands high-power charging solutions that are efficient, scalable, and reliable. This work introduces a comprehensive simulation framework for megawatt-scale charging systems, focusing on the integration and control of multiple DC/DC converters. With the primary objective of maximizing overall system efficiency during megawatt-scale charging operations. A multi-agent adaptive control strategy is implemented to dynamically optimize operating points and allocate charging currents across converters in real time so that each participating converter operates at its optimal operating point where the maximum possible efficiency is delivered. This multi-agent adaptive control strategy allocates not only the individual optimal operating points of the multiple DC/DC converters but rather determines the optimal number of participating DC/DC converters at each time instance during the charging session. In addition to that

Salah, Alia, Abu Mohareb, Omar

Efficient Powertrain Control Using Signal Decomposition: Utilizing Signal Decomposition Constituents for Knock Detection in Internal Combustion Engines

2026-01-0737

To be published on 07/01/2026

Knocking combustions in an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) are engine damaging combustions, and reliable detection of each knocking event is very critical. Engines usually rely on piezo-electric knock sensors to monitor structure-borne noise, which outputs a complex, continuous time series signal. Typically, knock combustions have an additional noise component along with the regular combustion signal, but differentiation of knocking vs non knocking signal (signal to noise ratio) based on visual inspection of this signal alone is challenging and requires computationally intense signal processing such as Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) or Wavelet transforms followed by manual calibration [1]. In this paper, we propose an alternative to replace traditional knock detection with more reliable time-domain alternative signal decomposition technique. Here we decompose the raw sensor signal into seasonality, trend, and residual, and use the residual component as it is seen to retain

Parulekar, Tushar A., Chilukuri, Sandeep, Mahmood, Haneefa

Multiphysical Modeling of a Direct-Cooled Litz Wire Winding for a PMSM Using Surrogate Models

2026-01-0731

To be published on 07/01/2026

In permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) ohmic losses occur in the stator windings. Reducing these losses contributes to a higher efficiency and increases the vehicles range. An effective approach to reduce frequency-dependent AC conduction loss is the use of litz wires. In addition, direct cooling helps to reduce DC conduction loss and winding temperatures. Therefore, this work presents a multiphysical modeling approach of a direct-cooled litz wire winding in a PMSM. It combines loss modeling of the winding with novel thermal and hydraulic calculation methods. AC conduction loss due to skin and proximity effect and DC conduction loss are modeled temperature dependent. Scaled-down conjugate heat transfer simulations are used to determine the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) between wires and coolant. Additionally, the pressure drop is derived and converted into parameters for use in a porous media model. The derived parameters are used to generate surrogate models to enable

Blaschke, Wolfgang Maximilian, Mengoni, Leonard, List, Adrian, Kulzer, André Casal

A Model-Based, Iterative Framework for Developing Reconfigurable Validation Environments for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) Systems in Mobile Applications

2026-01-0756

To be published on 07/01/2026

Fuel cell electric vehicles are described on cell, stack and system levels. In driving operation, multi-physics coupling across subsystems (reactant supply, humidification, thermal management, etc.) reshapes cell- and stack-level boundary conditions, impacting performance and degradation mechanisms. Isolated single-topic approaches on one specific level may have limited transferability, as cross-level interdependencies under changing operating conditions can negate improvements or shift limiting factors. This underscores the development of validation environments (VEs) that represent cross-level interactions and evolve as experimental evidence redirects research questions. Models such as the V-Model provide phase-oriented logic for developing VEs when validation scope, boundary conditions and acceptance criteria can be specified upfront and remain stable. However, in PEMFC VE development, experimental conclusions frequently reshape hypotheses, operating conditions and research topics

Knaier, Johannes, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert

Stochastic Gradient Pulse Adaptation for Grid Friendly DC Fast Charging of Battery Electric Vehicles

2026-01-0734

To be published on 07/01/2026

This paper presents Stochastic Gradient Pulse Adaptation (SGPA), a real-time adaptive pulse-charging system for rechargeable electrochemical batteries that dynamically adjusts charging aggressiveness based on the battery's internal response, as opposed to predetermined CC–CV or fixed pulse profiles. SGPA is different from traditional charging methods that use static current de-rating and conservative voltage limits. Instead, SGPA uses gradient-based feedback from terminal voltage behaviour, temperature changes, internal resistance changes, and state of charge to continuously adapt pulse amplitude and duty cycle. This algorithm boosts the charging intensity when the electrochemical circumstances are good. It lowers the pulses slowly when signs of thermal or impedance-related stress show up. Simulation-based proof-of-concept experiments on a heavy-duty multi-battery system show that charging time is less than with multi-CCCV charging, while still keeping the current distribution across

Prakashkumar, Balagopal, Mannar, Vignesh

Synergistic Integration of Advanced Combustion and Air-Path Technologies to Maximize Internal Combustion Engines Efficiency in Hybrid Applications

2026-01-0733

To be published on 07/01/2026

This paper assesses the efficiency limits of light-duty vehicle propulsion systems based on reciprocating internal combustion engines (ICE) in the current state of the art and in the next five-year horizon, considering their combination with technologies such as electric turbocharging and hybridization, while excluding plug-in hybrid configurations so that fuel remains the primary onboard energy source. A systematic methodology is applied to evaluate the influence of key variables—heat transfer, air–fuel ratio, and compression ratio—on engine performance, integrating these variations into a simulation model to capture their interactions and effects. The resulting parametric study enables the generation of new engine maps that exploit synergies between parameters and enhance the prediction of engine behaviour across different operating conditions, forming the basis for assessing potential advancements in hybrid powertrain architectures. These maps are then used to define performance

Pla, Benjamin, Dolz, Vicente, Serrano, Jose R., Gómez-Vilanova, Alejandro, Oliva, Fermin, Cardenas, Maria, Ariztegui, Javier

Experimental Study of Warm-Up And Startability Operations in a Spark Ignition Engine Fueled with Ethanol Gasoline Blends

2026-01-0738

To be published on 07/01/2026

The mitigation of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions poses a major challenge for the transportation sector, driving the need for renewable fuels. Bioethanol represents a promising fuel for Spark-Ignition (SI) engines, combining a reduced life-cycle CO₂ impact with advantageous combustion properties. However, despite its proven performance under steady-state conditions, the widespread of fuels with high ethanol content is still constrained by significant difficulties during engine cold-start operation. This study aims to experimentally assess the effect of ethanol concentration on cold-start performance and warm-up transient behavior of a Naturally Aspirated (NA), Port Fuel Injected (PFI) SI engine. Warm-up tests were conducted at an operating condition of 2000 rpm engine speed and 20 Nm torque using three fuels with increasing ethanol content: commercial gasoline (E5), E30 and E60. In addition, dedicated startability tests were carried out for E60 and neat ethanol (E100) at different

Falbo, Luigi, Falbo, Biagio, Perrone, Diego, Castiglione, Teresa

Methodology for Developing a Learning-Based Energy Management Strategy for Hybrid Electric Vehicles via Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) Deep Reinforcement Learning Algorithm

2026-01-0774

To be published on 07/01/2026

The optimization of energy management strategies for hybrid electric vehicles is crucial for minimizing fuel and electrical energy consumption while maintaining the energetic stability of the electrical system. Conventional heuristic, rule-based approaches typically rely on classical optimization techniques and manual calibration by experienced engineers. These methods often suffer from simplified assumptions, sub-optimality, and are increasingly time-consuming given the growing complexity of modern hybrid powertrain architectures. This research proposes a novel methodology for the development of a learning-based energy management strategy (EMS) via deep reinforcement learning (DRL) to transition toward highly automated, data-based, and optimization-based development approaches. The methodology utilizes the Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) algorithm, an off-policy actor-critic method, to train an agent through experiences by interacting with an environment. The environment consists of a

Metzler, Sebastian, Winke, Florian, Jungen, Mario, Schmiedler, Stefan, Hofmann, Peter, Geringer, Bernhard

Improved Thermal Management for Operating a Battery Electric City Bus under Real Driving Conditions

2026-01-0758

To be published on 07/01/2026

The goal of reducing global CO2 emissions requires actions especially for the transportation sector. To achieve the goal, electric traction motors are frequently implemented in passenger vehicles, as well as in commercial vehicles like heavy-duty trucks or buses. Particularly electric city buses have the potential to reduce the local emissions in urban areas and provide local exhaust-emission-free mobility. While their number of registrations rises, research focusses on the improvement of the overall system in order to increase energy efficiency. High importance is gained by the thermal management of the whole system. This research investigates a simulative approach to improve the thermal management and therefore the energy efficiency of an electric city bus. The different thermal components of an electric city bus like drive system, battery system and heating, ventilation and air conditioning system (HVAC system) are modelled. Their thermal behavior has been validated in previous

Schäfer, Henrik, Hellberg, Tobias, Meywerk, Martin

Biofuel Effect on Regeneration Capability and Soot Reactivity in SCRoF Systems

2026-01-0750

To be published on 07/01/2026

Biodiesel blends (B7, B20, B100) were evaluated in a Stage V-compliant SCR on Filter (SCRoF) system for heavy-duty applications to quantify soot reactivity and filter regeneration capability. Compared to conventional diesel (B7), B20 showed slightly faster regeneration performance under real-driving conditions, while B100 resulted in reduced particulate formation and higher soot reactivity, with more intense exothermic events requiring careful management. These differences are attributed to the distinct physical-chemical properties of the fuels (oxygen content, lower heating value) and their interaction with Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC)/SCRoF. All tests were conducted on an engine dynamometer with a Cursor 9 FPT (Fiat Powertrain). Findings are discussed in the context of EU Stage V limits and practical control strategies for heavy-duty applications.

Costa, Simone

Numerical Analysis of Pre-Ignition Factors in Hydrogen Engines

2026-01-0740

To be published on 07/01/2026

Numerical analysis was conducted to investigate abnormal combustion, a major challenge in efforts to improve hydrogen engine efficiency. Focusing on two factors that induce abnormal combustion—surface reactions and lubricating oil—numerical analysis examined the potential for each to trigger abnormal combustion. Furthermore, since it was confirmed that the autoignition prediction using a detailed chemical reaction mechanism deviates from experiments at temperatures around 800K, attempts were made to improve this issue. As a result, it was confirmed that surface reactions affect the chemical species ratio near the wall surface but have little effect on flame propagation. Regarding lubricating oil, two possibilities were investigated: the lubricating oil itself self-igniting and becoming an ignition source for the hydrogen mixture, and deposits generated from the lubricating oil generating heat and becoming an ignition source. The results of these investigations showed that autoignition

Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Yamane, Taichi, Wang, Zhiyuan, Kuboyama, Tatsuya

CFD Optimization of Multi-Pass Serpentine Flow Distributors for PEM Fuel Cells

2026-01-0746

To be published on 07/01/2026

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells represent one of the most promising solutions for decarbonizing powertrain technologies, as they can be employed as carbon-free electrical power source. However, performance degradation during their operating lifetime - caused among other factors by non-uniform reactant distribution and improper membrane humidification, which may lead to the formation of local hot spots - remains a significant challenge. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tools represent an effective approach for investigating the transport of oxygen and hydrogen within the cell and for optimizing the geometry of PEM fuel cell flow distributors. Thus, they can be exploited in order to improve the uniformity of current density and temperature distributions over the cell active area. In this work, a serpentine flow field PEM fuel cell is considered as test case. The distributor consists of a multi-pass serpentine flow-field composed of repeated sets of five parallel channels

Bulgarini, Margherita, Della Torre, Augusto, Montenegro, Gianluca, Baricci, Andrea, Mereu, Riccardo, Lalangui Gallegos, Jose A., De La Morena, Joaquin

Multi-Scale Modelling of Localized Battery Degradation in Heavy-Duty Series Hybrids: From Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy to Powertrain and Battery Pack Performance

2026-01-0747

To be published on 07/01/2026

Hybrid electric vehicles rely heavily on battery pack power capability, which is often compromised by non-uniform aging and thermal gradients. Conventional battery models typically use bulk state-of-health metrics, failing to capture localized degradation that leads to current imbalances and reduced pack utility. This paper presents a multi-scale modelling framework that integrates Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy data into a fractional-order equivalent circuit model to simulate localized degradation in Lithium Iron Phosphate cells. Results show that the terminal voltage of LFP cells can be accurately modelled using the proposed fractional-order equivalent circuit with a discrete transfer-function implementation, maintaining root-mean-square errors below 20 mV across most state-of-health and state-of-charge conditions. The validated cell model is then extended to a degradation-aware battery pack representation. The battery pack in this work utilizes a 200-kWh, 800 V architecture

Safavi, Seyed Reza, Homayouni, Hooman, Shoa, Tina, Wang, Jason, McTaggart-Cowan, Gordon

Efficient Testing of Vehicle-Integrated Thermal Management Systems on a Chassis Dynamometer Using an Innovative Energy Efficient Approach

2026-01-0761

To be published on 07/01/2026

Hybrid-electric (xHEV) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are expected to play a crucial role in the transition towards sustainable mobility in both the individual and commercial transportation sectors. As their market share increases, there is a need for advanced research to enhance overall vehicle efficiency – particularly through optimized energy management systems. For FCEVs, an optimal energy management strategy is essential to ensure safe and durable operation. For xHEVs, thermal management serves as a central lever for improving efficiency and controlling emissions, making it an integral part of the overall powertrain development process. Considering today’s regulatory landscape, these aspects must be addressed early in development. Consequently, a holistic methodological framework is required, enabling not only technical robustness but also economic benefits, such as reducing engineering effort through effective frontloading. This methodology is composed of integrated

Lavall, Philipp, Beidl, Christian, Fiore, Luis, Papavasileiou, Ioannis, Hohenberg, Günter, Kalski, Christian

Towards a Smarter E-Bike: Enhancing Energy Efficiency through Adaptive Speed Control

2026-01-0736

To be published on 07/01/2026

This paper presents the development of a speed controller for e-bikes, designed as part of an energy-adaptive assistance system. The controller provides riders with appropriate support along planned routes, based on the available battery capacity. The control concept is intended for integration into existing commercial e-bikes without requiring extensive modifications to the drive system. Therefore, the rider remains part of the control loop, adjusting the support mode according to instructions from the controller. The speed controller is implemented as a rule-based state machine, enabling comprehensible design and parameterization. Since the rider must manually switch between support modes while riding, the control logic incorporates hysteresis and dead times to ensure stability, prevent oscillations, and avoid frequent mode switching. The user interface is a smartphone application that issues visual and audio instructions for switching support modes. An initial, system-independent

Rauch, Yannick, Simmann, Gabriel, Schneider, Manuel, Goss, Christian, Kriesten, Reiner

Experimental Investigation of Fuel Cutout Strategies in a Heavy-Duty Gasoline Compression Ignition Engine

03-19-03-0015

6/26/2026

This study investigates Gasoline Compression Ignition (GCI), a family of advanced combustion strategies that can be used to achieve low engine-out criteria pollutant emissions in the heavy-duty transportation sector. In particular, high fuel stratification GCI (HFS-GCI) has been shown to have high thermal efficiencies while maintaining a highly controllable and responsive mixing-controlled combustion event. However, stable combustion at low loads has been shown to be the principal challenge to the implementation of HFS-GCI in production applications. It has also been observed that several strategies that achieve stable combustion at low loads result either in increased emissions or efficiency penalties. While the achievement and maintenance of high enough exhaust temperatures for efficient aftertreatment operation is a significant challenge at low loads even for traditional diesel engine operation, this challenge is exacerbated by the low reactivity and colder flame temperature of

Viswanathan, Aravindh Babu, Zhang, Yu, Merritt, Brock

Use Cases for Wireless Charging Communication for Plug-in Electric Vehicles

J2836/6_202606 (Current)

6/24/2026

This SAE Information Report SAE J2836/6 establishes use cases for communication between plug-in electric vehicles and the EVSE for wireless energy transfer as specified in SAE J2954. It addresses the requirements for communications between the on-board charging system and the wireless EV supply equipment (WEVSE) in support of detection of the WEVSE, the charging process, and monitoring of the charging process. Since the communication to the charging infrastructure and the power grid for smart charging will also be communicated by the WEVSE to the EV over the wireless interface, these requirements are also covered. However, the processes and procedures are expected to be identical to those specified for V2G communications specified in SAE J2836/1. Where relevant, the specification notes interactions that may be required between the vehicle and vehicle operator, but does not formally specify them. Similarly, communications between the on-board charging sub-system and the on-board vehicle

Hybrid - EV Committee

Evaluating the Impact of Fuel Additives on Stochastic Pre-ignition Using Center for Quality Assurance (CQA) Approved Methodology

03-19-03-0016

6/22/2026

Stochastic preignition (SPI) or low-speed preignition (LSPI) is an abnormal combustion phenomenon observed in downsized turbocharged direct-injection spark-ignition engines at highly boosted conditions. SPI results from the ignition of the air-fuel mixture from a fuel or oil droplet or a detached deposit before the spark discharge, and its occurrence can lead to extremely high peak pressures and severe knock, which can cause physical damage to the engine. This phenomenon limits the downsizing and boosting potential of direct-injection spark-ignition engines, thereby constraining the efficiency benefits that can be achieved. The propensity for SPI to occur is impacted by engine operating conditions as well as the properties of the fuel, fuel additives, lubricant, and lubricant additives. To mitigate its occurrence, it is important to understand the factors that impact the frequency of SPI events. As this abnormal combustion phenomenon is relatively recent, there was a lack of a standard

Gopujkar, Siddharth, Davis, Richard, Worm, Jeremy, Tuma, Nic, Shukla, Prajwal, Reilly, Veronica, Chapman, Elana, Ciaravino, Joseph, Seyfried, Philipp

Study on the Influence of Structural Parameters of Ejectors for High-Power Fuel Cells

13-07-01-0005

6/22/2026

This study focuses on a hydrogen ejector for a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) with a maximum power of 150 kW. Experimental tests were conducted to obtain the operating parameters of the stack under 100 kW and 150 kW conditions, which were used as simulation boundary conditions. A three-dimensional numerical model of the ejector was established and validated. Based on this model, the effects of key structural parameters—including nozzle throat radius (Rnt ), nozzle position (NXP), mixing chamber radius (Rm ), diffuser outlet radius (Rde ), secondary flow inlet radius (Rs ), suction chamber radius (Rf ), and constant-pressure mixing chamber length (Lpm )—on ejector performance were systematically analyzed. The results indicate that Rnt and Rf are negatively correlated with ejector performance, while Rs and Lpm are positively correlated. In contrast, NXP, Rm , and Rde exhibit an optimal range, leading to a single-peak characteristic in ejector performance. This research

Liu, Guoqing, Tai, Shupeng, Xi, Fuqiang, Li, Zongji, Ji, Shaobo, Wang, Xiuyu, Wei, Hui

Field-Based Evaluation of Physiological Fatigue Reduction in Fuel Cell Refuse Collection Vehicle Using Heart Rate Variability

2026-01-0690

6/20/2026

Understanding the physiological impact of vehicle electrification on operators remains an important but underexplored issue in commercial vehicle research. This study quantitatively evaluates the physiological fatigue of drivers and onboard crew members during real-world operation of commercial refuse-collection vehicles by comparing a diesel-powered vehicle with a fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV). Both vehicles were operated on the same routes under comparable real-world operating conditions, including similar time periods and operational tasks, during municipal waste collection service. Heart Rate Variability (HRV) metrics were obtained from R-R interval (RRI) data recorded using a Polar heart rate sensor. The Root Mean Square of Successive Differences (RMSSD), a time-domain index reflecting short-term parasympathetic activity, and Poincaré (Lorenz) plot area (LP area), a nonlinear HRV index reflecting overall autonomic nervous system modulation, were calculated. In-cabin vibration

Utsumi, Atsuko, Yakoh, Takahiro

Clearance Impact on Hydrogen Recirculation Pump Applied in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Systems

2026-01-5040

6/11/2026

The clearance between the impeller and pump head is a critical parameter of the hydrogen recirculation pump used in proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) systems, and it significantly affects performance, efficiency, and reliability. This study investigates the impact of clearance on the performance of a hydrogen recirculation pump applied in PEMFC systems. Both numerical simulation and experimental methods are employed to systematically evaluate the effects of symmetric circular clearances ranging from 0 to 0.4 mm, as well as asymmetric clearance configurations representative of manufacturing tolerances and assembly deviations. According to the research results, the pressure rise increases with the clearance decreasing under a given flow rate, and a smaller clearance would show a stronger capability to cover a larger flow rate range. The clearance impact on the performance of the hydrogen recirculation pump is found to be in the lower flow rate zone. In addition, the pressure

Xie, Lu, Zhong, Hao, Tsoi, Jeffrey

SAE Truck & Off-Highway Engineering: June 2026

26TOFHP066/11/2026

Hitting the road in the all-new VNR Volvo Trucks' revised VNR brings updated safety tech, improved fuel economy and driver comfort features to the regional haul segment. In fuel control How to ensure off-highway combustion systems operate with sufficient control to meet tightening emissions standards and evolving fuel landscapes without sacrificing reliability. Keeping industrial vehicles secure in a digital landscape OEMs, integrators and suppliers must continuously process, assess and identify platform vulnerabilities to prioritize and implement updates that protect systems from cyberattacks and data breaches. Editorial Diversification key for sustainable fleets ACT 2026: Uncertainty still exists over EPA 2027 NOx limit ZF bets big on hybrid transmissions Moog simplifies off-highway electrification Bosch shows off its first U.S. electrolyzer Microvision fast-tracks adoption of Luminar tech; eyes defense, industrial sectors Future-ready, customizable connectivity powers precision

Impact of High Compression Ratios on Ethanol Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition

2026-01-5038

6/10/2026

Ethanol requires elevated intake temperatures to initiate autoignition in Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) as a high-octane single-stage fuel. To leverage the high thermal efficiency, low engine-out NOx, and near-zero soot inherent to HCCI with ethanol, a custom piston design was developed to enable high compression ratios (CR) up to 22.5:1. This study investigates HCCI combustion with ethanol at three CRs of 17.5, 20.0, and 22.5 through equivalence ratio and boost sweeps performed to assess the reduction in the intake temperature requirement at high CRs and the emissions and efficiency trade-offs. Results indicate a clear benefit with reduced intake temperature requirements with increasing CR. However, a combustion efficiency penalty was observed at high CRs. Three-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations were performed using Large Eddy Simulation (LES) coupled with a detailed chemistry model to investigate the underlying mechanisms of the combustion

Vedpathak, Kunal, Kumar, Mohit, Motwani, Rahul, Datar, Aditya, Gainey, Brian, Lawler, Benjamin

Heavy-Duty Nonroad Material Handler Electrification Part 1: Real-World Drive Cycle Development

02-19-03-0015

6/10/2026

Knowing a detailed operating cycle is critical for developing and testing equipment. Operating cycles can be separated by two clear distinctions: (1) regulatory or non-regulatory and (2) application at the engine-only or full machine level. The Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Nonroad Transient Cycle (NRTC) may be a good representation of engine use in many types of equipment, but there is a gap in standardized and validated drive cycles specifically for nonroad material handlers. Lacking a standardized drive cycle makes it difficult to accurately benchmark machine performance and validate new powertrain technologies. The objective of this investigation is to illustrate the development of a custom drive cycle augmented with real-world customer use data that serves multiple purposes: (1) understand the range of operation and utilization that formulated inputs for electrified architecture analysis and (2) develop a repetitive and consistent maneuver to establish baseline energy

Czarnecki, Alexander, Goodenough, Bryant, Worm, Jeremy, Robinette, Darrell, LaTendresse, Phil, Westman, John

Development of a Load Responsive Mechanical Shifting Mechanism and its Benefits for Battery Electric Vehicles

2026-37-0026

6/9/2026

Many high-end electric vehicles use an automatic two-speed transmission. The ability of the drivetrain to switch between two gear ratios improves vehicle performance and increases driving range. The aim of the presented research work is to transfer these advantages to small and lightweight battery-electric vehicles, which face significant cost and weight constraints and therefore cannot rely on highly sophisticated electric motors. Direct-drive systems are widely used in this vehicle class due to their simplicity and high baseline efficiency. However, they offer limited flexibility in adapting the operating point of the electric motor under varying load conditions. A two-speed transmission can overcome this limitation by enabling load point shifting, allowing the motor to operate closer to its optimal efficiency region during both urban and extra-urban driving. This results in improved energy consumption without adding substantial system complexity. Currently, only actuated

Napetschnig, Christof, Tromayer, Juergen, Stückler, David

Development of a Diesel Combustion System for Next-Generation Heavy-Duty Engines Using a Synergistic Analysis-and-Testing Approach

2026-37-0004

6/9/2026

Regulators and policymakers have introduced increasingly stringent limits on tailpipe CO₂ and pollutant emissions to accelerate the decarbonization of heavy-duty vehicle applications. The development of innovative propulsion technologies — such as advanced combustion systems, low-friction reciprocating components, and improved aftertreatment solutions — combined with hybridization and the adoption of alternative fuels (e.g., biogas, HVO, green hydrogen), is a key pathway for meeting future emission and GHG targets. In this study, advanced combustion systems were developed for a 13-liter diesel engine for heavy-duty truck applications, with the objective of meeting forthcoming Euro VII regulations while maximizing thermal efficiency. The combustion system architecture—including open-bowl geometry with high aspect ratio, injector nozzle with wider spray opening angle, and reduced swirl ratio—was optimized using a Machine Learning–algorithm trained on high-fidelity 3D CFD combustion data

Belgiorno, Giacomo, Centini, Maria Pia, Pezza, Vincenzo, Cozza, Ivan F., Pesce, Francesco C., Vassallo, Alberto, Colombo, Giovanni, Gallo, Alessandro, Mirzaeian, Mohsen, Borg, Jonathan

Comparative Toxicological Assessment of Exhaust Emissions from Modern Low-Emission Passenger Vehicles

2026-37-0005

6/9/2026

As vehicle technologies evolve toward electrification and advanced aftertreatment, understanding the biological implications of their exhaust emissions remains essential. This study presents a harmonized comparative toxicological assessment of five Euro 6 vehicles representing gasoline, hybrid, plug-in hybrid, compressed natural gas (CNG), and diesel technologies. Vehicles were tested under realistic driving conditions on a chassis dynamometer. Diluted exhaust was delivered directly to human lung epithelial cells (A549) using a controlled air–liquid interface (ALI) exposure system. Solid and total particle number emissions were measured, and deposited particle mass was estimated from size-resolved distributions and deposition efficiency. Vehicles equipped with particulate filtration showed lower solid particle emissions overall, while differences between gasoline particulate filter-equipped vehicles indicated that hybridization can further influence emission levels. Diesel operation

Tsakonas, Georgios, Stamatiou, Rodopi, Lazou, Antigone, Samaras, Zissis, Elihn, Karine

Numerical Simulation of Spark-Ignited Flame Kernels towards Prospective Application to Hydrogen SI Engines

2026-37-0015

6/9/2026

The ongoing energy transition demands the decarbonization of the transport sector, for which the use of premixed hydrogen in spark-ignition (SI) engines appears very promising. However, modeling the combustion of the lean hydrogen/air mixtures required for safe, efficient, and low-NOx engine operation involves multiple open issues. Correct prediction of flame kernel initiation and growth is a difficulty that hydrogen shares with hydrocarbon fuels, while properly accounting for the instabilities that characterize lean hydrogen flames is an additional demanding task. In this work, a 1D kernel expansion model of general validity recently proposed by the authors is implemented into OpenFOAM, an open-source 3D CFD software package, to enable numerical simulation of expanding spark-ignited flame kernels. Firstly, the OpenFOAM framework is presented focusing on XiFluid, its flame propagation model based on a regress variable whose evolution depends on the laminar flame speed. Then, the

Dotteschini, Enrico, Pretto, Marco, Giannattasio, Pietro, Gadalla, Mahmoud

On Natural Gas Combustion Split into Diesel Like Architecture of a Compression Ignition Engine Retrofitted for Spark Ignition Operation

2026-37-0029

6/9/2026

In commercial areas that no longer favor diesel engines, such as Europe, it might be interesting to convert an existing compression ignition engine to the spark ignition operation and to use natural gas (NG) because of its advantages: availability of still abundant supplies worldwide and environmental benefits compared to conventional liquid fossil fuels. This paper first presents experimental results on NG combustion inside such a converted engine with diesel-like architecture dedicated to light-duty vehicles and passenger cars. Particularly, our study carried out at the engine test bed revealed that in certain operating points (low speed and load, stoichiometric mixture and rather high spark advance), the combustion is split into two distinct events (first, a fast combustion inside the cylinder and piston bowl and then, a slower combustion occurring outside the bowl-in combustion chamber, in other words, in the squish region), which is not specific to the standard spark ignition

Clenci, Adrian F., Popa, Robert, Berquez, Julien, Iorga-Siman, Victor, Magheru, Catalin, Punov, Plamen, Niculescu, Rodica

Low-Voltage Electric Vehicle with a Reconfigurable Powertrain Architecture for Urban and Extra-Urban Mobility

2026-37-0025

6/9/2026

This paper presents a novel concept for battery electric vehicles (BEVs), referred to as the low-voltage reconfigurable electric vehicle (LVREV). The LVREV is designed to bridge the gap between L- and M-class vehicles by adopting a <60 V multi-phase powertrain combined with a swappable battery system, maintaining the overall vehicle mass below one ton. This configuration enables adaptable driving range, optimized energy consumption in urban environments, and enhanced safety. The LVREV features two distinct operating modes. Frugal mode is intended for urban use and employs a smaller battery pack to maximize efficiency and reduce vehicle mass, while Dual mode is tailored for longer extra-urban trips through the use of a dual-battery configuration. The key innovations of the LVREV concept include a reconfigurable vehicle architecture capable of meeting both urban and extra-urban mobility requirements, thus providing a highly versatile transportation solution. In addition, the low-voltage

Tramacere, Eugenio, Favelli, Stefano, Galluzzi, Renato, Tonoli, Andrea

Investigating the Potential of Two Individually Controlled Injectors per Rotor for a Direct Injection Hydrogen Wankel Engine

2026-37-0008

6/9/2026

Hydrogen-fueled rotary engines offer a promising zero-emission solution for compact commercial powertrains. This study reports experimental results from the further development of a naturally aspirated, direct-injection hydrogen rotary engine by HTM. Initial applications, such as an airport baggage tractor, demonstrated technical feasibility but revealed pre-ignition that limited maximum torque. To address this, mixture formation was investigated using an experimental setup with two independently controlled injectors feeding a single rotor injection channel. The effects on operating behavior, efficiency, and NOx emissions were evaluated. The dual-injector configuration significantly shortens injection duration and improves spatial distribution of hydrogen within the combustion chamber. Enhanced mixture control suppresses pre-ignition and enables higher mean effective pressure. Systematic variation of injection timing under representative steady-state conditions also shows potential for

Endres, Jonas, Beidl, Christian, Herold, Tim, Lavall, Philipp, Schmidt, Marvin, Hofmann, Silas, Kahl, Jonas

Evaluation of Flamelet-Based Combustion Models for Hydrogen-Ammonia Spark-Ignition Engines

2026-37-0027

6/9/2026

Besides the electrification of the transport sector, the growing interest in alternative fuels for internal combustion engines represents a promising pathway to effectively decarbonize transportation over the coming decades. Predictive combustion models implemented within CFD frameworks are a critical tool to guide the design of next-generation internal combustion engines fuelled with alternative fuels. Accurate prediction of the combustion heat release process is influenced by multiple interacting parameters, requiring combustion models that can reliably adapt to variations in fuel chemical properties and operating conditions. In this study, two well-established combustion models considered to model combustion development in Spark-Ignition engine, namely the Extended Coherent Flame Model (ECFM) and the G-equation model, are compared to assess their capability to adapt to changes in fuel chemical composition. Both models, based on the flamelet formulation are deliberately tested beyond

Sola, Riccardo, Baratta, Mirko, Misul, Daniela, Rousselle, Christine, BREQUIGNY, Pierre, Colin, Olivier

Enabling Flexibility Services through Interoperable V2X Infrastructures: Advanced Modeling and Operational Validation in the FLEXV2X Project

2026-37-0024

6/9/2026

The integration of Electric Vehicles (EVs) as active grid resources represents a pivotal shift towards decarbonization. However, the implementation of effective Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) services faces technical challenges regarding interoperability, predictive management, and battery health preservation. This work presents a comprehensive system design and research methodology developed within the framework of the FLEXV2X project, aimed at addressing interdependencies within a unified bidirectional charging ecosystem. The proposed scientific framework addresses two complementary timescales. At the device level, the study details the modelling and optimization of bidirectional converters, focusing on control algorithms designed to ensure robust dynamic response and efficiency. Building upon this hardware foundation, the paper describes a system-level optimization strategy. By employing open-source cyber-physical modelling, the architecture simulates complex EV-grid interactions. This

Lutzemberger, Giovanni, Barater, Davide, Ceraolo, Massimo, Fera, Cesare, Leaver, Ian, Pasini, Gianluca

Alcohol-Based Energy Carriers in Transportation: Status, Standards, and Outlook

2026-37-0042

6/9/2026

The global transport sector accounts for approximately 30 % of total final energy consumption and 15.9 % of worldwide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with road transport alone accounting for the largest share at 11.8 %. Decarbonizing this sector requires energy sources that combine scalable generation from renewable sources with compatibility with various modes of transportation and existing infrastructure. Methanol and ethanol emerge as promising alternative energy carriers that can leverage existing logistics infrastructure while reducing dependence on fossil fuels. Global methanol production reached 112 million metric tons, and global ethanol production totaled approximately 93.5 million metric tons in 2024, compared to more than 2 billion metric tons of gasoline and diesel produced annually. The review assesses production pathways and cost trajectories for both alcohols, evaluates fuel requirements across multiple transport modes, including passenger vehicles, light- and heavy-duty

Fitz, Patrick, Fellner, Felix, Rößlhuemer, Raphael, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte

Can Large Language Models Enable Sustainable Driving Behavior? A Study on Large Language Model-Based Eco-Driving

13-07-02-0006

6/9/2026

Large language models (LLMs) have shown remarkable capabilities for perceiving driving environments and making interpretable, logical decisions for autonomous driving. However, their potential for more comprehensive driving strategies, especially concerning energy efficiency, remains underexplored. Most existing studies primarily focus on driving safety, which may inadvertently increase energy consumption. To address this issue, this study explores the use of LLMs as high-level controllers to jointly optimize driving safety and energy efficiency. A textual prompt is designed for the LLM, incorporating few-shot examples that describe scenarios, states, and actions. The LLM processes the scenario and state prompts describing the surrounding traffic environment. It generates a high-level control signal, which is then translated into low-level vehicle motion commands in a high-fidelity traffic simulator with realistic physics, vehicle dynamics, road slopes, and network topology

Wang, Haoyu, Li, Zhenning, Wang, Siying, Zhou, Zijing, Zhang, Xiang, Yang, Zhifeng, Ou, Shiqi (Shawn), Qi, Hao

Experimental Investigation on Cold Start and Warm-Up Phases for an Ethanol Fueled SI Engine

2026-37-0031

6/9/2026

The reduction of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions represents a key challenge for the transportation sector, requiring the adoption of renewable fuels capable of ensuring both environmental benefits and compatibility with existing internal combustion engine technologies. In this context, bioethanol emerges as a viable solution for Spark Ignition (SI) engines, offering a low life-cycle CO₂ footprint and favorable combustion characteristics. Nevertheless, despite its well-known advantages under steady-state operation, the widespread use of high-ethanol-content fuels is still limited by critical issues during engine cold start. The aim of this work is to experimentally investigate the influence of ethanol content on cold-start behavior and idle warm-up transient operation of a Naturally Aspirated (NA), Port Fuel Injected (PFI) SI engine. The experimental campaign was carried out under idle conditions using four fuels with increasing ethanol content, namely commercial gasoline (E5), E30, E60

Falbo, Luigi, Falbo, Biagio, Perrone, Diego, Castiglione, Teresa

Nitrogen-Based Emissions from Ammonia Combustion in a Heavy-Duty Spark Ignition Engine

2026-37-0032

6/9/2026

Ammonia (NH3) is a carbon-free fuel with strong potential for spark-ignition (SI) engine applications. However, the engine can produce complex nitrogen-based emissions not adequately captured by conventional engine models. This study consolidated the results of experimental and numerical studies on the use of neat NH3 combustion in a heavy-duty compression-ignition engine converted to spark-ignition operation, first for a sweep of equivalence ratios (ϕ) from 0.7 to 1.0, and another from varying the energy substitution ratio of methane (CH4)– NH3 blends from neat CH4 to neat NH3 at constant ϕ = 0.8. Two 0-D two-zone SI engine models with detailed chemistry (called “original” and “extended”) predicted engine thermodynamics and emissions. While the original model reproduced in-cylinder pressure and combustion phasing, it failed to capture the effect of fuel composition or operating condition on NO trends, both under- and over-predicting them for neat NH3 and CH4-rich operations. An

Trujillo Grisales, Juan, Saenz Prado, Stefany, Alvarez, Luis F., Akkerman, Vyacheslav, Dumitrescu, Cosmin E.

Passenger Car Powertrain for Voltages above 800V

2026-37-0020

6/9/2026

The EU funded innovation project High-Voltage fast-charging Efficient electric vehicle Powertrains (HiVEP) develops innovative technologies for mass-market electric vehicles (EVs) by advancing architectures operating above 800 V. These architectures integrate silicon carbide (SiC)-based power electronics, rare-earth-free electric machines with active winding reconfiguration, high C-rate batteries, and optimized thermal management systems. HiVEP aims to enable fast charging in less than ten minutes, reduce energy consumption by at least 25%, extend the driving range by 20%, and cut system costs by up to 20% in volume production. This article deals in detail with the project objectives, the methodological approach, and the expected key innovations, as well as the technical, environmental, and social impacts. The discussion situates HiVEP within the European research and innovation landscape, emphasizing its role in accelerating adoption of sustainable mobility solutions.

Schernus, Christof, Nada, Shady, Neuhaus, Christoph, Ewald, Jens, Swierc, Daniel, Kallur-Krishnamoorthy, Rajesh, Vasiliadis, Harilaos

Development of a 0D – 1D Numerical Model for the Thermal Management of a Heavy – Duty PEMFC

2026-37-0006

6/9/2026

The rising concerns on climate change is accelerating the transition from fossil fuel-based technologies to sustainable energy systems. In this framework, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) are gaining an increasing interest due to their high efficiency and wide range of applications. Nevertheless, these systems experience significant performance losses under high loads, associated with significant heat generation, making thermal management a fundamental design aspect. In this study, a 200-kW low temperature PEMFC was investigated through the development of a 0D – 1D model of a simplified cooling circuit implemented in GT – SUITE environment. The model was used to evaluate the influence of design parameters on the effective efficiency of the system to dissipate the excessive heat. Additionally, a detailed stack-only model, comprehensive of the Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA) subcomponents, was developed to verify the temperature differences between coolant fluid and

Cecere, Giovanni, Antetomaso, Christian, Irimescu, Adrian, Merola, Simona

Impact of Compression Ratio and Stroke on Hydrogen Requirement for Emission-Optimized Operation of an Ammonia-Fuelled Spark-Ignition Engine

2026-37-0030

6/9/2026

Ammonia (NH3) fuelled engines have emerged as a promising route toward net-zero emission targets due to NH3’s carbon-free nature, ease of storage, and established handling infrastructure. However, the low laminar burning speed and narrow flammability limits of NH3 pose a significant combustion challenge, which can be addressed through hydrogen (H2) co-fuelling. For practical implementation, on-board H2 production via thermal catalytic cracking of NH3 is an attractive solution, as it eliminates the need for external H2 storage and associated handling and capital costs. Previous studies by the present authors identified a lean operating strategy that achieves an equimolar ratio of NOx and unburned NH3 (α NH3NOx ≈ 1), enabling complete conversion to nitrogen and water vapour when coupled with a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system. This strategy was further validated using cracked NH3 derived H2 in place of bottled H2 through an on-board cracker, thereby representing a practical

Yadav, Neeraj Kumar, Ambalakatte, Ajith, Geng, Sikai, Gopakumar Suja, Gagan, Birch, Alexander, Cairns, Alasdair, Harrington, Anthony, Hall, Jonathan

Development and Experimental Validation of a 1D Model for Performance and Emissions Analysis of Oxygenated Fuel Blends in a CI Engine

2026-37-0028

6/9/2026

Emissions reduction remains a major concern for internal combustion engines in view of increasingly stringent environmental regulations. To address these challenges while maintaining acceptable engine performance, a wide range of alternative fuels and fuel blends have been investigated to ensure the continued viability of CI engines. This study reports the effects of blending the oxygenated fuel diethylene glycol diethyl ether (DGDE) with hydrotreated vegetable oil biodiesel (HVO) on engine performance and emissions. The investigation is conducted on a 2.3-liter, four-cylinder, common-rail diesel engine, equipped with a variable geometry turbocharger and a high-pressure exhaust gas recirculation system. The objectives of this study are achieved by developing a one-dimensional predictive engine model using the commercial GT-SUITE software. The engine model is developed and experimentally validated, at various operating conditions and HVO–DGDE fuel blends, to predict their effects on

Arain, M Wajahat Rasool, Foglia, Antonio, Frasci, Emmanuele, Vitek, Oldrich, Pianese, Cesare, Arsie, Ivan

Performance and Combustion Characteristics of Coryton SUSTAIN Classic Super 80 Carbon-Neutral Fuel versus EN 228 in a 1980s Fiat 500 Engine

2026-37-0033

6/9/2026

The energy transition requires a rapid reduction in the use of fossil fuels, whose combustion generates substantial greenhouse-gas emissions. In Europe, transport alone accounts for roughly a quarter of total greenhouse-gas emissions, with road transport being the predominant component. In this context, the use of biofuels has emerged as a potential solution for limiting further increases in CO₂ emissions. However, most studies available in the literature evaluate the performance of these fuels on modern engines, while their effects on historic carburetted engines remain largely unexplored. This is particularly significant given the large fleet of historic vehicles across Europe, supported by a long-standing tradition of vehicle preservation, associations, and classic car collectors. The main historic-vehicle federations advise caution and the use of low-ethanol formulations so as not to damage elastomers, fuel tanks, and carburettor float bowls. For this reason, a few suppliers have

Tarchiani, Marco, Fossati, Federico, Raspanti, Sandro, Baroni, Alberto, Ferrara, Giovanni, Romani, Luca

Potential of ORC-Based Waste Heat Recovery in Conventional and Hybrid Heavy-Duty Powertrains

2026-37-0018

6/9/2026

Heavy-duty vehicles significantly contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and urban air pollution, especially during cold-starts and transients when engine and aftertreatment efficiencies drop. Waste heat recovery (WHR) via Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems offers a practical solution to improve fuel efficiency and cut CO₂ in real-world heavy-duty operations. This study examines ORC-based WHR integration into conventional and hybrid powertrains of an Isuzu FTR850 truck, analyzing four configurations: Shell-and-Tube or Plate heat exchangers with simple or regenerative ORC layouts. For hybrids, it compares two engine sizes and energy management strategies: an optimized fuzzy logic approach versus constant-power operation to enhance exhaust heat recovery. A validated quasi-static simulation framework is used to predict fuel consumption and exhaust properties over representative duty cycles. 2D performance maps using exhaust temperature and mass flow as inputs are used to model the WHR

Donateo, Teresa, Morrone, Pietropaolo

Comparison of Detailed Chemistry and Flamelet-Based Models for Hydrogen Combustion in a Heavy-Duty PFI Engine

2026-37-0014

6/9/2026

Addressing climate change requires substantial reductions in CO2 emissions from the transportation sector, where alternative fuels for internal combustion engines play a crucial role. Hydrogen stands out as a compelling energy carrier capable of enabling low-carbon combustion while leveraging existing engine technologies. Its adoption can support a transition toward fuel-flexible powertrains and deliver rapid decreases in exhaust carbon emissions. This approach is particularly relevant for hard-to-abate segments, where full electrification remains challenging. Building on this perspective, this numerical study investigates the modelling behaviour of a heavy-duty port fuel injection (PFI) internal combustion engine fuelled with hydrogen. Initially, the mixture was assumed to be fully premixed to avoid uncertainties related to injection and mixing processes and to significantly reduce computational cost; this assumption was subsequently validated through selected injection simulations. A

Scopelliti, Alex, Misul, Daniela Anna, Baratta, Mirko, Gallo, Alessandro, Rapetto, Nicola, Vargiu, Luca

Methane Emission Mitigation in Large-Bore Dual-Fuel Engines via Negative Valve Overlap Diesel Injection: Thermochemical Pathways and Reactivity Control

2026-37-0045

6/9/2026

Low-load natural gas–diesel reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) in medium-speed marine engines is constrained by an insufficient charge thermal state. This limitation leads to partial fuel oxidation, producing high methane emissions. This work evaluates the use of negative valve overlap (NVO) combined with NVO diesel injection as an in-cylinder reactivity enhancement strategy. The simulation study was performed using the University of Vaasa’s advanced thermo-kinetic multi-zone model (UVATZ), extended for reactive simulations during NVO. The extended framework was validated against test-bench data from a prototype Wärtsilä 6L20 dual-fuel engine operating in RCCI mode. The baseline low-load operating point for reforming simulations was defined by reducing the intake manifold temperature to replicate conditions close to partial misfire with 52% combustion efficiency. The parametric sweeps of NVO injection timing and ratio showed that the strategy can be used for in-cycle

Soleimani, Amir, Nurmi, Mikael, Hunicz, Jacek, Kim, Jeyoung, Hyvonen, Jari, Mikulski, Maciej

Forecasting Electric Vehicle Fleet Growth and Energy Requirements in the UK

2026-37-0043

6/9/2026

With the United Kingdom’s goal to achieve a fully decarbonised energy sector by 2035 and achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, the transition of the UK’s passenger car fleet to battery electric vehicles (BEVs) plays a crucial role in reaching this goal. This study evaluates the environmental and energy impact of large-scale BEV adoption by modelling future uptake scenarios using historical fleet data combined with assumed impact of future policy such as the 2030 ban on the sale of new petrol and diesel vehicles. Three predictive models have been developed: fast uptake, in which approximately 100% of the passenger car fleet is replaced by BEVs; moderate uptake, where a large majority of passenger cars are BEVs; and slow uptake, in which BEV adoption does not reach a majority. The results have shown that, if a medium- or large-scale adoption is possible by 2040 predicting nearly 37 million BEVs on the road, the associated electricity demand is predicted to rise close to 110

Burke, Bradley, Kateregga, Sunny, Sodre, Jose Ricardo

Analysis of a Sorption Energy Storage System for Cabin Air Heating and Dehumidification in Electric Vehicles

2026-37-0034

6/9/2026

This work investigates the integration of a Sorption Thermal Energy Storage (TES) into the Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system of electric vehicles. The proposed device reduces the energy demand for cabin heating under winter conditions, leading to a driving range increase. The TES dehumidifies the cabin air through a desiccant bed (zeolite 4A), preventing window fogging, enabling higher air recirculation rates, and consequently reducing the required heating power. An experimentally validated numerical model was used to analyze the adsorption and regeneration processes and to identify suitable operating conditions. Regeneration was found to be effective at moderate temperatures (from 120°C), with a counter-current airflow configuration providing faster and more efficient desorption compared to parallel-flow one. A simplified model integrating TES, HVAC unit and cabin was developed and used to compare different configurations. Heating energy consumption with and

Verlingieri, Rebecca, Calabrese, Luigi, Freni, Angelo, Marocco, Luca, Scudeler, Gabriele, De Antonellis, Stefano

Hybridized Diesel Powertrains - An Important Enabler for Commercial Applications on the Long Journey towards Full Electrification

2026-37-0022

6/9/2026

The ongoing efforts for reduction of the traffic-related greenhouse gas emissions and, at the same time, the mitigation of harmful pollutant emissions from vehicle exhaust emissions are important development tasks for the entire automotive industry worldwide according to demand to provide clean and efficient products. Further tightened fleet average FE standards and ultra-low limits for exhaust emissions require the continuous development of new propulsion system types. Due to the given reluctance of the end customer and corresponding low acceptance of fully electrified vehicles, especially in the commercial vehicle segment, new and innovative topologies are needed to meet regulatory requirements and maintain the high versatility of today’s dominating solutions. For further optimization of operating conditions with enhanced fuel efficiency, the technical strategy is also determined by uplifting the attractiveness of electric driving incl. the avoidance of areas with poor ICE efficiency

Koerfer, Thomas

Development and Validation of a One-Dimensional Model for an Opposed-Piston Free-Piston Engine Generator with Parametric Analysis

2026-37-0021

6/9/2026

Opposed-piston free-piston engine generators (OFPEGs) are emerging as a promising technology for next-generation hybrid and electrified transportation systems due to their high efficiency, reduced mechanical complexity, and improved noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) characteristics. However, due to eliminating the conventional crankshaft mechanism and directly coupling a free-piston engine with linear generators, performance of OFPEG systems is governed by a strong coupling between piston dynamics, in-cylinder combustion processes, and electrical loading conditions. This coupling presents substantial challenges for system design, control, and optimization, limiting the further development and application of OFPEGs. Existing researches lack a comprehensive numerical model that integrates detailed in-cylinder thermodynamic process with control system of linear generator, and quantitative analysis of the effect of piston motion trajectory on system performance remains insufficiently

Wang, Jiayu, Morandi, Nicola, Lucchini, Tommaso, FENG, HUIHUA, Jia, Boru, Ren, Peirong

Optimal Charging Planning with Energy Consumption Simulation for Battery Electric Long-Haul Trucks

2026-37-0019

6/9/2026

Vehicle fleet decarbonization is a key objective for the coming years, with electrification representing the primary pathway to achieving the targets set by the European Union. The share of battery electric trucks in new registrations has been gradually increasing especially in light and medium size trucks. The replacement rate of diesel long-haul trucks with zero emission trucks is still low due to challenges posed by added complexity and limitations of battery charging. Depot overnight charging is not sufficient to cover the energy needs of a truck covering large distances and careful planning of the route using public charging infrastructure is crucial for an optimized route minimizing extra costs and range anxiety. The current work aims to develop a methodology to propose the optimal charging locations for a given route of a battery electric truck based on nearby stations along the route. Our study uses an open-source optimization algorithm for the fixed route vehicle charging

Perdikopoulos, Michail, Doulgeris, Stylianos, Livitsanos, Georgios, Kazakis, Thomas, Mellios, Giorgos, Ntziachristos, Leonidas

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