Browse Topic: Design Engineering and Styling

Items (43,783)

Multi-Objective Optimization of the Energy Management Strategy for Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Examination of Sensitivities between Fuel Consumption, Electric Driving and Driving Comfort

2025-24-0103To be published on 09/07/2025

The combination of the electric drive and the internal combustion engine (ICE) in hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) requires the implementation of an Energy Management Strategy (EMS). The task of the EMS is to split the driving demand between the two energy converters. The design of the EMS in charge-sustaining operation is commonly targeted at the minimization of fuel consumption. For in-vehicle implementation of the EMS, supplementary objectives, such as the electric driving (ED) experience or the driving comfort, influenced by the frequency of state shifts, are considered. Therefore, this work extends the framework for EMS optimization from the fuel-optimal design to multi-objective target spaces. First, the general multi-objective optimal control problem (MOOCP) is formulated. In a next step the central target space for EMS calibration consisting of fuel consumption, ED time and number of ICE starts is considered and the resulting MOOCP is solved using Dynamic Programming (DP). The

Ehrenberg, Bastian

Numerical analysis of the combustion process in a pre-chamber marine engine fueled with ammonia-hydrogen mixtures

2025-24-0021To be published on 09/07/2025

Ammonia and hydrogen, as carbon-neutral fuels, possess the potential to play a crucial role in the decarbonization of the mobility sector. This research examines the optimization of the combustion process in a marine spark-ignition engine through the use of a passive pre-chamber. The study has been carried out using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models. Considering a hydrogen content in the fuel blend of 15% by volume, at a fixed equivalence ratio equal to 0.8, two different nozzle diameters have been tested, and the optimal spark timings have been identified. Then, the effect of different hydrogen amounts in the fuel mixture on the engine’s performance and emissions has been assessed. An optimal spark timing of 712 CAD has been found for both 3 mm and 5 mm nozzles at the specified operating point. The 5 mm nozzle provides slightly higher IMEPH and gross efficiency, with minimal impact on emissions. Reducing hydrogen in the fuel blend from 15% to 10% lowers IMEPH from 31 to 12 bar

D'Antuono, Gabriele, Lanni, Davide, Galloni, Enzo, Fontana, Gustavo

Enabling near-zero emissions and superior efficiency in large-bore, medium-speed engines with a hydrogen-argon power cycle

2025-24-0001To be published on 09/07/2025

Combustion engines operating on a hydrogen-argon power cycle (H-APC) offer potential for superior thermal efficiency with true zero exhaust emissions. The high specific heat ratio of argon allows extrapolation of the theoretical efficiency of the Otto cycle to almost 90%. However, this potential is significantly constrained by challenges in combustion control, excessive thermal loading, and system integration, particularly regarding argon recovery. This study investigates these trade-offs, within the context of real-world engine-based peaking power plants. An experimentally validated 1D-simulation model of a prototype Wärtsilä 20 DF engine serves as reference for analysis of a retrofit incorporating a closed-loop argon cycle, with dedicated H₂ and O2 injectors, a water condenser and water separator. Engine performance is evaluated at reference operating point of 75% load, considering pre-ignition, peak pressure and exhaust temperature constraints, condenser limitations, and impurity

Ahammed, Sajid, Ahmad, Zeeshan, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Kakoee, Alireza, Hyvonen, Jari, Mikulski, Maciej

Numerical analysis of in-nozzle flow of methanol injectors for large marine two-stroke engines

2025-24-0069To be published on 09/07/2025

A statistical method for analyzing momentum deflection angles of fuel injectors based on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation of the internal nozzle flow is proposed. This method is especially relevant for large marine two stroke engines where the spray is often deflected due to an eccentric and asymmetric design of the internal injector geometry. Unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) CFD simulations are employed to analyze the internal flow of different cavitating injectors which have four and five nozzle holes, respectively, for a 50 cm bore and a 95 cm bore dual-fuel engine operating on methanol. The in-nozzle flow dynamics vary from one to another significantly. The use of the statistical analysis on the distribution of deflection angles at the fuel nozzle hole exit further assists at explaining differences in measured surface temperatures of the exhaust valve bottom and piston bowl. The corrected spray angles obtained from these in-nozzle simulations also serve

Quist, Nicolai, Matlok, Simon, Pang, Kar Mun, Norman, Thomas, Mayer, Stefan, Walther, Jens

S.I.S.T.E.R.: an integrated approach to non-exhaust emissions

2025-24-0091To be published on 09/07/2025

As electric mobility spreads and evolves, non-exhaust Particulate Matter sources are gaining more attention for total vehicular emissions. A holistic approach for studying the involved phenomena is necessary to identify the parameters that have the greatest impact on this portion of emissions. To achieve this, it is needed to develop a new platform capable of both creating testing methodologies for future regulations and enabling the parallel development of advanced tires and brakes that meet these standards, by correlating vehicle dynamics, driving style, tire and brake characteristics, and the resulting emissions. Here the authors present the Sustainable Integrated System for Total non-Exhaust Reduction (S.I.S.T.E.R.) project, funded by the Italian Centro Nazionale per la Mobilità Sostenibile (MOST), that aims to develop an integrated approach to study tire/brake-related emissions from the initial stages of compound development to outdoor vehicle tests, allowing actions to be taken

Genovese, Andrea, De Robbio, Roberta, Lenzi, Emanuele, Caiazza, Antonio, Lippiello, Felice, Costagliola, Maria Antonietta, Marchitto, Luca, Serra, Antonio, Arimondi, Marco, Bardini, Perla

Numerical Investigation of Lean Neat Ammonia Combustion in a Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine Converted to Spark Ignition

2025-24-0032To be published on 09/07/2025

Ammonia (NH3) use as fuel poses technical challenges such as increased nitrogen-based and unburned NH3 emissions. This study used a 0D model coupled with detailed NH3 kinetics to evaluate the effect of equivalence ratio (ϕ) from 0.7 to 1.0 in a heavy-duty compression ignition engine converted to spark ignition operation. The goal was to evaluate how ϕ affected NOx and N2O formation and/or destruction at constant fuel energy per cycle, engine speed, and CA50. Simulated NOx emissions (i.e., NO + NO2) followed a trend similar to the one typically observed for hydrocarbon fuels in a SI engine, but that was different from the experiment. In addition, it underpredicted NOx emissions for ϕ = 0.7 by 79% and overpredicted NOx emissions for ϕ = 1 by 576%. The simulation showed that thermal NO production was more than 80% from the total NO production, but the effect of ϕ on this percentage was negligible. Then, predicted N2O emissions had an opposite trend and were three orders of magnitude lower

Saenz Prado, Stefany, Alvarez, Luis F., Trujillo Grisales, Juan M., Akkerman, Vyacheslav, Dumitrescu, Cosmin E.

An optimized particle collection system for PM10 and PM2.5 tyre wear emission factors under real-world conditions

2025-24-0093To be published on 09/07/2025

The growing demand for greener transport along with progress in vehicle electrification has led to an increased focus on accurate Emission Factors (EFs) for non-exhaust sources like tyres. Tyre wear arises through mechanical and thermal processes, generating Tyre Road Wear Particles (TRWP) composed of rubber polymers, fillers, and road particles. This research aims to establish precise tyre airborne EFs for real-world conditions, emphasizing in an efficient collection system to generate accurate PM10 and PM2.5 EFs from passenger car tyres. Particle generation replicates typical driving on asphalt road for a wide selection of tyres (different manufacturers, price ranges, fuel economy rating). Factors such as tyre load, speed and vehicle acceleration are also considered to cover various driving characteristics. The collection phase focuses on separating tyre wear particles from potential contaminants, such as brake particles and other road particles, while maintaining high capture

Kontses, Dimitrios, Dimaratos, Athanasios, Kaimakamis, Thomas, Vizvizis, George, Ouzounis, Rafail, Koutsokeras, Odysseas, Samaras, Zissis

Experimental Simulation of a Real Mission for Identifying a Telematics-Based Diagnostic Model in Connected Light Commercial Vehicles

2025-24-0124To be published on 09/07/2025

Remote monitoring of commercial vehicles is taking an increasingly central position in automotive companies, driven by the growth of the on-road freight transportation sector. Specifically, telematics devices are increasingly gaining importance in monitoring powertrain operability, performance, reliability, sustainability, and maintainability. These systems enable real-time data collection and analysis, offering valuable support in resolving issues that may occur on the road. Moreover, the fault codes, called Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs), that arise during actual road driving constitute fundamental information when combined with several engine parameters updated every second. This integration provides a more accurate assessment of vehicle conditions, allowing proactive maintenance strategies. The principal goal is to deliver an even faster response for resolving sudden issues, thus minimizing vehicle downtime. High-resolution data transmission and failure event information

D'Agostino, Valerio, Cardone, Massimo, Mancaruso, Ezio, Rossetti, Salvatore, Marialto, Renato

Parametric Analysis of Liquid Ammonia Direct Injection for Optimal Ammonia-Hydrogen Combustion in Spark-Ignition Engines

2025-24-0072To be published on 09/07/2025

As the global effort to reduce carbon emissions intensifies, ammonia has emerged as a promising fuel alternative due to its carbon-free molecular composition. This study explores the potential of direct liquid ammonia injection combined with port fuel hydrogen injection technology in a spark ignition engine, leveraging Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations informed by experimental data and literature. The methodology involves reproducing and validating an evaporation model sourced from the literature. Once validated, the fraction of injected liquid ammonia actively participating in combustion was quantified, an essential step in refining the engine combustion simulation. The engine model was divided into two key simulations: (i) a Volume of Fluid (VoF) simulation of the injector to characterize ammonia behavior at the nozzle outlet, and (ii) an engine simulation utilizing a Lagrangian spray configuration, based on the VoF results and the validated evaporation model. The

Silvestrini, Sandro, Kinkhabwala, Brijesh, Kubach, Heiko, Koch, Thomas, Seba, Bouzid

Integrated CFD-Experimental Methodology for Hydrogen-Fuelled Small Loop Scavenged Two-Stroke Engines

2025-24-0014To be published on 09/07/2025

This paper presents an integrated methodology for the analysis of hydrogen-fuelled two-stroke engines, combining experimental data, 1D CFD simulations, and 3D CFD combustion calculations. The proposed approach aims to enhance the understanding of scavenging, injection, and combustion processes in a 50 cc loop-scavenged engine with low-pressure direct hydrogen injection (LPDI), experimentally studied on a test bench. The performance of the hydrogen-fuelled engine was slightly lower compared to gasoline operation, achieving a maximum power output of 3.1 kW compared to 3.6 kW with gasoline, using a slightly lean air-fuel ratio (lambda = 1.3). The maximum engine speed for stable combustion without knocking was achieved at wide-open throttle (WOT) at 7000 RPM. The developed 1D CFD model, based on the layout at the test bench, was calibrated using average experimental data and specific full-load operating points. 3D CFD simulations were performed for two full-load operating points, focusing

Caprioli, Stefano, Ferretti, Luca, Scrignoli, Francesco, Fiaschi, Matteo, D'Elia, Matteo, Oswald, Roland, Schoegl, Oliver, Nambully, Suresh Kumar, Rothbauer, Rainer, Mattarelli, Enrico, Kirchberger, Roland, Rinaldini, Carlo

Towards Effective SCR System Optimization: A 3D-CFD and Experimental Study Enabling Faster Deposit Formation Risk Assessment

2025-24-0087To be published on 09/07/2025

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) is a key technology for reducing nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions in diesel engines. In this process, a urea-water solution (UWS) is injected upstream of the catalyst to generate ammonia, which reacts with NOx to form nitrogen. However, liquid urea can adhere to system walls, undergoing secondary reactions that lead to the formation of solid deposits. These deposits must be minimized to ensure the long-term durability and efficiency of the system. Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) simulations play a crucial role in optimizing SCR performance during the design phase. However, accurately predicting deposit formation requires detailed chemical modelling, which is computationally expensive and introduces uncertainties related to reaction mechanisms definition. To address this challenge, simplified CAE approaches are needed to assess deposit formation risks while maintaining computational efficiency. This study presents an improved Deposit Risk Index (DRI

Bianco, Andrea, Prestifilippo, Mattia, Robino, Cristina, Petrafesa, Giovanni, Postrioti, Lucio, Buitoni, Giacomo

Numerical Investigation on an Injection Strategy Optimization for Dual Fuel Marine Engine Fuelled by Ammonia

2025-24-0013To be published on 09/07/2025

In the context of greenhouse gas reduction (GHG) the most viable short-term solution in the maritime sector is the use of renewable carbon-free fuels. Among these, ammonia represents a possible alternative in compression ignition (CI) engines operating in dual fuel (DF) mode. Although, such fuel features low chemical reactivity, especially in lean mixtures, resulting in poor combustion efficiency, exhaust ammonia slip and low engine performance, DF combustion can be an interesting strategy to overcome such combustion limitations. In this work a wide examination of diesel injection strategies is numerically presented, while ammonia acts as the primary fuel with energy shares around 80%. Since the original marine engine, fuelled with natural gas (NG), presents a single diesel injection, firstly, a pilot injection is added and different diesel mass distributions between pilot and main are investigated, by varying the injection rate shape and the pilot start of injection (SOI

Cameretti, Maria Cristina, De Robbio, Roberta, Palomba, Marco

Numerical Analysis of the Combustion Process in a Hydrogen-Fueled Pre-Chamber Combustion Engine

2025-24-0012To be published on 09/07/2025

Direct injection hydrogen internal combustion engine (ICE) has emerged as a promising alternative fuel due to its potential to enable clean and sustainable energy systems. However, the rapid injection of low-density hydrogen leads to strong mixture stratification and strong flame-turbulence-wall interactions. This challenge is exacerbated in the high-performance engine under study operating at a high engine load (indicated mean effective pressure of about 20 bar) and speed (7500 revolutions per minute). Furthermore, to target high efficiencies, restrict abnormal combustion behaviors, and inhibit oxides of nitrogen emissions, a lean-burn combustion strategy with a global equivalence ratio of 0.4 was applied, where diffusive-thermal (DT) instability effects further complicate the flame characteristics. Additionally, to promote engine performance, the pre-chamber (PC) combustion concept was applied, further complicating the turbulent flame dynamics. To address the modeling challenges and

Mortellaro, Fabio Santi, Menaca, Rafael, Liu, Xinlei, Im, Hong G., Tonelli, Roberto, Medda, Massimo

A comprehensive electro-thermal and fluid-dynamic model for liquid-cooled lithium-ion cells: development and experimental validation

2025-24-0145To be published on 09/07/2025

The temperature evolution of lithium-ion cell under operation has a significant impact on their performance, efficiency, and ageing. Modeling the thermal status of lithium-ion cells is crucial to predict and prevent undesired working conditions or even failures. In this context, this paper presents a mathematical model to predict the transient temperature distributions of a lithium-ion metal polymer battery (LMP) cooled by forced convection via a specially designed channel plate for liquid cooling. For the battery modeling, the Newman’s pseudo-2D approach was used to perform a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. It assumes that the porous electrode is made of equally sized, isotropic, homogeneous spherical particles, which results in smooth, uniform intercalation/de-intercalation of lithium inside the electrode. Also, the channel plate geometry and the cooling liquid fluid-dynamic behavior were simulated with a commercial code based on the finite volume method. The model has

Ferrari, Cristian, Magri, Luca, Sequino, Luigi

Vehicle Under-Hood Thermal Management: Development of a Reduced-Order Model for Accurate and Computationally Efficient Temperature Distribution Simulations

2025-24-0118To be published on 09/07/2025

Electrified vehicle energy management plays a crucial role in the context of the European Green Deal by facilitating the transition toward sustainable mobility. The development of predictive and robust simulation tools is essential to implement and test different energy management strategies. This study aligns with this objective by presenting the development of an under-hood flows model designed for integration into a 1D vehicle simulator, which is used to perform vehicle simulations about longitudinal performances, energy consumption and range. Vehicle under-hood thermal management is inherently complex due to the interplay of internal flow dynamics and multiple heat transfer mechanisms. A purely 1D modeling approach lacks the spatial resolution required to capture detailed flow field characteristics, while a fully 3D CFD model is computationally prohibitive for scenarios requiring efficient simulations. To address this trade-off, a reduced-order model (ROM) approach is proposed. The

Miccio, Stefano, Grattarola, Federico, Baratta, Mirko, Giraudo, Gabriele, Frezza, Davide, Bartolucci, Lorenzo

Water injection as an enabling technology for stoichiometric high performance normally aspirated engines

2025-24-0027To be published on 09/07/2025

The mainstream automotive market is rapidly transitioning to electrified and fully electric powertrains. Where gasoline engines are still employed, they are frequently turbocharged units with relatively low maximum engine speed and modest power density. The hypercar class, in contrast, has recently seen somewhat of a renaissance in high performance, high speed naturally aspirated gasoline engines, which are prized for their emotional contribution to the vehicle. In order to guarantee high conversion efficiency of a Three Way Catalyst in the exhaust system, an engine must be operated at stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. At high power density, this may result in very high exhaust gas temperature, which poses a risk to engine and vehicle hardware. A number of technological interventions to extend the maximum stoichiometric performance whilst respecting component limitations have already been described in the literature, but many of these are not applicable to specific engine architectures in

Corrigan, Dáire James, Villa, Davide, Penazzi, Eugenio, Meghani, Amit, Knop, Vincent, Caroli, Giacomo, Frigeri, Davide, Ruggiero, Federico, Malaguti, Simone, Postrioti, Lucio, Maka, Cristian

Optimal Design of Electric Motors for Automotive Applications

2025-24-0132To be published on 09/07/2025

The paper describes how, exploiting AI, it is possible to design electric motors for automotive applications. Both traction motors and motors for auxiliary functions are dealt with. Given the requested performance of the motor (objective functions) and the constraints, the design variables defining the motor are derived by means of a multi-objective programming approach. Usually tenth of either objective functions or design variables are considered. Aspects related both to electromagnetic and mechanical performance are taken into account, in a multi-physics framework. The issues referring to thermal, structural and noise-vibration-harshness are considered for defining the Pareto-optimal sets both in the design variable domain and in the objective function domain. Such domains can be found by either supervised learning or reinforced learning, two well-known AI algorithms. Basic constraints related to manufacturing are included in the optimization process. A couple of examples are

Guidotti, Giacomo, barri, Dario, Soresini, Federico, Ballo, Federico, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Di Gerlando, Antonino, Mastinu, Gianpiero

Numerical Modeling of Hydrogen Injection for Constant-Volume Chamber and Engine Configurations

2025-24-0066To be published on 09/07/2025

Efficient powertrains are critical for achieving a net-zero emissions future. Hydrogen is a promising alternative fuel due to its high reactivity, fast flame speed, and potential for clean energy conversion. Direct injection is the preferred fueling strategy in hydrogen engines, as it enhances power density while addressing safety concerns. However, fuel-air stratification remains a key challenge due to the limitations of current injection systems, which struggle to deliver high hydrogen flow rates, particularly given its low density. Injector caps have been proposed as mixing controllers to tailor the chamber’s air-fuel composition based on specific requirements. Despite their potential, existing modeling frameworks—particularly for engine applications—provide limited guidance on simulating in-cap and injector needle regions, where supersonic and highly under-expanded jets dominate. The explicit nature of numerical models in these regions imposes stringent time-step constraints

Menaca, Rafael, Liu, Xinlei, Silva, Mickael, Wu, Hao, Ben Houidi, Moez, Mohan, Balaji, Cenker, Emre, AlRamadan, Abdullah, Syed, Iltesham, Pei, Yuanjiang, Roberts, William, Im, Hong G.

Methodological approach to Battery Electric Vehicle design: Energy-Based model development from a detailed Digital Twin

2025-24-0098To be published on 09/07/2025

On the path to the decarbonization of the transport sector, the development of electric vehicles (EVs) is crucial to meeting the targets set by international regulatory bodies. EVs operate with zero tailpipe emissions and offer high energy efficiency and flexibility; however, challenges remain in achieving a fully sustainable electricity supply. In this context, powertrain design plays a fundamental role in determining vehicle performance and mission feasibility, which are strongly influenced by operating conditions and application characteristics, such as driving profiles and ambient temperature. A key challenge is the optimal sizing of components, particularly the battery pack and the electric motor. Therefore, a structured and methodological approach to powertrain design is essential to ensuring an optimal configuration. To this end, the project focuses on an integrated approach based on a master-and-slave modeling framework applied to a light-duty commercial vehicle at two levels

Bartolucci, Lorenzo, Cennamo, Edoardo, Grattarola, Federico, Lombardi, Simone, Mulone, Vincenzo, Tribioli, Laura, Aimo Boot, Marco

In situ DRIFT-MS insight into the thermal evolution of battery materials

2025-24-0151To be published on 09/07/2025

Currently, the Li-ion battery is the reference technology adopted by most of automotive manufacturers (OEMs) to ensure the energy storage required for electrified vehicles. However, these batteries can be the source of incidents with potentially severe consequences, commonly referred to as thermal runaway (TR). Thermal runaway mechanisms are generally studied at the macroscopic scale through the analysis of the gases and heat emitted during this event. However, the chemical reactions occurring at the surface, interface, and interphase of the battery's constituent materials remain poorly documented. Obtaining information on the thermal decomposition processes of battery materials is challenging and rarely accessible. In this work, we propose an analytical approach to characterize the evolution of battery materials during a temperature increase from 20 to 350 °C in controlled atmosphere. The developed experimental setup combines diffuse reflectance infrared FT (DRIFT) analysis at the

Lecompte, Matthieu, Rivallan, Mickael, Girod, Nicolas, Clemencon, Isabelle, Chaudoy, Victor, Tant, Sylvain

Uncertainty-Aware Transformer-Based Remaining Range Estimation for Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles

2025-24-0122To be published on 09/07/2025

Electrification of heavy duty on-road trucks for regional freight is a viable option for fleets to lower their carbon intensity and reduce operation and maintenance costs. However, there is considerable uncertainty in projecting their daily range because highly variable mass, among other factors, confounds battery state of charge prediction algorithms. Previous work by the authors proposed an electric vehicle range prediction model based on two parallel recurrent neural networks—one using mean-variance estimation to output a predicted mean and variance, and one using bounded interval estimation to provide bounds on the state of charge required to complete a trip. This dual RNN approach resulted in an estimate of remaining range and error bands of state of charge over the route. The previous work was limited because it did not incorporate driving conditions, like road type and ambient temperature, that affect driver behavior and, consequently, energy consumption. This work includes

Jayaprakash, Bharat, Eagon, Matthew, Northrop, William F.

An Investigation of a Battery Module Thermal Behaviour Based on CFD Simulations and Experimental Tests

2025-24-0144To be published on 09/07/2025

Battery management systems are the key component in electric vehicles (EVs), which are increasingly replacing internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in the automotive industry. Battery management systems mainly focus on battery thermal management, efficiency, battery life and the safety conditions. Generally, lithium-ion batteries have been chosen in EV cars. Therefore, the internal resistance of Li-ion batteries plays a crucial role in the thermal behaviour. Most of the published studies rely on 0D-1D models to analyse single cell thermal behaviour depending on the internal resistance at different ambient temperatures and charging/ discharging rates, and on the cooling system However, these models, though fast, cannot provide detailed information about the temperature distribution within a cell or a module. Full 3D CFD-CHT simulations on the other hand, are very time consuming and require highly qualified computers, but allow a deeper understanding of the cell/module thermal

KARACA, Cem, Olmeda, Pablo, Margot, Xandra, Postrioti, Lucio, Baldinelli, Giorgio

A Novel Nozzle Orifice Design of a Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine to Achieve Higher Thermal Efficiency with Significantly Reduced Heat Loss

2025-24-0037To be published on 09/07/2025

Recently, it has been widely recognized that increasing compression ratio is one of the essential technologies for improving thermal efficiency of heavy-duty diesel engines. However, while a higher compression ratio contributes to improved thermal efficiency, it also causes increased heat loss, which can surpass the efficiency gains. Therefore, more effective heat loss reduction technologies should be developed. Despite various attempts, including thermal barrier coatings which are well known as the measure for surface temperature swing, no existing technology has successfully achieved a significant reduction in heat loss while simultaneously improving thermal efficiency across a wide operating range. In this study, a novel nozzle orifice design to improve thermal efficiency was investigated. The offset orifice nozzle has holes drilled offset of less than 0.5 mm from the radial center of the nozzle. The experimental results demonstrated that the offset orifice nozzle achieved

Mukayama, Tomoyuki, Uchida, Noboru

Effect of PEM Fuel Cell Technology Advancement on the Energy Efficiency of a Heavy-Duty Vehicle

2025-24-0111To be published on 09/07/2025

Advancements in fuel cell stack technology—such as improved power density, catalyst utilization, and durability—have significantly enhanced system efficiency and reduced hydrogen consumption in heavy-duty fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). In parallel, innovations in auxiliary subsystems, including air supply management, thermal regulation, and energy storage integration, have minimized parasitic losses, optimized fuel usage, and improved battery state-of-charge dynamics. These technological improvements collectively influence vehicle operation under varying load conditions, affecting both transient response and overall energy efficiency. To systematically assess these impacts, this study evaluates key performance metrics such as compressor-related energy losses, fuel utilization, and battery performance. The current vehicle simulation model relies on an outdated fuel cell system based on technology from 20 years ago, which no longer accurately reflects the efficiency potential of

Dursun, Beyza, Johansson, Max, Tunestal, Per, aronsson, Ulf, Andersson, Oivind, Eriksson, Lars

Development and parametrization of a physics-based ageing model for Li-ion battery cells

2025-24-0140To be published on 09/07/2025

Although significant progress has been made on developing electrochemical models of Li-ion batteries performance, there is a significant gap in predictive, physics-based modelling of the degradation mechanisms. In this work, we perform a systematic experimental and modelling study to explore the potential of predictive battery ageing models. A commercial NMC pouch cell is initially characterized in detail using tear-down analysis, electrical and electrothermal tests to obtain the electrochemical model parameters and validate its fidelity in a large range of operating conditions in terms of temperature, state-of-charge and load. The cell is then exposed to accelerated ageing operating conditions and its performance is monitored regularly to obtain its degradation rate in terms of capacity and resistance. The aged cell is also characterized by tear-down and optical techniques. The experimentally obtained test database is used to develop and validate the mathematical models that describe

Koltsakis, Grigorios, Spyridopoulos, Spyridon, Chatziioannou, Panteleimon, Tentzos, Michail

Design comparison between copper and aliminum hairpin windings

2025-24-0127To be published on 09/07/2025

Copper demand, driven by the electrification of transport as a way to tackle climate change, is set to outpace availability and increase market volatility. In such a context, replacing copper with aluminum in e-motor windings is tempting. Indeed, despite the higher resistivity and consequent DC losses, aluminum bears cost and weight reduction potential that this paper aims to assess while also taking into consideration environmental impacts. To this end, the finite element method is used to design two configurations with aluminum and copper hairpins meeting the same specifications in terms of peak performance. A comparative analysis is performed in terms of maximum and continuous torque, power-speed curve and efficiency. In addition, the efficiency of each configuration is assessed using the WLTC Class 3 driving cycle, which reflects the actual performance of electric vehicles. Finaly their compromises in terms of weight, cost and CO2-eq. emissions are analyzed.

Abdelli, Abdenour, Reveille, Benjamin, Milosavljevic, Misa, bureau, Gildas, Mermaz-Rollet, Guillaume, Nègre, Edouard

Influence of Geometric Parameters on the Performance of TPMS-Based Heat Exchangers.

2025-24-0015To be published on 09/07/2025

Advancements in additive manufacturing (AM) technology have enabled the use of Triply Periodic Minimal Surfaces (TPMS) to integrate thermal and structural functions into a single component. These structures offer advantages such as weight reduction, compactness, and enhanced heat dissipation, making them promising for automotive, aerospace, and electronics applications. TPMS structures, characterized by zero mean curvature and periodic crystalline geometry, have recently gained significant research attention thanks to their potential in thermal management. Among various TPMS geometries, the gyroid and diamond structures stand out for their thermal and fluid dynamic performance. This study explores the influence of cell geometry, unit cell size, and wall thickness on the efficiency of TPMS-based heat exchangers, as these parameters are crucial for their technical feasibility. Using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations, a comparative analysis is conducted for an heat exchange

Cordisco, Ilario, Torri, Federico, Berni, Fabio, Testa, Veronica, Giacalone, Mauro, Fontanesi, Stefano

Comparative Analysis of Battery Degradation in Hybrid and Electric Vehicles Through Integrated System-level Simulation

2025-24-0143To be published on 09/07/2025

This study presents the development and validation of a numerical model for a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) and battery electric vehicle (BEV), with a focus on analyzing battery degradation under various driving scenarios and modes. The proposed model integrates a comprehensive vehicle dynamics framework with a detailed battery model to evaluate the impact of different driving conditions on battery performance and longevity. The vehicle model captures the hybrid powertrain's behavior, including energy management strategies, while the battery model incorporates electrochemical dynamics to predict degradation mechanisms such as capacity fade and resistance increase. Two primary driving scenarios are examined: urban driving, characterized by frequent stops, accelerations, and transitions between aggressive and relaxed driving styles, and long-distance highway driving, where cruising speeds and driving patterns vary. The urban scenario emphasizes the effects of stop-and-go traffic and

Martinez, Santiago, Merola, Simona, Irimescu, Adrian, Bibiloni Ipata, Sebastian

Machine Learning-Enhanced Combustion Modelling: Predicting Ethanol Effects in a Single-Cylinder Research Engine

2025-24-0026To be published on 09/07/2025

Recent studies highlight the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to mitigate the impacts of global warming and climate change. As a major contributor, the transport sector plays a vital role in these efforts. Ethanol emerges as a promising fuel for decarbonizing hard-to-electrify propulsion sectors, thanks to its sustainable production pathways and favourable physical and combustion properties—such as energy density, rapid burning velocity, and high knock resistance. This work proposes a methodology to enable the possibility of replicating the combustion behaviour of ethanol in a 1D CFD simulation environment representative of a single-cylinder research engine. Spark-ignition combustion is simulated through the Eddy Burn-Up combustion model previously calibrated for standard fossil gasoline. The combustion model features a laminar flame speed neural network, trained and tested through reference chemical kinetics simulations. The combustion model showed great accuracy

Ferrari, Lorenzo, Sammito, Giuseppe, Fischer, Marcus, Cavina, Nicolò

An eco-charging strategy for heavy-duty electric vehicles via graph optimization

2025-24-0116To be published on 09/07/2025

The adoption of heavy-duty electric vehicles (HDEVs) presents significant challenges in trip planning due to high energy consumption, limited battery capacity, and the reduced availability of high-power charging stations. Unlike passenger EVs, HDEVs require careful coordination of routing and charging decisions to ensure both operational efficiency and feasibility. This work proposes a graph-based optimization framework for eco-charging strategies that jointly optimizes energy consumption, travel time, and charging costs while considering road, traffic, and infrastructure constraints. The methodology relies on constructing first a routing graph, where nodes represent waypoints, and edges represent road links with attributes such as speed limits, traffic conditions, and energy consumption. This graph is then extended into a hypergraph, where nodes incorporate information about both vehicle location and state-of-charge (SOC), while edges represent either driving or charging actions. The

Zonetti, Daniele, Sciarretta, Antonio, De Nunzio, Giovanni

Design of a pure synchro-reluctant machine with asymmetrical poles for high-speed applications

2025-24-0129To be published on 09/07/2025

In this article, the authors present the various choices made to design a magnet free and directly recyclable pure synchro-reluctant (Pure-SynRel) machine with asymmetrical poles operating at a maximum speed of 21,000 rpm dedicated to automotive. This project was carried out by identifying design levers and optimizing the magnetic circuit in order to remove 3 well know issues of this topology: maximizing the power factor to reduce the inverter rating and cost, minimizing sources of NVH and torque ripples in particular, and finally maximizing the efficiency in use to close the gap with magnet technologies (PMaSynRel). The sizing of stator components such as the choice of winding (concentric or distributed, full or fractional pitch, round or hairpin wire) and rotor components (number of poles pairs, shape and number of barriers, etc.) are explained. The optimizations methods and the mechanical solutions used to reach the max speed are also detailed. A machine with symmetrical poles was

APPLAGNAT-TARTET, Antoine, Milosavljevic, Misa, Delpit, Pierre

Cylinder Balancing Algorithms: Enabling the Transition to Future Fuels in Large-Bore Spark-Ignited Engines

2025-24-0017To be published on 09/07/2025

Large-bore spark-ignited engines equipped with individual cylinder injection systems requiring advanced balancing strategies to achieve optimal combustion performance and mitigate risks associated with abnormal combustion phenomena. The integration of highly reactive fuels, such as hydrogen, introduces additional challenges for high-power-density, low-speed engines. This study investigates closed-loop cylinder balancing strategies utilizing real-time cylinder pressure feedback to optimize engine operation. Key performance metrics were evaluated on a 20-cylinder stationary engine (8.5 MW electrical power) under diverse operating conditions, including variations in gas quality and ambient factors. The results indicate that the tested balancing methods converge toward an increase in average knock intensity across all cylinders, primarily due to fluctuations in gas composition and environmental conditions. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that a well-balanced engine offers significant

Martelli, André, Penaranda, Alexander, Martinez, Santiago, Zabeu, Clayton, Salvador, Roberto

Heat Flux Temporal Variation and Turbulent Structures on Diesel Flame-Impinged Wall by Comparing High-Speed Infrared Thermography and MEMS Sensor Measurements

2025-24-0039To be published on 09/07/2025

For a more detailed understanding of the highly complex mechanism of wall heat transfer during diesel flame impingement, heat flux measurement results obtained using two relatively new approaches—high-speed infrared thermography and a Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) heat flux sensor—were compared. Both measurements were conducted on a chamber wall impinged by a diesel flame in a constant-volume combustion vessel under similar experimental conditions.　　High-speed thermography utilizes the world’s fastest infrared camera (TELOPS M3k, 13,000 fps, 128×128 pixels) to capture time-series temperature and heat flux distributions on the wall surface, enabling detailed visualization of near-wall turbulent structures reflected in the heat flux with a spatial resolution of 70 microns (9 mm/128 pixels). The MEMS sensor consists of multiple closely aligned (520-micron spacing) highly sensitive thin-film Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) of 235×235 microns, allowing estimation of near

Shimizu, Fumika, Morooka, Masato, Aizawa, Tetsuya, Dejima, Kazuhito, Nakabeppu, Osamu

Exhaust thermal management in a dual-fuel marine engine via fully variable valve actuation and wastegate lambda control

2025-24-0085To be published on 09/07/2025

With the growing focus on maritime decarbonization, dual-fuel combustion emerges as a promising solution due to its adaptability and minimal system modifications. However, alternative fuels like natural gas pose challenges such as methane slip (CH4), which has a greater impact on global warming than CO2. To mitigate methane emissions, conventional aftertreatment systems might incorporate a methane oxidation catalyst. However, effective methane oxidation requires high temperatures of approximately 450 °C. Therefore, exhaust thermal management (ETM) is crucial for maintaining high exhaust gas temperatures and ensuring high conversion efficiency. This study investigates the effectiveness of fully variable valve actuation (VVA) including variable exhaust valve opening (VEVO) and early intake valve opening (EIVC) along with lambda control via wastegate control. The primary objective is to evaluate the impact of each strategy on elevating exhaust gas temperature (EGT) while considering

Soleimani, Amir, Kim, Jeyoung, Axelsson, Martin, Hyvonen, Jari, Mikulski, Maciej

Simulation Driven thermal optimization of an innovative battery system

2025-24-0138To be published on 09/07/2025

BATSS project objective is to design a safe, effective and sustainable battery pack. To achieve these goals the final battery system (BS) will be mechanically, electrically and thermally optimized using cutting edge technology. Consequently, the battery system includes innovative 4695 cylindrical cells and advanced thermal management, carried out with the Miba FLEXCOOLER®. This work will focus on the BS thermal optimization using simulation tools. This numerical approach includes both system simulation and 3D modeling of the battery pack. First 0D model ability to satisfactorily represent electro-thermal behavior of the chosen cells will be demonstrated. The retained modeling approach is an empirical equivalent circuit model. This model parameters are calibrated thanks to dedicated experiments conducted in the framework of BATSS project. Then, 0D simulation of a downscaled module will be presented. This simulation includes all thermally relevant BS components cells, FLEXCOOLER® and

Chevillard, Stephane, Popp, Hartmut, Galarza, Igor, Petit, Martin

Numerical and Experimental Investigation of a Pre-chamber Igniter for Enhanced Low Load Stability in Internal Combustion Engines

2025-24-0002To be published on 09/07/2025

Developing innovative technologies offers a crucial opportunity to improve Internal Combustion Engines’ performance while significantly reducing harmful emissions, contributing to a more sustainable future. The replacement of the standard spark plug in externally ignited engines for passenger vehicles with a prechamber igniter is a well-known combustion accelerator, facilitating the increase of engine efficiency especially at high loads. However, prechamber ignition technology has not yet been widely adopted in the market, primarily due to the difficulty of achieving stable operation at lower engine loads. The gas exchange in the passive prechamber was studied using a combination of numerical modelling and experimental methods. A better understanding of the flow and mixture conditions is needed to improve stability of the prechamber igniter in low load operation points. Accessing those parameters experimentally comes with high efforts for the test bench design and operation. To

Fellner, Felix, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte, Rothbauer, Rainer, D'Elia, Matteo, Nambully, Suresh Kumar, Burgo Beiro, Marcos

Achieving Enhanced Swirl with Vortex Generating Jets

2025-24-0016To be published on 09/07/2025

As the automotive industry faces increasingly stringent environmental regulations, enhancing thermal efficiency and reducing emissions remain critical objectives. This necessitates advancements in both charge exchange and combustion processes. Swirl plays a crucial role in combustion and engine performance. Conventionally, swirl is induced through intake port geometries such as helical and tangential designs, though these methods compromise airflow, leading to increased pumping losses. In this context, our study builds on earlier work from our institutes, employing Vortex Generating Jets (VGJs) to produce swirl. Three representative intake ports were selected from a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulated Pareto front - characterizing high, mid, and low swirl scenarios - for empirical evaluation. These simulations follow the geometric constraints of a passenger car 2L diesel engine. The influence of air injection via VGJs into the intake ports was investigated using a steady-state

Ritter, Johann, Kahraman, Ali Berk, Wenz, Erich, Scholz, Peter, Eilts, Peter

What materials for an electrical motor with a high power density?

2025-24-0126To be published on 09/07/2025

The fast development of electric mobility leads to improve the performance of all the powertrain components. There is still a high need to maximize their efficiency for autonomy reasons, but weight and volume are critical parameters for automotive, aeronautic or train applications. This paper is focused on the electrical machine, especially the permanent magnet synchronous axial flux motors (PMSAFM) which offer advantages in terms of power density and volumic electromagnetic torque. The paper proposes a panorama of solutions for designing such a motor, with a case application to 100kW – 10000 rpm and an objective of 15W/kg at steady state. Obtaining such a power density can be obtained by optimizing the design, by boosting the current, using a high DC voltage, choosing a high-performance electrical steel and adapted permanent magnets, etc. The first part concerns the topologies of the PMSAFM. Many configurations can be considered with 1 central stator and 2 lateral rotors, or with 1

Lecointe, Jean-Philippe, HEBRI, Mohamed, Bauw, Grégory, FAWAZ, Sara, Duchesne, Stéphane, Zito, Gianluca, ABDELLI, Abdenour, ARSLANE, Idir

New Hybrid Powertrain architectures for European Passenger Car Market

2025-24-0097To be published on 09/07/2025

The present paper describes a comparative analysis of different hybrid architectures and optimization of the total energy efficiency on passenger car applications. The first part of the study is devoted to providing simulation results of different type of hybrid architecture, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages with numerical simulation on different type of use cases, not only on legislated cycles but also on RDE use cases representative of customer behavior. The outputs of the usage of Passenger cars for the EU market highlights interesting results not yet published. The above mentioned analysis opens the window to (1) study new control strategies for optimizing the total energy consumption in different scenarios and (2) investigate options for maximizing the efficiency of the overall powertrain system.

Amati, Nicola, Marello, Omar, Mancarella, Alessandro, Cavallaro, Davide, Ianni, Luca, Cascone, Claudio, Paulides, Johannes JH

Method to Analyze Driving Dynamics During Faults in the Electric Drivetrain on a Vehicle-in-the-Loop Test Bench

2025-24-0123To be published on 09/07/2025

The mechanical components of drive systems for electric vehicles are less complex than those of conventional drives and are therefore generally less prone to faults. On the other hand, a challenge lies in the relatively limited experience in dealing with faults in the electric drivetrain and their effects on driving dynamics compared to conventional drives. To meet these challenges, this paper presents a method to simulate faults in the electric powertrain of a real demonstrator vehicle on a full vehicle test bench and to evaluate the influence on driving dynamics. For this purpose, the demonstrator vehicle was modeled in detail in a co-simulation between the driving dynamics simulation software CarMaker and the real-time solution for simulating and testing electrical components Typhoon HIL. This enabled the investigation of the vehicle’s behavior in the event of a fault. Subsequently, tests with the vehicle were performed on the Vehicle-in-the-Loop full vehicle test bench and the

Rautenberg, Philip, Konzept, Anja, Hitz, Arne, Frey, Michael, Reick, Benedikt

CFD simulation of combustion in an optically accessible hydrogen engine: Comparison between lean and diluted stoichiometric operations

2025-24-0009To be published on 09/07/2025

The reduction in CO2 emissions from anthropogenic activities has increased the necessity to accelerate the green energy transition, prompting the search for alternative and more environmental-friendly solutions compared to traditional technologies based on fossil fuels. One of the most affected sectors is transportation, which is undergoing a significant change to increase sustainability. To achieve this goal, development of hybrid and electric propulsion systems has taken hold over the past decade, but electrification is proceeding slower than expected due to many challenges related to charging infrastructure, cars range and cost, thus pushing the European automotive sector into crisis. To reverse this trend and simultaneously accelerate the transition to sustainable transportation, further development of ICEs technology aimed at enhancing efficiency when using alternative fuels like hydrogen, is promising. Thanks to the possibility to retrofit existing units taking the advantage of

Madia, Manuel, Boehm, Benjamin, Fontanesi, Stefano, Ye, Pedro, Magnani, Mauro, Breda, Sebastiano

Building an In-House SIL Framework: Key Design Choices, Features, and Performance evaluation

2025-24-0018To be published on 09/07/2025

Nowadays, Software-in-the-Loop (SIL) represents a crucial methodology in the development and validation of control systems, particularly in sectors such as automotive, marine, and aerospace. It involves creating a virtual representation of a real environment with varying levels of accuracy. Using SIL techniques, engineers can develop and test software in the early stages of the development cycle, reducing overall time-to-market and costs. Typically, to simulate complex control systems, a primary tool is used to manage and integrate an entire application-specific environment composed of application software, plants, sensors and actuators, and communication protocols. Although several commercial solutions are currently available on the market to support SIL activities, Dumarey wanted to explore the possibility of developing an in-house software tool to leverage the benefits of SIL. This paper provides a high-level overview of the main steps involved in developing a complete SIL framework

Mancuso, Claudio, Tesconi, Cristian, Autieri, Fabio

CFD Evaluation of the Effects of Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio on the Heat Transfer and Flow Field in Wankel Rotary Engines

2025-24-0011To be published on 09/07/2025

Wankel rotary engines generally present an unfavourable surface area-to-volume ratio that prevents them from obtaining the high efficiency needed for the currently challenging applications in the mobility sector. In a previous study, an optimisation of Wankel engine geometry was carried out in order to minimise the surface area-to-volume ratio, with the aim of reducing the overall heat loss during the combustion phase. Comprehensive experimental data collected from an AIE 225CS engine were used as a reference case. Subsequently, different virtual configurations were evaluated and compared to the experimental results while retaining the same swept volume of 225cm3 and using the housing width as a sensitivity parameter. The Woschni model, adapted for Wankel engines, was used to determine the heat transfer coefficient. Counterintuitively, it was found that the configuration with the best surface area-to-volume ratio actually produced the worst heat loss due to the unusual flow field

Vorraro, Giovanni, Im, Hong G., Turner, James

Optimum design and sizing approach for a series-hybrid vehicle

2025-24-0099To be published on 09/07/2025

The need to reduce pollutant emissions has pushed the automotive industry towards sustainable mobility promoting new technological solutions, among which the use of hybrid powertrains stands out. The development of a hybrid architecture is very complex and demand proper components sizing and the determination of optimized power-split strategies among different power sources, for example: ICE, electric generator/motor and batteries. Moreover, the experimental analysis regarding performance and emissions requires that the whole configuration of the propulsive system must be installed on the test bench. Hence, it negatively affects the cost of the entire design phase. In this scenario, an optimum design and sizing approach for a series-hybrid vehicle is proposed. The presented procedure relies on numerical modelling of the hybrid powertrain and the optimization of vehicle autonomy, as key performance index. The series-hybrid architecture model is referred to a front-wheel-drive vehicle

Lisi, Leonardo, Saponaro, Gianmarco, Episcopo, Domenico, Torresi, Marco, Camporeale, Sergio Mario

Computational Fluid-Dynamics Analysis of the Effect of Ethanol-Air Mixture Supply in a Heavy-Duty Engine

2025-24-0029To be published on 09/07/2025

As part of a research project aiming to propose a solution for off-grid charging stations based on the adoption of an alternative engine, this study investigated the combustion development and pollutant emissions of a heavy-duty PFI internal combustion engine fueled by ethanol. With minor modification of the current ICE technology, an attempt is made to adapt it to alternative fuels. Some critical issues represent the major challenges to be dealt with in order to optimize the engine performance, say: - The control of the air-fuel mixture quality, which undergoes problems related to the slow evaporation rate of the alcohol fuel so inclining non-uniform distribution of the reactants inside the cylinders. - The control of the flame speed governed combustion that could attain detonation regimes, depending on the fuel-air ratio and the spark timing. - The NOx and CO formation as results of either uncontrolled temperature peaks or ineffective combustion. For this purpose, an in-depth

De Robbio, Roberta, Cameretti, Maria Cristina, Palomba, Marco, Tuccillo, Raffaele

CFD and Measurements of a VNT-CCC Configuration: Is it Feasible to Replace Exhaust Pulsations with Constant Flow?

2025-24-0083To be published on 09/07/2025

Velocity and temperature distributions in a Close Coupled Catalyst (CCC) were analyzed using two otherwise identical Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) setups: one with pulsating inflow boundary conditions and the other with constant inflow. The objective was to assess the validity of the common simplification of assuming constant inflow. Simulated temperature fields were also compared with experimental measurements. While several experimental and CFD studies have addressed this question, they have primarily focused on naturally aspirated engines. This study examines a CFD domain featuring a turbine without a wastegate, resulting in fundamentally different flow conditions reaching the CCC. The results indicate that the assumption of constant flow in CCC CFD analysis should not be taken for granted, but rather critically evaluated. Before adopting this simplification, it is important to assess the specific EATS configuration under pulsating flow conditions to determine whether the

Bergman, Miriam, Klövmark, Henrik, Laurell, Mats

Improve Modeling, Control, and Health Monitoring of an e-Motor Applying an Integrated Flux Sensor Array

2025-24-0125To be published on 09/07/2025

In an electric powertrain, having the possibility to measure the magnetic flux inside the motor has multiple advantages. Looking at the torque delivery, field-oriented control techniques can be substituted by flux-based control algorithms, improving output accuracy, especially in the field weakening region. These algorithms can operate better if fed with the real flux measurement, instead of reconstructing it from AC currents and rotor position. Another advantage is brought to the field of state-of-health monitoring. Indeed, knowing the magnetic field and how it varies during the real life of an electric machine can enable estimating its remaining useful life and enables a great number of prognostic analyses. Moreover, this can help fine tuning digital twin models of the powertrain that can be used for optimizing the usage of the system under different operating conditions. Hall-effect sensors can be embedded into an e-motor, but it is necessary to place it in the proper position and

Tranchero, Maurizio, Esmaeilnia, Ali, Garcia de Madinabeitia, Inigo, Capitanio, Alessandro, Sala, Giada, Franceschini, Giovanni, Pastore, Andrea, Saur, Michael

Accelerating Vehicle Usage Analysis: A Methodology for Efficient Clustering

2025-01-0287To be published on 07/02/2025

Modern vehicles, increasingly electrified and automated, have effectively become "computers on wheels," intensifying product complexity and competitive pressure. Concurrently, greater digitization offers opportunities to derive customer insights from large-scale vehicle data using Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) and Data Mining (DM). Among these techniques, cluster analysis can reveal hidden subgroups that inform more customer-oriented product solutions. However, cluster analysis lacks a definitive ground truth, making it necessary to test numerous parameter settings, preprocessing steps, and clustering algorithms, and then interpret all plausible results. The complexity of real-world customer data—such as heterogeneous, privacy-constrained vehicle usage signals—further complicates the selection of appropriate methodologies. Each combination of preprocessing and clustering steps must be analyzed to uncover patterns or groups, significantly increasing the time and manual effort

Wegener, Jan, van Putten, Sebastiaan, Neubeck, Jens, Wagner, Andreas

Automated Test Process for Highly Configurable Software-Defined Mobility Systems in CI/CD

2025-01-0297To be published on 07/02/2025

In the pursuit of customizability and evolvability of vehicle functions, manufacturers shift towards software-defined vehicles (SDV) to enable flexible customization and over-the-air updates. This results in multiple variants and versions of a vehicle model. While shifting to SDVs adds value and flexibility for customers, manufacturers struggle with homologating new and updated functionality because existing testing processes do not scale for high-frequency release cycles that limit available testing resources. Overcoming this challenge by using a coherent test process designed for testing variant-rich systems in continuous evolution will be one of the key enablers for the future development of SDVs. This paper presents an innovative end-to-end pipeline for efficient and comprehensive testing of variant-rich vehicle functionality tailored to an application in continuous development. Our transferable test pipeline employs sample-based variant selection, a software-in-the-loop

Hettich, Lennard, Pett, Tobias, Nägele, Ann-Therese, Schindewolf, Marc, Eriş, Halit, Wagner, Stefan, Sax, Eric, Schaefer, Ina, Weyrich, Michael

Methodology for Real-World Automated Function Development: From Virtual to On-Vehicle Implementation

2025-01-0288To be published on 07/02/2025

The automotive industry is increasingly facing challenges stemming from growing system complexities, shortened development cycles, and the demand for rapid time-to-market transitions. Reinforcement learning (RL) has emerged as a promising approach to developing advanced control functions due to its adaptive and autonomous nature. The technique has already demonstrated its viability in virtualised X-in-the-Loop (XiL) environments. However, its application to real-world vehicle systems is inhibited by safety concerns, real-time constraints, and the integration into established software toolchains. This paper introduces a comprehensive methodology for developing practical control functions with RL: starting in a virtual environment, training then transitions to a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) setup, and ultimately proceeds to a real vehicle. Utilising the open-source framework LExCI, the proposed approach facilitates seamless training across multiple development stages and showcases RL’s

Badalian, Kevin, Picerno, Mario, Lee, Sung-Yong, Schaub, Joschka, Andert, Jakob

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