Browse Topic: Chassis

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The Process Technology and Research on Chlorinated Polyethylene2026-99-04218/28/2026
There are three main methods for preparing chlorinated polyethylene: the solution method, suspension method, and solid-phase method. This article studies the process of preparing chlorinated polyethylene by the aqueous suspension method, introduces the production process of chlorinated polyethylene, first understands the reaction mechanism of the chlorination reaction, then explores the production process of chlorinated polyethylene by the suspension method, and finds the optimal process conditions through experiments. The results showed that the optimal reaction temperature for the chlorination reaction of chlorinated polyethylene was 135°C, the optimal amount of initiator was 3%, and the optimal amount of chlorine gas added was 1.5%/min. This article explores the influencing factors of the optimal reaction conditions, laying a theoretical foundation for industrial production after the suspension method.
Hu, Shiguo, Zhao, Ruchen, Yu, Bin, Jiao, Mingquan, Bai, Zhirui
Evaluation of the Isolation Efficiency of Quasi–Zero Stiffness Structure in Improving Seat Comfort of Different Commercial Vehicles02-20-01-00038/26/2026
Different commercial vehicles, such as the sunflower harvester, tracked vehicle, and vibratory roller, operate across off-road and on-road environments, often encountering rough and poorly maintained surface conditions. Thus, their comfort and working efficiency are very low. To solve this problem, a quasi–zero stiffness structure (QZSS) is investigated and added to traditional seat suspensions in the sunflower harvester, tracked vehicle, and vibratory roller to improve their comfort and working efficiency. From their established dynamic models, the isolating efficiencies and stabilities of QZSS are then analyzed in detail under different conditions of speed and seat mass. Reducing the root-mean-square values of the seat acceleration (aw) and displacement (zw) is used to evaluate the results. The research shows that the comfort of the sunflower harvester and vibratory roller is very poor compared with the tracked vehicle under the same simulation conditions. By adding QZSS to their seat suspension system, the values of {aw and zw} in the sunflower harvester, tracked vehicle, and vibratory roller are strongly reduced by {67.9% and 38.8%}, {54.7% and 23.9%}, and {65.4% and 34.3%} in comparison without QZSS. Therefore, the comfort of the three vehicle models is greatly improved in comparison without QZSS. Besides, QZSS improves the vibratory roller’s comfort better than the tracked vehicle, while QZSS improves the sunflower harvester’s comfort to be the best. These study results further strengthen the isolation efficiency of QZSS on different commercial vehicles. This contributes to providing more applicability of QZSS in real vehicle conditions.
Nguyen, Vanliem, Zhang, Li, Liu, Yaxi
Hierarchical Yaw–Roll Stability Control of Semi-Trailers Based on Joint Estimation of Equivalent Parameters02-20-01-00018/19/2026
Semi-trailers are widely used in highway freight transportation because of their large payload capacity and high transport efficiency. However, structural characteristics such as a high center of gravity (CG), heavy loads, and the dynamic coupling between the tractor and trailer make them prone to yaw instability and rollover under complex conditions. To solve these problems, this article proposes a hierarchical stability control architecture for semi-trailers based on the joint estimation of equivalent parameters. First, a six-degree-of-freedom (6-DOF) theoretical dynamic model is established. This model includes the lateral, yaw, and roll motions of both the tractor and trailer to provide desired reference states. Second, a parameter estimation method combining a genetic algorithm (GA) with a forgetting-factor recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm is designed. It dynamically identifies eight unknown equivalent parameters, specifically the tire cornering stiffness and suspension damping. Next, a hierarchical controller is developed. The upper layer uses model predictive control (MPC) to calculate the required additional yaw moments, while the lower layer allocates these moments through quadratic programming (QP) based on vehicle steering characteristics. Co-simulation results, evaluated using error metrics that compare control outputs directly against TruckSim reference outputs, show that the fusion GA-RLS method offers better accuracy and adaptability than a standalone GA. Furthermore, the stability controller prevents rollover in high-speed maneuvers and reduces peak state indicators by over 41.2% in low-speed scenarios. Robustness tests also confirm its effectiveness under low-adhesion road conditions and heavy payloads. Compared with a conventional fixed-parameter MPC, the proposed adaptive architecture improves key stability indicators by 19% to 25%, effectively enhancing the dynamic safety of semi-trailers.
Song, Dafeng, Ni, Lixin, Duan, Chaosheng, Zeng, Xiaohua
A Comprehensive Analysis of a Truck–Semi-Trailer Performance Based on Hierarchical Controller Design to Enhance Driver Comfort and Dynamic Stability02-20-01-00028/18/2026
This study presents an integrated suspension system to improve the ride quality and stability of semi-trailer truck vehicles. The system consists of both an Air/MR-controlled suspension on the driver’s seat and on the truck cab, and an active air main suspension for the truck to improve vehicle stability. All components are connected to the truck and semi-trailer via a series of coupled connections. An analysis of dynamic stability reveals how the truck’s motions affect slosh forces within the semi-trailer during operation. An experimental validation of the new Air/MR suspension damper, developed using ANSYS 2023 R1 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software, yielded results consistent with prior experimental evidence. The control strategy uses a hierarchical architecture in which an inverse LSTM network controls the MR damper, accurately following the damping forces generated by a higher-level RNN controller implemented in MATLAB. The RNN system adaptively adjusts the stiffness of the cab and driver seat suspension, isolating the cab from vibrations caused by uneven roads. The truck and trailer’s main air suspension uses LQR control, using state inputs to counteract vertical motions caused by road roughness and sloshing. An integrated nonlinear co-simulation model of the truck and semi-trailer—including the truck, sloshing trailer, nonlinear air springs, and CFD-based MR damper demonstrates the control system’s effectiveness. Simulation results compared with a passive suspension system show that the proposed integrated controlled suspension system significantly reduces the truck chassis bending moment, improves ride comfort (49.98%), reduces cab body displacement (63.60%), and increases dynamic stability (57.78%). Maximizing dynamic tire load due to slosh dynamics in both half-loaded and full-loaded tanks does not affect the effective dynamic stability of tire hopping at high frequencies because the stiffness coefficient is adaptively adjusted, thereby synchronizing disturbance rejection and long-term riding comfort in frequency-based control under different road conditions.
Gad, Ahmed Shehata
Design of a Digital Twin for Robot-Assembled Workpiece Transfer Station and Virtual Commissioning with It2026-99-03478/14/2026
In this research, the design of a digital twin system for a Robot-Assembled Workpiece Transfer Station (RAWTS) and virtual commissioning with it were detailed, aiming for debugging high-repeatability, high-precision robotic motions. The system employs a structured three-layer digital twin framework, Physical, Digital, and Information Fusion layers, interconnected via an OPC UA communication architecture to enable real-time virtual-physical data synchronization. The 6-axis industrial robot’s kinematic model is established using the D-H parameter method, and the translational end-effector’s kinematic relationships are configured with defined OPEN/CLOSE poses. A behavior-driven digital twin model is constructed within NX MCD, incorporating lightweight-processed 3D geometry from SolidWorks. Virtual commissioning involves PLC and robot program integration, OPC UA-based signal mapping, and kinematic path planning with reachability validation to avoid singularities and collisions. Key joint angles at critical path points are optimized, and virtual-physical integration debugging is performed, resulting in first-attempt success in physical operation. The study demonstrates that the NX MCD-based digital twin approach effectively validates control logic, optimizes robot trajectories, reduces on-site debugging time, and enhances operational precision and safety, offering a practical reference for digital twin applications in robotic systems.
Zang, Yuping, Wang, Ye, Fu, Hudai, Li, Weiwei, Jiang, Zhiyu, Wang, Dayu
RBF Neural Network-Based Compound Control for High-Speed Maglev Trains2026-99-03228/14/2026
Aiming at the inherent instability, strong nonlinearity, and high dynamic characteristics of normal-conducting maglev suspension systems, this paper adopts a composite supervisory control scheme integrating PD control and an RBF neural network. First, a high-speed maglev train-track coupled dynamics model considering track elasticity is established. On this basis, a phased control strategy is designed: the initial phase employs a PD controller to ensure system stability, after which control is seamlessly handed over to an RBF neural network. The weights of this network are continuously refined online via a gradient descent algorithm, enabling progressive enhancement of control precision. Simulation results validate the effectiveness of this approach, confirming its superior performance in both precise suspension gap regulation and robust disturbance rejection. Consequently, the proposed method not only underpins the stable operation of maglev trains but also constitutes a reliable intelligent control framework for high-speed maglev systems.
Yu, Yong, Zhang, Jie, Wang, Yu, Liang, Shi
Design of a Four-Wheel Turning Tobacco Harvester Suitable for Hilly Areas2026-99-03338/14/2026
To address the core requirement of “layered ripeness and non-destructive harvesting” in tobacco-growing hilly regions of China, a specialized tobacco leaf harvester was developed. Considering the challenges posed by scattered plots and complex terrain, a four-wheel steering chassis system was proposed. The platform adopts a four-wheel independent drive and steering (4WID-4WIS) configuration, powered by DC servo motors and integrated with a microcontroller-based ROS system. The resulting drive chain—comprising motors, gear reducers, and off-road tires—achieves a maximum operating speed of 0.5 m/s. A novel rotary cross-blade harvesting module was designed in conjunction with a conveyor-based transmission mechanism, enabling stratified harvesting and leaf transport. Full-condition field tests were conducted. In terms of mobility, the harvester achieved stable operation at 0.5 m/s on cement roads, 0.1–0.2 m/s in fields, and demonstrated slip-free climbing on 20° slopes. In terms of harvesting performance, the system’s adjustable modules accommodated varying plant heights; however, issues with blade grip were observed when handling irregularly slanted stalks, affecting collection efficiency. During continuous field entry and exit operations, no mechanical failures occurred, verifying the prototype’s operational stability. This study introduces an innovative combination of omnidirectional mobile chassis and stratified blade modules, offering technical support for the modernization of tobacco agriculture. Further refinement of the harvesting strategy will be pursued to enhance practicality.
Guo, Ting, Gu, Jin, Li, Wen, Tang, Xiaoming, Long, Chao, Yang, Dongchao
Failure Analysis of the Safety Valve Spring in a Dangerous Goods Tanker2026-99-03138/14/2026
During the operation, a spring in the built-in safety valve of a dangerous goods tanker. A comprehensive failure analysis of the material was conducted through macroscopic and microscopic inspections, metallographic analysis, energy spectrum analysis (EDS), and hardness tests. The failure mode of the broken spring was brittle fracture. The fracture morphology was like that of ice sugar, and the chemical composition of the spring steel met the specified requirements. The main cause of fracture failure is the mechanical damage to the inner surface during the spring manufacturing process, which leads to stress concentration in the damaged area and ultimately results in fracture. In addition, manufacturers should strengthen and standardize the production process to prevent mechanical damage and select high-purity spring steel to improve the durability of the springs.
Yang, Lijun, Li, Qingshan, Xiong, Mingming, Liu, Mingming, Wu, Junyao, Yu, Lang, Zhang, Zewei, Xie, Xumeng
Strength and Rotor Dynamic Simulation Analysis of a Brake Testing Device2026-99-03278/14/2026
The brake test bench is an effective method for studying wheel-rail interaction by simulating the braking process of rail vehicles. To ensure the safe and reliable operation of the brake test bench, this article focuses on introducing a comprehensive single-wheel brake test device. A finite element model of the wheelset assembly and test bench was established, and the strength, mode, and dynamic performance of the wheelset assembly and braking system were analyzed by simulating the braking process. The analysis results indicate that the wheelset assembly and braking system meet the strength requirements of the braking test process, and the test speed is maintained below the critical speed of the test bench. This validates the rationality and safety of the brake testing device and provides a foundation for subsequent brake research.
Jing, Yuhang, He, Taixiong, Song, Ye
Modeling and Simulation of the Quick Discharge Hydraulic System of an Internal Mixer2026-99-03058/14/2026
The hydraulic system of the mechanical lever locking device of the internal mixer and the hydraulic system of the gear rack swing hydraulic cylinder are developed. The AMESim simulation models of the two systems are established, and the simulation parameters of each hydraulic element are reasonably set. Firstly, the relationship between the opening time of the mechanical lever locking device of the internal mixer and the charging volume and pressure of the accumulator is analyzed. It is found that the locking time of the mechanical lever locking device of the internal mixer needs about 10 s, while the unlocking time is less than 0.05 s. The unlocking and rubber discharging speed is very fast, and the opening time of the mechanical lever locking device of the internal mixer will become shorter when the pressure or volume of the accumulator air bag becomes larger; Through the analysis of the hydraulic system of the rack and pinion swing hydraulic cylinder, it is obtained that when the air bag volume of the accumulator is 7.557 L, the displacement of the piston rod of the rack and pinion swing hydraulic cylinder rises fastest, which is shortened from 20 s to about 15 s; The greater the air bag pressure of the accumulator is, the faster the displacement of the piston rod of the gear rack swing hydraulic cylinder rises, which is shortened from 20 s to 18 s.
Zhang, Haoqiang, Cai, Liu
Comparative Analysis of CDTire Model and FTire Model in Vehicle Comfort and Durability Simulation2026-99-03018/14/2026
Applicability of the CDTire tire model in vehicle handling and stability simulations is studied in this paper by comparison with the PAC2002 tire model. Based on the physical tire 245/50 R20, corresponding CDTire and PAC2002 models are established and assembled on the multibody dynamics model of an SUV. After simulating 5 handling and stability conditions, it is found that the CDTire calculation is more time-consuming compared with PAC2002, but the increased time cost does not exceed 10%. In addition, the relative errors of the 17 evaluation indices obtained based on CDTire compared to PAC2002 do not exceed 5%. Therefore, in terms of both computational accuracy and efficiency, CDTire is suitable for application in vehicle handling and stability simulation.
Gao, Fengling, Wu, Wenwen, Fei, Yuanjun
Review of Semi-Active Shock Absorption Mechanisms in Landing Systems01-19-02-00068/13/2026
Effective shock absorption is essential for maintaining stability during landing events. Aerospace systems traditionally rely on oleo-pneumatic struts, while robotic platforms utilize lightweight compliant joints for impact mitigation. Recent advances have shifted attention toward adaptive solutions, including magnetorheological and electrorheological dampers, which can adjust their damping characteristics in real time through sensor feedback and control algorithms. By integrating established mechanical design principles with advanced materials and intelligent control strategies, modern landing systems can achieve improved energy dissipation and enhanced performance under variable and unpredictable conditions. This work evaluates the transition from passive to adaptive shock absorption technologies by examining landing dynamics, the mechanical architectures of conventional and semi-active systems, and the control strategies that enable adaptive damping. The findings indicate that, although passive systems offer reliability and simplicity, they lack the adaptability required for highly variable environments, while semi-active systems provide enhanced performance through real-time modulation enabled by advanced control algorithms. However, challenges related to power requirements, system complexity, material durability, and long-term reliability continue to limit widespread implementation of adaptive technologies. Overall, this review highlights the limitations of passive designs, evaluates the tradeoffs between MR and ER damping technologies, examines the evolution of semi-active control strategies, and identifies the key technical barriers that must be addressed before adaptive shock absorption systems achieve broader operational adoption.
Shah, Rajesh, Patel, Parth, Mittal, Vikram
Analysis of the Impact on Ride Comfort from Splitting the Unsprung Mass in Vehicle Modeling2026-01-50578/6/2026
The study was conducted to investigate the differences in ride comfort analysis between treating the unsprung mass as a whole and modeling it separately. A classical two-degrees-of-freedom single-wheel vehicle vibration model and a three-degrees-of-freedom single-wheel vehicle vibration model with split unsprung mass were established, with their state-space descriptions determined. The fundamental vibration response quantities of both models were identified, and time-domain simulations under random road excitation were performed using MATLAB/Simulink. The results indicate that the two modeling approaches exhibit minimal differences in ride comfort analysis for the sprung mass, but there are certain differences for the unsprung mass. Additionally, for the three-degrees-of-freedom single-wheel vehicle vibration model with split unsprung mass, the axle-to-wheel mass ratio was introduced to analyze the changes in the fundamental vibration response quantities when the unsprung mass increases by a fixed value and is distributed differently between the axle and the wheel. The results show that variations in the axle-to-wheel mass ratio have no significant impact on the vibration characteristics of the sprung mass. Reducing the mass ratio, i.e., transferring part of the unsprung mass to the wheel, can somewhat reduce the vertical acceleration of the unsprung mass, but it will slightly increase the relative dynamic load on the wheel. Finally, the other two models were simplified by combining the two masses connected by the bearings.
Jie, Li, Wei, Deng, Chengyu, Li
Delay-Compensated Active Anti-Roll Bar of Tractor-Trailers Using Two-Dimensional Piston Pump Electro-Hydrostatic Actuators02-19-04-00278/5/2026
As tractor-trailers are essential to global logistics, their roll stability during emergency maneuvers is a critical safety concern. This paper presents a novel delay-compensated active roll control strategy for tractor-trailers using a two-dimensional piston pump electro-hydrostatic actuator (EHA). Unlike existing advanced strategies that assume ideal actuator behavior, this approach specifically targets the inherent response delay in high-tonnage applications. A detailed EHA model, including pump flow characteristics and hydraulic mechanics, was developed and validated through step response experiments. A seven-degree-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model and a model predictive controller were also constructed to compute the required anti-roll moment under emergency driving conditions. In order to address the EHA actuator’s response delay, a delay feedforward controller (DFC) was designed, integrating acceleration feedforward, feedback regulation, and delay disturbance estimation. TruckSim–Simulink co-simulations under double lane-change (DLC) maneuvers at 40 km/h, 60 km/h, and 80 km/h show that DFC improves displacement tracking and reduces peak trailer roll angle by up to 15% compared to a velocity-feedforward proportional-integral-derivative (VFPID) controller. It also enhances control efficiency, as evidenced by lower average motor speeds and pressure response of EHA. The system demonstrates high power-to-weight ratio and efficient tracking capabilities under dynamic conditions. Although active control provides limited benefit at low speeds, the proposed strategy effectively improves roll stability and driving safety under dynamic conditions.
Chen, Lijie, Yin, Yuming, Zeng, Yuhang, Ruan, Jian, Li, Hangqi, Sun, Peng
Analysis and Elimination of Transient Impact of Rollers in S-cam Brakes2026-01-50668/5/2026
S-cam brake is a drum-type foundation brake used in heavy commercial vehicles. It is a safety-critical device; hence, thorough validation of its performance by lab test rigs and field tests is essential. During prototype testing, an unusual impact was observed during dynamic braking at high pressure application, specifically when the brake drum is rotating, after a period of operation of about 10,000 cycles. This phenomenon was then observed even at static braking when the brake drum was at rest. From initial inspection, it is due to the cam roller, which rides on the web-slot provided at the shoe assembly, while the S-cam is rotating and falls back instantly. This phenomenon occurs repeatedly and creates an audible noise, which needs to be eliminated. The study aims to correlate the phenomenon using finite element analysis (FEA) as in a prototype test and to identify the root cause and optimize the design variables. Since the friction coefficient at the cam roller–web interface is unknown after a period of operation, different values of friction coefficient, ranging from 0.1 to 0.8, are iterated and simulated by rotating the S-cam until the braking effort is reached. The dynamic implicit analysis procedure in Abaqus standard is used to simulate this condition. Based on the results, design variables were improved to mitigate the issue. A quick solution, achieved by modifying a minor feature, successfully prevented the fallback behavior and was validated through physical testing. Furthermore, a permanent solution was developed to eliminate both the “ride-on” and “fallback” phenomena by optimizing component dimensions. This FEA methodology helps to validate the design in an initial concept phase itself for future variants. Using this method, even the structural and fatigue performance of braking parts can be validated at a system-level simulation with better accuracy.
Dinesh Kumar, J., Riyaz Mohamed, D., Vasanth Bharath, S., Rajkumar, S., Murugan, S.
Study on Penetration Damage Characteristics of Honeycomb Non-pneumatic Safety Tiree2026-99-01677/31/2026
To improve the mobility and reliability of special-purpose vehicles that are operated in extreme conditions and to minimize the influence of tire failure on the vehicle’s mobility, this paper investigates how the mechanical properties of honeycomb non-pneumatic tires are affected after high-speed impacts from external projectiles. A prototype of a network non-pneumatic honeycomb tire was initially developed, which was made of polyurethane material. The five parameter model of the Mooney-Rivlin model was selected as its constitutive relation and the experimental study was performed to validate three-dimensional stiffness simulation model for the tire. Secondly, a LS-DYNA-based finite element model was developed to describe the dynamic behaviors of the tire under an external impact at various locations (e.g. tread, single spoke plate and joints), and to investigate the influence of local damage and spoke plate fracture on the stiffness of the tire. The results indicate that the tire has better performance of resisting the impacts at small and medium levels, with the decrease of radial stiffness of the tire less than 4% after experiencing the ultrahigh load; after the spokes plate is broken, the radial stiffness of tire drops significantly by comparing with the intact tire, that is 24.17%, which has a great effect on the support performance of the tire. The findings of this work offer theoretical support and design guidelines for the structural optimization and properties improvement of NPTS.
Yao, Tuzao, Sun, Xiaowang, Zhang, Qiang, Fu, Lei, Huang, Jianbin
Comparative Analysis of CDTire Model and FTire Model in Vehicle Comfort and Durability Simulation2026-99-01097/31/2026
This paper studies the applicability of the CDTire tire model in vehicle comfort and durability simulations by comparing it with the FTire tire model. Based on a physical 250/50 R19 tire, the corresponding CDTire and FTire models are developed and integrated into a multibody dynamics model of an SUV. After simulations of two handling comfort conditions and one durability condition using the CDTire and FTire models, it is found that, when FTire is used as the base case, CDTire produces a smaller relative error in vehicle comfort simulation, with a maximum of +5.6%. In the durability simulation, the relative error is larger, but the maximum value remains within ±10% at + 9.7%. Therefore, it can be concluded that CDTire is one tire model with acceptable simulation accuracy for vehicle comfort and durability.
Gao, Fengling, Wu, Wenwen, Geng, Hao
Research on the Topology Design of Electric Vehicle Corner Module Suspension Based on POC Theory2026-99-01517/31/2026
The corner module is an innovative design that combines drive, steering, suspension, and other vehicle structures into a single wheel unit. This achieves a high level of integration for chassis functions. A chassis built on this module can perform more complex movements. Suspension is a key part that decides how the vehicle moves. However, current suspension design approaches lack a systematic methodology for configuration synthesis and analytical verification for the multi-degree-of-freedom (multi-DOF) requirements of the corner module. This study introduces a new method for designing the corner module suspension based on the Position and Orientation Characteristic theory (POC theory). First, the type of suspension DOF is derived from chassis functional requirements by treating the required corner module motion as the target suspension DOF. Then, we decide the number of chains, links, and joints in the mechanism and perform configuration synthesis of suspension mechanism. Next, we combine the selected kinematic pairs and select suspension mechanisms that meet the requirements of suspension DOF. There are two steps of calculation in this process. In this study, the goal is to design a suspension with three links, two loops, and two degrees of freedom. Seven suspension mechanisms with specific loops and components were obtained using the proposed process. Finally, the paper presents the process of mechanism verification. Using the steering link and ground excitation as inputs, theoretical calculations and simulation analysis were conducted to verify that the mechanisms obtained meets the suspension design objectives. This proves that the POC theory-based method for creating multi-DOF suspension is effective.
Kong, Wenkai, Zhu, Wenfeng, Zeng, Zhixuan
Application of a Novel Noise-Reduction Material to Reduce Squeak Noise in Automotive Instrument Panels2026-01-50657/31/2026
In recent years, driven by increasing consumer demands for vehicle aesthetics and perceived quality, automotive instrument panels (IPs) have extensively adopted materials with poor friction compatibility, such as chrome-plated strips and synthetic leather. Concurrently, the engineering requirement for tighter matching gaps between components has significantly escalated the risk of friction noise. Traditional mitigation strategies—such as material substitution, increasing gap clearances, or applying physical isolation—are often difficult to implement due to design constraints, rendering the IP a critical high-risk zone for abnormal noise. This paper proposes a methodology to mitigate squeak noise between polycarbonate/acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC/ABS) and its mating counterparts by modifying the viscoelastic characteristics of the PC/ABS base material through the addition of a specialized polymer. Furthermore, a neural network model was established to objectively determine the noise compatibility of these materials. Evaluations of the material compatibility before and after modification demonstrate that adding a specific proportion of the special polymer to PC/ABS significantly improves its friction compatibility with materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) skin. The efficacy of this solution was confirmed through application and verification in a mass-production vehicle.
Liu, Zubin, Cao, Chunyu, Hou, Hangsheng
Attention and Intrinsic Curiosity-Enhanced Deep Reinforcement Learning for Path Planning in Dynamic Environments2026-01-50567/31/2026
Efficient and reliable path planning remains a core challenge for autonomous vehicles operating in dynamic and crowded environments. Although Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) has shown considerable potential in autonomous decision-making, it still faces challenges such as insufficient feature extraction, sparse rewards, and low obstacle avoidance efficiency in complex scenarios. To address these issues, this paper proposes an end-to-end path planning framework, PPO-ICM-Attn. Built upon the Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) algorithm, the framework incorporates a dual-channel attention convolutional neural network module (Attention-CNN) to enhance spatial and semantic understanding of dynamic obstacles, and introduces an Intrinsic Curiosity Module (ICM) to promote active exploration in sparse-reward settings. Furthermore, a reactive avoidance reward function based on velocity-obstacle theory is designed and embedded to achieve real-time proactive collision avoidance in highly dynamic environments. Experiments are conducted in a semi-structured dynamic crowd scenario constructed on the GAZEBO simulation platform. The results demonstrate that PPO-ICM-Attn achieves significant improvements in key metrics such as path success rate, travel time, and path efficiency compared to baseline methods like A*+DWA and standard DRL. Although the gap remains in path efficiency compared to A*+DWA, the proposed method exhibits superior robustness and navigation performance overall, validating its effectiveness in complex dynamic environments.
Shen, Shiquan, Liu, Jiahao, Chen, Zheng, Li, Zongdian, Zhao, Yuting, Wu, Minggong, Zhao, Jie, Qin, Zongquan, Wang, Yanfeng
Advanced Damping Force Modeling Using Machine Learning for Next-Generation Electric Vehicle Suspensions2026-01-50537/31/2026
The rapid evolution of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to the development of innovative approaches to optimize ride comfort, handling, and the overall suspension performance. EVs introduce unique challenges due to their distinct weight distribution, powertrain dynamics, and noise characteristics, unlike their conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) counterparts. This paper outlines an advanced damping force modeling methodology using machine learning (ML) techniques to enhance the suspension design process for next-generation EVs. The analysis is based on data-driven ML algorithms, i.e., Gradient Boosting, Random Forest, and Neural Networks, to simulate the nonlinear and frequency-dependent phenomenon of dampers in different operating conditions. A comprehensive dataset, generated through simulation and experimental testing, captures the effects of road profiles, vehicle dynamics, and damping settings. Additionally, this research evaluates the impact of machine-learned damping force predictions on critical ride and handling metrics, including ride comfort, road-holding ability, and energy efficiency. The results demonstrate that the ML models can enhance the iterative design process considerably and help to create the adaptive suspension systems that will address the particular requirements of EVs. This paper contributes to advancing the state-of-the-art of the suspension modeling, incorporating the ML-based insights in the development cycle. It highlights the possibility of artificial intelligence to transform suspension design, paving the way for superior ride quality and vehicle performance in electric mobility.
Hazra, Sandip, Tangadpalliwar, Sonali, Khan, Arkadip
Development of Electric Vehicle Oils with High Energy Efficiency and Cooling Performance by Applying Novel Friction Modifier2026-01-50647/31/2026
Improving the efficiency of electric vehicle (EV) transmissions can help to extend the driving range of EVs, and the EV oil used in these transmissions plays an important role. In this study, in order to enhance energy efficiency, we examined the effects of lowering viscosity, traction, and friction in EV oil. While friction modifiers (FMs) have been widely used as friction reduction technologies in the field of tribology for many years, we previously developed a new FM that reduces friction in drive units. We found that a combination of lowering viscosity and using the developed FM was effective for better energy efficiency. The oil formulated with the developed FM improved efficiency by approximately +0.8% to +0.9% compared to commercial EV oil. EV oil also requires cooling performance. We assumed that reducing heat generation through friction reduction would improve cooling performance and examined the effect of lowering viscosity, traction, and friction. Consequently, it was found that a combination of lowering traction and applying the developed FM is effective for reduction in parasitic heat losses. We also examined durability, which is an issue when reducing viscosity. The results suggested that the oil formulated with the developed FM had good durability for gears and bearings. Thus, we succeeded in developing an ultra-low-viscosity EV oil that has excellent energy efficiency and high cooling performance.
Nakamura, Toshitaka, Furuse, Takashi, Hasegawa, Shinji, Akahori, Shinya, Itou, Kimikazu, Sakurada, Soichiro, Akiguchi, Junnosuke
Research on Fault-Tolerant Control Strategy for Drive System Failure of Corner Module-by-Wire Chassis Vehicles2026-01-50547/31/2026
As an emerging research focus, corner module-by-wire chassis vehicles overcome the limitations of traditional chassis in flexibility, cost, and development efficiency, serving as a key infrastructure in the autonomous driving era. However, their numerous actuators raise significant actuator failure risks. This paper analyzes the characteristics of such vehicles and studies fault-tolerant control for drive system failures. Firstly, a vehicle model for the corner module-by-wire chassis was established based on CarSim and Simulink. Then, a hierarchical lateral stability control strategy was designed for the non-faulty actuators: the decision control layer employed sliding mode control (SMC) and fuzzy PID control, selecting the optimal method to output additional yaw moments; the control allocation layer distributed the upper-level target yaw moments based on the vertical load of the tires, converting them into individual wheel torques to meet the constraints. For the drive system, potential fault scenarios were analyzed and their fault modes were classified. By using the non-faulty actuators for torque reconstruction, fault-tolerant strategies were designed for single-motor, diagonal dual-motor, and coaxial dual-motor faults. A co-simulation platform was built using MATLAB/Simulink and CarSim, testing the stability control strategies under three fault modes in constant-speed straight-line and double-lane change conditions. Simulation results show that the designed drive system fault-tolerant control strategy effectively maintains the vehicle’s expected dynamic performance and stability.
Zheng, Hongyu, Zhang, Tianhao, Zhang, Yuzhou
Design and Research of Robotic Arm for Belt Conveyor Roller Replacement2026-99-01877/31/2026
To address the high failure rate of rollers in coal mine belt conveyors, the inefficiency of manual replacement, and the operational disruptions caused by maintenance shutdowns, this study proposes a robotic arm system capable of replacing rollers without halting conveyor operations. The research focuses on the kinematic performance and path planning strategy of the robotic arm. A kinematic model is established using the Denavit–Hartenberg (DH) parameters, and the workspace distribution is analyzed via the Monte Carlo method. The results show that the horizontal reach exceeds 2020 mm and the vertical reach extends up to 2000 mm, which fully satisfies the spatial requirements for roller replacement across the entire conveyor system. In the path planning phase, an obstacle expansion model is constructed, and an improved Informed RRT* algorithm is implemented to generate collision-free trajectories, ensuring effective obstacle avoidance. To improve trajectory smoothness, path pruning and cubic B-spline interpolation are applied to refine the initial paths. For trajectory planning in joint space, quintic polynomial interpolation is employed, with boundary conditions set to ensure zero velocity and zero acceleration at both the start and end points, thereby guaranteeing smooth and stable motion of the robotic arm. Simulation results indicate that joint angles, angular velocities, and angular accelerations vary smoothly throughout the roller grasping process, without abrupt changes, and converge to zero at the beginning and end of the trajectory. End-effector trajectory tracking error analysis reveals positioning errors within 0.8 mm for side rollers and 3 mm for central rollers, well within acceptable engineering accuracy thresholds. This work provides a theoretical foundation and a practical implementation framework for advancing automation and intelligent operation in roller replacement tasks within coal mine belt conveyor systems.
Pu, Congyuan, Qian, Ke
Solution of Optimal Parameters of Leaf Springs by Firefly Algorithm Based on Penalty Function2026-99-01447/31/2026
The probe is an important component of the precision instrument. During the measurement process, the deformation of the leaf spring directly affects the accuracy of the displacement of the probe. There are many undetermined parameters for the leaf spring, and some parameters have a non-linear impact on the results. This paper proposes a firefly algorithm that combines penalty functions to solve the optimal solution of the objective function for multi parameter leaf springs. Through strategies such as normalizing mapping intervals, setting small populations between cells, and fine-tuning position update formulas, this algorithm quickly obtains the optimal parameters of the leaf spring, and compares it with the orthogonal experimental method to prove the feasibility of this method, providing a certain theoretical reference value for multi parameter solving.
Yu, Jianghao, Shi, Zhaoyao, Song, Huixu
Comfort Study of Air Suspension System Based on MPC Control2026-99-01367/31/2026
Air springs are increasingly replacing traditional shock absorbers in vehicle suspension systems due to their superior mechanical properties, including adjustable stiffness, nonlinear characteristics, and excellent damping performance. To further explore the potential of air suspension in improving ride comfort, this paper focuses on air suspension. We first conducted mechanical characteristic experiments on air springs to obtain their stiffness and damping characteristics under different inflation pressures and excitation frequencies. These tests provide essential mechanical parameters for subsequent modeling and simulation. Based on the experimental data, a simplified 1/4 air suspension simulation model is constructed, taking into account the nonlinear stiffness and damping properties of the air springs. To simulate real-world driving conditions, a random road surface model is introduced as the excitation input. Simulation analysis is conducted to compare the air suspension system with the traditional passive suspension system. The results indicate that, compared to the passive suspension system, the air suspension system integrated with Model Predictive Control(MPC) significantly reduces key performance indicators, including suspension deflection, wheel dynamic load, and sprung mass vertical acceleration. This indicates that the suspension with model predictive control can effectively suppress vehicle vibrations, thereby enhancing ride comfort and driving stability. The results of this study provide an important basis for the optimal design of air suspension systems and have practical application value for improving the suspension performance of the vehicle.
Yin, Zhi
Robotic Grinding Trajectory Planning and Correction Method for Large-Scale Complex-Shaped Products2026-99-02277/31/2026
Due to the inherent characteristics of large dimensions, complex curved surfaces, and densely distributed protrusions present in aerospace products, conventional offline programming and trajectory planning techniques for robots primarily prioritize the facilitation of uninterrupted grinding processes and the generation of points along trajectories on surfaces characterized by smoothness. However, these methods encounter challenges in identifying and proactively avoiding surface protrusions during the planning phase. The present paper puts forth a proposal for an automated robot trajectory planning method for grinding operations. This method is predicated on the integration of region partitioning and deformation correction. Specifically, this method first identifies protrusions based on curvature features and rule matching, followed by an analysis of the feasible workspace of a six-axis industrial robot equipped with an external axis. The product surface is discretized into multiple regional units according to the distribution characteristics of protrusions and the constraints of the feasible workspace. Subsequently, a parameter-optimized parallel sectioning method is employed to independently plan trajectories for each unit. The utilization of on-site measured point cloud data facilitates the analysis of contour deviations. In addition, grinding trajectories are dynamically corrected to meet high-precision process requirements. This approach effectively overcomes the challenge that trajectory planning for large-scale, complex-shaped products is easily affected by protrusions. According to the established methodology, the development of an offline programming software system for robotic automatic grinding was initiated. To this end, experiments were conducted on aircraft wall panels to plan and modify grinding trajectories using the proposed method. This process was undertaken to validate the effectiveness and engineering practicability of the proposed method.
Fan, Changhao, Wang, Mingyang, Lv, Ruiqiang, Zhou, Peng
Factors that Influence the Determination of Adhesion Utilization of the ABS in Commercial Vehicles: A Case Study2026-36-03077/30/2026
The anti-lock braking system (ABS) plays a fundamental role in preventing wheel lockup and preserving vehicle steerability and stability during braking. In Brazil, ABS is mandatory for commercial vehicles since 2014, following CONTRAN Resolution 380/11, with the objective of improving traffic safety and reducing road accidents. The performance of an ABS is directly influenced by the characteristics of the vehicle’s braking system, including its pneumatic architecture and mechanical component sizing, which determine brake-force distribution and the frequency of ABS intervention. Regardless of these characteristics, developers must ensure that ABS efficiency complies with applicable regulatory requirements. For performance assessment, NBR 10966 Part 6 establishes procedures for measuring and calculating the adhesion utilization of ABS. Represented by the letter epsilon (ε), adhesion utilization quantifies the relationship between the braking performance achieved with ABS active and that corresponding to the vehicle’s maximum braking capacity without wheel slip. This metric provides an indirect evaluation of system efficiency. This work presents a case study conducted during the development of the ABS for a medium-heavy truck equipped with more than two axles. The study consisted of the analysis of results obtained following the adhesion utilization determination methodology defined in NBR 10966 Part 6, and of the evaluation of its applicability to multi-axle vehicles. Despite the braking system and vehicle configuration meeting all minimum static and dynamic performance requirements, the measured adhesion utilization fell below expectations. This outcome prompted a detailed investigation of both the measurement approach used for this vehicle category and the factors affecting the tire–road friction coefficient, which are independent of the braking system itself. The analysis indicated potential improvements in the test methodology for vehicles with more than two axles and highlighted the significant influence of test-track surface conditions on the results obtained.
Dias, Eduardo Miranda, Rudek, Claudemir, Travaglia, Carlos Abílio Passos
Theoretical Influence of Load Distribution on ADAS Performance in Commercial Vehicles2026-36-03397/30/2026
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are increasingly integrated into heavy-duty commercial vehicles to improve road safety, mitigate accident severity, and enhance operational efficiency. In the context of braking systems, however, a significant gap remains between system calibration practices and real-world operating conditions, where most evaluations and validations of ADAS and braking performance are conducted under nominal or standardized load assumptions, which fail to represent the wide variability of payload magnitude and distribution typically observed in trucks, semi- trailers, and buses. Variations in vehicle mass and load distribution directly affect braking efficiency, axle load transfer, center of gravity (CG) position, and stability limits, posing critical challenges to both conventional brake systems and brake-related assistance functions. This paper presents an exploratory qualitative study based on a systematic literature review addressing the influence of variable loading on braking performance and the operation of ADAS in commercial vehicles. Scientific publications, experimental investigations, and technical reports from both academia and industry were thoroughly analyzed, with emphasis on service brake efficiency, load-dependent braking behavior, rollover propensity, and the performance of the ADAS systems. The reviewed studies demonstrate that longitudinal, lateral, and vertical CG displacements significantly modify braking force distribution, actuator effectiveness, and stopping distances, particularly under emergency braking and downhill driving conditions. Improper load distribution was consistently associated with reduced braking margins and increased instability risk. The findings further indicate that integrating load-aware strategies into braking control and ADAS calibration can improve braking consistency, reduce component stress, and enhance overall vehicle safety. As a contribution, this work emphasizes the need to incorporate variable load conditions into braking system evaluation, ADAS development, and certification procedures for heavy commercial vehicles, ensuring robust and reliable performance under real operating conditions.
Rubbo, Bruno Tiago, Dacol, Franco De Bastiani, Do Nascimento, Vagner
Research on the Performance Evaluation Method of Intelligent Chassis Vehicles Based on AHP2026-99-08617/30/2026
The comprehensive performance evaluation system for intelligent chassis vehicles comprises multi-level indicators and exhibits certain complexity. In this study, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is employed to calculate the weights of indicators across different performance levels. Comprehensive performance is evaluated through the integration of objective indicator assessment and subjective scoring, and the evaluation results of the vehicle’s comprehensive performance are ultimately derived. This work provides a scientific scoring method for the product testing and evaluation of intelligent chassis vehicles.
Wu, Shiyu, Wang, Jingxian, Guo, Ruiling, Liang, Dong, Li, Saisai, Yu, Xuetian
Design of a Jamming Test Apparatus for Aircraft Cargo Door Latches2026-99-08337/30/2026
The reliability verification of cargo door latches for civil aircraft requires a safe, accurate, and controlled method for simulating jamming failures in lab settings. We adopt a crank-rocker mechanism with a variable degree of freedom (DOF) to construct a novel jamming apparatus that may be dynamically constrained in order to meet this requirement. The apparatus maintains two DOFs when not in use, which permits the latch mechanism to move freely. Both the guiding shafts and the rotation shafts are simultaneously constrained for a jamming test, reducing the mechanism’s DOFs to zero. This operation creates a precise and passive lock that immobilizes the mechanism without the need for an active external load. This approach offers a more realistic simulation of the sudden jamming brought on by wear, foreign object intrusion, or manufacturing tolerances. A theoretical kinematic analysis is then conducted to calculate the mobility of the mechanism and determine the theoretical conditions and transition paths to reach the two functional states. Moreover, the apparatus implements a real-time computational model based on classical planar linkage force analysis and integrates a multi-sensor system. This model converts sensor data into the torques and jamming forces that are actually delivered to the latch. The findings demonstrate that the proposed design accurately simulates latch jamming conditions while allowing for real-time monitoring and quantification of important dynamic characteristics. Thus, by offering a dependable and effective verification solution for cargo door latches, the apparatus greatly improves testing safety and the value of the data gathered.
Ren, Jie, Zeng, Xiaohu, Qiu, Xudong, Xie, Youshui
Innovative Friction Modifier for Copper-Free Brake Pad Applications2026-36-03137/30/2026
The development of copper-free brake pads poses a significant challenge because copper plays a critical role in tribofilm formation and friction stability. This study proposes a novel approach using a recycled flake iron oxide material, characterized by high thermal stability and a unique plate-like morphology, as a sustainable alternative. The material acts as a friction modifier, promoting the formation of stable tribofilms and serving either as a copper substitute or a functional additive. Its iron-oxide composition ensures strong compatibility with the counterface tribofilm, enhancing adhesive friction, while its role as a primary plateau contributes to friction stability and reduced wear. Three application scenarios were investigated: (i) copper substitution in Low-Steel (LS) and Non-Asbestos Organic (NAO) formulations, (ii) partial replacement of steel fibers in copper-free LS formulations, and (iii) synergistic use with iron sulfide in copper-free NAO formulations. Tribological performance was evaluated using a tribometer, and worn surfaces were analyzed by SEM and EDS to characterize tribofilm formation. Results demonstrate that the proposed material provides friction stability and wear resistance comparable to copper in both LS and NAO formulations. Partial substitution of steel fibers improved wear resistance by up to 75%, while synergistic addition with iron sulfide further enhanced friction and wear performance in copper-free NAO pads. These findings highlight the potential of this recycled material as a sustainable and effective alternative for copper-free brake pads, offering both environmental benefits and high tribological performance while reducing reliance on critical raw materials.
Jara, Diego Chávez, Lorenzana, Carlos
Development and Validation of a Braking Simulation Model Applied to a 6x2 Vehicle in Compliance with NBR 10966-22026-36-03187/30/2026
This study presents a comparative analysis of the braking performance of a heavy commercial vehicle under in-gear and out-of- gear conditions, combining experimental tests conducted at 60 km/h with high-fidelity computational simulation. The numerical model incorporates real engine torque, power, and motoring/braking curves, full brake system parameters, dynamic load transfer, tire–road friction characteristics, and ABS actuation. Simulation results were validated against experimental MFDD and stopping distance measurements. The simulation demonstrated a high correlation with the experimental MFDD values (5.3 vs. 5.36 m/s2 in the in-gear condition and 5.6 vs. 5.37 m/s2 in the out-of-gear condition), confirming the robustness of the model. Differences in stopping distance were attributed primarily to the real-world behavior of the ABS and to variability in the road surface friction coefficient. The study concludes that braking with the vehicle in gear provides improved longitudinal stability due to the resistive contribution of engine drag torque, which also reduces the thermal load on the service brakes. Overall, the results reinforce the essential role of simulation as a development, optimization, and certification tool for brake systems.
Junior, Getulio Soares, Canale, Antônio Carlos, de Oliveira, Sergio Henrique Fidelis, Pizzi, Rafael Fortuna
Nonlinear and Robust SDRE–H∞ Control for Brake-by-Wire under Variable Friction and μ-split2026-36-03427/30/2026
This paper proposes a nonlinear and robust State-Dependent Riccati Equation (SDRE) combined with H∞ control architecture for brake- by-wire systems, specifically designed to handle severe tire-road friction variations and μ-split scenarios. The primary objective is to maximize deceleration capabilities while rigorously maintaining yaw stability, trajectory tracking, and passenger comfort through jerk limitation. Situated within the domain of active safety, this research addresses robustness against real-world uncertainties by utilizing a high-fidelity 14-degree-of-freedom vehicle model that accounts for longitudinal, lateral, and yaw dynamics, suspension-induced pitch and roll effects, and nonlinear tire behavior with explicit load transfer. To ensure near-optimal slip tracking under variable surface conditions, the system employs online friction estimation via Extended and Unscented Kalman Filters (EKF/UKF) fusing wheel and IMU data to adaptively adjust slip targets. The control strategy is bifurcated: the SDRE component manages dominant nonlinearities through state-dependent gains to prevent wheel lock-up, while the H∞ component provides robust disturbance rejection against parametric uncertainties such as mass variations and sensor noise. Control efforts are distributed via a Quadratic Programming (QP) torque allocator featuring anti-windup mechanisms and explicit saturation handling to compensate for lateral drift during μ-split braking. Validation is conducted through a Model- in-the-Loop (MIL) to Software-in-the-Loop (SIL) pipeline using scenarios including wet surfaces and panic braking. Simulation results demonstrate enhanced yaw stability and controlled deceleration profiles compared to conventional baselines, ensuring computational feasibility for automotive Electronic Control Units (ECUs).
Cubillos, Ximena Celia Méndez
Impacts of Automation and Electrification Trends on Pneumatic Braking Systems of Commercial Vehicles2026-36-03417/30/2026
Historically, the demand for advanced technology, efficiency, and safety has been a primary driving force in the evolution of commercial vehicles, particularly with respect to braking systems. More recently, the increasing levels of vehicle autonomy and electrification have emerged as irreversible trends, significantly accelerating the development of new functionalities and innovative electrical/electronic [E/E] architectures. These advancements are essentially focused on performance optimization, risk mitigation, and enhanced system reliability through the application of functional safety and cybersecurity standards, thereby shaping the current landscape of braking system design. From an efficiency standpoint, braking systems with higher levels of electronic content, functional integration – included with regenerative braking systems - and harmonization have been developed to improve energy efficiency and support global scalability. Concurrently, new system configurations are continuously being introduced to enhance vehicle safety and advanced driver assistance capabilities, in alignment with evolving regulatory requirements and market expectations. This paper evaluates the impacts of automation and electrification on commercial vehicle pneumatic braking systems, focusing on Anti-lock Braking Systems [ABS], Electronic Braking Systems [EBS] and air management platforms. It provides a technical overview of both architectures, assessing their capabilities to meet modern requirements such as integration with advanced vehicle architecture, regenerative braking for electrified applications, and Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems [ADAS] support. The study details the evolution of air management systems, with emphasis on electrified vehicles, including key functions such as air compressor charge control, Air Processing Unit [APU] desiccant regeneration, and electronic control strategies. Additionally, it examines key drivers of braking system evolution, braking system selection considering ADAS regulatory developments, Net Zero strategies, and automation trends. The paper further evaluates compliance with functional safety and cybersecurity standards and assesses the readiness of both platforms for emerging mobility concepts. Finally, it highlights the risks of deploying higher levels of autonomy in heavy-duty towing vehicles when operating with non- ABS semi-trailers, identifying this as a critical area for further investigation.
Guarenghi, Vinícius Mendes, Nicora, Fabio, Pizzi, Rafael Fortuna, Resende, Angelo Roberto Rodrigues, Pinto, Gustavo Laranjeira
Maximizing Autonomy, Minimizing Environmental Impact: The Cooperative Regenerative Braking2026-36-03167/30/2026
In conventional braking systems, the kinetic energy of a vehicle is predominantly converted into heat through friction, a thermodynamically inefficient process. This not only causes progressive wear of components but also leads to the release of various materials, including heavy metals and organic compounds. With increasing concern over non-exhaust emissions, the search for innovative solutions becomes imperative. In electrified vehicles (xEVs), regenerative braking emerges as a strategic technology, converting kinetic energy into electrical energy to recharge the battery and extend range. This process not only enhances the vehicle's energy efficiency but also results in reduced frequency and intensity of mechanical brake usage. Consequently, there is a direct reduction in the wear of friction braking components, which translates into a significant mitigation of particulate matter emissions associated with this wear. The optimization of these systems occurs through Cooperative Regenerative Braking (CRB), which intelligently integrates with hydraulic braking. The primary challenge lies in managing the transition between modes to recover maximum energy without compromising safety and driver comfort. This technical paper explores how CRB employs 'torque blending' via advanced ECUs and software to adjust in real-time the proportion of each braking type, aiming for maximum energy recovery in diverse driving scenarios. To verify the effectiveness of this system, practical tests were conducted on a vehicle. The results obtained from these tests were conclusive, demonstrating significant gains in energy efficiency, with an increased battery recharging capacity during decelerations, optimized by the braking system. This improvement in efficiency directly impacts the reduction in the use of the conventional friction brake system and, consequently, a sharp decrease in particulate matter emissions. In this context, the intelligent and cooperative management of regenerative braking is a strategic and fundamental component for building a more sustainable future in vehicular mobility.
Batagini, Emerson, Romão, Bruno
Influence of Aero Enablers on Brake Cooling Performance2026-36-03177/30/2026
Amid growing society concerns about environmental sustainability, fuel consumption has become a key factor in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. As a result, modern vehicle design increasingly prioritizes aerodynamic drag reduction. However, aerodynamic enhancements can significantly affect brake cooling, since airflow distribution plays a crucial role in braking performance. This study explores the interplay between underbody aerodynamic features and brake cooling efficiency in production vehicles. Three body styles—compact sedan, midsize SUV, and minivan—were evaluated to determine how varying aerodynamic configurations influence airflow around the wheel assemblies. The findings highlight critical trade-offs between aerodynamic optimization and thermal management, offering valuable insights for achieving balanced vehicle development strategies.
Batista, Lorena, Motta, Daniel, Seren, Ericson, Bergel, André, Sarmento, Alisson, Terra, Rafael
Development of an Electronic Braking System Applied to Commercial Vehicles Focused on Improvement of Braking Pedal Feeling and Braking Performance2026-36-03087/30/2026
Embedded electronics are becoming increasingly common in solutions developed for commercial vehicles. Technological advancements enabled the development of electronic solutions that provide braking systems with functions to improve safety, comfort, performance, durability, and cost-effectiveness of wear components. In this context, the electronic braking system, EBS, has become increasingly present in the electronic architecture of commercial vehicles. Considering the functions that can be developed within the electronic braking system, the following stand out: the pedal characterization, which potentially improves comfort and increases the sensation of safety during braking; and the brake force distribution, which can be adjusted to ensure that the vehicle achieves an optimal balance between performance and friction material’s durability. This work consists of the presentation of tests and results of technical activities required to develop an EBS for medium-heavy and heavy-duty vehicles designed for a variety of applications. EBS was developed to prioritize comfort and safety, with optimized braking sensation and performance without compromising the durability of the wear components of the vehicles. Activities started with the experimental determination of the brake factor—a value that transmits to EBS the braking capacity of the truck. In sequence, brake pedal setup was performed based on data extracted from a vehicle equipped with a mechanical braking system and validated by subjective assessment. In addition, the braking force distribution definition started by establishing its target: friction material’s wear equalization or braking performance; went through balancing the mechanical braking power per axle; and finished being validated by data obtained from vehicles in use. Results showed that the implementation of electronic braking systems in commercial vehicles brought several benefits to the product, in particular, improvement of braking feeling when pressing the brake pedal, and in both braking performance and friction material’s durability, which resulted in a better balance between maintenance costs and technical advantages.
Travaglia, Carlos A. P., Rodrigues, André, Rudek, Claudemir, Dias, Eduardo Miranda, Silveira, Juliana
Influence of Wheel Stiffness on Brake Drum Deformation in Commercial Vehicles2026-36-03097/30/2026
This study investigates the influence of wheel structural stiffness and wheel configuration (single- and dual-tire) on brake drum deformation in commercial vehicles equipped with pneumatically actuated drum brakes. A comprehensive multi-method approach was adopted, combining on-vehicle measurements, controlled bench testing using two- and three-dimensional optical metrology, and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of the rear axle assembly. Three- wheel configurations were evaluated: a dual-tire arrangement (Configuration A) and two single-tire designs with distinct stiffness characteristics (Configurations B and C). Radial distortion was quantified using the displacement difference between the bottom and top regions of the brake drum (ΔZ). The results demonstrate that wheel stiffness and the offset between the wheel-disc attachment point and the ground reaction force are dominant factors governing brake drum deformation. The brake drum equipped with dual-tire configurations exhibited minimal ΔZ, whereas the brake drums equipped with single-tire configurations, particularly the least stiff Configuration C, showed pronounced outward radial displacement and increased deformation asymmetry. Design evaluations conducted under the worst-case configuration confirmed these findings, showing an effective reduction in brake drum deformation achieved by increasing the brake drum collar thickness (–36.1%; +6 kg) and by increasing the wheel rim thickness (–27.8%; +4.5 kg).
de Souza, Cassio Belo Clemente, Santana, Flávio Arcanjo, Henze, Steffen, Pulju, Hendrik, Filho, William Manjud Maluf
Feasibility of CFD-thermal-structural simulation based on real braking tests2026-36-03317/30/2026
During the development of mechanical components, engineers use numerical tools as a first step to design, develop, and analyze potential solutions for specific requirements, thereby reducing time- to-market of new components. Furthermore, numerical tools are also highly useful for analyzing components that exhibit failures. For brake discs, numerical analysis must consider not only mechanical behavior but also thermal and fluid dynamic behavior. In this context, as a further step, experimental tests can be performed in test facilities such as dynamometers, where the brake discs are evaluated under different operating conditions to determine their susceptibility to failures such as thermal distortion, judder (hot or cold), squeal, coning, etc. If such failures occur, corrective actions can be implemented using different approaches: a) redesign of the disc and braking system aided by numerical tools; b) tuning of the matching between disc and pad materials; and c) modification of the disc and/or the pad material. Regarding the first approach, the finite element method (FEM) is one of the most important numerical tools, and to obtain reliable results, accurate boundary conditions must be applied. The aim of the study is to demonstrate the feasibility of the CFD-thermal-structural boundary conditions derived from an experimental test performed on a ventilated brake disc assembled in an instrumented vehicle. Firstly, a comparison between an analytical method and the CFD solution was made regarding convective heat transfer coefficient (HTC). The test consisted of 16 main braking cycles from 140 to 0 km/h, conducted under eight different pedal pressure levels. After each main braking, a thermal shock was applied to the disc using water, followed by a secondary braking from 80 to 0 km/h, always with the same pedal pressure. The numerical analysis results showed good agreement with experimental tests in terms of temperature distribution. In addition, axial displacement distribution along the circumference is presented, with emphasis on coning deformation, one of the main triggers for judder.
Bagatini, Pablo Schettert, Viotti, Matias Roberto, Pereira, Leonardo, Tuzzin, Matheus, Titton, Angelo Pradella, Boaretto, Joel, De Leon, Daniel Milbrath
Research on the Design Technology of Anti-Roll Attachment for Seaplanes2026-99-08037/30/2026
This paper takes a seaplane as the research object, based on the roll damping commonly used in the field of ships, to carry out the applicability analysis and design technology research of the roll damping for the seaplane. A T-tail configuration was selected as the attachment. The design process involved sequentially selecting the horizontal stabilizer airfoil, designing the aspect ratio parameters, and determining the strut airfoil. Consequently, two T-tail design schemes with aspect ratios of 0.76 and 1.53 were proposed. Through the hydrodynamic performance analysis of the T-tail design installed on the seaplane, the advantages and disadvantages of the two T-tail designs in the wave environment are studied. The results demonstrate that the aspect ratio of the T-tail’s horizontal stabilizer directly affects the seaplane’s wave-induced motion response. The proposed design with a larger aspect ratio of 1.53 significantly reduces wave resistance and motion response across various conditions. In the case of a relatively small aspect ratio, the maximum pitching motion is reduced by 38.4%, and the maximum heave is reduced by 59%.
Jiang, Ting, Pi, Xufeng, He, Chao, Wen, Changqing, Li, Xu
Design and Verification of Underactuated Coupled-Commutation Omnidirectional Mobile Integrated Camping Robot Chassis2026-99-08207/30/2026
To solve the poor mobility of traditional camping vehicle chassis in complex terrains and confined spaces, this paper proposes an underactuated omnidirectional mobile chassis for outdoor camping vehicles. The chassis adopts a coupled commutation mechanism (double-crank elastic special-shaped connecting rods cross sliders), allowing each wheel to realize two motion modes (omnidirectional translation, in-situ rotation) with just one drive motor, reducing system complexity and cost. A control system based on the RoboMaster Development Board C Type integrates PID angle-loop control and motor speed-current dual closed-loop control for motion stability. Kinematic models for these two modes are established to derive the wheel parameter-chassis motion relationship. MATLAB R2023b-ADAMS 2024 co-simulations show the chassis maintains attitude stability under S-shaped curve, circular curve, and in-situ rotation; Qualisys 3D motion capture experiments confirm its stable attitude in omnidirectional movement.
Ren, Yulong, Lu, Zhiguo, Yang, Dongsheng, Wu, Di, Zhang, Tianyu, Qian, Zhenxin
Research on Model State Machine-Based Simulation and Validation of Civil Aircraft Ground Deceleration Functional Architecture2026-99-08347/30/2026
The implementation of the ground deceleration function in civil aircraft represents a critically complex process that deeply relies on the seamless collaboration of multiple onboard systems, including but not limited to braking, thrust reversal, spoiler, and steering systems. The operational logic governing these systems is highly intricate, characterized by tightly coupled interactions, stringent safety requirements, and a vast array of diverse physical and logical interfaces. This inherent complexity makes it exceptionally difficult to gain a thorough, system-level understanding of the implementation mechanisms and collaborative principles solely through traditional means of examining extensive, yet often fragmented, design documentation. The limitations of document-based analysis frequently lead to unforeseen integration conflicts, which are typically discovered late in the development cycle, resulting in substantial rework costs and project delays. To address this pervasive industry challenge, this paper selects the aircraft ground deceleration function as a representative case study and proposes an innovative, simulation-based validation methodology. This approach systematically utilizes model state machines to create a dynamic digital representation of the system-of-systems, enabling rigorous validation of aircraft deceleration requirements under various operational scenarios. By adopting this model-based systems engineering (MBSE) paradigm for mechanism representation, our approach effectively captures the nuanced coordination, timing dependencies, and dynamic interactions within the multi-system operational logic. It thereby facilitates the intuitive identification, analysis, and resolution of potential design flaws, including logical conflicts, deadlocks, race conditions, and uncovered or ambiguous requirements. Consequently, the method not only provides a robust framework for validating the aircraft’s function-related design requirements with greater confidence but also offers crucial, data-driven support for the iterative optimization and evolution of the overall functional architecture. The fundamental value proposition of this research lies in its transformative capability to convert implicit design knowledge and assumptions—originally scattered across voluminous documents, specifications, and expert minds—into an integrated set of executable, observable, and analyzable formal models. This digital thread enables systems engineers and designers to identify deep-seated integration and coordination issues proactively during the early conceptual and detailed design stages, rather than relying on discovery during the late, costly integration and testing phases. By shifting validation left in the development V-cycle, this approach significantly reduces the risk of major design changes and associated cost overruns later in the project lifecycle. Ultimately, it effectively enhances the overall maturity, safety, certifiability, and operational reliability of complex aircraft function development, paving the way for more efficient and predictable engineering processes.
Wang, Mingqian, Yu, Qiao, Yu, Miao, Tang, Chao
Influence of Roll Gap Control under Acceleration Conditions2026-99-08677/30/2026
During the cold rolling process, when the rolling speed enters the acceleration stage, the rolling force often exhibits a linear decline accompanied by fluctuations. This leads to a decrease in the uniformity of steel strip thickness distribution, resulting in the failure of the outgoing strip to meet quality requirements in terms of shape and thickness. In this paper, a three-dimensional model of a six-high rolling mill is established using Abaqus, and the influence of gap control during the acceleration stage on strip shape is systematically investigated. By analyzing the relationship between rolling force and roll gap variations, a gap compensation strategy based on a dynamic stiffness model is proposed. Simulation results demonstrate that implementing gap compensation during the acceleration stage effectively improves the consistency of strip thickness, with significant reductions in both thickness range and standard deviation.
Tang, Yingxin, Yan, Zhuwen, Cao, Wenjun, Wu, Jiawei
PSO-Optimized LQR Control for Anti-Sway and Positioning of Rotary Cranes2026-99-08607/30/2026
This paper proposes a Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) parameter optimization method based on Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) to enhance the grab attitude controller for rotary crane systems, with the objectives of improving positioning accuracy and suppressing load swing. Lagrange’s equations are first used to create a nonlinear dynamic model of the rotary crane, which is then linearized around an operational point to produce a fourth-order state-space representation. Based on this representation, a dual-objective fitness function is created, employing the Integral of Time multiplied by Absolute Error (ITAE) as the performance index and assigning the swing angle error more weight. The important parameters of the LQR weight matrix are optimized using the PSO algorithm. A dedicated novel pre-compensation gain algorithm is then developed to solve the pseudo-inverse of an augmented matrix, thereby removing steady-state error. According to simulation results, the PSO-optimized controller greatly improves the anti-sway performance and positioning accuracy of the system by reducing the peak swing angle and settling time by 33.9% and 55.9%, respectively, as compared to the traditional LQR control.
Yao, Yulei, Xiang, Yang
Analysis and Optimization of Braking Deviation for Commercial Vehicles Based on ADAMS2026-99-08027/30/2026
Given the braking deviation of commercial vehicles, this paper discusses the influencing factors and uses Adams simulation software to accurately model the vehicle model due to the unreasonable match between the suspension system and the steering system. Through K&C analysis and dynamics analysis of the model, the root cause of braking deviation is identified, and the simulation method is used to quickly realize optimization and verification.
Yan, Tang, Wang, Jingxian, Sun, Hongyang, Wu, Zhen
Influence of Modified Fly Ash Content on the Properties of Resin-Based Friction Materials2026-99-16577/24/2026
In this study, five resin-based brake pad samples with modified fly ash contents of 0%, 4%, 8%, 12%, and 16% were prepared to investigate the influence of fly ash content on the comprehensive performance of the friction materials. The tribological properties of all samples were evaluated under temperature conditions ranging from 100 °C to 350 °C, and their overall performance was assessed using five evaluation indices. Based on the AHP-MOORA algorithm, sample F12 exhibited the highest comprehensive weighted score of 0.11, followed by samples F0 and F8 with scores of 0.10 and 0.09, respectively, indicating a slight decline. In contrast, the comprehensive weighted scores of F4 and F16 were relatively low, at 0.05 and −0.01, respectively. Among the five composites, F12 demonstrated the best overall performance, with F0 and F8 ranking next, while F4 and F16 performed poorly. These results suggest that, within a certain range, increasing the fly ash content can enhance the comprehensive properties of the material. However, excessive addition of fly ash may lead to the detachment of harder particles during wear, thereby increasing wear thickness and wear rate.
Li, Xiaobiao, He, Kang, Zhao, Zhuanzhe, Wu, Bo, Sun, Fei
Remote Steering Control SystemsJ2588_202607 (Current)7/23/2026
This SAE Information Report establishes a uniform procedure for assuring the manufactured quality, installed utility, and performance of automotive remote steering controls other than those provided by the vehicle manufacturer (OEM). These products are intended to provide driving capability to persons with physical disabilities. The adaptive modifications seek to compensate for lost or reduced function in the extremities of the driver with a disability. Remote steering controls are designed to provide a steering input device alternative to the OEM steering wheel that either reduces the required input force, changes the required range of motion or changes the location of the steering control, or any combination of the above. These controls supplement by power, other than by the driver’s own muscular efforts, the force output of the driver with a disability. Because this is an Information Report, the numerical values for performance measurements presented in this report and in the accompanying Test Procedure, while based upon the best knowledge available at the time, have not been validated by a testing of the Test Procedure.
Adaptive Devices Standards Committee
Modal-Constrained Co-optimization Approach of Thermomechanical Performance and Weight for Straight-Ribbed Brake Discs Using Deep Learning2026-01-50617/22/2026
In this study, an efficient method for concurrent thermomechanical performance and weight optimization under modal constraints is proposed to address the coupled design challenges of thermomechanical characteristics (thermal capacity, thermal deformation, and modal) and structural weight in straight-ribbed brake discs. Based on high-fidelity computer-aided engineering (CAE) simulations of brake disc thermomechanical behavior, a neural network (NN)-based surrogate model and a ResNet-guided geometric feature recognition (RGFG) model for automatic modality recognition were developed, and integrated with a particle swarm optimization (PSO) framework for optimal solution exploration. When applied to a passenger vehicle brake disc case study, the surrogate model of NN demonstrates remarkable accuracy: it shows more than 95% agreement with the CAE results in thermal capacity prediction, the prediction accuracy of thermal deformation exceeds 90% compared to CAE results and 83.4% compared to test result, thereby validating the method’s effectiveness. Compared with conventional CAE approaches, the surrogate model of NN achieves a subsecond prediction speed, significantly reducing computational costs. The surrogate model of RGFG achieves a test accuracy exceeding 95%. Furthermore, the proposed optimization framework offers valuable insights for the inverse design of brake discs.
Han, Simiao, Jiang, Daxin, Han, Chao, Wang, Jinda, Sui, Qinghai
Optimization Design of Automotive Handling Stability Based on ADAMS Insight2026-99-18017/17/2026
This paper systematically optimizes and validates the handling stability of a vehicle using ADAMS/Car software based on vehicle data provided by a car manufacturer. A comprehensive vehicle dynamics model was established, including a body model, an anti-roll bar model, a powertrain model, a steering subsystem model, and a full vehicle model, with a focus on optimizing suspension parameters such as toe angle and camber angle. Validation was carried out using simulation test methods such as dual-wheel synchronous excitation, steering returnability, and angle step input. The results show significant improvements in the vehicle’s yaw rate, steering force, and torque after optimization, with particular excellence in steering return time and transient response. Additionally, steady-state cornering simulation results indicate that the optimized vehicle has improved body roll stiffness and lateral compliance, with increased understeer, further enhancing stability and response speed during steering. The findings of this study improve the handling stability and safety of vehicles and provide valuable references for future automotive design.
Li, Diannuo, Zhu, Jiale, Wang, Dongmei, Wei, Yi, Huang, Yuanyuan, Ban, Lu
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