To address the performance testing requirements of autonomous vehicles (AVs), this study proposes a model predictive control (MPC) algorithm specifically designed for low-ground-clearance test target vehicles (TTVs) to achieve trajectory tracking control. First, the kinematic model of the TTV is established, and its state-space equations are derived. An objective optimization function incorporating both error weighting and control weighting is designed. Simulation analysis reveals the influence of the control error weighting ratio (CEWR) on both straight-line and curved trajectory tracking performance: For straight-line tracking, increasing the CEWR from 10 to 25 reduces the overshoot, but increases the distance required to reach the target trajectory by 4.7%. A similar pattern is observed in curved trajectory tracking. To overcome the limitations of the fixed CEWR, an improved MPC algorithm integrating fuzzy control is proposed. This algorithm dynamically adjusts the CEWR in real time

Ji, Shaobo, Lu, Yueqi, Liao, Guoliang, Chen, Zhongyan, Li, Meng, Lyu, Chengju, Zhang, Zhipeng

Hierarchical Control Strategy Evaluation and Migration for a Four-Degree-of-Freedom Quarter Commercial Vehicle

02-19-03-0014

4/9/2026

In order to improve the comfort performance in commercial vehicles, this study proposes a hierarchical control strategy that integrates the evaluation and migration of control algorithms. First, a quarter-vehicle model with four-degree-of-freedom (4-DOF) is constructed, incorporating the dynamics of the wheel, frame, driver’s cab, and seat. The key modal characteristics of the model are then verified through amplitude–frequency analysis, confirming their consistency with the typical vibration patterns observed in actual commercial vehicles, which provides the foundation for subsequent control strategy evaluation and migration. Then, based on a standard two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) suspension model, a weighted comprehensive evaluation function is developed to account for comfort, structural safety, handling stability, and both time- and frequency-domain performance indicators. Using this evaluation function, various control algorithms—including Skyhook control (SH), acceleration-based

Pan, Ting, Pang, Jianzhong, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Jiuxiang, Kang, Gong, Zhang, Yunqing

Intersection Assist for Vehicle with Dual-Trailers using Nonlinear Model Predictive Control and Unscented Kalman Filter

2026-01-0074

4/7/2026

This paper presents an approach utilizing Nonlinear Model Predictive Control (NMPC) and Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) to predict system state and control the trajectory of the vehicle with dual trailers in an intersection turn scenario. The UKF estimates vehicle and trailers’ lateral traversal velocity states and the NMPC controls the vehicle acceleration and steering to maintain the vehicle’s desired heading through the turn. The vehicle’s lateral traversal velocity function is formulated using Lyapunov based method which is used as a propagation function in the UKF to improve the estimation accuracy. The lateral traversal velocity is then used as one of the constraints in the NMPC problem. The overall estimation and the control scheme are formulated and assessed in the simulation environment. The simulation results show good tracking and curb avoidance performance.

Malla, Rijan

Reliability-Based Vibration Design of Vehicle Systems with Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD)

2026-01-0139

4/7/2026

Tuned Mass Dampers (TMDs) are widely used in the automotive industry to mitigate Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) issues across various vehicle systems. These passive devices are particularly effective in reducing structural vibrations in components subjected to resonant excitation. However, real-world applications often face challenges due to manufacturing variability and system-level build differences, which can cause deviations in both the TMD’s tuned frequency (up to ±15%) and the vibration characteristics of the host structure. These uncertainties—in both the TMD properties and the vehicle subsystem dynamics—can be modeled using statistical distributions. This paper presents a generalized methodology for vibration analysis and design under uncertainty, combining reliability engineering with dynamic vibration modeling. The approach formulates a unified mathematical framework that incorporates probabilistic and stochastic modeling to assess TMD performance under a range of

Abbas, Ahmad, Haider, Syed, d'Souza, Suneel

Two-Channel Pressure Control Using an Electric Cylinder and a Solenoid valve for Electronically Controlled Brake Systems

2026-01-0638

4/7/2026

With the rapid proliferation of electrified vehicles (xEVs), maximizing regenerative energy recovery has become a crucial challenge in realizing zero-emission mobility. In front-wheel-drive (FWD) vehicles, regenerative braking acts only on the front axle, resulting in a braking-force distribution biased toward the front. When uniform hydraulic pressure is applied to both axles, excessive braking force on the front wheels may cause premature wheel lock and hinder the intended regenerative braking effect. To address this issue, it is essential to implement an independent pressure control strategy (two-channel pressure control) that appropriately reduces front pressure according to regenerative force while independently maintaining adequate rear pressure. This study proposes a new two-channel pressure control architecture utilizing a simple and reasonable actuator set consisting of one electric cylinder and one solenoid valve. The electric cylinder generates hydraulic pressure by

Kaneko, Shosuke, Deno, Yoshitomo, Kobayashi, Tatsushi, Kawamura, Hikaru

Impact of User-Adjustable Vehicle-Dynamics Tuning on Vehicle Durability

2026-01-0194

4/7/2026

Software-defined vehicles offer customers a greater degree of customization of vehicle controls and driving experience. One such feature is user-adjustable tuning of vehicle ride and handling, where customers can vary ride height, damper stiffness, front-rear torque balance, and other aspects of vehicle dynamics. While promising a great customer experience, such a feature can expose the vehicle to a wider range of structural loads than those in the nominal design condition, particularly when such tuning is extended to cover spirited “sport” mode driving, off-road driving, etc. In this paper we present a novel methodology combining Road Load Data Acquisition (RLDA) data and real-world telemetry data to estimate the impact of user-adjustable vehicle-dynamics tuning on structural durability. In doing so, the method combines the physics of damage accumulation (from RLDA data) with user behavior (from telemetry data) to present an accurate assessment of the impact on durability, moving

Demiri, Albion, Ramakrishnan, Sankaran, White, Dylan, Khapane, Prashant, Borton, Zackery

Study of Automatic Emergency Braking Effects on Human and Surrogate Passengers

2026-01-0556

4/7/2026

The influence of modern Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) on the head and neck behavior of the occupants in a vehicle continues to be an active area of research. Occupant kinematics and kinetics were evaluated using a vehicle equipped with a pedestrian AEB system. The vehicle was tested in several different scenarios with speeds between 15 and 45 mph. Two instrumented 50th-percentile male Hybrid-III Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATD) were positioned in certain seats of the vehicle, while minimally instrumented human volunteers occupied the remaining seats. Displacement transducers and video analysis were utilized to capture the kinematics of each occupant. The findings of this study indicate that in AEB-only events with belted-occupants, the test vehicle did not result in any occupant motion that would have placed the occupants out-of-position (OOP) had an impact occurred immediately following the AEB event. This means that when evaluating real-world AEB events, it may not be necessary

Bartholomew, Meredith, Dahiya, Akshay, Russell, Caleb, Morr, Douglas, Castro, Elaine, Nguyen, An

A Study of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 126 and 136 Test Procedures on a Class 5 Vehicle

2026-01-0616

4/7/2026

Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 126 and 136 are standards imposed on four of the eight recognized road vehicle classes in The United States. These standards make it mandatory for Electronic Stability Control modules (ESC) to be mounted to Class 1,2,7, and 8 vehicles. These modules strategically activate the vehicle brakes via the Antilock Brake System (ABS) to limit the recorded yaw rate and lateral displacement of a vehicle during an extreme cornering maneuver such as a sudden swerve to avoid an obstacle on the road. The two aforementioned FMVSS mandates also specify three different driving maneuvers that are conducted to profile and analyze ESC module performance. There is now an interest in creating a new FMVSS that makes ESC modules mandatory for Class 5 vehicles. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how one specific Class 5 vehicle’s ESC module performed when subjected to the two test procedures that correspond to FMVSS 126 and 136. As will be seen, the vehicle’s

Cazares, Richard Isaac, Guenther, Dennis, Heydinger, Gary

Modular 3-D Lumped-Parameter Thermal Network for Thermal Estimation of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors in Electromechanical Braking Systems

2026-01-0136

4/7/2026

As electric intelligent vehicles advance, drive-by-wire systems are increasingly adopted, and the thermal reliability of electromechanical brake (EMB) motors—the key actuators—remains safety-critical. Under stalled-rotor operation, unequal DC currents are typically applied to the three phases, producing nonuniform winding heating. Conventional thermal models can miss the associated tangential heat-transfer effects, increasing the risk of phase-wise end-winding hot spot. This paper analyzes EMB motor thermal behavior under stalled-rotor conditions using a modular 3-D lumped-parameter thermal network (LPTN). First, a standardized tooth module with external interfaces is developed. Its internal parameters are informed by experiments and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and identified via particle swarm optimization (PSO), allowing the module to be encapsulated for reuse. Next, based on the machine topology, a minimal motor is derived and multiple tooth modules are interconnected through

Duan, Yanlong, Xiong, Lu, Wang, Xinjian, Zhuo, Guirong, Zeng, Jie

A Dataset for Visual Classification of Flat Tires

2026-01-0152

4/7/2026

Flat tires represent a common yet serious issue in vehicle safety, leading to compromised control, increased braking distance, and potential rim or structural damage when undetected. Conventional tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMS) rely on embedded sensors that can fail, incur high replacement costs, and are not always equipped in older or low-cost vehicles. To address these limitations, this study presents a comprehensive visual dataset for flat-tire classification using computer vision and machine learning techniques. The dataset comprises 600 labeled images—300 flat-tire and 300 non-flat-tire samples—collected from diverse vehicle types, lighting conditions, and viewpoints. This dataset is designed to support the training and benchmarking of lightweight edge-AI models suitable for real-time deployment on embedded platforms. A set of supervised learning models were evaluated. Results demonstrate that visual-based classification provides a cost-effective and scalable pathway

Gunasekaran, Aswin, Govilesh, Vidarshana, Challa, Karthikeya, Maxim, Bruce, Shen, Jie

Development of a Model-Aware Data-Driven Control Algorithm for a Drive-by-Wire System for a Level 4 Automated Vehicle

2026-01-0043

4/7/2026

Precision control in Level 4 Automated Vehicles is essential for enhancing operational efficiency, accuracy, and safety. This work, conducted as part of ARPA-E’s NEXTCAR program, focuses on developing a robust hardware and software control solution to enable drive-by-wire functionality. A previous publication by the authors presented the hardware solutions for overtaking stock vehicle controls. This paper focuses on a model-based and data-driven control algorithm to enable drive-by-wire functionality for longitudinal and lateral motion control for a 2021 Honda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle. This vehicle was equipped with a set of sensors and an onboard processing unit to enable Level 4 automation. For lateral controls, an algorithm was developed to command steering torque to the electronic power steering module, ensuring the vehicle could attain the desired steering angle position at varying speeds. The system leveraged feedforward and feedback mechanisms. Feedback controller

Adsule, Kartik, Bhagdikar, Piyush, Drallmeier, Joseph, Alden, Joshua, Gankov, Stanislav

Acoustic Improvements to a Passenger Service Unit Panel with Core Filler and Facesheet Patches using Topology Optimization

2026-01-0511

4/7/2026

Passenger comfort is becoming the forefront of luxury private jets where noise needs to be kept to a minimum. One source of structure-borne noise is the vibration of the Passenger Service Unit (PSU) panel. These vibrations originate from the outer skin, excited by turbulent boundary layer, and are transmitted through the fuselage frame to the PSU panel. This panel resides overhead of passenger seating, it is composed of a corrugated honeycomb core sandwiched between thin face-sheets. This paper presents a systematic approach to improve the vibro-acoustic performance of a honeycomb core sandwich structure by employing core filler and facesheet patches. Topology Optimization (TO) is used to determine the optimal layouts of these design modifications. The vibro-acoustic performance of the PSU panel with facesheet patches and core filler is evaluated using a frequency response analysis in the commercial finite element solver OptiStruct. The effectiveness of vibration reduction will be

Russo, Connor, Whetstone, Isobel, Patel, Anuj, Wotten, Erik, Kim, Il Yong

Oscillatory Behavior of Understeering Vehicles

2026-01-0623

4/7/2026

Oscillations in understeering vehicles are occasionally described in the literature, primarily in terms of the poles of the yaw rate response, but perhaps not completely appreciated in their complexity. This work shows that as speed of an understeering vehicle increases, the increasingly underdamped poles of the yaw rate transfer function combine with the effects of a low frequency zero and a reduced steady-state response to result in oscillations greater than would be expected from eigenvalues alone. A speed range for acceptable yaw rate response is suggested, and it is shown that a typical understeering passenger car operates within this range. As the understeering vehicle’s speed increases beyond this range, the high-speed limit of the oscillation frequency is found.

Williams, Daniel

A Study of Tire Grip Performance Evolution under Dry, Wet and Snow Roads with Tire Wear

2026-01-0589

4/7/2026

This study focused on investigating how tire grip performance on dry, wet, and snowy road surfaces varied with the different level of tire wear. New, 50% worn, and end-of-life tires were prepared following worn tire preparation standards. Additionally, worn tires obtained under real driving conditions in the market were used. Tire grip performances on dry, wet and snowy roads were characterized respectively by using an indoor flat belt machine, an outdoor trailer, and a specially designed snow truck. The results demonstrated an evolution of grip performance as a function of tire wear. The study identified differences in impact between worn tire preparation methods —real driving versus artificial—particularly on snowy road surfaces. Furthermore, the effects of tire stiffness, reduced tread depth, and tread surface roughness of worn tires were investigated for each type of road surface. The objective of this study is to enhance the understanding of tire behavior throughout its lifecycle

Kim, Changsu, Saito, Yoshinori

Redefining Tractor Braking: An Automation-Based Approach for Safety and Efficiency Across Global Applications

2026-01-0005

4/7/2026

Agriculture sector is undergoing a phenomenal transformation, driven by the legislative requirements mandated by countries worldwide to tackle global warming through stringent global emission and on the need to improve operator safety, productivity, particularly on sloped and uneven terrains. Conventional tractors with internal combustion engines (ICEs) have been in use for decades but they often have issues over coordinated control on inclined terrains, especially during load transitions, start-stops, and loader operations. Due to which operators have a critical task of maintaining vehicle stability, controlling rollback on gradients — leading to compromised efficiency, safety risks, and increased fatigue. Global Emission Norms are getting stringent and the justification to end user on the Incremental value proposition is getting difficult to make the products appealing. To address these multifaceted challenges, this paper presents the architecture and functional strategy to increase

M, Rojer, Natarajan, Saravanan, Muniappan, Balakrishnan

Development and Validation of Torque Vectoring and Traction Control Strategies in a FSAE Vehicle Using a Dual-Axle Dynamometer HiL Platform

2026-01-0644

4/7/2026

This study presents the vehicle control optimization of a Formula SAE (FSAE) electric vehicle developed by National Taiwan University Racing Team (NTU Racing), utilizing a dual-axle dynamometer and a real-time Hardware-in-the-Loop platform from Chroma. The novelty of this work lies in the comprehensive system-level validation of independent torque control strategies, namely Torque Vectoring (TV) and Traction Control (TC), implemented directly within the vehicle control unit (VCU), and the high-fidelity simulation of dynamic driving scenarios based on the FSAE circuit. The vehicle features an independently controlled rear-axle, two-wheel drive (2WD) configuration, consisting of two in-wheel motors, self-developed inverters, and planetary gearboxes. During testing, a pre-built CarSim driver model provides throttle, brake, and steering inputs to the VCU via Controller Area Network (CAN) interface. The VCU, in turn, computes the independent torque commands according to the TV and TC

Hsiao, Tsung-Yu, Chen, Zhi-Ren, Jian, Rong-Wei, Chen, Tai-Hsiang, Wang, Tai-Jie, Hu, Wei-Zhe, Ho, Hui-Ting, Wu, Ting-Yu, Lin, Ting-He, Chiu, Joseph

Inertial Pedal Displacement and Brake Switch Activation in Frontal Crash Events

2026-01-0541

4/7/2026

This paper presents research into the inertial displacement of brake pedals and the subsequent activation of brake light switches during crash events. In certain scenarios, such as multiple-impact crashes or crashes with pre-impact interactions such as curb strikes or sideswipes, inertial forces alone may generate sufficient brake pedal movement to trigger the brake switch, activating the brake lights. Such signals may be recorded by an Event Data Recorder (EDR) or observed by witnesses and incorrectly interpreted as an indication of intentional driver braking. To investigate this phenomenon, HYGE sled tests were performed using brake pedal assemblies and associated components from a Toyota Tacoma pickup truck and a Cadillac DeVille passenger sedan. The assemblies were subjected to acceleration pulses simulating a frontal impact, with high-speed video used to capture brake pedal displacement and brake light activation. The tests demonstrated that inertial loading from a pulse with a

Walker, James, Duran, Amanda, Barnes, Daniel, Osterhout, Aaron, Clayton, Aidan

Multi-Physics Topology Optimization and Neural Network–Based Design of Experiments for Lightweight Automotive Cast Components

2026-01-0510

4/7/2026

This paper presents a hybrid optimization framework that integrates Multi-Physics Topology Optimization (MPTO) with a Neural Network–surrogated Design of Experiments (NN-DOE) to enable lightweight structural design while satisfying crashworthiness, durability, and noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) requirements under practical casting and packaging constraints. In the proposed MPTO formulation, crash and durability performances are incorporated through equivalent static compliance measures, while NVH performance is assessed using a frequency-domain dynamic stiffness metric, allowing consistent evaluation of trade-offs among competing design requirements. The framework is first demonstrated using a mass-produced passenger-car lower control arm (LCA) as a benchmark component. In this application, MPTO achieves weight reduction under multi-physics objectives by removing non-load-bearing material. Results show that single-discipline optimization produces unbalanced topologies, while

Kim, Hyosig, Senkowski, Andres, Gona, Kiran, Saroha, Lalit, Boraiah, Mahesh

Simulation Study on a Neural Tire Model Based on Grouped Feature Learning

2026-01-0645

4/7/2026

The tire model is a crucial component in the design of the K-characteristic of FSAE racing car suspensions, and directly influences the achievement of maximum cornering lateral force. Not only do the slip angle, vertical load, tire pressure, and camber angle affect the mechanical characteristics of the tire, but temperature is also an important influencing factor when FSAE vehicle tires operate at high speeds. However, the modeling process of traditional tire models based on temperature characteristics is often very complex. The FSAE tire test code (FSAE TTC) already has a large amount of official sample data, which provides a basis for data-driven neural network models. This study implemented a hybrid modeling methodology, constructing two cascaded feedforward neural networks that combine the physical interpretability of the Magic Formula tire model with the nonlinear approximation capabilities of neural networks. The first network model uses slip angle, vertical load, tire pressure

Liu, Xiyuan, Wang, Shenyao, Li, Mingyuan, Huang, Jiayu

Research on Driving Performance of Vehicle Body Control Using Vehicle Height Adjustment System

2026-01-0626

4/7/2026

In recent years, premium vehicles have increasingly incorporated suspension systems capable of adjusting ride height. The primary function of these systems is to enable the vehicle to traverse uneven terrain by elevating the chassis, thereby preventing contact between the underbody and the road surface. Notably, air spring-based mechanisms enhance ride comfort by modulating the wheel rate. The system proposed in this study achieves ride height adjustment through vertical displacement of the spring’s lower seat. By constructing a detailed mechanical topology model using a dynamic simulation tool, this research aims to evaluate the feasibility of improving driving performance not only through height regulation but also by actively controlling the vehicle’s posture during motion.

Park, Jaeyong, Sang Hoon, Lee, Jong Min, Kim, Choi, Jang Han

Characterizing Regenerative Braking of the Tesla Model 3 Using Chassis Dynamometer Testing

2026-01-0453

4/7/2026

Regenerative braking has a strong influence on the energy efficiency and drivability of battery-electric vehicles. This study establishes an empirical baseline analysis under controlled conditions of the regenerative braking behavior of the 2020 Tesla Model 3 to support the interpretation of on-road performance and serve as a reference for subsequent testing and analysis. The tests were performed on a four-wheel-drive chassis dynamometer at Argonne National Laboratory, combining Multi Cycle Testing (MCT) to simulate real world driving patterns (city, highway) with coast-down tests to isolate periods where the motor is operating in regen mode and compare the behavior across different parameters. Vehicle data was collected from the vehicle using taps in the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus as well as a high-resolution power analyzer. The vehicle displayed the highest efficiency during simulated city driving conditions (3.62 miles/kWh followed by highway (3.40 miles/kWh) and aggressive

Pierce, Benjamin Branch, Di Russo, Miriam, Das, Debashis, Zhan, Lu, Stutenberg, Kevin

Vehicle Test Platform with Experimentally Correlated Tire Model for Torque Vectoring Control

2026-01-0622

4/7/2026

This paper presents a testing platform for the development of lateral stability control systems in independent motor electric vehicles (EVs). A 10 degree of freedom (DOF) vehicle simulation and a radio control test vehicle are constructed to enable controls validation scalable to full size vehicles. These vehicle simulations, or ‘digital twins’, have been widely adopted throughout the automotive industry due to their lower operating costs and ease of implementation. Virtual models are not perfect representations of reality, however, and physical testing is still necessary to validate systems for use in the real world. This is especially true when testing safety-critical features such as stability control. As a result, a simulation environment working in conjunction with a test vehicle represents an optimal hybrid approach. In this work, a high fidelity vehicle model is constructed in the Matlab/Simulink environment. To capture the effect of suspension, the digital twin is capable of

Petersen, Nicholas Conner, Robinette, Darrell

A Real-Time Capable, Three-dimensional, and Nonlinear Multibody Model of the Mercedes-Benz G-Class for an Efficient Assessment of Off-Road Performance in Early Stages of Vehicle Development

2026-01-0217

4/7/2026

This article deals with the development of a real-time capable, three-dimensional model of the Mercedes-Benz G-Class with flexible ladder frame that considers nonlinear suspension kinematics and force elements. The shift to new drivetrain technologies often results in a significant increase in vehicle weight and requires corresponding design modifications – also applying to off-road vehicles. These modifications result in changed stiffness of elements such as the ladder frame or anti-roll bar, which significantly affect vehicle dynamics and off-road performance. Therefore, strategic, efficient assessments must be made in early development stages, where no detailed information about individual systems and components is available yet, to detect and avoid potential massive, costly changes in later stages. This requires a “handmade” vehicle simulation model specifically tailored to this particular application, since the use of commercial multi-purpose simulation packages is not effective

Riebler, Sandro, Pernsteiner, Samuel, Granitz, Christina, Schabauer, Martin

Backward Fuzzy Driving Control for 6×4 Off-Road Vehicles

2026-01-0148

4/7/2026

Off-road autonomous vehicle systems must be able to operate across unstructured and variable terrain while avoiding obstacles. This presents significant challenges in vehicle and control system design, especially for less conventional platforms such as 6×4 vehicles. While forward driving autonomy has developed and matured in recent years, effective reverse navigation remains an under-explored area of vehicle co-design. Reversing 6×4 vehicles have limited rear steering authority, an extended wheelbase, and asymmetric traction, which introduce complex dynamics into any control system that is used. To address this need, a robust and experimentally validated fuzzy logic control architecture for 6×4 reverse navigation was developed during the course of this project. This architecture incorporates both near-field and long-range path data with adaptive outputs controlling steering and velocity based on a rule base that covers the whole vehicle state space. This method has low computational

Dekhterman, Samuel R., Sreenivas, Ramavarapu S., Norris, William R., Patterson, Albert E., Soylemezoglu, Ahmet, Nottage, Dustin

Integrated Effects of Suspension Geometry and Tire Pattern Design on Vehicle Pull Reduction under Acceleration in High-Performance and Electric Vehicles

2026-01-0593

4/7/2026

Vehicle pull under acceleration is a phenomenon commonly observed in high-performance vehicles and electric vehicles (EVs), primarily arising asymmetric driveshaft angles, drivetrain architecture, and suspension geometry. In addition to these mechanical factors, tire characteristics, particularly the tire lateral force generated at the contact patch, significantly influence this effect. The lateral force is intricately tied to the dynamics of the contact patch and the geometric design of the tire tread pattern. This study investigates the relationship between tread pattern geometry and vehicle pull under acceleration, emphasizing the role of tire lateral force variations. By employing finite element (FE) simulation, lateral force response variations (dfy/dfx) resulting from tread block deformation were analyzed. Based on these simulation, a robust analytical methodology for tread pattern evaluation and optimization was established. The developed tread pattern characteristic parameter

Yoon, Youngsam, Jang, Dongjin, Kim, Hyungjoo, Lee, Jaekil

Optimal Control Analysis of Minimum-Time Maneuvers for Vehicles Recovering from Instability

2026-01-0218

4/7/2026

Vehicles may enter highly unstable dynamic states due to lateral collisions, sudden loss of grip, or extreme steering disturbances. When such instability arises in congested road sections where obstacle avoidance is required, the safety risk to both the ego vehicle and surrounding traffic escalates significantly. In such scenarios, the vehicle must not only regain stability but also navigate the roadway in the shortest feasible time to prevent secondary collisions. This paper investigates the minimum-time maneuver of a vehicle starting from an unstable dynamic condition and constrained to travel within prescribed road boundaries. A single-track vehicle model with combined-slip nonlinear tire model is employed to capture the vehicle dynamics under high slip conditions. Phase-plane analysis is conducted to reveal how control inputs reshape the system’s vector field and influence the possibility and speed of stability recovery. An optimal control problem is formulated to compute the

Leng, Jiatong, Yu, Liangyao, Wang, Yongxin, You, Weijie, Li, Ziang, Jin, Zhipeng

Hybrid Computational Tire-Sand Interaction: A Tractive Effort and Rolling Resistance Analysis

2026-01-0213

4/7/2026

This paper investigates the performance of a computational radial passenger car tire over winter road sand at different operating conditions. This study seeks to address gaps in literature by using both an experimental direct shear-strength test and then validating the same test in a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) software called Virtual Performance Solution (VPS) using a Smoothed-Particle Hydrodynamic (SPH) technique to model a winter road sand. The simulated sand was measured against physical sand data ensuring validation of the density, internal friction angle and cohesion. Once the sand was validated against physical testing data the sand was layered atop an icy road surface to understand the influence sand has on tractive effort and rolling resistance performance. With modelled and validated winter road sand and a Continental CrossContact LX Sport tire size 235/55R19 testing conditions were set up. The tire-sand interaction was simulated using a node-to-segment contact algorithm

Fenton, Erin, El-Sayegh, Zeinab

A Cooperative AFS/DYC Lateral Stability Control for FWDIEV Based on Dissipative Energy Method

2026-01-0619

4/7/2026

To enhance the lateral stability of four-wheel-drive intelligent electric vehicles (FWDIEV) under extreme operating conditions, this paper proposes a cooperative control strategy integrating active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC) based on dissipative energy method. A nonlinear three-degree-of-freedom vehicle model is established to analyze the evolution of the vehicle state phase trajectory. A quantitative lateral stability index is constructed using dissipative energy to accurately evaluate the vehicle’s lateral dynamics. Utilizing dissipative energy and its gradient information, a time-varying stability boundary is defined under dynamic constraints, and adaptive weighting coordination between the AFS and DYC systems is designed to achieve coordinated control of front steering angle and additional yaw moment. A feedforward–model predictive control (FF-MPC) framework is developed, in which a feedforward module generates compensation based on driver intent to

Zhao, Kun, Zhao, Zhiguo, Wang, Yutao, Xia, Xue, Chen, Xi, Hu, Yingjia

Research on Vehicle and Longitudinal Tire Model Parameters Identification Based on Electro-Mechanical Brake System

2026-01-0634

4/7/2026

The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system is a novel type of brake by wire systems with independently controllable characteristics. This system aids in the decoupling analysis of the vehicle and actuator dynamics, thereby improving the accuracy of parameter identification. Therefore, this paper proposes an innovative parameter identification method for vehicle parameters and longitudinal tire model parameters, based on the characteristics of the EMB system and onboard sensors. First, based on the wind resistance and rolling resistance coefficients obtained from the vehicle coasting conditions, a decoupled constant clamping force sequence braking condition for the front and rear axles is designed by integrating the characteristics of the EMB actuator and vehicle dynamics. This approach enables the identification of vehicle and nonlinear longitudinal tire model parameters, significantly improving the accuracy of parameter identification. Next, considering the nonlinear characteristics of

Huang, Jiayi, Cheng, Yulin, Zhuo, Guirong, Le, Qiao, Wei, Wei, Shu, Qiang

Modelling and Analysis of Rolling Truck Tire over Dry and Snow-Covered Surfaces Using Advanced Computational Techniques

2026-01-0591

4/7/2026

This paper presents a novel approach to modelling and analyzing a 315/80R22.5 sized truck tire running over dry and snow-covered surfaces. The tire is modelled using Finite Element Method (FEM) in ESI Virtual Performance Solutions (VPS) software. The tire model consists of various parts representing the tread, under tread, carcass, sidewalls and beads in addition to the rim. The tire model is then verified in both static and dynamic domains against experimental data. The experimental results were conducted over a dry surface at a high-speed test track in Hällered, Sweden, at a constant travelling speed of 80 km/h, and a constant vertical load of 26 kN with sensors depicting both temperature and inflation pressure changes throughout a 40-minute run. A tire temperature model is developed, and the simulation results are correlated with the measured temperature of the tested tires. In addition, the rolling resistance variation with speed, temperature and inflation pressure is predicted and

Opatha, Dillon, Oijer, Fredrik, El-Sayegh, Zeinab, El-Gindy, Moustafa

Experimental Validation of a Multi-Row Tapered Roller Bearing Analytical Model for Relating Preload to Frequency Response Characteristics

2026-01-0008

4/7/2026

Roller bearings are used in many rotating power transmission systems in the automotive industry. During the assembly process of the power transmission system, some types of roller bearings (e.g., tapered roller bearings) require a compressive preload force. Those bearings' rolling resistance and lifespan strongly depend on the preload set during the installation process. Therefore, accurate setting of the preload can improve bearing efficiency, increase bearing lifespan and reduce maintenance costs over the life of the vehicle. A new method for bearing preload measurement has shown potential for both high accuracy and fast cycle time using the frequency response characteristics of the power transmission system. An open problem is experimental validation of the multi-row tapered roller bearing analytical model. After validation, the analytical model can be used to predict the assembled system damped natural frequency for a desired bearing preload. This work presents the experimental

Gruzwalski, David, Mynderse, James

From Prediction to Design: Using Context-Aware Graph Neural Networks and Explainable AI to Anticipate Transfer-of-Control

2026-01-0049

4/7/2026

Drivers often interact with partial automation (SAE Level 2) systems, initiating transfer of control (TOC) either by handing control over to the automation or by taking it back. Accurately predicting these interactions may inform the design of future automation systems that adapt proactively to the operating context, enhance comfort, and ultimately may improve safety. We present a context-aware framework that generates a unified driver–vehicle–environment representation by fusing data from in-cabin video of the driver and of the forward roadway with vehicle kinematics, driver glance, and hands-on-wheel behaviors. This representation was encoded in a hierarchical Graph Neural Network that classified driver-initiated TOCs to: (i) Manual-to-automation and (ii) Automation-to-manual transitions and predicted time-to-TOC. Shapley-based explainable AI was used to quantify how the importance of behavioral, contextual, and kinematic cues evolved in the seconds preceding a TOC. Analysis of a

Zhao, Zhouqiao, Gershon, Pnina

OFEODM: An Vehicle Onboard Fast and Efficient Object Detection and Distance Prediction Model

2026-01-0017

4/7/2026

Object detection and distance prediction have advanced significantly in recent years. The YOLO toolbox has released its 11th version, along with numerous variants that have been applied across various fields. Meanwhile, the Detection Transformer (DETRs) has repeatedly set new state-of-the-art (SOTA) records in the field of object detection. Depth Anything also released its second version last year, further pushing the boundaries of distance detection. Although these models achieve impressive performance, they often require substantial computational resources. However, for the algorithms intended for real-world applications and deployment on onboard devices, computational efficiency are extremely critical. Inference time per frame is a critical factor in ensuring an algorithm’s reliability and feasibility. Designing a model that operates in real time without sacrificing accuracy remains an extremely challenging problem, and extensive research is ongoing in this area. To address this

Li, Taozhe, Wang, Hanchen, Hajnorouzali, Yasaman, Xu, Bin

Revisiting Rear Seat Safety: Field Evaluations of Relative Injury Risk Across Seating Positions and the Integration of Advanced Rear Seat Belt Systems

2026-01-0561

4/7/2026

Despite advances in crash avoidance, occupant restraint systems remain crucial in protecting the motoring public. Following decades of improvement in occupant protection, including several supplemental restraint systems for front seat occupants, the safety of rear seat occupants has recently undergone scrutiny. Studies evaluating rear seat occupant injury risk via field crash data have reported reduced relative safety in rear seating positions and alluded to advanced rear seat restraints, such as pretensioners and load limiters, as potential solutions. While the pursuit of novel technologies has historically improved occupant outcomes, evaluation of new systems in both controlled laboratory environments and field crashes is necessary to understand potential consequences of widespread introduction. This study analyzed the prevalence of advanced seat belts (load limiters and pretensioners) in the rear seating positions in the U.S. fleet. Additionally, occupant injury risk was compared

Rapp van Roden, Elizabeth Ann, Miller, Bruce, Pearson, Joseph, Williamson, James, Brown, Thomas

LiDAR-Driven A* Path Planning with Dynamic Obstacle Avoidance for Autonomous Navigation in ROS

2026-01-0030

4/7/2026

Autonomous mobile robots are becoming a key part of everyday operations in industries like manufacturing, logistics, healthcare, and even home assistance. A core requirement for these robots is the ability to navigate efficiently and reliably within their operating environments. To do this automation, the robot needs to understand its surroundings, figure out where it is on a map, and find a safe path from where it is to where it needs to go without bumping into anything. This paper presents an effective grid-based path planning solution for autonomous indoor navigation with a mobile robot. Achieving reliable and collision-free navigation in changing environments is a major challenge for mobile robotics. This is especially true when obstacles can appear unexpectedly, requiring quick re-planning. To tackle this issue, an improved A* algorithm was implemented to work closely with LiDAR for environmental awareness. The improved algorithm was added to the robot’s navigation system, and

Devaraj, Sriram Sanjeev, Park, Jungme

High Biofidelity Modification of Thoracolumbar Structure in THOR Model for Reclined Occupant

2026-01-0196

4/7/2026

With the rapid development of automated driving and the increasing adoption of “zero-gravity” seats, the crash safety of highly reclined occupants has become a critical issue. The current THOR dummy, designed for frontal impacts in the standard upright posture, exhibits limitations when directly applied to reclined seating configurations, including insufficient spinal flexion capability and excessive posterior pelvic rotation. In this study, the thoracolumbar spine kinematics of the THUMS human body model, reconstructed against post-mortem human subject (PMHS) tests, were analyzed. A two-segment linear fitting was employed to characterize a “dummy-like” spinal flexion response, yielding a virtual rotational hinge located near the thoracolumbar joint of the original THOR model. The characteristic rotation angle obtained from THUMS showed a strong linear correlation with the flexion moment of the T12–L1 vertebrae. Based on this relationship, the rotational joint of the THOR dummy was

Guo, Wencheng, Kuang, Gaoyuan, Shen, Wenxuan, Tan, Puyuan, Zhou, Qing

Leveraging Machine Learning for Occupant Body Size Estimation via B-Pillar Seatbelt Systems

2026-01-0559

4/7/2026

Occupant body size in vehicles varies significantly, encompassing differences in height, mass, and overall body composition. Adaptive restraint systems, featuring adjustable parameters such as belt load limiters, steering column load limiters and stroke, seat pan stiffness, and airbag pressure, can offer more equitable protection tailored to individual body sizes. In this study, a test rig modeled after the Volvo XC90 (2016) was used to collect data from 46 participants who were dressed in typical summer clothing and seated upright, without slouching or leaning sideways. Stepwise adjustments of the seat pan and seatback were performed. The collected measurements include seat pan movements (front-back and up-down), seatback recline, and key seatbelt-related parameters, such as belt payout length, D-ring angle, lap belt length, and buckle tension. The collected data was then used to train machine learning models to predict individual occupant characteristics: standing height, mass, and

Wang, Da, Ahmed, Jawwad, Rowe, Mike, Brase, Dan

Navigation Integrated End-To-End Path Planning Development and Vehicle Testing

2026-01-0032

4/7/2026

In order to achieve fully autonomous driving, point to point autonomous navigation is the most important task. Most existing end-to-end models output a short-horizon path which makes the decision process hard to interpret and unreliable at intersections and complex driving scenarios. In this research, we build a navigation-integrated end-to-end path planner on top of an openpilot open source model. We created a navigation branch that encodes route polyline geometry, distance-to-next-maneuver, and high-level instructions and combines with path plan branch using residual blocks and feed-forward layers. By adding minimal parameters, new model keeps the original openpilot tasks unchanged and have the path output based on the navigation information. The model is trained on diverse urban scenes’ intersections, and it shows improved route performance in vehicle testing. The proposed model is validated in a Comma 3x device installed on a 2025 Nissan Leaf test vehicle. The road test results

Wang, Hanchen, Li, Taozhe, Hajnorouzali, Yasaman, Burch, Collin, li, Victoria, Tan, Lin, Arjmanzdadeh, Ziba, Xu, Bin

Development of a Tire Blowout Experimental Platform for Dynamics and Control Validation

2026-01-0202

4/7/2026

Tires are critical to vehicle dynamics, transmitting traction, braking, and cornering forces to the road. A tire blowout, the sudden and rapid loss of inflation pressure due to puncture or structural failure, can cause severe instability, rollover, or collisions. Understanding vehicle response during blowout events is essential for developing robust safety systems and control strategies. Earlier developed simulation models are used to study and understand vehicle behavior during blowouts, but there is a lack of on-road testing platforms to validate these models experimentally. In this paper, an experimental platform integrating a tire blowout device and an instrumentation system has been developed to address this gap. The blowout device consists of multiple solenoid valves mounted on the wheel surface and powered by a 12V power supply. All valves can be triggered at the same time using an RF remote, producing rapid and synchronized deflation. As an extension of this implementation, an

Kanthala, Maha Vishnu Vardhan Reddy, Krishnakumar, Ashwin, Lin, Wen-Chiao, Chen, Yan

Design, Fabrication, and Assessment of a User-Friendly Suspension System for a 2025 BAJA Vehicle

2026-01-0588

4/7/2026

A suspension system was designed, fabricated, and tested following a systems design approach by an SAE Off-road Team from a North Midwest university. Compared to previous suspensions, the new suspension system is more reparable and contains a minimal number of custom parts, while still maintaining sufficient strength to withstand dynamic loads experienced when operating the vehicle. Modifications were also made to fit the newly designed vehicle body frame. As an integral part of the team’s 2025 Baja vehicle, the redesigned suspension system contributed to the vehicle’s improved performance during the 2025 SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) Baja Competition. This paper presents a detailed account of the design, development, and fabrication process of the suspension system. The final design was tested and evaluated via both computer simulations and physical tests, whose efficiency and reliability were finally demonstrated by the team’s improved ranking in the 2025 Baja SAE Competition

Liu, Yucheng, Anderson, Matthew, Larson, Cody, Rodgers, Joshua, Seberger, Aaron, Letcher, Todd

Backlash Evasion Strategy for Enhancing Vehicle Cornering Performance

2026-01-0640

4/7/2026

This study presents a torque distribution control strategy for EVs with e4WD powertrain to overcome the trade-off between ensuring vehicle acceleration and deceleration responsiveness and mitigating backlash shock in the driving system. The deterioration of the drivability which occurs from the intrinsic hardware characteristics of the drivetrain is prevented by designing a response-priority drive mode in which neither front or rear motor torque is allowed to change its sign. Instead, in such drive mode, the front motor torque is only allowed to perform regenerative braking while the rear motor torque is only allowed to produce positive acceleration torque. In order to avoid sacrificing the maximum acceleration by applying such strategy, the mode transition function is implemented as well. In addition, in order to prevent backlash impact due to drivetrain compliance, variable offset torque based on drivetrain compliance model is evaluated in real time and applied to each motor command

Oh, JIWON, Lee, Ho Wook

Technical Outlook on the Potential of HVO and Biodiesel Blends for Cleaner Combustion

2026-01-0316

4/7/2026

The increasing need to decarbonize the transport sector is accelerating the adoption of renewable and low-carbon fuels such as Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) and biodiesel as sustainable substitutes for fossil diesel. These fuels are evaluated as drop-in solutions requiring no engine recalibration, enabling immediate GHG emission reduction in existing diesel fleets. This study experimentally investigates the combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of a turbocharged common-rail two-cylinder diesel engine (Kohler LWD 442 CRS) operated with conventional fossil Diesel, pure HVO (Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil), and an HVOB20 blend (80% HVO and 20% biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil and animal fats). Tests were carried out under steady-state conditions at the DIIEM Engine Laboratory of Roma Tre University. The analysis focused on in-cylinder pressure evolution, brake power, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), and both regulated and unregulated emissions. Regulated

Zaccai, Martina, Chiavola, Ornella, Palmieri, Fulvio, Verdoliva, Francesco

Data-Driven Study on Chassis Suspension Performance Degradation

2026-01-0582

4/7/2026

The performance of chassis suspension mechanisms critically affects vehicle handling, ride comfort, and safety. Implementing real-time health monitoring for chassis systems contributes to preventing severe consequences such as increased body roll or loss of handling stability caused by shock absorber softening or spring stiffness degradation under deteriorating operating conditions, while circumventing the substantial costs associated with professional facility-based chassis inspections. With the rapid development of sensing and data analytics technologies, data-driven approaches are increasingly used in health monitoring. This study aims to achieve online monitoring of chassis suspension performance degradation using a deep neural network (DNN). First, a half-car model incorporating both vertical and pitch motions was established to simulate bumpy road conditions, with the aim of constructing a dataset that includes key vehicle suspension parameters and vehicle states related to their

Liao, Yinsheng, Lei, Yisong, Su, Ailin, Wang, Zhenfeng, Shi, Shuai, Zhang, Lei, Zhang, Junzhi, Ma, Changye

Target Cascading Kinematics and Compliance Tables to Suspension Design

2026-01-0584

4/7/2026

During the initial design phase, automotive Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) require the adaptability to examine various suspension system architectures while maintaining focus on the specific performance objectives. Those requirements are expressed by Kinematics and Compliance (K&C) look-up tables and represent the footprint of what the suspension should look like in real-world applications. However, translating those requirements into the full geometric hardpoint layout is not straightforward. This process often relies on trial-and-error approaches, making it time consuming and requiring significant expertise. This challenge, known as ”target cascading,” remains a major hurdle for many engineers. The main objective of this paper is to cascade the suspension requirements from K&C look-up tables to hardpoint locations by adopting an automatic workflow and ensuring respect for constructive and feasibility constraints. Design space exploration was conducted using a robust

Brigida, Piero, Di Carlo, Paolo, Di Gioia, Niccolò, Geluk, Theo, Tong, Son, Alirand, Marc, Gorgoretti, Davide, Occhineri, Marco, Tassini, Nicola, Berzi, Lorenzo

Lightweight Wheel Design Through Shape Optimization with Structural Constraints

2026-01-0504

4/7/2026

The wheel rim is an annular, thin-walled structure featuring complex geometry and is subjected to multiple load cases, including radial, rotary, and impact scenarios. Achieving an optimal balance between mass reduction and structural performance remains a significant challenge in modern vehicle wheel design. Aero-efficient vehicles demand lightweight backbone wheels capable of accommodating aerodynamic covers without compromising handling, steering precision, or overall performance. In this study, shape optimization is applied to an 8-spoke truck wheel with the goal of minimizing mass while enhancing lateral stiffness and ensuring that stress constraints are satisfied under all critical load cases. A three-dimensional finite element model is developed and evaluated under realistic radial, rotary, and impact loading conditions representative of industry validation tests. The optimization process fine-tuned the spoke geometry using symmetric shape domains and carefully defined

Yoo, Dong Yeon, Adduri, Phani, Chakravarty, Rajan

Wind-Tunnel Investigation of Snow/Ice Drag on a 30%-Scale DrivAer Model

2026-01-0604

4/7/2026

Wind-tunnel tests were conducted using a 30%-scale DrivAer model, in estateback and notchback rear-geometry configurations, to investigate aerodynamic performance changes associated with snow and ice buildup on passenger vehicles. Around 20 snow/ice accumulation patterns were tested, at a Reynolds number of 2.8 × 106 based on model wheelbase, for each of the notchback and estateback variants. 5 additional patterns were tested on the estateback with roof-rack support bars. Snow accumulation was modelled with foam, while ice accumulation was simulated with aluminum tape hand-formed to the desired shape. A simulated full-scale snow thickness of 58 mm on the hood, roof and trunk increased the wind-averaged drag coefficient by 16% for both model variants. With 90 mm of snow, the drag of the estateback variant increased by 19%. Drag changes increased with, but were not proportional to, snow thickness. Chamfered front and rear edges, representing windblown shapes, reduced the drag penalty

de Souza, Fenella, McAuliffe, Brian

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