Browse Topic: Chassis

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Feasibility study on the mechanical adjustment of the vibration behaviour of a powertrain test rig for validating longitudinal vehicle shuffle2026-01-0735To be published on 07/01/2026
Vehicle manufacturers use Hardware-in-the-loop (HiL) approaches to validate overall vehicle characteristics, including those dependent on the powertrain, at an early stage of vehicle development. A powertrain test rig is a typical example. In the specific setup, the vehicle engine and side shafts are mechanically coupled to the load machines of the test rig, eliminating the physical influence of the rims, tires and vehicle body. Adapting a specimen to the test rig changes some characteristics. This affects the specimen's vibration behaviour, making it more challenging to validate comfort-related characteristics. A particular example is longitudinal vehicle shuffle; the powertrain's first torsional natural frequency causes it. The natural frequencies of the real vehicle and device under test differ significantly, so a road-matching approach is not directly feasible. To account not only for tire-road contact but also for the missing vehicle mass, some scientific studies propose a purely
Hübner, Carl, Prokop, Günther
Context-Dependent Assessment of Driving Dynamics and User Perception in Automated Driving2026-01-0757To be published on 07/01/2026
Automated driving systems are increasingly operating in complex urban environments, where driving behavior is shaped not only by technical requirements but also by how users perceive the vehicle’s motion. While many studies evaluate automated driving performance in isolated maneuvers or specific traffic situations, little empirical evidence exists on whether similar driving dynamics are perceived consistently across different urban contexts. This work investigates whether comparable motion patterns, such as acceleration profiles or steering behavior, are evaluated similarly or differently when occurring in roundabouts and intersections using data from real-world driving studies. The empirical basis consists of two user studies. In the first study, 24 participants experienced automated driving in roundabout scenarios in public traffic. In the second study, 20 participants experienced automated driving through intersections on a test track under defined boundary conditions. In both
Panzer, Anna, Strenge, Emma, Iatropoulos, Jannes, Henze, Roman
Cooperative Edge Extension for Automated Driving2026-01-0776To be published on 07/01/2026
E/E architectures are continuously evolving to meet newly emerging demands. In recent years, major drivers of this evolution have been the increasing software-defined nature of vehicles and the push toward automated driving. Key technologies such as edge-enhanced functions, vehicle-to-vehicle communication, and service-oriented architectures are therefore the focus of current research efforts. This paper presents a vision of how these technologies can be used to enable cooperation between vehicles, illustrated by using parked vehicles as edge nodes. Automated driving beyond SAE Level 4 remains an especially challenging task in dense urban environments. One major impediment is the presence of view obstructions caused by parked vehicles. These obstructions significantly increase the risk of missing or misinterpreting vulnerable road users such as pedestrians or cyclists. One possible approach to counteract this problem is the use of edge nodes that support object detection or even
Lüntzel, Vitus, Lukezic, Nikola, Kraus, David, Seidel, Luca, Beck, Maximilian, Schindewolf, Marc, Sax, Eric
Interpretable Tire Force Modeling for Formula Student Vehicle Dynamics and Lap Time Applications2026-01-0762To be published on 07/01/2026
Accurate tire models are a key enabler for vehicle dynamics simulation, control design, and lap time optimization, particularly in the context of Formula Student race cars, where vehicle setups and tire characteristics differ significantly from production vehicles. State-of-the-art tire models, such as Pacejka’s Magic Formula, provide high accuracy but rely on predefined functional structures and a large number of parameters, which limits interpretability and adaptability to new tire compounds. This paper presents a data-driven approach for deriving compact and physically interpretable tire force models using symbolic regression. The proposed method employs an intelligent tree search to systematically explore the space of mathematical expressions and identify models that optimally balance prediction accuracy and structural simplicity. In contrast to black-box machine learning approaches, the resulting models consist of explicit mathematical expressions that enable physical
Anselment, Marcel, Borowski, Julian, Rudolph, Stephan
Feasibility of Hybrid Dynamic Substructuring for Structural Modifications in Automotive Suspension Subsystems2026-01-06976/20/2026
Recent advancements in system-level NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) development methodologies have improved target cascading and enabled more efficient system-level optimization. Dynamic substructuring facilitates the virtual integration and modification of multiple subsystems and the prediction of changes in overall transfer functions. In practical automotive applications, advanced frequency-based substructuring has been applied to virtually modify system parameters, such as mass and stiffness, at multiple points in a target system, allowing prediction of the resulting effects and optimization of parameter changes without physical intervention. This study extends the methodology by introducing an enhanced substructuring approach capable of addressing not only basic parameter modifications but also large-scale structural changes. The proposed process involves identifying the characteristics of a base system assembly and a target subsystem, decoupling the subsystem from the
Cho, Munhwan, Boelens, Jelle, Reichart, Ron, de Klerk, Dennis, Ahn, Jiho
A New Approach to Identify Rigid Body Rotations When Measuring the Body Distortion of a Full Vehicle2026-01-06826/20/2026
When developing a vehicle, the overall body stiffness is an important parameter to be estimated for several automotive attributes. As a complement to the traditional experimental and computational static torsional stiffness assessment, an improved method has been developed to evaluate the body stiffness when driving the vehicle on a test track. This method, valid for both test and simulation, is called Opening Distortion Fingerprint (ODF) and uses the so-called Multi Stethoscope (MSS) to measure the dynamic distortion in each body closure opening and cross section. For evaluating the distortion, from both test and Multi Body Dynamics (MBD) simulation data, the Evaluation-line (E-line) method is used. The E-line method is a linear approach. Consequently, it is only valid in the absence of large rigid body rotations of the vehicle body. Therefore, to assess the validity of the ODF method, it is crucial to identify the frequency at which the distortion results become invalid due to rigid
Olger, Emma, Lindkvist, Lisa, Piiroinen, Petri, Karypidis, John, Pena, Milton, Bäcklund, Jesper, Appelgren, Peter, Marberg, Henrik, Ugale, Pravin, Weber, Jens
High-Frequency Mount Characterization: A Comparison of Methodologies2026-01-06936/20/2026
The rapid electrification of the automotive industry introduces new challenges in noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH). In particular, in a virtual prototyping phase of the e-vehicles development, the rubber mounts are often one of the key elements to be considered when analysing the structure borne noise contributions. Having an accurate experimental characterization of the mount dynamic stiffness curves is therefore very relevant. However, conventional mount characterization methods are often pushed to their limits, partly due to the use of stiffer bushings, and partly because the frequency range of interest is extended toward higher frequencies. When using inverse substructuring, the dynamic stiffness curves can be obtained from frequency response function measurements. The required test setup consists of excitations and responses, located on each side of the mount via dedicated fixtures. The measured frequency response functions are reduced into 6 degrees of freedom representation
Bianciardi, Fabio, Forrier, Bart, Minervini, Domenico, Barbieri, Marco, Janssens, Karl
Automating Component NVH Characterization: A Systematic Approach for Component Test Bench Characterization2026-01-07046/20/2026
Vehicle electrification and accelerated development cycles create a need for virtual Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) development tools which are fast, precise and, seamlessly interchangeable between development sites, suppliers and OEMs. Component-based Transfer Path Analysis (C-TPA), standardized in ISO 20270:2019, enables independent component characterization and integration with virtual models to predict sound and vibration in new assemblies, referred to as Virtual Prototype Assemblies (VPA). However, conventional measurements are labor-intensive, typically restricted to a small number of samples, and overlook production variability. This paper introduces a fully automated, ISO 20270-compliant C-TPA system for non-rigid test benches, featuring a pre-instrumented test fixture with multiple vibration shakers and sensors automatically linked to a data acquisition system for immediate processing. Components can be characterized within minutes, with blocked forces directly
Sturm, Michael, Wienen, Kevin, Brandstetter, Markus, Sorber, Eric, Corbeels, Patrick, Verrecas, Bart, Gonçalves, Vinícius
Early-Stage BIW Design Evaluation Using Higher-Order Beam–Shell Hybrid Models2026-01-06746/20/2026
Achieving favorable Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) and durability performance in vehicles requires sufficient static and dynamic stiffness of the Body-in-White (BIW). Virtual development of BIW performance targets during the early design stages is essential to minimize costly modifications in later phases. In the automotive industry, full-scale finite element models are widely used for this purpose, offering high fidelity and enabling comprehensive performance evaluations. However, their complexity and high computational cost limit their practicality for early-stage sensitivity and optimization studies. Beam-based models offer a faster alternative; however, conventional beam formulations based on Euler–Bernoulli or Timoshenko beam theories often fail to capture the complex deformation behaviors of thin-walled structures, which are typical of BIW designs. This typically results in poor correlation with detailed models unless artificial joint flexibility is introduced at
Kim, Jin Hong, Gang-Won, Jang
Unsupervised Feature Frequency Map Extraction for Simple C-EPS Defect Detection2026-01-07176/20/2026
In recent years, the automotive industry has actively explored the application of various AI-based models such as Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, Autoencoders, and Transformers to improve defect detection rates at the End-of-Line (EOL) stage. However, implementing these approaches in the Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) area face several practical challenges: ① extended evaluation times compared to other data types, which limit the quantity of training data and lead to overfitting; ② label imbalance caused by the relatively small amount of defect data; ③ reduced labeling accuracy due to human error; ④ decreased robustness under domain shifts such as changes in jig fixtures, test environments, and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR); ⑤ diminished model reliability when new defect arise during development; and ⑥ constraints imposed by compatibility requirements with existing test equipment. This study proposes a Convolutional Autoencoder (CAE
Park, Jun-Seo, Jo, Hyeon-Choel, Cho, In-Je, Seo, Jae-Yong, Yoo, Seong-Sik
Experimental Validation of Frame-Dependent Gyroscopic Frequency Splitting in a Freely Rotating Tire Using Wireless MEMS Accelerometers and Scanning Laser Doppler Vibrometer2026-01-07006/20/2026
Gyroscopic effects split circumferential traveling-wave resonances of rotating structures into forward and backward branches. This work first analyzes the splitting in the co-rotating (Lagrangian) frame to provide physical intuition for the evolution of the two branches with spin speed. A transformation to the inertial (Eulerian) frame is then derived, showing that the observed frequencies are shifted by a kinematic Doppler-like term that acts with opposite sign on the forward and backward waves, leading to different Campbell-diagram slopes depending on the observation frame. The resulting framework is validated experimentally on a freely rotating, unloaded tire using two complementary sensing modalities: wireless on-tire accelerometers (co-rotating view) and a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (inertial view). A frequency-domain SVD-based identification (FDD/ODS-SVD) is used to extract poles and deformation patterns over a range of spin speeds, enabling Campbell diagrams in both
del Fresno Zarza, Javier, Naets, Frank
A New Correlation Approach for Body Distortion of a Complete Vehicle Using MBD and Test Results2026-01-06806/20/2026
By using a fully trimmed vehicle body as flexible body, imported through a Modal Neutral File (MNF), in a complete vehicle Multibody Dynamics (MBD) analysis, the simulation setup gets considerably closer to the test conditions compared to only using a linear Finite Element Method (FEM) approach. Since the MBD analysis includes gravity, rigid body modes of the vehicle and the nonlinear behavior of the wheel suspension, it brings the correlation between simulation and test to a new and more comprehensive level. As correlation criteria, the results of the so-called Multi Stethoscope (MSS) are used. The MSS captures the time history of distortion in all body openings and cross sections and enables a detailed stiffness evaluation of the body using the so-called Opening Distortion Fingerprint (ODF). The ODF gives the quasi-static response while the Operational Deflection Shape (ODS), which is another result of the MSS measurements, reflects the dynamic response. Apart from the different
Lindkvist, Lisa, Olger, Emma, Piiroinen, Petri, Karypidis, John, Pena, Milton, Bäcklund, Jesper, Appelgren, Peter, Marberg, Henrik, Ugale, Pravin, Weber, Jens
Standardized Equivalent Tire Load Measurements Delivered by Suppliers to an OEM Enabling Consistent and Comparable Simulation Input2026-01-06996/20/2026
Part- or component-level tests are commonly performed by Tiers and OEMs to investigate the NVH behavior and loading mechanisms. However, because test bench dynamics differ from those of the actual vehicle environment, correlating measured sound, acceleration and forces between bench and vehicle often proves challenging. Blocked forces offer a way to address this issue, as they provide test bench and vehicle independent load representations. This effectively enables different Tiers to deliver consistent load data, which OEMs can then use to better tune excitation and noise transmission on their vehicles. This paper focuses on 2 test bench compensation techniques, involving pure test and a simulation models of the tire to obtain accurate blocked-forces. The compensation techniques are validated on four testbenches of different companies.
Reichart, Ron, de Klerk, Dennis
Impact Test Simulation for Aluminum Casted Wheel Including Tire Properties2026-01-50396/10/2026
Alloy wheels are essential safety components in two-wheeled vehicles. This study details the finite element analysis (FEA) used to simulate and evaluate the wheel and tire performance under the double mass impact load specified by the AIS-073 (Part-1) standard. The impact is carried out by dropping a striking mass along with a main mass onto the alloy wheel–tire assembly, as per the standard. The alloy wheel is modeled using a three-dimensional finite element model with elastic-plastic material behavior, and the tire is modeled with its internal elements (e.g., carcass, belt, etc.). The prediction of wheel impact failure is based on the total plastic work of the ductile fracture mechanism. The validity of results is confirmed by comparing the predicted permanent lateral rim deformation against the measured lateral deformation from a corresponding physical test.
Minz, Jai Shankar, Singh, Sanjay Kumar, Nirala, Deepak Kumar
Design-Driven Sustainability of Automotive Components: A Comparative LCA from Conventional to Metal and Composite Additive Manufacturing2026-37-00376/9/2026
The increasing pressure to decarbonize manufacturing systems is pushing industry beyond conventional lightweighting strategies toward material and process paradigms, capable of delivering functional performance with radically lower environmental impact. In this context, polymer-based composite Additive Manufacturing (AM) offers an underexplored yet highly promising pathway for sustainable production of load-bearing components. This study presents a preliminary comparative cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a Formula SAE brake pedal, assessing the environmental transition from conventional sheet metal fabrication and finishing operations of Aluminum 7075-T6 to additive manufacturing solutions, with specific focus on Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) composites. Two topology-optimized designs, respectively for Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) in AlSi10Mg and Material Extrusion (MEX) in Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol with Carbon Fiber (PETG-CF) are compared to conventional
Dalpadulo, Enrico, Russo, Mario, Apté MD, Raphaëlle, Leali, Francesco
Development and Validation of a One-Dimensional Model for an Opposed-Piston Free-Piston Engine Generator with Parametric Analysis2026-37-00216/9/2026
Opposed-piston free-piston engine generators (OFPEGs) are emerging as a promising technology for next-generation hybrid and electrified transportation systems due to their high efficiency, reduced mechanical complexity, and improved noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) characteristics. However, due to eliminating the conventional crankshaft mechanism and directly coupling a free-piston engine with linear generators, performance of OFPEG systems is governed by a strong coupling between piston dynamics, in-cylinder combustion processes, and electrical loading conditions. This coupling presents substantial challenges for system design, control, and optimization, limiting the further development and application of OFPEGs. Existing researches lack a comprehensive numerical model that integrates detailed in-cylinder thermodynamic process with control system of linear generator, and quantitative analysis of the effect of piston motion trajectory on system performance remains insufficiently
Wang, Jiayu, Morandi, Nicola, Lucchini, Tommaso, FENG, HUIHUA, Jia, Boru, Ren, Peirong
On Natural Gas Combustion Split into Diesel Like Architecture of a Compression Ignition Engine Retrofitted for Spark Ignition Operation2026-37-00296/9/2026
In commercial areas that no longer favor diesel engines, such as Europe, it might be interesting to convert an existing compression ignition engine to the spark ignition operation and to use natural gas (NG) because of its advantages: availability of still abundant supplies worldwide and environmental benefits compared to conventional liquid fossil fuels. This paper first presents experimental results on NG combustion inside such a converted engine with diesel-like architecture dedicated to light-duty vehicles and passenger cars. Particularly, our study carried out at the engine test bed revealed that in certain operating points (low speed and load, stoichiometric mixture and rather high spark advance), the combustion is split into two distinct events (first, a fast combustion inside the cylinder and piston bowl and then, a slower combustion occurring outside the bowl-in combustion chamber, in other words, in the squish region), which is not specific to the standard spark ignition
Clenci, Adrian F., Popa, Robert, Berquez, Julien, Iorga-Siman, Victor, Magheru, Catalin, Punov, Plamen, Niculescu, Rodica
Driveline Parking Brake Test Procedure for Medium Duty VehiclesJ2690_202606 (Current)6/3/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice establishes uniform test procedures for friction based parking brake components used in conjunction with hydraulic service braked vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating greater than 4500 kg (10 000 lb). The components covered in this document are the primary actuation and the foundation park brake. Various peripheral devices such as application dashboard switches or indicators are not included. These test procedures include the following: a Brake Related Tests 1 Brake Functional Performance 2 Brake Dynamic Torque Performance 3 Brake Corrosion Resistance 4 Brake Endurance with Torque 5 Brake Endurance without Torque 6 Vibration Resistance 7 Brake Ultimate Static Load 8 Brake Lining Wear Adjuster Function b Actuation Related Tests 1 Mechanical Actuator Functional Performance 2 Mechanical Actuator Endurance 3 Mechanical Actuator Quick Release 4 Mechanical Actuator Ultimate Load 5 Spring Apply Actuator Functional Performance 6 Spring Apply Actuator
Truck and Bus Hydraulic Brake Committee
Coordinated Path Tracking and Stability Strategy for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Using Model Predictive Control with Dual Feedback Adjustment10-10-04-00346/3/2026
Distributed drive electric vehicles (DDEVs) provide enhanced maneuverability through independent wheel torque control, but coordinating precise path tracking with lateral stability remains challenging under aggressive driving conditions. This paper presents a coordinated control strategy that integrates model predictive control (MPC) for path tracking with a proportional gain controller for stability regulation. The proposed framework adopts a hierarchical design. The path tracking control leverages MPC to compute front steering commands while accounting for vehicle dynamics and preview errors. The stability adjustment uses dual proportional gain controllers to generate an additional yaw moment, which is adaptively balanced through a phase plane coordination mechanism, enhancing yaw stability during path tracking. The generated yaw moment is subsequently distributed to individual in-wheel motors with an optimization torque allocation method, respecting tire force limitations. The
He, Yang, Zhu, Yuzheng, Guo, Ruixin, Zhu, Yueying, Xing, Chao, Liu, Shuangxi, Lin, Yier
Heavy-Duty Nonroad Material Handler Electrification Part 2: Energy Efficiency and Performance Evaluation02-19-03-00166/2/2026
Decarbonization efforts achieved through electrification in nonroad mobile machinery can realize a reduction in fuel consumption of more than 20%, thanks to concepts familiar to light-duty passenger vehicles. This case study compares the results of a hybrid-electric material handler to its conventional counterpart, utilizing machine-specific drive cycles presented in part one of this paper series. The hybrid prototype features an extended-range electric vehicle (EREV) powertrain that demonstrated substantial energy efficiency improvements. Specifically, there was a reduction in equivalent fuel consumption of 75% when operating in electric-only mode, and 33% when maintaining the battery by charging with an on-board generator. Together, the efficiency improvements can be extrapolated over a low-intensity, 8-h shift characterized by significant idle time and highly dynamic engine load for a 47% reduction in net energy consumption. Key technologies that led to this improvement included
Czarnecki, Alexander, Goodenough, Bryant, Worm, Jeremy, Robinette, Darrell, LaTendresse, Phil, Westman, John, Subert, David, Heath, Matthew, Kiefer, Dylan, Black, Andrew
Quantum-Inspired Optimization for Trajectory Planning of Reusable Launch Vehicles across Diverse Missions2026-26-07256/1/2026
Trajectory optimization for reusable launch vehicles is a critical challenge in space mission design, aiming to determine fuel-efficient paths for spacecraft during ascent, hover, and descent phases. Minimizing fuel consumption not only enhances cost-effectiveness but also improves mission sustainability. The optimization process is governed by nonlinear orbital mechanics, gravitational perturbations, atmospheric drag, and operational constraints such as thrust limits and collision avoidance. These factors make the problem highly non-convex and discontinuous, posing significant difficulties for classical gradient-based approaches, which often fail to identify global optima. In this work, we formulate the trajectory optimization problem for a reusable rocket executing an ascent–hover–descent cycle. The vehicle must ascend to a specified target altitude, maintain a stable hover for a given duration, and then return to the launch site. The primary decision variable is the throttle control
Eswara Sai Kumar, Kandula, Singh, Utkarsh, Pohankar, Pritam, A, Anoop, Maharana, Priyabrata, Lineswala, Rut
Autonomous Aircraft Docking: A Vision-Based Approach to Aircraft Parking Systems2026-26-07866/1/2026
Automated aircraft parking systems enhance airport ground operations by enabling precise and autonomous docking of aircraft at gates. These systems reduce turnaround time, minimize human error, and optimize apron space through real-time object detection, obstacle avoidance, and dynamic path planning. Unlike fixed guided-path methods, the proposed system adapts to congestion and environmental conditions such as low visibility, ensuring safety and efficient maneuvering. Validation through simulation demonstrates the system’s potential to improve operational resilience and support scalable automation in future airport infrastructure.
Penugonda, Navya Sunaina, Ediga, Venkatadiwakar Goud
A Novel Stiffness Prediction Model of Rolling Lobe Air Springs Considering Irregular Piston Contour Geometry: Development and Experimental Validation15-19-02-00065/18/2026
An accurate air spring model is essential for the design and optimization of air suspension systems to achieve superior performance. This article presents a novel stiffness model for a rolling lobe air spring (RLAS), formulated using stiffness characteristic parameters. Prediction models for these parameters, including effective area and its change rate, as well as effective volume and its change rate, are derived through geometric analysis, based on polynomial fitting of the irregular piston contour. The local contour cone angle of the piston is determined by differentiating the polynomial function, capturing the geometry-dependent variation across the profile. Additionally, a nonlinear hysteresis model for the rubber bellows is integrated, combining a Berg friction component and a Kelvin-Voigt fractional derivative viscoelastic model to represent the amplitude- and frequency-dependent behavior of the RLAS. The proposed model is parameterized through quasi-static and dynamic bench
Xia, Xiaojun, Zhang, Hong, Zou, Yi, Ye, Lei, Lu, Yi, Chen, Rui, Zou, Hantong, Wang, Yang
Limit Stability Control for Corner Module Vehicles Based on Hierarchical Hybrid Game10-10-04-00325/18/2026
Corner module vehicles (CMVs) achieve the decoupling of driving, braking, steering, and suspension, significantly enhancing vehicle handling potential, but under extreme operating conditions, the interactions between actuators severely constrain the improvement of vehicle handling performance. In order to mitigate conflicts between subsystems and enhance vehicle handling stability, a hierarchical hybrid game–based limit stability control method for CMVs is proposed in this article. Taking into account the handling potential of subsystems under limit conditions, a Stackelberg leader–follower game is designed by first designating Direct Yaw moment Control (DYC) as the leader and Active Rear Steering (ARS) as the follower. Subsequently, the DYC–ARS and Active Suspension System (ASS) were constructed into a non-cooperative game system, and the Nash equilibrium solution was solved through iteration. The lower-level controllers, respectively, established a tire force distribution model that
Peng, Jinxin, Xiao, Feng, Ke, Yuan, Jin, Liqiang
Coordinated Stability Control for Active Rear Steering Vehicles Based on Dynamic Stability Region2026-99-07135/15/2026
To improve the handling stability of four-wheel steering/drive vehicles under complex high-speed maneuvers, this study proposes a coordinated control strategy that incorporates Active Rear Steering (ARS) and Direct Yaw Moment Control (DYC) based on a dynamic stability region. Firstly, a four-wheel steering vehicle dynamics model including lateral motion and yaw motion is established, and the ideal values of the control variables are determined. Secondly, combined with the fuzzy control theory and double-line method, the boundary of the dynamic stability region is obtained in the sideslip angle-sideslip angle rate β−β̇ phase plane, and the vehicle state is categorized into stable, unstable, and critical stable region. Then, A hierarchical control architecture is designed based on the stability boundary. The upper controller comprehensively solves the target rear wheel angle and additional yaw moment through feedforward feedback control; the coordinated control layer allocates control
Nie, Kehe, Chen, Jin, Wang, Falong, Li, Ren, Bai, Xianxu
Autonomous Navigation Strategy and Docking Mechanism for Intelligent Chassis Module of Split Flying Vehicle2026-99-07435/15/2026
In response to the problems of urban traffic congestion and the limited expansion of infrastructure, this paper conducts two core research focusing on the intelligent chassis system of split-type flying vehicle. Firstly, an autonomous navigation strategy for the intelligent chassis module is proposed based on chassis module Navigation 2 architecture, which fuses LIDAR and IMU positioning to plan paths using the A* global planning algorithm on a global cost map, and update the local cost map in real time with sensor data. It is orchestrated by the BT Navigator using a behavior tree, with failures handled by the Recovery Server, to achieve autonomous driving across multiple waypoints. In simulation and closed-field experiments, the system can stably reach the preset target points. The positioning accuracy and trajectory tracking performance can meet the design requirements. Secondly, a mechanical slide rail-type docking structure adapted to the split flying vehicle architecture is
Zhao, Wenyu, Shi, Qin, Jiang, Cong, He, Zejia
A Reinforcement Learning Trajectory Planning Model with Kalman Filter-Based Dynamic Tracking for Six-Axis Robotic Manipulators2026-99-07385/15/2026
Robot Arm Tracking Control refers to the control of robot end effectors following a prescribed trajectory as their movement in robotic systems. The work presents a combination of Kalman Filter Based Dynamic System Tracking with Reinforcement Learning Based Trajectory Planning. These two aspects of tracking and planning help the robotic manipulator dynamically track a target that is located on an arbitrary moving path. In particular, by using Kalman filtering to estimate the position of a moving target and to compensate for sensor noise and sparse sampling, we take high-precision estimation values of each point’s coordinates along the target trajectory as a reliable basis to build a policy network using reinforcement learning. Based on it, the robot manipulator could produce effective motion planning under its own dynamic capabilities and physical constraint limit. Comprehensive simulation results illustrate advantages of the new algorithm against the classical control method, confirm
Yu, Jingze, Wang, Yujia, Li, Junshen, Chen, Cong, Xu, Peng
Multi-Mode Control Strategy for Controllable Vehicle Suspension Systems2026-99-07125/15/2026
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Li, Zhiying, Li, Jei, Zhu, Anding, Bai, Xianxu, Li, Weihan, Li, Rui
Torque Coordination Control Strategy for Dual-Motor Electric Vehicles Considering Load Transfer and Slip Energy Dissipation2026-99-07095/15/2026
To address the issues of significant slip energy dissipation induced by severe tire slip, degradation of vehicle control stability, and insufficient accuracy of vehicle speed tracking under low-adhesion road conditions, a torque coordination control strategy for dual-motor electric vehicles (DM-EVs) considering load transfer and slip energy dissipation is proposed. First, a vehicle dynamics model integrating suspension system dynamics and tire slip characteristics is developed, fully accounting for the influence of front-rear axle load transfer on the tire slip ratio. Next, founded on the energy dissipation mechanism of tire slip, a quantitative model for energy dissipation during tire slip is developed. Finally, a longitudinal coordinated control system for vehicles according to nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) is introduced. By comprehensively considering the tire slip ratio and vehicle load distribution, multi-objective coordinated optimization of wheel torque is achieved
Hou, Yingming, Li, Jie, Bai, Xianxu
Linear Trajectory Planning of Hydrogen Storage Tank with Unequal Polar Holes2026-99-07185/15/2026
In this paper, the design and process research of uniform filling linear trajectory for filament wound hydrogen storage tank with unequal polar holes are carried out. Firstly, by optimizing the slip coefficient, the winding angles of the left and right heads are smoothly and continuously transitioned to the cylindrical section. We study the necessary conditions for achieving the central angle of uniform filling, and calculate the tangent points of the trajectory line based on the continuous fraction principle. Meanwhile, the slip coefficients at the left and right ends that satisfy stable winding and uniform covering are determined. Based on the equal contour constraint conditions, we analyze the motion trajectory equation of the four-axis winding machine and convert it into the corresponding machine code for actual winding operations. Experimental results show that stable winding of fibers on the surface of the unequal-polar-hole mandrel is achieved, and uniform filling and winding
Chen, Baosen, Fu, Jianhui, Cao, Xuewen, Yu, Libin
An Anthropomorphic Trajectory Optimization Research for Autonomous Vehicles Considering Omnidirectional Dynamics2026-99-07335/15/2026
The rapid development of autonomous driving technology has brought emerging opportunities to optimize the omnidirectional vehicle driving performance. However, its compliance with driving habits directly determines its social acceptance. Therefore, how to balance consistency between performance improvement and driving habits has become an important bottleneck restricting the rapid promotion of autonomous driving technology. Manual driving vehicles mostly focus on the safety of both longitudinal and lateral movements, and cannot cope with the vertical movement, let alone the performance of economy, comfort, and efficiency. In this context, this paper proposes an anthropomorphic trajectory optimization method incorporating vehicle omnidirectional dynamic characteristics and corresponding driving habits. Firstly, this paper explores vehicle dynamic characteristics in longitudinal, lateral, and vertical directions, and reveals the coupling effect of motion states during driving
Liao, Peng, Zhang, Defeng, Ning, Donghong, Li, Sijia, Wang, Tao
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - Why Curing Motion Sickness Is Key to AV Success135675/11/2026
Did you know that motion sickness affects 1 in 3 people? As AVs gain traction and drivers become passengers, it may be the biggest barrier to the future of autonomous mobility. With a focus on addressing the root cause of motion sickness, Motion Sync offers breakthrough solution: a haptic pre-activation system that helps passengers anticipate vehicle movement with a personalized in-cabin experience that could redefine comfort and productivity. Listen in as we sit down with Dr. Daniel Sousa Schulman, CEO and Founder of Motion Sync, to unpack the science behind motion sickness and why it's a critical issue for EVs, robotaxis, and self-driving cars. You'll learn why passengers get sick, why drivers don't, and how EVs can actually make symptoms worse. As a topic critical to the success of autonomous vehicles, it's a conversation you don't want to miss. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take
Patterson, Lori
Robust Curvature Preview Drift Control Using STA-ISMC under Parameter Uncertainty10-10-03-00215/6/2026
Autonomous vehicles exhibit extremely strong nonlinearity during drift. However, existing autonomous drift algorithms often neglect previewed path curvature and offer only limited consideration of road surface uncertainty because of the influence of vehicle nonlinear dynamics, which can affect tracking accuracy and robustness of drift control. To solve these problems, this study proposes a robust optimal drift control framework based on curvature preview. First, a preview vehicle kinematic model is constructed, and a preview model predictive control path-tracking controller that considers the forthcoming curvature is designed. Through the analysis of equilibrium points with additional yaw moment, a robust optimal drift controller is developed, which employs a three-degrees-of-freedom vehicle model with an additional yaw moment. This controller adopts integral sliding mode control with a super-twisting algorithm (STA) and exhibits good stability, which is verified through Lyapunov
Gan, Yurun, Song, Ziyu, Gu, Tongtong, Ding, Haitao, Xu, Nan, Zhang, Jianwei
The Effect of Initial Foot Position on THOR-50M and THOR-05F Lower Leg Response in a Realistic Vehicle Buck09-14-01-00085/4/2026
This study aims to explore and evaluate the effect of various foot positions on the kinematic and kinetic response of the lower extremity during frontal crashes using a realistic vehicle interior. Frontal impact sled tests were performed with the Test Device for Human Occupant Restraint, 50th-percentile Male (THOR-50M) and Test Device for Human Occupant Restraint, 5th-percentile Female (THOR-05F) anthropometric test device (ATD) in the driver’s seat of a midsize SUV testing buck (with realistic interior components including an instrument panel with steering wheel and steering wheel airbag, seat, three-point seat belt with pretensioner and force-limiter, accelerator pedal, brake pedal, knee airbag, and seat belt retractor pretensioner). Six sled tests were performed in two principal directions of force (PDOF) [three each in frontal (0°) and oblique (−20°) configurations]. The right foot was positioned on the accelerator pedal, fully on the brake, and half on the brake. A single test was
Noss, Junior, Donlon, John-Paul, Morris, Anna, Samier, Germain, Park, Joseph, Forman, Jason
The Impact of Transition Window Duration on Nominal Transitions of Control in Conditional Automation09-14-01-00165/4/2026
The objective of this research was to understand the impact of transition window duration on success and performance during nominal transitions from conditional driving automation (SAE level 3). Because the driver can be disengaged from driving when conditional driving automation is engaged, the central challenge is how to safely transition from automated control to human control. Past research from the literature on Level 3 Automated Driving Systems (L3 ADS) has focused on safety-critical event responses (e.g., responding to a hazard) and on automation that operates at high speeds, which is not representative of the systems currently deployed that operate in lower-speed traffic jam situations [4, 5]. This article presents an analysis of data from several transition-of-control studies with conditional driving automation in a high-fidelity driving simulator. A range of transition window durations were compared, and different transition-of-control behaviors were coded from video data
Gaspar, John, Ahmad, Omar, Schwarz, Chris, Fincannon, Thomas, Jerome, Christian
Braking Performance - Rubber-Tired, Self-Propelled CranesJ1977_202604 (Current)4/25/2026
This SAE Standard applies to machines as defined in Appendix A. Some of these machines can travel on-highway but function primarily off-highway.
Cranes and Lifting Devices Committee
Optimizing Ride Comfort and Stability in In-Wheel Motor Drive Electric Vehicles: A Correlated Semi-Active Suspension System with Kalman Filter and Spring-Type Analysis10-10-04-00304/24/2026
This research provides a unique contribution to the field of in-wheel motor drive (IWMD) electric vehicles (EVs) by addressing the challenges associated with the use of permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) for traction. These motors, integrated into the unsprung masses, increase the wheels’ rotational inertia, reducing ride smoothness on uneven roads. To mitigate this issue, we present an optimal Kalman filter for a magnetorheological (MR) control suspension system that correlates road inputs between the front and rear wheels. This filter significantly improves the estimation accuracy of state variables by incorporating the motor’s vertical motion, along with potential enhancements from wheelbase preview. To determine the most suitable coil spring types for use with MR dampers, we used the WDW-600 computer-controlled electronic universal testing machine to evaluate three coil spring types: constant-pitch (model A), variable-pitch (model B), and conical (model C). To assess the
Gad, Ahmed Shehata, Jabeen, Syeda Darakhshan, El-Zomor, Haytham M., Tolba, Mohamed, Elamy, Mamdouh I.
Directional Stiffness Decoupling in Meta-Wheels via Three-Dimensional Discrete Curved Spokes15-19-01-00054/22/2026
Meta-wheels—non-pneumatic wheels whose performance is governed by structural geometry rather than internal pressure—offer new opportunities for directional stiffness control. Yet achieving independent tuning of longitudinal, lateral, and vertical stiffness within a single wheel architecture has remained challenging due to the inherent coupling in conventional radial and planar curved spokes. In this study, we introduce a three-dimensional (3D) discrete curved-spoke design that provides explicit geometric control through two independent parameters: the in-plane curvature angle (α) and the out-of-plane inclination angle (β). Using spoke-level and full-wheel finite-element (FE) simulations, supported by a simplified cantilever-beam analytical model, we show that these two geometric parameters govern stiffness in fundamentally different ways. The curvature angle α serves primarily as a geometric softener, reducing stiffness in all directions while maintaining a high top-loading ratio (TLR
Han, Heeseung, Liu, Zhipeng, Ju, Jaehyung
Research on Trajectory Tracking of Test Target Vehicles Based on an Improved Model Predictive Control Algorithm13-07-01-00024/17/2026
To address the performance testing requirements of autonomous vehicles (AVs), this study proposes a model predictive control (MPC) algorithm specifically designed for low-ground-clearance test target vehicles (TTVs) to achieve trajectory tracking control. First, the kinematic model of the TTV is established, and its state-space equations are derived. An objective optimization function incorporating both error weighting and control weighting is designed. Simulation analysis reveals the influence of the control error weighting ratio (CEWR) on both straight-line and curved trajectory tracking performance: For straight-line tracking, increasing the CEWR from 10 to 25 reduces the overshoot, but increases the distance required to reach the target trajectory by 4.7%. A similar pattern is observed in curved trajectory tracking. To overcome the limitations of the fixed CEWR, an improved MPC algorithm integrating fuzzy control is proposed. This algorithm dynamically adjusts the CEWR in real time
Ji, Shaobo, Lu, Yueqi, Liao, Guoliang, Chen, Zhongyan, Li, Meng, Lyu, Chengju, Zhang, Zhipeng
Hierarchical Control Strategy Evaluation and Migration for a Four-Degree-of-Freedom Quarter Commercial Vehicle02-19-03-00144/9/2026
In order to improve the comfort performance in commercial vehicles, this study proposes a hierarchical control strategy that integrates the evaluation and migration of control algorithms. First, a quarter-vehicle model with four-degree-of-freedom (4-DOF) is constructed, incorporating the dynamics of the wheel, frame, driver’s cab, and seat. The key modal characteristics of the model are then verified through amplitude–frequency analysis, confirming their consistency with the typical vibration patterns observed in actual commercial vehicles, which provides the foundation for subsequent control strategy evaluation and migration. Then, based on a standard two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) suspension model, a weighted comprehensive evaluation function is developed to account for comfort, structural safety, handling stability, and both time- and frequency-domain performance indicators. Using this evaluation function, various control algorithms—including Skyhook control (SH), acceleration-based
Pan, Ting, Pang, Jianzhong, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Jiuxiang, Kang, Gong, Zhang, Yunqing
Embedded Real-Time Control of a Distributed Trailer Propulsion System with Regenerative Braking for Net Neutral Load Towing2026-01-00654/7/2026
Towing imposes substantial efficiency penalties on both battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, reducing range by 30-50%. This paper presents a proof-of-concept embedded control architecture for distributed trailer propulsion that actively regulates drawbar force to reduce towing loads. Unlike proprietary e-trailer systems requiring specialized hardware, the proposed implementation demonstrates feasibility using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components and open-source software. The distributed architecture employs dual Raspberry Pi 4B single-board computers communicating via ROS 2 at 20 Hz. The trailer-mounted controller executes a Simulink-generated control node coordinating load cell acquisition (HX711 ADC), motor CAN bus telemetry, and throttle commands to a 5 kW BLDC traction motor powered by a 5 kWh LiFePO4 battery pack. A vehicle-mounted controller logs OBD-II/CAN validation data. The control pipeline implements cascaded EWMA/Hampel
Joshi, Gaurav, Adelman, Ian, Liu, Jun, Donnaway, Ruthie
Development and Validation of Torque Vectoring and Traction Control Strategies in a FSAE Vehicle Using a Dual-Axle Dynamometer HiL Platform2026-01-06444/7/2026
This study presents the vehicle control optimization of a Formula SAE (FSAE) electric vehicle developed by National Taiwan University Racing Team (NTU Racing), utilizing a dual-axle dynamometer and a real-time Hardware-in-the-Loop platform from Chroma. The novelty of this work lies in the comprehensive system-level validation of independent torque control strategies, namely Torque Vectoring (TV) and Traction Control (TC), implemented directly within the vehicle control unit (VCU), and the high-fidelity simulation of dynamic driving scenarios based on the FSAE circuit. The vehicle features an independently controlled rear-axle, two-wheel drive (2WD) configuration, consisting of two in-wheel motors, self-developed inverters, and planetary gearboxes. During testing, a pre-built CarSim driver model provides throttle, brake, and steering inputs to the VCU via Controller Area Network (CAN) interface. The VCU, in turn, computes the independent torque commands according to the TV and TC
Hsiao, Tsung-Yu, Chen, Zhi-Ren, Jian, Rong-Wei, Chen, Tai-Hsiang, Wang, Tai-Jie, Hu, Wei-Zhe, Ho, Hui-Ting, Wu, Ting-Yu, Lin, Ting-He, Chiu, Joseph
Development of a Model-Aware Data-Driven Control Algorithm for a Drive-by-Wire System for a Level 4 Automated Vehicle2026-01-00434/7/2026
Precision control in Level 4 Automated Vehicles is essential for enhancing operational efficiency, accuracy, and safety. This work, conducted as part of ARPA-E’s NEXTCAR program, focuses on developing a robust hardware and software control solution to enable drive-by-wire functionality. A previous publication by the authors presented the hardware solutions for overtaking stock vehicle controls. This paper focuses on a model-based and data-driven control algorithm to enable drive-by-wire functionality for longitudinal and lateral motion control for a 2021 Honda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle. This vehicle was equipped with a set of sensors and an onboard processing unit to enable Level 4 automation. For lateral controls, an algorithm was developed to command steering torque to the electronic power steering module, ensuring the vehicle could attain the desired steering angle position at varying speeds. The system leveraged feedforward and feedback mechanisms. Feedback controller
Adsule, Kartik, Bhagdikar, Piyush, Drallmeier, Joseph, Alden, Joshua, Gankov, Stanislav
Intersection Assist for Vehicle with Dual-Trailers using Nonlinear Model Predictive Control and Unscented Kalman Filter2026-01-00744/7/2026
This paper presents an approach utilizing Nonlinear Model Predictive Control (NMPC) and Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) to predict system state and control the trajectory of the vehicle with dual trailers in an intersection turn scenario. The UKF estimates vehicle and trailers’ lateral traversal velocity states and the NMPC controls the vehicle acceleration and steering to maintain the vehicle’s desired heading through the turn. The vehicle’s lateral traversal velocity function is formulated using Lyapunov based method which is used as a propagation function in the UKF to improve the estimation accuracy. The lateral traversal velocity is then used as one of the constraints in the NMPC problem. The overall estimation and the control scheme are formulated and assessed in the simulation environment. The simulation results show good tracking and curb avoidance performance.
Malla, Rijan
Impact of User-Adjustable Vehicle-Dynamics Tuning on Vehicle Durability2026-01-01944/7/2026
Software-defined vehicles offer customers a greater degree of customization of vehicle controls and driving experience. One such feature is user-adjustable tuning of vehicle ride and handling, where customers can vary ride height, damper stiffness, front-rear torque balance, and other aspects of vehicle dynamics. While promising a great customer experience, such a feature can expose the vehicle to a wider range of structural loads than those in the nominal design condition, particularly when such tuning is extended to cover spirited “sport” mode driving, off-road driving, etc. In this paper we present a novel methodology combining Road Load Data Acquisition (RLDA) data and real-world telemetry data to estimate the impact of user-adjustable vehicle-dynamics tuning on structural durability. In doing so, the method combines the physics of damage accumulation (from RLDA data) with user behavior (from telemetry data) to present an accurate assessment of the impact on durability, moving
Demiri, Albion, Ramakrishnan, Sankaran, White, Dylan, Khapane, Prashant, Borton, Zackery
Reliability-Based Vibration Design of Vehicle Systems with Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD)2026-01-01394/7/2026
Tuned Mass Dampers (TMDs) are widely used in the automotive industry to mitigate Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) issues across various vehicle systems. These passive devices are particularly effective in reducing structural vibrations in components subjected to resonant excitation. However, real-world applications often face challenges due to manufacturing variability and system-level build differences, which can cause deviations in both the TMD’s tuned frequency (up to ±15%) and the vibration characteristics of the host structure. These uncertainties—in both the TMD properties and the vehicle subsystem dynamics—can be modeled using statistical distributions. This paper presents a generalized methodology for vibration analysis and design under uncertainty, combining reliability engineering with dynamic vibration modeling. The approach formulates a unified mathematical framework that incorporates probabilistic and stochastic modeling to assess TMD performance under a range of
Abbas, Ahmad, Haider, Syed, d'Souza, Suneel
Two-Channel Pressure Control Using an Electric Cylinder and a Solenoid valve for Electronically Controlled Brake Systems2026-01-06384/7/2026
With the rapid proliferation of electrified vehicles (xEVs), maximizing regenerative energy recovery has become a crucial challenge in realizing zero-emission mobility. In front-wheel-drive (FWD) vehicles, regenerative braking acts only on the front axle, resulting in a braking-force distribution biased toward the front. When uniform hydraulic pressure is applied to both axles, excessive braking force on the front wheels may cause premature wheel lock and hinder the intended regenerative braking effect. To address this issue, it is essential to implement an independent pressure control strategy (two-channel pressure control) that appropriately reduces front pressure according to regenerative force while independently maintaining adequate rear pressure. This study proposes a new two-channel pressure control architecture utilizing a simple and reasonable actuator set consisting of one electric cylinder and one solenoid valve. The electric cylinder generates hydraulic pressure by
Kaneko, Shosuke, Deno, Yoshitomo, Kobayashi, Tatsushi, Kawamura, Hikaru
Study of Automatic Emergency Braking Effects on Human and Surrogate Passengers2026-01-05564/7/2026
The influence of modern Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) on the head and neck behavior of the occupants in a vehicle continues to be an active area of research. Occupant kinematics and kinetics were evaluated using a vehicle equipped with a pedestrian AEB system. The vehicle was tested in several different scenarios with speeds between 15 and 45 mph. Two instrumented 50th-percentile male Hybrid-III Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATD) were positioned in certain seats of the vehicle, while minimally instrumented human volunteers occupied the remaining seats. Displacement transducers and video analysis were utilized to capture the kinematics of each occupant. The findings of this study indicate that in AEB-only events with belted-occupants, the test vehicle did not result in any occupant motion that would have placed the occupants out-of-position (OOP) had an impact occurred immediately following the AEB event. This means that when evaluating real-world AEB events, it may not be necessary
Bartholomew, Meredith, Dahiya, Akshay, Russell, Caleb, Morr, Douglas, Castro, Elaine, Nguyen, An
Oscillatory Behavior of Understeering Vehicles2026-01-06234/7/2026
Oscillations in understeering vehicles are occasionally described in the literature, primarily in terms of the poles of the yaw rate response, but perhaps not completely appreciated in their complexity. This work shows that as speed of an understeering vehicle increases, the increasingly underdamped poles of the yaw rate transfer function combine with the effects of a low frequency zero and a reduced steady-state response to result in oscillations greater than would be expected from eigenvalues alone. A speed range for acceptable yaw rate response is suggested, and it is shown that a typical understeering passenger car operates within this range. As the understeering vehicle’s speed increases beyond this range, the high-speed limit of the oscillation frequency is found.
Williams, Daniel
A Study of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 126 and 136 Test Procedures on a Class 5 Vehicle2026-01-06164/7/2026
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 126 and 136 are standards imposed on four of the eight recognized road vehicle classes in The United States. These standards make it mandatory for Electronic Stability Control modules (ESC) to be mounted to Class 1,2,7, and 8 vehicles. These modules strategically activate the vehicle brakes via the Antilock Brake System (ABS) to limit the recorded yaw rate and lateral displacement of a vehicle during an extreme cornering maneuver such as a sudden swerve to avoid an obstacle on the road. The two aforementioned FMVSS mandates also specify three different driving maneuvers that are conducted to profile and analyze ESC module performance. There is now an interest in creating a new FMVSS that makes ESC modules mandatory for Class 5 vehicles. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how one specific Class 5 vehicle’s ESC module performed when subjected to the two test procedures that correspond to FMVSS 126 and 136. As will be seen, the vehicle’s
Cazares, Richard Isaac, Guenther, Dennis, Heydinger, Gary
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