Control-oriented models for vehicle systems are necessary to develop motion planning and path tracking controllers for active safety system development. While being mathematically elegant and simple enough for control design, such models must represent real-world phenomena associated with the vehicle’s kinematic and dynamic behavior. Specifically, articulated vehicles suffer from peculiarities like rearward amplification and offtracking in their kinematic behavior that are not found in single-unit passenger vehicles. In this paper, an iterative kinematic modeling algorithm for articulated truck-trailer vehicles with an arbitrary number of vehicle units having an arbitrary number of axles on each vehicle unit is evaluated using driver input data collected from an experimental passenger vehicle on eight real-world scenarios. The experimental vehicle is considered as the tractor vehicle unit for a simulation study in which multiple trailers of various geometries are considered. The yaw

Singh, Yuvraj, Giuliani, Pio Michele, Jayakumar, Adithya, Javed, Nur Uddin, Tan, Shengzhe, Rizzoni, Giorgio

Study on Driver-Dependent Stabilization Capabilities for Safe Chassis Control with Steer By Wire

2025-01-0276

07/02/2025

Steer-by-wire actuators represent a transformative advancement in chassis control, opening up new potential for optimizing driving behavior across the entire range of driving dynamics - including driver-dependent automatic counter steering in critical driving situations. However, from a functional safety perspective, the increased potential also introduces new risks with respect to possible system failures. To mitigate these risks, sophisticated monitoring functions are essential to ensure vehicle controllability at all times. Current research approaches for monitoring functions use safe driving envelopes. This set of safe driving states is often found by open-loop simulations, which provide a phase portrait of the nonlinear system under control and from which stability limits can be derived. However, it remains open how these open-loop stability limits correspond to the stabilization capability of a real human driver in the loop. And secondly, how these closed-loop stability limits

Birkemeyer, Janick, Naidu P.M, Tarun, Borkowski, Lukas, Müller, Steffen

Data-Driven Analysis of Vehicle Lateral Control in the Country Road Domain

2025-01-0268

07/02/2025

The optimization and further development of automated driving functions offer significant potential for reducing the driver's workload and increasing road safety. Among these functions, vehicle lateral control plays a critical role, especially with regard to its acceptance by end customers. Significant development efforts are required to ensure the effectiveness and reliability of this aspect in real-world conditions. This work focuses on analyzing lateral vehicle control using extensive measurement data collected from a dedicated vehicle fleet at the Institute of Automotive Engineering at the Technical University of Braunschweig. Equipped with state-of-the-art measurement technology, the fleet has driven several hundred thousand kilometers, allowing for the collection of detailed information on vehicle trajectories under various driving conditions. A total of 93 participants, aged between 20 and 43 years, contributed to the dataset. These measurements have been classified into

Iatropoulos, Jannes, Panzer, Anna, Arntz, Martin, Prueggler, Adrian, Henze, Roman

Automation and Optimization of the Design and Development Process for a Formula Student Racing Car Suspension

2025-01-0270

07/02/2025

The design, development, and optimization of modern suspension systems is a complex process that encompasses several different engineering domains and disciplines such as vehicle dynamics simulation, tire data analysis, 1D lap-time simulation, 3D CAD design and structural analysis including full 3D collision detection. Typically, overall vehicle design and suspension development are carried out in multiple iterative design loops by several human specialists from diverse engineering departments. Fully automating this iterative design process can minimize manual effort, eliminate routine tasks and human errors, and significantly reduce design time. This desired level of automation can be achieved through digital modeling, automated model generation, and simulation using graph-based design languages and an associated language compiler for translation and execution. Graph-based design languages ensure the digital consistency of data, the digital continuity of processes, and the digital

Borowski, Julian, Rudolph, Stephan

The Automation Concept of the U-Shift II Vehicle

2025-01-0281

07/02/2025

Autonomous driving technology enables new and innovative driverless vehicle concepts to emerge, like U-Shift. Designed from the ground up, the U-Shift II platform, called driveboard, exemplifies the advantages of separating a vehicle’s driving capability from the intended transportation task. It allows different so-called capsules, such as public transport or cargo, to be transported using the same U-shaped driving platform. The driveboard can change the capsules autonomously, thus providing high flexibility for fleet operators. This novel approach introduces new challenges to the task of autonomous driving. On one hand, changing sensor and vehicle configurations, e.g., when transporting a capsule with its own sensors to compensate for occlusions of the driveboard sensors by the capsule itself, requires an adaptive approach to environmental perception. On the other hand, different environments and driving tasks, as well as the augmented motion capabilities of the driveboard, require

Buchholz, Michael, Wodtko, Thomas, Schumann, Oliver, Authaler, Dominik

Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus

2025-01-0266

07/02/2025

Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of

Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias

Kinetic Energy Recovery: Assessment on the impact of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor and Battery Dynamic models

2025-01-0303

07/02/2025

This paper examines the influence of a detailed dynamic model of a Surface Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (SPMSM) on the accurate evaluation of kinetic energy recovery during braking in a mild hybrid vehicle. The model, implemented in MATLAB Simulink, is based on the motor’s DQ equivalent circuit, accounting for transient effects, inductance variability, and magnetic saturation. Also, a 2nd Order Thevenin Equivalent model of the battery is used in order to take into account the bus voltage variability. Simulations reveal that the dynamic model predicts significant variations in energy recovery potential, with differences of up to 25% compared to static models under specific braking conditions. These discrepancies are particularly pronounced during high-speed high-torque transitions, where transient electrical behaviors strongly influence energy recovery. The model’s accuracy enhances the reliability of energy simulations, especially in scenarios involving frequent or intense

Lombardi, Simone, Federici, Leonardo, Tribioli, Laura, Bella, Gino

Power Hop Detection in High-Torque Vehicles: A Machine Learning Approach with Focus on Data Coverage and Model Generalization

2025-01-0271

07/02/2025

Power hop is a vibration phenomenon that occurs during high accelerations from low speed. In severe cases it can lead to component damage or deformation. Therefore, the affected vehicles must be safeguarded against these vibrations by a safe design of the components and by additional software-based functions. Conventional software-based solutions, such as Traction Control Systems (TCS), often perform delayed interventions and apply harsh torque adjustments that reduce driving comfort. Motivated by these challenges, this paper proposes a novel approach for power hop detection in a high-torque vehicle based on Long Short-Term-Memory Network (LSTM) and real-time measurements. Unlike conventional methods, our LSTM precisely detects the start of power hop, enabling proactive torque adjustments. Due to its impact on vehicle stability, the model must achieve a high level of reliability and robustness. Given the importance of data quality in Machine Learning (ML), we consider data-related

Chehoudi, Moatez, Moisidis, Ioannis, Sailer, Marc, Peters, Steven

A Generalized Formulation for Safe Obstacle Avoidance Maneuvers in Autonomous Vehicles

2025-01-0285

07/02/2025

This paper deals with autonomous vehicle trajectory planning for avoidance maneuver. It introduces a trajectory planning approach that allows for static obstacle avoidance maneuvers. Specifically, this study proposes a generalized geometric formulation based on Sigmoid functions in order to generate a smooth path that guides the vehicle on a lateral deviation and returns to the initial lane. In addition, the method considers various geometrical and dynamic constraints to ensure vehicle stability while taking into account a safety area around the obstacle. The algorithm validation is conducted on the professional CarMaker simulator by associating the path generation module with a robust lateral tracking controller. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed planning method in the field of autonomous driving vehicle control.

Vigne, Benoit, Giuliani, Pio Michele, Orjuela, Rodolfo, Basset, Michel

Development and Evaluation of a Combined Driveline Oscillation and Traction Controller Using Model Predictive Control and Reinforcement Learning: A Comparative Case Study

2025-01-0291

07/02/2025

In electric vehicles, the control of driveline oscillations and tire traction is critical for guaranteeing driver comfort and safety. Yet, achieving sufficient driveline control performance remains challenging in the presence of rapidly varying road conditions. Two promising avenues for further improving driveline control are adaptive model predictive control (MPC) and model-based reinforcement learning (RL). We derive such controllers from the same non-linear vehicle model and validate them through pre-defined test scenarios. The MPC approach employs input and output trajectory tracking with soft constraints to ensure feasible control actions even in the presence of constraint violations and is further supported by a Kalman filter for robust state estimation and prediction. In contrast, the RL controller leverages the model-based DreamerV3 algorithm to learn control policies autonomously, adapting to different road conditions without relying on external information. The results

Uhl, Ramón Tamino, Schüle, Isabel, Ludmann, Laurin, Geist, A. René

Evaluation of Static and Dynamic Stiffness of Rubber Grommet by Experimental and FEA Method

2025-01-0274

07/02/2025

Vibration control is most important in automotive applications, and generally, rubbers are used to dampen these vibrations due to their inherent nature and low-cost manufacturing methods. Now, to select a rubber material, Shore hardness is considered in engineering applications, but to additionally control the behaviour, we need to understand its static and dynamic stiffness. These values help to determine the vibration isolation obtained by these rubbers. In this paper, we will discuss methods to calculate the static and dynamic stiffness of rubber grommets using experimental methods and FEA modelling. As elastomers have non-linear material properties, various material modelling techniques in FEA are used to capture multiple phenomena like creep, fatigue, and dynamic conditions. Rubber compounding is used in order to improve the physical and chemical properties, which in turn would give desirable linear characteristics. Certain guidelines and thumb rules are used in the rubber

Khamkar, Prasad Subhash, Gaikwad, Vikrant Chandrakant

Longitudinal Dynamic Metrics for Describing and Developing the Deceleration Behavior of Vehicles in the Concept Phase

2025-01-0264

07/02/2025

The brake system is a critical safety component in motor vehicles. Advances in the electrification of the powertrain and the rise of autonomous driving technologies are significantly impacting the brake system, which allows innovative approaches and necessitating the development of new brake concepts and new deceleration strategies. A major technological advance is the decoupling of the driver from the brake system through Brake-by-wire technology. A crucial attribute of Brake-by-wire systems is the attainment of a concept-independent deceleration behavior. To establish a consistent and brand-specific deceleration behavior in the early development phase, objective metrics and perceptual thresholds are required to describe the desired subjective braking behavior. Moreover, objective metrics are indispensable for the virtual phase of the vehicle development process. This article focuses on deceleration from a straight-ahead drive. To identify objective metrics and perceptual thresholds

Biller, Ralph, Udovicic, Matej, Ketzmerick, Erik, Kirch, Sebastian, Mayr, Stefan, Prokop, Günther, Wagner, Andreas

Methodology for Fast-Running, Time-Resolved Simulation of Non-Exhaust Particle Emissions from Brake Wear Abrasion

2025-01-0275

07/02/2025

Non-exhaust particle emissions, particularly those generated by brake wear, are a significant source of fine particulate matter in urban environments. These emissions contribute to air pollution and pose serious health risks, particularly in densely populated areas. While vehicle exhaust emissions have been extensively studied and regulated, the contribution of non-exhaust sources, including brake wear, remains a critical factor in air quality management. This paper presents a novel methodology for fast-running, time-resolved simulation of non-exhaust particle emissions, specifically those from brake wear abrasion. A 3D CFD model computes the turbulent flow field around the disc brake. The resulting information on the convective air cooling is applied as boundary conditions on a 3D thermal model. This thermal simulation setup is compared and verified with experimental data from literature. The 3D numerical models produce data and boundary conditions for an efficient 1D numerical

Herkenrath, Ferris, Lückerath, Moritz, Günther, Marco, Pischinger, Stefan

Leveraging LLM-Based AI Agents for Boosting Vehicle Testing Process

2025-01-0300

07/02/2025

The validation process in research and development involves several complex stages, including test requests, planning, execution, and the analysis and evaluation of results. In the automotive domain, compliance with regulatory standards, such as those required for Euro 7 homologation, adds an additional layer of complexity. Implementing these regulations into operational validation workflows and ensuring their seamless integration with supporting tools remains a significant challenge. Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have introduced innovative use cases across various domains. In particular, AI agents powered by LLMs demonstrate immense potential by autonomously performing complex tasks while utilizing user-defined tools. This capability extends far beyond traditional applications like knowledge management or text generation typically associated with LLMs. In this paper, we explore how a modern AI agent can be developed and integrated into existing IT tools for test

Unterschütz, Stefan, Hansen, Björn

Early Detection of the Loss of Control of Motorsport Vehicles

10-09-03-0029

06/30/2025

The article investigates how to detect as quickly as possible whether the driver will lose control of a vehicle, after a disturbance has occurred. Typical disturbances refer to wind gusts, obstacle avoidance, a sudden steer, traversing a pothole, a kick by another vehicle, and so on. The driver may be either human or non-human. Focus will be devoted to human drivers, but the extension to automated or autonomous cars is straightforward. Since the dynamic behavior of vehicle and driver is described by a saddle-type limit cycle, a proper theory is developed to use the limit cycle as a reference trajectory to forecast the loss of control. The Floquet theory has been used to compute a scalar index to forecast stable or unstable motion. The scalar index, named degree of stability (DoS), is computed very early, in the best case, in a few milliseconds after the disturbance has ended. Investigations have been performed at a dynamic driving simulator. A 14 DoF vehicle model, virtually driven by

Della Rossa, Fabio, Fontana, Matteo, Giacintucci, Samuele, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Mastinu, Giampiero, Previati, Giorgio

Heavy-Duty Electrical Connector Performance Standard

J2030_202506 (Current)

06/30/2025

This SAE Standard encompasses connectors between two cables or between a cable and an electrical component and focuses on the connectors external to the electrical component. This document provides environmental test requirements and acceptance criteria for the application of connectors for direct current electrical systems of 60 V or less in the majority of heavy-duty applications typically used in off-highway machinery. Severe applications can require higher test levels or field-testing on the intended application.

CTTC C2, Electrical Components and Systems

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