Browse Topic: Chassis

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ANALYSIS OF FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT POTENTIAL OF A WINDING CHANGEOVER IN AN ELECTRIC MACHINE2025-01-0518To be published on 11/25/2025
The winding configuration of an electric machine has a decisive influence on the properties of a traction drive. When designing the electric drive, the optimum compromise must be found between maximum torque, maximum power and high efficiency over a wide operating range. A decisive factor in this design conflict is the choice of the winding configuration. The concept of winding switching offers a way of solving the design conflict and improving the characteristics of the drive through the additional degree of freedom of the variable winding configuration. Switching the number of parallel winding branches in a serial and parallel configuration is a promising approach to overcome the challenge of a high spread between maximum power and high efficiency in customer related driving scenarios of an electric vehicle. The aim of this study is to identify factors influencing the efficiency improvement potential of the winding switching topology under consideration compared to a reference drive
Oestreicher, Raphael, Koenen, Christian, Kulzer, André Casal
Optimizing the Structural simulation process of Automobile Airvent knob design to evaluate the sustainability for human accidental sliding load2025-28-0289To be published on 11/06/2025
The research work elaborated the structural integrity of airvent by skipping the assembly level snap fit analysis of knob to reduce computational complexity of air vent knob sliding test post stopper. During assembly, the strain based mechanical breakage prediction of airvent sliding knob snaps is investigated in prestressed condition. The function of airvent knob is to rotate the vertical fins to divert the air flow as per comfort in intended direction identified by passenger. The airvent knob slides on central horizontal fin on a grove feature provided. Post sliding the knob to extreme end it gets stopped at end of grove feature of H fin. The sliding knob is assembled by compressing it against a silicon rubber elastomer inlay. The compression of inlay produces a constant tension on the knob snaps. The knob assembly has to sustain a passenger accidental and abrupt sliding loads while in stopped condition. The knob snaps in this press fit condition are the weak link in the accidental
Shah, Viren
Machine Learning based Off-Road Vehicle Turn identification using Vehicle & GPS Parameters2025-28-0344To be published on 11/06/2025
Identification of different types of turns during field operation of off-road vehicles is critical in the overall vehicle development as it is helpful in identifying & optimizing machine performance, correct duty cycle, fuel economy, stability analysis, accurate path planning, customer usage pattern & designing the critical components, etc. In this study, a machine learning (ML) based methodology has been developed to detect the off-road vehicle turns using vehicle & GPS parameters. Three most common types of off-road vehicles turn conditions e.g., Straight line, Bulb turn, and Three-Point turn have been considered. Different vehicle parameters (like latitude & longitude, compass bearing, yaw rate, vehicle speed, swash plate angle, engine speed, percent load at vehicle speed, raise lower front & PTO channels) generated during field test have been used here. These vehicle parameters are further processed, analyzed and used in ML learning model building. Four ML models e.g., SVM, K-NN
Gangsar, Purushottam
Design Optimization of Rolling Resistance Product Development Using Linear Regression2025-28-0314To be published on 11/06/2025
Simulation, physical testing, and a combination of both is an indispensable tool for developing reliable product designs in the automotive industry. Engineers rely on this integrated approach to thoroughly explore design possibilities and fine-tune products for varying configurations. Drawing insights from existing designs, engineers can effectively tackle important design challenges, such as reducing rolling resistance. This study introduces a pragmatic solution, leveraging simulation and real-world test data, and demonstrates the effectiveness of employing Linear Regression (LR) techniques for improving rolling resistance in vehicles. Integrating LR algorithms into the design process enables swift and cost-effective optimization of parameters, offering a quicker pathway for product development.
ALTHI, Tirupathi Rao, Manuel, Naveen, K, Manu
Design Strategies for “Front Stabilizer Link Assembly” for Maximized Wheel Articulation in all terrain for passenger car applications2025-28-0309To be published on 11/06/2025
The stabilizer link, also commonly referred to as the sway bar link or anti-roll bar link, plays a crucial role in the suspension system, that connects the sway bar to the suspension components like knuckle/Control arm/Struts. Primary function of stabilizer link is helping to reduce the body roll during cornering or uneven terrain, it helps to stabilize the wheels during extreme articulation & ensuring the smoother operation in terms of vehicle ride comfort & handling. it is designed for assists in distributing forces across the suspension system, in off-road or rugged terrain applications. This case study represents the failure of stabilizer link assembly @ extreme articulation events. The Front stabilizer link was frequently failing in vehicle level durability and functional testing at multiple terrains. The investigation highlights the root cause analysis of the failure. based on the root cause analysis, design strategies prepared to prevent such failures, ensure reliable operation
S, Praveen Kumar, Chilakala, Raghavendra, Senthil Raja, T, Jadhav, Prashant, Kundan, Lal, J, Akhil, Pawar, Sandip
Power Electronics: The Backbone of Sustainable Electrification2025-28-0228To be published on 11/06/2025
Power electronics is fundamental to sustainable electrification, enhancing energy efficiency, integrating renewable energy sources, and reducing carbon emissions. In electric vehicles (EVs), power electronics is crucial for efficient energy conversion, management, and distribution. Key components like inverters, rectifiers, and DC-DC converters optimize power from renewable sources to meet EV system requirements. In EVs, power electronics converts energy from the battery to the electric motor, ensuring efficient propulsion and regenerative braking. Inverters convert DC power from the battery to AC power for the motor, while DC-DC converters manage voltage levels for various vehicle systems. These components maximize EV energy efficiency, reduce energy losses, and extend driving range. Power electronics also supports fast and efficient battery charging, critical for widespread EV adoption. Advanced charging solutions enable rapid charging times and integration with renewable energy
Pipaliya, Akash Pravinbhai, Hatkar, Chetan
Dynamic Stiffness Simulation Driven Design Changes for Tractor Cab to Mitigate Structure Borne Noise Levels2025-28-0291To be published on 11/06/2025
The dynamic stiffness of mount systems is a critical factor influencing the overall dynamic behavior and vibration isolation capabilities of mechanical assemblies. Effective cab isolation in product design can reduce structure borne noise and tactile vibrations experienced by operators. Detailed dynamic stiffness analysis of mounting brackets coupled with modal analysis using finite element method provide insights into the vibration response and resonant frequencies of components. By systematically varying parameters such as material properties, shape and geometry, the study elucidates the sensitivity of dynamic stiffness to design alternations. This study investigates on dynamic stiffness and their consequential impact on system dynamics on various design alternations by considering the space constraints at mount locations due to components, wiring harness and structural analysis driven solutions. In overall, this paper emphasizes the pivotal role of dynamic stiffness analysis in
Saveenkumar, Valakeerthi, Cone, Kerry, Mandke, Devendra Laxmikant, Fapal, Anand
Evaluation of Optimal Tire Pressure for Three-Wheeled Vehicles Performance and Safety2025-28-0272To be published on 11/06/2025
Tire pressure plays a critical role in determining the overall performance and efficiency of a vehicle, influencing factors such as handling, braking, and fuel consumption. Proper tire pressure ensures optimal interaction between the tire and the road surface, thereby improving safety and performance. When tire pressure is too low, the contact patch increases, resulting in higher rolling resistance, which in turn leads to a decrease in fuel efficiency. Low pressure also causes excessive wear on the tires and can reduce vehicle stability. On the other hand, excessively high tire pressure causes a reduction in the contact patch, leading to a harsher ride, reduced traction, and a higher risk of skidding. This imbalance not only affects the ride quality but also compromises safety, particularly in adverse weather conditions. This paper aims to develop a governing equation that computes the optimal tire pressure for a speculative three-wheeled vehicle, considering factors such as load
S, Shakeel, V M, Brathikan, K, Krisnan, M, shruthi
Integrating Self Hydraulic Jacks Under the Chassis for off-Road vehicles, and Utility Task Vehicles2025-28-0264To be published on 11/06/2025
Imagine a futuristic vehicle chassis, sleek, low-slung, and aerodynamic, constructed from advanced materials like high-strength alloys or carbon fiber composites. Underneath this captivating structure, a sophisticated system of self-hydraulic jacks is seamlessly integrated. These jacks, situated adjacent to the four shock absorber mounts, are designed to lift the chassis at the tire areas, ensuring efficient underbody maintenance and quick, safe emergency lifts. The design incorporates an intuitive control system with strategically placed buttons for driver convenience. Whether positioned alongside the steering wheel, integrated near the infotainment display, or mounted within the driver-side door, these controls blend technology and practicality. Integrating Self Hydraulic Jacks Under the Chassis:- • Adjacent to each shock absorber mounting point, a self-hydraulic jack is integrated into the chassis design. Designed to be unobtrusive when not in use, these jacks are built into
Gogula, Venkateswarlu
Ensuring The Reliability of Hydraulic Powered Steering System Through Life Data Analysis2025-28-0297To be published on 11/06/2025
The reliability of vehicle steering systems is very crucial to ensure safety, vehicle performance and customer satisfaction. Life data analysis is conducted to analyze how the steering systems are performing in the field and assess whether the steering systems can meet the reliability target when deployed in the field. This article discusses about the systematic process to conduct the field data analysis of Hydraulic Powered Steering System (HPS) from the warranty claim data, usage of Weibull distribution to derive the life characteristic parameters and explains the application of field data analysis results in steering product development.
Ravindran, Mohan, Sugumar, Ganesh
Automation of Kinematic Package check of chassis component using Roof Curve and Simulation with Laws2025-28-0290To be published on 11/06/2025
This objective of this paper is to discuss a new design methodology while designing the Chassis component in suspension system. The scope is only on the design activity of performing the package clearance check of chassis component with its neighboring parts. The novelty of this methodology in this design activity of package clearance check is to Automate this design activity of performing the package clearance check of a chassis component in CATIA DMU Kinematics using the combination of “Roof curves of Steering and Damper travels” and “Simulation with Laws” CATIA command as inputs. There is also manual method existing which is currently in use in Automotive industry and which needs manual entry of command values for Kinematic simulation of suspension and takes 1.5 hrs minimum per iteration of package clearance check whereas the new method takes only less than 0.5 hrs inclusive of package clearance report generation.
medaboina, parameshwar
Enhancing Tipper Stability During Descent with Dynamic Angle Adjustment2025-28-0276To be published on 11/06/2025
This study addresses critical challenges faced by tippers transporting bulk cargo during descent, focusing on two major risks: cargo displacement and rear axle lifting. Prolonged descents often lead to uncontrolled shifting of cargo, such as loose aggregates or soil, within the tipper body. This phenomenon, driven by gravity, momentum, and insufficient restraint systems, poses threats of cabin damage and unpredictable ejection of materials onto the roadway. Additionally, rear axle lifting occurs due to load imbalances, increasing pressure on the front steering axle. This results in front tire slippage and inefficient steering. To tackle these issues, the study proposes a novel approach involving dynamic adjustment of the tipper lift angle to align with the road descent angle. Synchronizing the trailer bed angle with the terrain slope minimizes gravitational forces on the cargo, stabilizes its center of gravity, and ensures consistent contact between the rear tires and the road surface
Vijeth, Abhishek, Bhosle, Devidas Ashok, Cherian, Roshni, Dash, Prasanjita, Nautiyal, Anusheel
Optimizing Forklift Performance Through Multibody Simulation: Analyzing the Role of Tires and Counterweight in Derated Capacity2025-28-0254To be published on 11/06/2025
The derated capacity of forklifts plays a crucial role in determining their safety, efficiency, and overall performance, particularly when modifications are introduced to meet stringent industrial standards. The term "derated capacity" refers to the reduction in a forklift's rated load-carrying capacity caused by various factors, including load center shifts, lifting height, attachment usage, tire types, and counterweight adjustments. This reduction occurs as a safety measure to account for potential instabilities or mechanical limitations when operating under less-than-ideal conditions. Accurate understanding and calculation of derated capacity are vital to ensure safe and efficient forklift operation. This research provides a detailed examination of forklift variants, specifically evaluated under the IS 4357:2004 standards, to understand the intricate relationship between tire types and counterweight adjustments on the derated capacity. Through the use of advanced Multibody
Shende, Kalyani, Shingavi, Shreyas, Hingade, Nikhil
Adaptive Terrain Morphing Chassis for Off-Highway Vehicles: Enhancing Fuel Efficiency Through Dynamic Structural Adaptation2025-28-0342To be published on 11/06/2025
Off-highway vehicles (OHVs) frequently encounter difficult terrains such as swamps, deserts, and rocky landscapes, which can lead to increased fuel usage due to elevated rolling resistance and irregular surfaces. This paper suggests an adaptive terrain morphing chassis that actively modifies its structure to enhance fuel efficiency and vehicle performance. Employing soft robotics concepts and hydraulic morphing materials, the chassis can vary its height, width, and track shape in accordance with real-time terrain evaluations. These modifications assist in lowering rolling resistance, boosting traction, and improving stability. For instance, the chassis may expand in marshy regions for better weight distribution or reduce in height in rocky environments for enhanced stability. Key features consist of: Real-time terrain evaluation using sensors to modify chassis configurations. Hydraulic actuators and adaptive polymers that change the vehicle’s structure for peak performance. Fuel
Vashisht, Shruti
Digital Simulation of Rear Axle Brake Lines Articulation for Commercial Vehicles.2025-28-0257To be published on 11/06/2025
This paper focuses on defining the optimal length of rear axle brake lines (flexible polyamide tubes) for commercial vehicles by simulating the lines digitally by considering tube behavior and various axle articulation conditions. Currently, the length of rear axle brake lines are predominantly defined with the help of a physical mockup by articulating axle conditions in a vehicle. This approach requires actual components such as frame, axle, suspension, etc., which consumes considerable time and cost. Through technological advancements, prototyping can be reduced and convergence on digital to build can be achieved through digital simulation. This paper explores tube properties, axle configurations and definitions, and various methods of digitally simulating line articulation. Boundary conditions, space reservations and design criteria for pneumatic routing are defined for the type of line designed. Digital simulation of rear axle brake lines articulation was performed and compared
Duraiswamy, Rupesh, Sankaran, Bhargav, Raj, Santhosh
Traction voltage level in two-wheeler: considerations on e-motor performance2025-32-0093To be published on 11/03/2025
The electric power of most electric two-wheelers on the market ranges between 2 and 12 kW. For this power range, the traction voltage level is mostly between 48V and 96V. There appears to be no strong correlation between electric power and traction voltage, suggesting that the current voltage choice is rather arbitrary. This paper briefly describes the e-motor model used in this study and introduces variations of four design parameters: DC voltage, maximum phase current, e-motor active length, and the number of turns in the e-motor winding. The consequences of these variations on peak performance, continuous performance, and efficiency maps are presented. Specific cases of parameter combinations are also studied. Two e-motors designed for 48V and 96V systems will be compared, showing that size, cost, and performance (power and losses) are equivalent. Additionally, the paper discusses how increasing the maximum phase current rating of the inverter can improve e-motor power in a 48V
Albert, Laurent
Strategies for Improving Energy Consumption for Electric Vehicles.2025-32-0092To be published on 11/03/2025
The global transition toward sustainability and decarburization has positioned Electric Vehicles (EVs) at the forefront of future mobility. While EVs inherently offer lower emissions compared to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, optimizing their energy efficiency remains a critical challenge to ensure their viability, affordability, and widespread adoption. With global EV sales surpassing 10 million units in 2022 representing over 14% of the global vehicle market. Energy efficiency has emerged as a cornerstone in addressing key concerns such as range anxiety, charging infrastructure, operational costs and overall environmental impact. This paper embarks on a comprehensive journey, beginning with the historical evolution of EVs and identifying the multifaceted energy losses that occur during vehicle operation. By mapping the energy distribution within a typical EV, the study lays a foundational understanding of where and how inefficiencies arise. It then explores current
Jain, Gaurav, Premlal, P, Pathak, Rahul, Gore, Pandurang
Higher-strength, higher-toughness die cast wheel material using recycled aluminum2025-32-0007To be published on 11/03/2025
In an attempt to reduce CO2 release from the alloy wheel production, we have developed such an aluminum alloy for casting that satisfies necessary property requirements using recycled aluminum and without heat treatment. The wheel is a critical safety item of the vehicle requiring higher toughness and strength. In many wheels, virgin aluminum containing small amounts of impurities are used to maintain toughness, and the heat treatment (T6), in which quick heating and cooling are conducted after the casting, is applied to provide ensure strength. At the start of this project, we focused on two wheel-manufacturing processes; the production of virgin aluminum and the heat treatment, from which a large amount of CO2 is released. The change from the virgin to the recycled material allows reduction of CO2 release to 1/9. The issue in the use of recycled material is that impurities grow in the metal structures as an intermetallic compounds and lower toughness. To deal with the said issue, we
Suzuki, Noritaka
Obstacle Avoidance Capability of a Personal Mobility Vehicle (PMV) with an Inward Tilting Mechanism under Braking Conditions2025-32-0033To be published on 11/03/2025
This study delves into the dynamics of three-wheeled Personal Mobility Vehicles (PMVs) equipped with an active tilting mechanism. In three-wheeled vehicles with a single front wheel, the risk of tipping over during sudden braking and sharp turning is often highlighted. To address this issue, the authors have focused their research on three-wheeled PMVs with two front wheels and one rear wheel, equipped with an active tilting mechanism. Previous studies using dynamic simulation tools have demonstrated that such PMVs possess higher obstacle avoidance capabilities compared to motorcycles and even passenger cars. However, these simulations were based on the assumption of avoidance maneuvers without braking, and no studies have yet examined the behavior of three-wheeled PMVs with an active tilting mechanism under the more complex conditions of braking during turning. Therefore, prior to conducting dynamic simulations under braking and turning conditions, this study aims to clarify the
Haraguchi, Tetsunori, Kaneko, Tetsuya
Automatic Brake failure detection with Electromagnetic Braking system2025-28-0373To be published on 10/30/2025
Brake failure is a major cause of road accidents, contributing significantly to vehicle-related fatalities and injuries across the globe. To address this issue, this project focuses on the development of an automatic brake failure detection and integration of electromagnetic braking system to enhance vehicle safety and reliability. The system continuously monitors brake functionality by detecting anomalies in pedal free play and oil pressure levels within the braking system. If an irregularity is detected, a signal is transmitted to a microcontroller, which triggers a dashboard warning light to alert the driver, once the driver sees this light he must pull towards the service lane. If correct action is not taken within five seconds, the auxiliary electromagnetic braking system engages automatically, ensuring a controlled deceleration of the vehicle. The integration of electromagnetic brakes provides an additional layer of safety by acting as a backup braking mechanism in case of
Raja, Selvakumar
Simulation of Hydraulic Retarder using Particleworks2025-28-0382To be published on 10/30/2025
Meshless particle-based simulation methods are increasingly being considered for modeling complex physical systems, particularly those involving large fluid deformations, splashing, and sloshing effects. The effectiveness of these methods, however, depends greatly on the careful selection of simulation models and parameters. This study investigates the capabilities of Particleworks, a CFD simulation tool employing a particle-based Moving Particle Semi-implicit (MPS) solver, in simulating hydraulic retarders used in heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs). Hydraulic retarders utilize viscous drag forces generated by a spinning rotor within a fluid-filled chamber to achieve controlled braking. A dual-rotor, cup-shaped hydraulic retarder operating is analyzed in Particleworks under various conditions, including the use of different working fluids such as transmission oil, coolant, and water. The study also considered thermophysical properties with oil and examined the impact of geometrical
Kumar, Kamal S., Chaudhari, Gunjan
Evaluation of Alternative Cooling method for High Performance Resistors in zero-emission trucks.2025-28-0359To be published on 10/30/2025
High Performance Resistors (HPR), also known as brake resistors are used in zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) to dissipate excess electrical energy produced during regenerative braking, as heat energy. It is necessary to use a suitable cooling technique to release this heat energy into the atmosphere in a regulated manner. Currently in ZEVs, liquid cooled HPR with its dedicated heat exchanger and other auxiliaries such as pump, surge tank, Coolant and coolant lines, is used which increases the cost, packaging space and assembly time. This paper presents air cooling as a substitute heat-exchanging technique for high-performance resistors which eliminates the need of auxiliaries mentioned above, resulting in space optimization and reduction in assembly time. An air cooled HPR, designed for this study consists of a heat exchanger, which accommodates a resistor wire within its tubes. The design was made to fit commercial vehicle use, specific to trucks, due to packaging constraints in vehicle
MENARIYA, PRAVIN GANESH, KUMAR, VISHNU, Arhanth, Mahima, Umesha, Sathwik, Jagadish, Harshitha
Simulation study of wheel bearing friction losses at vehicle level2025-01-0399To be published on 10/07/2025
With the ongoing electrification of vehicles, components contributing a minor share of overall drivetrain losses are coming into focus. Analyzing these losses is crucial for enhancing the energy efficiency of modern vehicles and meeting the increasing demands for sustainability and extended driving range. These components include wheel bearings, whose friction losses are influenced by parameters such as temperature, mechanical loads, and mounting situation. Therefore, it is essential to analyze the resulting friction losses and their dependence on the mentioned influencing parameters at an early stage of development, both through test bench measurements and with the help of simulation models. To achieve these objectives, this submission presents a methodology that combines test bench measurements with a measurement-based simulation of the friction losses of wheel bearings occurring in the vehicle as a complete system under varying driving cycles and parameters. For this purpose, an
Hartmann, Lukas, Sturm, Axel, Henze, Roman, Notz, Fabian
Electromagnetic, Thermal, and Dynamic Performance Analysis of Permanent Magnet Linear Synchronous Motor and MR Damper Integrated Active Suspension2025-01-0409To be published on 10/07/2025
Active suspension systems are crucial for enhancing ride quality and passenger comfort in vehicles because they can dynamically adjust their stiffness and damping characteristics. Significant studies have recently been conducted on corporations' and academic institutions' structural design of active suspension systems. Currently, hydraulic and electromagnetic systems make up the majority of active suspension types. Notably, hydraulic active suspensions exhibit a comparatively slower response time, whereas electromagnetic actuator-based active suspensions typically lack the capability to actively modify the damping force's characteristics. Therefore, we proposed an active suspension system that consists of a permanent magnet linear synchronous motor (PMLSM) and a Magnetorheological (MR) fluid damper. In our system, linear motors could provide fast and accurate force response, and the MR fluid damper provides fast and widely adjustable damping force, improving the vehicle's ride comfort
Chowdhury, Nayan Kumar, Zhang, Jiajun, Yintao, Wei
Comparative Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Performance of Electric and Counterpart Diesel Tractors2025-01-0417To be published on 10/07/2025
The objective of this trial was to compare the energy efficiency and performance of battery electric against conventional diesel tractors. Controlled road tests replicating normal operations were conducted using two electric and two diesel day-cab tractors. The test protocol was based on the TMC - Type III RP 1103A and SAE J1526 test procedures. The tests were conducted on a 110 km long route that included a 59 km hilly portion with a maximum altitude difference of 307 m. The tractors were divided into test groups of two vehicles. Trailers and drivers were switched throughout the trial between the tractors in a test group. The tests found that the two electric trucks consumed 61% and 64% less energy than their counterpart diesel trucks, respectively. Considering the production mode of electricity in Canada, the electric trucks emitted on average 82% less GHG emissions than the conventional diesel-powered tractors. The two diesel trucks showed virtually identical fuel consumption and
Surcel, Marius-Dorin, Partington, Mark, Tanguay-Laflèche, Maxime, Schumacher, Richard
Development of an SSP-180 Synchronizer Durability Test2025-01-0408To be published on 10/07/2025
Synchronizers are designed to provide smooth, efficient and safe transfer of torque between mechanical gears. Friction level, durability, and consistency of the fluid / friction lining system are crucial to ensuring crisp gear engagements without clashing and noise, vibration and/or harshness (NVH) for the life of the transmission. Excellent wear control of gears, synchronizer ring and cone surfaces is also critical to protecting the life of moving mechanical parts. The SSP-180 synchronizer rig measures friction durability and wear up to 100,000 engagements, using a variety of fluids and friction materials. Methodology for the development of a synchronizer durability procedure using the SSP-180 rig is presented for qualifying fluids for dry dual clutch (DCT) and manual transmission (MT) applications for General Motors. It will be shown that the new SSP-180 Synchronizer Durability Test in Appendix C of the dDCT fluid specification [1] satisfies four key conditions for new mechanical
Glasgow, Michael B., Zreik, Khaled, Ezanno, Philippe Nicolas, Shelton, Robert W.
Simulation-Based System-Level Design Optimization for Formula SAE Vehicles2025-01-0380To be published on 10/07/2025
System-level design decisions in Formula SAE (FSAE) vehicles drive all downstream subsystem designs, yet these decisions are often based on historical precedent or anecdotal evidence rather than rigorous analysis. This work presents a simulation-driven methodology to support data-informed decisions early in the design process, specifically examining how overall vehicle parameters—such as engine power, vehicle mass, aerodynamic drag and lift, wheelbase, and track width—influence performance in a representative FSAE endurance scenario. Two types of lap-time simulation tools were used in this study: OpenLAP, a point-mass simulator, and ChassisSim, a transient 3D vehicle dynamics simulator that incorporates suspension geometry, yaw response, weight transfer, and steering effects. Initial simulations with OpenLAP were used to rapidly identify trends and guide early design decisions, while ChassisSim was used for detailed sensitivity analyses and to validate system-level trade-offs in a more
Hernandez, Andy Jose, Bachman, John Christopher
Optimal Control Strategy for BEV with CVT Using Dynamic Programming Method2025-01-0407To be published on 10/07/2025
Optimal Control Strategy for BEV with CVT Using Dynamic Programming Method Authors: Hanqing Zhao, Yasuo Moriyoshi, Tatsuya Kuboyama Abstract Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) equipped with high-speed, low-torque motors can benefit greatly from the use of continuously variable transmissions (CVTs). This study aims to reduce energy consumption by adjusting the CVT ratio to ensure that the motor operates in its optimal efficiency range during both traction and regenerative braking, while delivering the required power with minimal power loss. A detailed mathematical model of a dual motor, single CVT EV powertrain and transmission structure was developed to establish an optimal control problem aimed at minimizing energy consumption. Three methods were compared to evaluate their effectiveness: (1) The basic simulation method, which directly uses the existing control map to control the CVT ratio based on torque, vehicle speed, and motor speed; (2) The steady-state method, which searches all
Zhao, Hanqing, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Kuboyama, Tatsuya
From Temperature to Wear: A Quantitative Analysis of Tire Influence on Vehicle Cornering Using Handling Key Performance Indicators2025-01-5060To be published on 09/16/2025
Vehicle behavior is strongly influenced by tire performance, as tires serve as the primary interface between the vehicle and the road surface. Since identical vehicles equipped with different tire sets—or even the same tires operating under varying thermal and wear conditions—can exhibit significantly different handling characteristics, this study aims to quantify their impact on both steady-state and transient cornering responses through a dedicated evaluation methodology. To demonstrate the generalization of the proposed approach, three completely different validated vehicle digital twins—a passenger car, a sports car, and a formula car—are analyzed in a virtual environment, employing Vi-Car Real Time for vehicle and scenario representations, and RIDEsuite for tire modeling, considering thermal and wear effects. The simulations were designed using a structured design of experiments approach, resulting in 15 predefined combinations of tire temperature and wear states. Results show
Romagnuolo, Fabio, Aratri, Roberto, De Pinto, Stefano, Farroni, Flavio, Bellis, Sergio Andrea de, Bottiglione, Francesco, Mantriota, Giacomo, Sakhnevych, Aleksandr
Analysis of Front Axle Wheel End Temperature Measurements in Heavy-Duty Trucks2025-01-0364To be published on 09/15/2025
The Front Axle wheel end assembly is a critical component of Vehicle functionality, comprising a wheel hub positioned to rotate smoothly on an Axle spindle. This rotational movement is enabled by bearings positioned between the hub and the spindle, allowing for frictionless rotation. The Front Axle wheel ends’ temperature typically depends on several factors such as type of Vehicle, Load & driving conditions and health of the components involved. In general, the wheel ends can become warm during normal operation owing to friction generated by the rotation of the wheels and the interaction of various mechanical components such as Bearings and Brakes. However, if the temperature of the wheel ends becomes excessively hot, it could indicate potential issues such as Overheating brakes, Wheel bearing problems, improperly inflated tyres, and faulty components. As temperature rise, materials tend to expand. This expansion can affect the dimensions of critical components in the Front Axle wheel
Pandiyan, Mahendran, Jayaraman, Karthik, R, Sabari, B, Ellavarasan, Bhanja, Subrat Kumar
Design Considerations for Wheel Bearing Outer Ring for Electric Vehicles2025-01-0367To be published on 09/15/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) require improved drag performance from wheel bearings to achieve a longer range. EVs are heavier and have higher torque output compared to internal combustion-powered vehicles. Due to the increased weight and torque of EVs, there will be higher loads at the bearing-to-knuckle joint. These increased loads may necessitate higher clamp loads to maintain joint integrity. However, higher clamp loads can lead to distortion or reduced roundness of the wheel bearing outer ring. Such distortion permanently increases drag and reduces bearing life. Therefore, after vehicle corner assembly with higher clamp loads, it is critical to minimize outer ring distortion during the initial assembly and throughout the bearing's lifespan. This paper will cover the design considerations for the wheel bearing outer ring to minimize distortion, utilizing Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) analysis for various designs. A Design of Experiments (DOE) will be conducted to understand the
Mandhadi, Chaitanya Reddy, Callaghan, Kevin, Sutherlin, Robert, Lee, Seungpyo, Lee, Yeonsik, Bovee, Benjamin
Dynamic Analysis of Automotive Wheel Bearings2025-01-0366To be published on 09/15/2025
Bearings are essential mechanical components that support external loads and facilitate rotational motion. With the increasing demand for high-performance applications in industries such as semiconductors, aerospace, and robotics, the need for accurate and robust performance evaluation has intensified. Traditionally, bearing performance has been assessed using static or quasi-static theoretical approaches. However, these methods are limited in their ability to capture time-dependent behaviors, which are critical in real-world applications. In this study, a rigid body dynamics analysis was proposed to evaluate the time-dependent behavior of bearings. The methodology was first applied to a deep groove ball bearing, and the results were compared with those obtained from bearing theory to validate the approach. Subsequently, the method was extended to an automotive wheel bearing, and the time-dependent contact angles and ball loads were analyzed under axial and radial loading conditions
Lee, Seungpyo
Brake System Homologation: A Holistic, Simulation-Based Approach2025-01-0351To be published on 09/15/2025
With the introduction of the Euro 7 regulation, non-exhaust emissions – particularly those arising from brake and tire abrasion – will be regulated and subject to emission limits for the first time. This presents significant challenges not only for OEMs striving to meet these targets within the given timeframe, but also for suppliers, who must develop innovative solutions for the precise measurement, analysis, and mitigation of these emissions. To address this, it is essential to establish and industrialize new testing methodologies as structured, scalable, and cost-efficient processes. Beyond pure measurement capability, service providers in this domain are increasingly expected to serve as feedback mechanisms – identifying process limitations, proposing targeted improvements, and thereby enabling continuous development in line with evolving technical and regulatory requirements. In this context, AVL is pursuing a holistic development strategy that integrates brake emission
Grojer, Bernd
Durable Aluminum Alloys for Brake Disc and Rotor Applications2025-01-0358To be published on 09/15/2025
Lightweight materials are essential in reducing the overall weight and improving the efficiency and performance of ICE and electric vehicles. The use of aluminum alloys is critical in transitioning to a more energy sustainable and environmentally friendly future. The accessible combinations of high modulus to density and strength to weight ratios, as well as their excellent thermal conductivity, make them an ideal solution for overall weight reduction in vehicles, thereby improving fuel efficiency and reducing emissions. Aluminum alloys with high strength and lifetime thermal stability have been industrialized for usage in brake rotor applications. Amongst the most used aluminum alloys with high thermal stability are 2618-T8 and 4032-T6 for use in aerospace and automotive industries, respectively. However, when it comes to prolonging the life of a product at temperatures that exceed 200°C, the properties of these alloys will quickly degrade within the first 300 hours of exposure
Duchaussoy, Amandine, Lorenzino, Pablo, Franklin, Jack, Tzedaki, Maria
A Novel Framework for Elastic Constants and Damping Ratio Optimization of Friction Material in Brake Squeal Simulations2025-01-0350To be published on 09/15/2025
Friction material properties critically impact brake squeal simulation outcomes due to their nonlinear and transversely isotropic behaviors, which vary with load type and direction. To improve the reliability of brake squeal predictions, this study introduces the Transversely-isotropic Elastic Constants Optimization (TECO) method, a novel multi-dimensional constrained optimization framework for refining the elastic constants and damping ratio of friction materials. By integrating experimental testing, finite element analysis (FEA), and an advanced optimization technique - Gradient Response Surface Algorithm (GRA), the TECO method minimizes discrepancies between simulated and experimental data, ensuring accurate characterization of elastic properties. The TECO method offers significant advantages, including flexibility and robustness, making it an effective alternative to ultrasonic measurements and traditional optimization techniques, especially for anisotropic friction lining
Philip, Rony, Muralidharan, Sudharsan, Mohanam, Gopalakrishnan
A Study on the Development of Optimal Brakes for Electric Vehicles Using Simulation2025-01-0345To be published on 09/15/2025
As the ICE vehicle changes into the EV, we can use regenerative brake. It can improve not only the energy consumption but also reduce the hydraulic brake usage. The less hydraulic brake usage mitigates the heat loading on the brake disc. From this reason, the lightweight brake can be used in the EV. However, when the lightweight brake is applied, the brake NVH can be increased. The optimization design of the lightweight brake should be done to prevent the brake NVH. In this paper, the optimal brake disc thickness and brake interfaces are determined by using of disc heat capacity analysis. The lightweight brake should be optimized by using of the brake squeal analysis. We can verify the results from both analysis and test. Finally, we can have the lightweight brake, which is competitive in terms of cost, weight and robust to the brake NVH.
Kim, Sungho, Kim, Jeongkyu, Hwang, Jaekeun, Kang, Donghoon
Development of a Laboratory Brake for a Flywheel Mass Test Rig for Variable Pad Sizes and Shapes with a Force Distribution Unit for Ideal Contact Pressure and a Topography Measurement System for In-Situ Recording of Surface Changes and Wear2025-01-0331To be published on 09/15/2025
Pin-on-disk tribometers are used to determine the frictional behaviour and boundary layer dynamics of material pairings. Material pairings are examined under defined conditions in order to reason about the friction behaviour and wear. Pairings for real brake systems with larger pad sizes can be tested on flywheel mass test rigs in order to provide proof of suitability. This is mainly due to a lack of knowledge about the scaling behaviour of friction linings. The Department of Machinery System Design at TU Berlin has combined the classic approach of a pin-on-disk tribometer with a flywheel mass test rig (up to 12.78 kgm2) and thus set up a laboratory brake on which material pairings with different pad shapes and sizes (up to 48 cm2) can be examined. The flywheel mass test rig consists of an adjustable DC-motor that drives a shaft on which variable flywheel masses and brake disks can be installed. The variability allows for different kinetic energies at different friction speeds. The
Heuser, Robert Michael, Rosenthal, Tobias Richard, Wiest, Daniel Christian, Meyer, Henning Jürgen
Water Interaction and Its Effect on the Tribological Behavior of NAO Friction Materials2025-01-0336To be published on 09/15/2025
Moisture is known to be a relevant factor during a friction material life, affecting tribological behaviors such as friction coefficient and torque variations. In this study we investigated the interaction between friction materials and water; employing various techniques such as contact angle measurements, water adsorption, and exposure to controlled environmental condition changes. Focusing on NAO friction material, mix modifications were studied to highlight differences and understand mechanisms, in particular, organic content and hydrophobic agents, were examined. Characterization results showed that brake pads hydrophobicity can be influenced by water interaction conditions; even low-wettability surfaces, such as those treated with hydrophobic modifiers, can still absorb water depending on internal factors (e.g., porosity) and external conditions (e.g., contact time, humidity). Additionally, we investigated the capacity of a friction material to adsorb water and desorb it back to
Iodice, Valentina, Durando, Pietro, Balestra, Simone, Pellerej, Diego
Achieving Euro 7 Compliance: Cost-Effective Brake Wear Particle Emissions and Performance with FNC-Smart ONC® GCI Rotors2025-01-0332To be published on 09/15/2025
Advanced ferritic nitrocarburizing process combined with a specialized post-oxidation treatment described as FNC + Smart ONC® [1] is developed for brake rotor applications. The process can be applied to standard grey cast iron brake rotors, significantly reducing PM 10 emissions to levels below the Euro 7 limits for most vehicles equipped with at least some recuperative braking capabilities, all without compromising performance. Finished grey iron brake rotors, ferritic nitrocarburized and post oxidized were evaluated according to several industry standards. The standards include SAE J2707B (Block Wear Test including Highway) [2], GRPE-90-24 Rev.1 Emission Test (Full WLTP Brake Cycle 6 Times) [3], and SAE J2522 (AK-Master Performance) [4]. Nitrocarburized post oxidized brake rotors were compared to untreated grey iron rotors exposed to several friction materials. Ferritic nitrocarburizing and post oxidation addresses the issue of corrosion, which is particularly relevant for brake
Winter, Karl-Michael, Holly, Mike
Bolstering Driver Braking Confidence – Considerations for “Deceleration Adder” Technologies2025-01-0353To be published on 09/15/2025
Over the life of a typical vehicle (often estimated as 15 years or 300,00 km), an average driver can be expected to apply the brakes about 1.6 million times – almost 9 times per mile and over 290 times per day, and an “exuberant” driver can be expected to do this over 2.2 million times. Without question, the driver becomes accustomed to how the vehicle responds to braking control (and all of the normal variation around it), and even develops expectations for how it will respond the next time the brakes are employed. In the rare event of a failure or malfunction in the brake system resulting in an appreciably different vehicle response to the brake input, this can be surprising and even alarming to the driver, sometimes to the extent of causing hesitation in braking. Fortunately, with the rise of mechatronic braking actuators in the 1980’s and 1990’s paved the way for features such as “Driver Brake Assist” (which provides additional pressure beyond what the primary brake actuator can at
Antanaitis, David
A Study on the Prediction Method of Durability Characteristics of Brake Judder Using Simulation2025-01-0346To be published on 09/15/2025
In order to predict the durability characteristics of the brake judder, it is determined by analyzing the brake DTV (Disc Thickness Variation) and BTV(Brake Torque Variation) through the durability evaluation of the brake system or the vehicle. However, this method requires the real products and takes a long time to derive the result. When judder problems occur due to durability, there are many difficulties in deriving improvement plans through test methods. Therefore, in this study, CAE was used to derive the initial wear amount of the disc, and a method of predicting DTV after durability was developed using the results.
Hwang, Jaekeun, Kim, Sungho, Kim, Jeongkyu, Kang, Donghoon
Active Online Estimation of the Electromechanical Brake Coulomb Friction2025-01-0342To be published on 09/15/2025
Electro-mechanical braking (EMB) system has emerged as a potential candidate that serves the brake-by-wire technology. Several mechanisms are used to transmit the clamp force, where each has efficiency losses due to static friction and viscous damping. Compensating these losses is essential for accurate responses such that meeting the performance goal and improving the stopping distance of the EMB. Mathematical and empirical models are used to estimate these losses so that clamp force is accurately estimated and controlled. However, none of these models are capable of addressing the part-to-part variation or predicting the impact of other noise factors on these losses such as operating temperature and degradation. The purpose of this work is to online estimate the EMB coulomb friction by introducing an external torque command over a period of time while observing the system’s response. This approach continuously measures the coulomb friction while the system is in normal operation
Aljoaba, Sharif, Ramakrishnan, Raja, Dobbs, Jeremy
Actuator-to-Vehicle Joint Estimation of Clamping Force for Sensorless Control of the Electro-Mechanical Brake System2025-01-0338To be published on 09/15/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) is a promising brake actuating system for electrified vehicle. To enhance the system function safety while saving space from redundancy sensors, this paper studied sensorless climbing force control for the EMB where a new climbing force estimator is proposed by fusing the information from vehicle dynamics and EMB states. The work was done with three contributions: 1) The priori clamping force characteristics were implemented to build the estimator with two parallel models, one of which was derived from the actuator rigid-body dynamics while the other was derived from vehicle longitudinal dynamics model; 2) a proportional-integral (PI) observer utilizing wheel speed residual signals was developed to correct the initial estimates iteratively; 3) a fuzzy control controller was proposed to optimize the key parameters of the PI observer. Comparative study was conducted on a co-simulation platform and the results showed that the actuator-to-vehicle joint
Xing, Yipu, Zhou, Quan, Cheng, Yulin, Li, Congcong, Han, Wei, Zhuo, Guirong, Xiong, Lu
Further Investigation of Variables Affecting Brake Squeal: Porosity Effect on Lowmet Pad Properties2025-01-0335To be published on 09/15/2025
As Lowmet pad porosity increases, pad hardness decreases; pad ISO compressibility increases; the nominal friction coefficient increases (SAE J2522); and the disc wear/pad wear decreases. Brake squeal occurrence is affected by the total wear of disc and pads; the wear differential between the inboard pad and outboard pad; pad tangential taper; and pad hardness/material damping. Also, pad chamfer shape has a strong influence on brake squeal occurrence.
Rhee, Seong Kwan, Rathee, Aman, Singh, Shiv Raj, Sharma, Devendra
Enhancing Robustness of Electro-Hydraulic Brake-by-Wire Actuators via Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control2025-01-0341To be published on 09/15/2025
In recent years, motorsport has increasingly focused on environmental concerns, leading to the rise of hybrid and fully electric competitions. In this scenario, electric motors and batteries take a crucial role in reducing the environmental impact by recovering energy during braking. However, due to inherent limitations, motors and battery cannot fully capture all braking power, necessitating the use of standard friction brakes. To achieve an efficient balance between electric motors and friction brakes, the brake pressure can no longer be directly controlled by the driver. Instead, it must be computed by the Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) and sent to a smart actuator, i.e. the Brake-By-Wire (BBW), which ensures that the required pressure is applied. The standard approach to achieve precise pressure control is to design a nested Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control architecture, which requires an accurate nominal model of the system dynamics to meet the desired tracking
Gimondi, Alex, Dubbini, Alberto, Riva, Giorgio, Cantoni, Carlo
Further Investigation of Disc Pad Compression Deformation during ISO Compressibility and Dynamic Modulus Measurements under Relatively Low Pressures2025-01-0334To be published on 09/15/2025
In an earlier publication, it was reported that the pad compressibility measured under 160 bars on NAO formulas keeps decreasing with increasing number of repeated measurements due to unrecoverable residual deformation of the friction material combined with increasing moisture adsorption, which increases the hardness of the friction material. This current investigation was undertaken to find out if this same phenomenon occurs for NAOs under a low pressure of 100 bars during compressibility measurements and under 700N during dynamic modulus measurements. In all cases, it is found that the same phenomenon occurs, meaning that friction materials become permanently compressed without full recovery, making them harder to compress and raising up the modulus. The dynamic modulus of friction material attached to a backplate is found to be lower as compared with the friction material without the backplate, which is caused by more rapid moisture adsorption of friction material pads without a
Sriwiboon, Meechai, Rhee, Seong Kwan, Sukultanasorn, Jittrathep
Applying Specialized System Analysis for Brake by Wire in Software Defined Vehicles: The Development of a System Analysis Tool (SAT)2025-01-0355To be published on 09/15/2025
The emergence of Software Defined Vehicles (SDVs) has introduced significant complexity in automotive system design, particularly for safety-critical domains such as braking. A key principle of SDV architecture is the centralization of control software, decoupled from sensing and actuation. When applied to Brake-by-Wire (BbW) systems, this leads to decentralized brake actuation that demands precise coordination across numerous distributed electronic components. The absence of mechanical backup in BbW systems further necessitates fail-operational redundancy, increasing system complexity and placing greater emphasis on rigorous system-level design validation. A comprehensive understanding of component interdependencies, failure propagation, and redundancy effectiveness is essential for optimizing such systems. This paper presents a custom-built System Analysis Tool (SAT), along with a specialized methodology tailored for modeling and analyzing BbW architectures in the context of SDVs
Heil, Edward, Zuzga, Sean, Babul, Caitlin
Effect of Casting Microstructure on the Mechanical Performance of Recycled EN AC-43200 Al-Si Alloy2025-01-0357To be published on 09/15/2025
This work investigates the influence of casting microstructure on the mechanical performance of ad hoc samples of recycled EN AC-43200 Al-Si alloy. Three batches are produced by modifying the casting process parameters (i.e., molten alloy temperature and in-mold cooling conditions) to obtain different casting microstructures. Room temperature tensile and high-cycle fatigue tests, coupled with metallography, X-ray tomography, and fatigue fracture surface analysis, are performed to elucidate the relationship between microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of the investigated alloy. The findings indicate that casting pores and intermetallic precipitates play a pivotal role in influencing the mechanical behavior and performance of cast, recycled EN AC-43200 Al-Si alloy. Additionally, an inverse correlation between secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS) and both tensile properties and fatigue life is established.
Pavesi, Arianna, Barella, Silvia, D'Errico, Fabrizio, Bonfanti, Andrea, Bertasi, Federico
Efficient Simulation Methodology for Caliper Rattle Noise Based on a Reasonably Simplified Model and Integrated NVH CAE Approach2025-01-0348To be published on 09/15/2025
Brake caliper rattle noise is difficult to simulate due to its non-stationary, random, and broadband frequency characteristics. Many CAE engineers have adopted rattle vibration as an alternative metric to quantitative noise levels. Previous rattle noise simulations primarily presented relative displacement results derived from normal mode analysis or vibration dB levels rather than actual noise dB levels. However, rattle noise consists of continuous impact noise, which must account for reflections, diffractions, and refractions caused by transient nonlinear contacts and localized vibrations—especially during extremely short contact events. To accurately simulate impact noise, vibration and acoustic characteristics should be analyzed using a simplified structure, given the numerous mechanisms influencing impact noise generation. The rattle noise can be effectively modeled using LS-Dyna, which incorporates both explicit and BEM solvers. The correlation between test results and CAE
Park, Joosang
Challenges in Quantifying Tire Wear Particle Emissions on an Outer Drum Test Bed2025-01-0352To be published on 09/15/2025
Tire wear is a significant source of microplastics and airborne particulate matter, contributing to environmental pollution and posing health risks. This study aims to develop a reliable method for quantifying tire wear and TWP on an outer drum test bed while achieving realistic wear rates. A degumming method using talcum powder was applied to prevent tire adhesion, which significantly increased wear rates but introduced complications in particle measurements. To address this, a flow-optimized enclosure was implemented to minimize background emissions. Particle emissions were quantified using APCs, PM samplers, and an ELPI+. The results underscore the challenge of distinguishing between TWP and talcum powder contributions. To estimate the percentage of airborne particle mass, a novel method was employed that calculates the RGB values of images of PM filters. This method estimates the blackening of the filter to determine the amount of TWP present. Size distribution analysis revealed
Schubert, Ludwig, Arias Torres, María Alejandra, Bigl, Stephan, Steiner, Gerald, Huber, Michael, Lex, Cornelia
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