Browse Topic: Environment

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Ammonia Combustion with Active Pre-Chamber Spark Plug - a CO2-free Combustion Process2025-01-0527To be published on 11/25/2025
As a zero carbon fuel, ammonia has the potential to completely defossilize combustion engines. Due to the inert nitrogen present in the molecule, ammonia is difficult to ignite or burn. Even if the ammonia can be successfully ignited, combustion will be very slow and there is a risk of flame quenching, i.e. the flame going out before the ammonia-air mixture has been almost completely converted. Both the difficult flammability and the slow combustion result in high ammonia slip, which should be avoided at all costs. The engine efficiency is also greatly reduced. Safe ignition and burn-through can be achieved by drastically increasing the ignition energy and/or using a reaction accelerator such as hydrogen. The planned paper will use detailed 1D and 3D CFD calculations to show how high the potential of ammonia combustion in an internal combustion engine is when an active pre-chamber is used as the ignition system. As a result of the flare jets penetrating into the main combustion chamber
Sens, Marc, von Roemer, Lorenz, Rieß, Michael, Fandakov, Alexander, Casal Kulzer, Andre
Multi-Objective Optimization of Oxyfuel Gas Engine Using Stochastic Engine Model and Detailed Chemistry2025-01-0529To be published on 11/25/2025
The energy transition initiatives in Germany’s renown coal mining region Lusatia have driven research into Power-to-X-to-Power (P2X2P) technologies, where synthetic fuel is produced from renewably sourced hydrogen and captured CO2, and converted to electricity and heat through oxyfuel combustion. This work investigates the multi-objective optimization of oxyfuel gas engine using stochastic engine model (SEM) and detailed chemistry. EGR rate, initial cylinder temperature and pressure, spark timing, piston bowl radius and depth are selected as design parameters to minimize the exhaust temperature at exhaust valve opening (EVO) and indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) corresponding to oxyfuel operation with different dry and wet exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates. The optimization problem is solved for a dry EGR and four wet EGR cases with various CO2 / H2O fractions, aiming to achieve comparable performance as in conventional natural gas / air operation, along with an energy
Asgarzade, Rufat, Franken, Tim, Mauss, Fabian
Energy and Mobility – The Illustrated Energy Primer for Modern Drivers2025-01-0517To be published on 11/25/2025
The path to carbon-neutral mobility is one of the greatest cultural transformations. Caught between industrial tradition, innovative mobility solutions, and energy providers are the drivers of 1.5 million motor vehicles. Conflicting publications on resource availability, energy efficiency, and the climate impact of different propulsion technologies add to their uncertainty. This led to the motivation to an energy guide for consumers, the „Illustrated Energy Primer for Modern Drivers“. The target audience focusses on technically interested individuals, whether as engaged citizens or as professionals. The guide presents the fundamentals of energy and power in a clear and accessible way. Typical energy demands of motor vehicles and households—both in personal use and scaled to a national level—complete this section of the guide. The guide then presents examples of energy generation systems. From coal-fired power plants to wind turbines, solar farms, and even balcony-mounted mini solar
Daberkow, Andreas
Development of a Comprehensive Predictive QD Knock Simulation Model for Hydrogen, Methanol, and an Ammonia–Hydrogen Blend2025-01-0528To be published on 11/25/2025
This work presents a comprehensive predictive 0D simulation model for the knock behavior of hydrogen, methanol, and an ammonia-hydrogen blend. With the increasing focus on carbon neutrality, synthetic fuels are gaining attention as viable alternatives to fossil fuels. Their potential applications include land and marine transport, construction machinery, and automotive powertrains, sectors with high carbon dioxide emissions. As their development requires extensive experimental validation, simulations offer a cost- and time-efficient alternative. In particular, 0D simulations offer a good balance between predictive capability and computational effort, making them well suited for concept evaluations and parametric studies. In spark-ignition engines, knock is a major limitation to achieving high thermal efficiency, emphasizing the need for accurate and fuel-specific knock prediction methods. The objective of this work is to enable a predictive and versatile 0D knock modeling framework for
Benzinger, Steffen, Yang, Qirui, Grill, Michael, Kulzer, Andre Casal, Plum, Lukas, Hermsen, Philipp, Günther, Marco, Pischinger, Stefan, Hurault, Florian, Foucher, Fabrice, Rousselle, Christine
In-Flight Evaluation of Sustainable Hydrocarbon Fuels in Compression Ignition Aircraft Engines2025-01-0533To be published on 11/25/2025
With global air traffic projected to increase significantly in the coming decades, reducing the associated climate impact requires scalable solutions. While alternative propulsion technologies such as electric and hybrid-electric systems might offer long-term potential, their current applicability remains limited due to low energy density, limited range and scalability, and system complexity. Consequently, thermodynamic propulsion systems—such as gas turbines and piston engines—are expected to remain dominant in the medium term. In this context, sustainable hydrocarbon-based aviation fuels represent a practical and necessary solution. Certified sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) pathways are currently approved exclusively for use in gas turbines, with certification standards tailored to turbine-specific requirements. Consequently, fuel properties such as cetane number and evaporation behavior are not included in existing specifications. However, when SAF-kerosene blends are used in
Kleissner, Florian, Hofmann, Peter, Vogd, Philipp, Vauhkonen, Ville, Käkölä, Jaana, Greve, Alina
Sustainable Engines with carbon-neutral fuels – Fast Adaptation for Efficient Multi-Fuel Operation by tailored charge motion design2025-01-0534To be published on 11/25/2025
As a fundamental element of global measures to reduce the carbon footprint of the commercial transport and the mobile machinery and equipment sector, carbon-neutral fuels are increasingly coming into focus for heavy applications where electrification is seems to be actually not a viable option. In addition to diesel substitute fuels, alternative energy carriers like natural gas, hydrogen, methanol and ammonia are gaining increasing attention worldwide. The energy conversion of these fuels is typically taking place on the principle of premixed combustion, which places different demands on fuel injection and mixture formation, supported by proper in-cylinder charge motion and turbulence, compared to current highly optimized diesel-like combustion. Accordingly, the demand to layout multi-fuel capable engine designs centers to a high share on the above mentioned cylinder head design that can burn these different fuels with high efficiency and at the same time support a high degree of
Koerfer, Thomas, Dhongde, Avnish, Boberic, Aleksandar, Zimmer, Pascal, Pischinger, Stefan
Investigation of Active Pre-Chamber Ignition on an Optically Accessible Ultra-Lean DI Hydrogen Engine2025-01-0524To be published on 11/25/2025
Hydrogen is a promising alternative to conventional fuels for decarbonizing the commercial vehicle sector due to its carbon-free nature. This study investigates the ignition and flame propagation characteristics of hydrogen in a 2-liter single-cylinder optical research engine representative of the commercial vehicle sector. The main objective was to enable high power density operation while minimizing NOx emissions. For that, ultra-lean combustion was employed to lower in-cylinder temperatures, addressing the challenge of NOx formation. To counteract delayed and unstable combustion under lean conditions, an active pre-chamber ignition system was implemented. It uses a gas-purged pre-chamber with separate hydrogen injection and spark plug ignition. Turbulent hot gas jets from the pre-chamber ignite the fresh mixture in the main combustion chamber, enabling faster and more stable ignition compared to conventional spark plugs. Additionally, the low volumetric energy density of hydrogen
Borken, Philipp, Bill, Daniel, Link, Lukas, Dinkelacker, Friedrich, Hansen, Hauke
Data-Based Modeling of Power-Split Hybrids Using Cascaded Neural Networks2025-01-0522To be published on 11/25/2025
Power-split hybrid powertrains represent one of the most advanced and complex types of powertrain systems. The combination of multiple energy sources and power paths offers great potential but results in complex interactions that require improved strategies for optimal efficiency and emission control. The development and optimization of such operating strategies typically involve algorithms that demand fast computational environments. Traditional high-accuracy numerical simulations of such a complex system are computationally expensive, limiting their applicability for extensive iterative optimizations and real-time applications. This paper introduces a data-based approach designed specifically to address this challenge by efficiently modeling the dynamic behavior of power-split hybrid powertrains using cascaded neural networks. Cascaded neural networks consist of interconnected subnetworks, each specifically trained to represent individual drivetrain components or subsystems. This
Frey, Markus, Itzen, Dirk, Yang, Qirui, Grill, Michael, Kulzer, André Casal
Analysis of Artificial Intelligence in biofuel industry: A case study2025-28-0341To be published on 11/06/2025
Increasing reservations about the consumption of fossil fuels due to their detrimental impact on our ecosystem has led to an increased focus to look for renewable alternative. In the last decade, biofuels have attracted much attention as a promising replacement for fossil fuel-based diesel, especially in the transportation sector. Biofuels are non-toxic, environmentally friendly, and carbon-free fuel that can be made from naturally available resources. Biofuel production and its further utilization requires identifying unknown parameters having nonlinear relationships between each other. Accurate and better predictive tools are required at different stages during its usage. AI technique is one such tool that can provide support during production and utilization. The same is utilized to design handle, control, optimize, and monitor the system. The present research investigates the different areas of AI usage which makes use of production modeling methods, machine learning for better
KUMAR, VIVEK, Vashist, Devendra
Advanced Compliance Risk Assessment Using Big Data from Fleet Intelligence Data2025-28-0343To be published on 11/06/2025
In-Use compliance regulations globally mandate that machines meet emission standards in the field, beyond dyno certification. For engine manufacturers, understanding compliance risks early is crucial for technology selection, calibration strategies, and validation routines. This study focuses on developing analytical and statistical methods for compliance risk assessment using Leverage Fleet Intelligence (LFI) data, which includes high-frequency telematics data from over 500K machines, reporting 1300 measures at 1Hz frequency. Traditional analytical methods are inadequate for handling such big data, necessitating advanced methods. We developed data pipelines to query measures from the Enterprise Data Lake (A Structured Data storage system), address big data challenges, and ensure data quality. Regulatory requirements were translated into software logic and applied to pre-processed data for compliance assessment. The resulting reports provide actionable insights on NOx sensor activity
Arya, Satya Prakash, Shekarappa, Kiran
A Load Cell-Free Solution for Weighing2025-28-0346To be published on 11/06/2025
The agricultural industry increasingly demands innovative solutions to enhance efficiency and productivity, while minimizing overhead costs of an advanced system. Large farms cultivating forage crops for the Dairy and Livestock sectors require high-quality, dense bales that retain their nutritional value. Bale weight serves as a critical parameter for assessing production yields, managing inventory and facilitating fair trade in the industry. Traditional weighing systems reliant heavily on load cells, can pose limitations in terms of cost, complexity and maintenance. This paper presents an advanced model-based weighing system de-signed specifically for balers machine. It utilizes mathematical models and dynamic torque monitoring techniques to accurately estimate the weight of bales just after the baling process. The Bale weight calculation is achieved by measuring reverse pressure experienced during bale handling and monitoring the pitch angle to compensate for measurements over
Kadam, Pankaj
Off-Highway Vehicles for Sustainable Development and Empowerment: Innovation and Technology.- Diagnosis2025-28-0301To be published on 11/06/2025
Off-highway vehicles (OHVs) play a crucial role in industries such as agriculture, construction, and mining, contributing to sustainable development and economic empowerment. Ensuring their optimal performance requires a robust customer support system focused on efficient diagnosis and resolution of technical issues. This paper explores the importance of advanced diagnostic techniques in OHVs, emphasizing innovation and technology-driven approaches to minimize downtime and enhance productivity. The evolution of diagnostic tools, from traditional manual inspections to AI-powered predictive maintenance, has transformed customer support in the OHV sector. The integration of telematics, IoT-enabled sensors, and cloud-based analytics allows real-time monitoring of vehicle health, enabling proactive maintenance and reducing unexpected failures. Additionally, remote diagnostics and augmented reality (AR)-assisted troubleshooting empower field technicians with real-time insights, improving
Mulla, Tosif, Thakur, Anil, Tripathi, Ashish
Fuel Differentiation for the Energy Efficiency in Heavy Duty Diesel Applications - A case study for the determination of exhaust emissions and fuel economy2025-28-0231To be published on 11/06/2025
For the achievement of Net Zero Emission goals, various corporates have started with the planning towards the achievement of short-term goals which are well defined with the implementation of energy conservation and efficiency. In this direction, differentiated diesel (Xtragreen) is an optimized combination of diesel fuel with higher Cetane Number fortified with Novel & Optimized multi-functional additives (MFAs) formulation for improved performance and specially designed by Indian Oil Corporation Limited for heavy duty diesel engines & off-highway applications. IndianOil innovative concept is based on enhancement of fuel economics by enhancement in fuel combustion, injector cleaning characteristics and reduction of frictional losses. The benefits associated with differentiated diesel are with High cetane fuel (55 against 51) with Superior cleanliness to keep high pressure diesel Injectors clean, better lubricity provides longer injector life, Superior Combustion leads to lower noise
Kumar, Prashant, Mayeen, Hafiz, Saroj, Shyamsher
Enhancing Tipper Stability During Descent with Dynamic Angle Adjustment2025-28-0276To be published on 11/06/2025
This study addresses critical challenges faced by tippers transporting bulk cargo during descent, focusing on two major risks: cargo displacement and rear axle lifting. Prolonged descents often lead to uncontrolled shifting of cargo, such as loose aggregates or soil, within the tipper body. This phenomenon, driven by gravity, momentum, and insufficient restraint systems, poses threats of cabin damage and unpredictable ejection of materials onto the roadway. Additionally, rear axle lifting occurs due to load imbalances, increasing pressure on the front steering axle. This results in front tire slippage and inefficient steering. To tackle these issues, the study proposes a novel approach involving dynamic adjustment of the tipper lift angle to align with the road descent angle. Synchronizing the trailer bed angle with the terrain slope minimizes gravitational forces on the cargo, stabilizes its center of gravity, and ensures consistent contact between the rear tires and the road surface
Vijeth, Abhishek, Bhosle, Devidas Ashok, Cherian, Roshni, Dash, Prasanjita
Enhancing Tractor Operator Comfort and Safety Through Advanced Drive Assistance Features2025-28-0216To be published on 11/06/2025
This paper explains the role of Advanced drive assistance features that have been designed to increase comfort, operational efficiency, and safety in an electric tractor. Prime goal is to address the challenges faced by the operators currently in a variety of agricultural and utility applications. Hill hold and electric parking brake work in tandem to offer unparalleled safety by eliminating the fear of tractor roll back in uneven terrain and surfaces both in launch and normal operational scenarios. Cruise and Creep control in a combination have been designed to reduce operator fatigue and increase productivity.
M, Rojer, Sundaram, Pavithra, Natarajan, Saravanan, Devakumar, Kiran, Muniappan, Balakrishnan
Bale Wrap orientation tracking for on-field storage2025-28-0279To be published on 11/06/2025
In the agricultural industry, the transportation and storage of bales-dense stacks of hay used as cattle feed-present significant logistical challenges, particularly for large farms. Traditionally, this process involves extensive labor and vehicle movement from the field to storage areas, known as barns. Improper handling during this transition can lead to substantial losses in both time and re-sources. This development aims to eliminate the last-mile transportation step by enabling year-round storage of bales directly in the field. This objective is achieved through the utilization of a patented wrapping material and the strategic orientation of wrapped bales to enhance their resistance to weather conditions. Field experiments demonstrated that this innovative material not only protects the bales from adverse environmental factors but also effectively retains their nutrient and moisture content. A critical challenge was ensuring correct orientation of the wrap seams during the
Kadam, Pankaj
Off-Highway Vehicles for Sustainable Development and Empowerment: Innovation and Technology2025-28-0230To be published on 11/06/2025
The growing demand for sustainable solutions in the off-highway vehicle sector has driven innovation in alternative fuels, significantly contributing to environmental conservation and economic empowerment. Off-highway vehicles, including construction equipment, agricultural machinery, and mining trucks, are traditionally powered by diesel engines, which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and environmental degradation. Transitioning to alternative fuels such as biodiesel, hydrogen, compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied natural gas (LNG), and electrification presents a viable solution to reduce the carbon footprint and promote sustainable development. This paper explores the advancements in alternative fuel technologies and their impact on the off-highway vehicle industry. It highlights how biofuels and hydrogen fuel cells are reducing dependency on fossil fuels, while electrification and hybrid powertrains are enhancing efficiency and lowering emissions. The integration of these
Mulla, Tosif, Thakur, Anil, Tripathi, Ashish
Smart Idle Control - Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) Overheat Protection2025-28-0237To be published on 11/06/2025
The current and upcoming internal combustion engine emission norms are very stringent. It is difficult to meet emission standards with just combustion optimization techniques, as a result post-treatment is required for Engine-out emissions/exhaust gas. Otherwise, these hazardous gases impact the ecosystem of living beings. Many technologies are implemented at the exhaust for reducing the emissions. Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) is one such technique to achieve lower PM and PN emission goals. In order to achieve the PM and PN emission reduction, the DPF undergoes periodic cleaning called regeneration. During regeneration, the exhaust systems (DPF) are maintained at elevated temperatures to achieve proper cleaning. When the vehicle is in regeneration, the sudden braking or accelerator pedal release leads to engine dropping to idle speeds (DTI), which sharply increases the temperature gradient inside the DPF which results to physical damage like cracks, melting, and fractures to the DPF
Anandakrishnan, Abhishek, A L, Prathima, Benni Matada, Ajay
PTO Clutch Hydraulic Performance Evaluation Methodology Development & Correlation2025-28-0295To be published on 11/06/2025
This paper presents an analysis methodology developed to understand the impact of pressure spikes in off-highway applications, particularly during PTO (Power Take-Off) clutch engagement. These pressure spikes can adversely affect hydraulic subsystem components such as seals, gaskets, and valve operations. Assessing hydraulic system performance through physical trials can be cumbersome, resulting in longer development times and increased costs. To address this, a methodology was developed in a virtual environment to evaluate hydraulic system performance. The virtual method outlined in this paper is created in a 1D environment using an analytical approach to replicate the transient behavior of the system. The hydraulic system primarily includes a relief valve, solenoid valves, a pump, and a clutch. An analytical model was developed for the hydraulic system components with the right fidelity to accurately capture the transient behavior and magnitudes of pressure spikes. This methodology
Memane, Nilesh, Kumar, Suneel, Veerkar, Vikrant
Off-Highway Electrification: A Case Study Beyond Propulsion and Emission2025-28-0223To be published on 11/06/2025
To provide needs of food, clothing and infrastructure for growing population of the world, off-highway vehicles such as those in construction, agriculture and commercial landscaping are moving towards electrification for enhanced precision, productivity, efficiency and sustainability. It has also paved way to adopt autonomy of these vehicles to address challenges like skilled labor shortage for timely and efficient execution. There are many challenges and opportunities of electrification in off-highway domain, be it through completely replacing engine in vehicles or efficiency improvements using hybrid architecture for powertrain and auxiliary power demands, electrification being key enabler precision and speed of the complex operations, automation of complex operation. This paper explains the need of electrification in electric off-highway vehicles and shows how the electrification solves the current challenges faced by off-highway heroes like farmers, construction site owners and
Deshpande, Chinmay Vasudev, Mujumdar, Chaitanya, Bachhav, Kiran
Development of a Cost-Effective DCU for Diesel Emission Control: Design, Diagnostics, and Compliance2025-28-0286To be published on 11/06/2025
An essential aspect of contemporary emission control technology, especially in diesel engines with Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems, is the Doser Control Unit (DCU) for exhaust systems. Its main purpose is to accurately regulate the injection of urea or diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) into the exhaust stream to lower harmful emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) to meet CPCB4+ emissions. The Doser Control Unit architecture, operation, significance of analytical / experimental study and originality of contribution are described in this abstract. The ECU can determine and administer the exact dosage rate needed under various operating conditions since it gets real-time data from engine and exhaust sensors, such as exhaust temperature, NOₓ levels, and engine load. The DCU activates the Adblue pump in response to the ECU's dosage request, which is determined by the parameters listed above. In addition to having a solenoid actuator for quick dosing responses, the system has features of
Raju, Manikandan, K, Sabareeswaran, K K, Uthira Ramya Bala, Krishnakumar, Palanichamy, Arumugam, Arunkumar, YS, Ananthkumar
Experimental Analysis of Hydrocarbon Injection Strategies and In-cylinder Injection Impact on Oil properties in Diesel Engines2025-28-0238To be published on 11/06/2025
The role of the engine in controlling regulated pollutants at the in-cylinder combustion level has been crucial, utilizing strategies such as Direct Injection, Common Rail System, and Exhaust Gas Recirculation until Bharat (CEV/Trem) Stage-III. With the implementation of stringent emission norms, specifically Bharat (CEV/Trem) Stage-IV and V, the significance of the Exhaust After Treatment (EAT) system in treating and controlling emissions outside the engine has increased substantially. The inclusion of Particulate Number (PN) in Bharat (CEV/Trem) Stage-V mandates the use of Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF). The soot particulates from the engine are filtered by the DPF and eventually need to be burned out via a process called regeneration. Regeneration requires high exhaust temperatures, which are generated by exothermic reactions in the Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) with the addition of diesel fuel by an external dozer or in-cylinder late post injections. This study investigates the
Bandaru, Balaji, M, Balasubramanian, V, Shunmuga, G, Senthil Kumar, Mahesh, P
Dual Urea Dosing System with Novel Control Strategy for Enhanced NOx Emission Reduction for High-Power Diesel Generators Application2025-28-0214To be published on 11/06/2025
In the power industry, high-power Diesel Generator (DG) sets often utilize V-engine cylinder configurations to enhance power output within a compact design, ensuring smoother operation and reduced vibration. This "V" arrangement requires a dual exhaust manifold system to efficiently extract exhaust gases, leading to the requirement for dual Exhaust After Treatment Systems (EATS) to effectively manage NOx emissions. High-power gensets typically emit NOx levels around 9 g/kWh, presenting significant challenges for developers in adhering to stringent emission standards. To address these challenges and meet CPCB IV+ emission norms, we propose a dual urea dosing system integrated with a novel control strategy aimed at optimizing the treatment of exhaust gases. This paper introduces a dual exhaust system equipped with dual urea dosing units. By employing two controller units, we ensure compliance with On-Board Diagnostics (OBD) requirements while effectively implementing advanced software
K, Sabareeswaran, K K, Uthira Ramya Bala, S K, Nejanthen, A, Ravikumar, S, Mahendra Boopathi, YS, Ananthkumar
Structural Evaluation and Improvement of Mobile Vehicle Battery Storage Architecture2025-28-0259To be published on 11/06/2025
Environmental concerns are prompting the global mobility sector to transition towards electrification. Increased research and development in the field of electric vehicles have made them an increasingly efficient and compelling option for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving the sustainability of freight transport. Electric vehicles require batteries that offer long range, shorter charging times and high energy efficiency. During long-distance travel, for customer convenience, mobile charging stations have become a trending and highly meaningful solution. For such mobile charging stations, it is essential to ensure the durability and safety parameters of the battery and its structure. For this to happen, it is mandatory that the system possess the strength and stiffness behavior to withstand the various dynamic loads arising from the environment and acting on the vehicle and system. Moreover, the system should maintain a weight that is as low as possible so that it is both
Sonare, Pushpesh, Ganeshan, Subramanian, Dattawade, Vishal
Experimental Investigations on Lean Burn Spark-Ignition Engine Using Alcohol-Gasoline Blends2025-28-0213To be published on 11/06/2025
Alcohol fuels are regarded as a feasible approach to address escalating energy costs and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, with ethanol and methanol emerging as a promising renewable fuel for spark ignition engines. In this research work, tests were performed on a spark ignition engine altered from a diesel engine that employs ethanol/methanol-gasoline mixture as fuel under lean operating conditions. The engine was worked at a high compression ratio of 10.5:1 and 1500 rpm under full throttle condition. The 10% of methanol and 10% of ethanol and 5% ethanol and methanol each blended with gasoline, were studied and compared. Investigational results reveals that alcohol-gasoline blends displayed low COV of IMEP. Furthermore, the alcohol-gasoline blends enhanced the peak in-cylinder pressure owing to improved flame speed and flammability limits. Adopting lean-burn operation and high compression ratio can efficiently improve combustion attributes in an alcohol-gasoline fuel operated spark
Devunuri, Suresh, Porpatham, Dr. E
Customer Support- Failure and Warranty analysis in Off highway vehicles2025-28-0300To be published on 11/06/2025
Off-highway vehicles (OHVs) play a crucial role in industries such as construction, agriculture, and mining, contributing significantly to global infrastructure and economic development. However, ensuring their reliability and performance requires robust customer support, particularly in failure analysis and warranty management. This paper explores innovative approaches to diagnosing failures, optimizing warranty policies, and leveraging technology to enhance customer support for OHVs. Failure analysis involves systematic root cause identification to prevent recurring issues, minimize downtime, and improve product durability. Advanced diagnostic tools, predictive maintenance strategies, and telematics integration have revolutionized how failures are detected and addressed. By utilizing IoT-enabled sensors and AI-driven analytics, manufacturers can proactively monitor vehicle health, reducing unplanned failures and enhancing service efficiency. Warranty analysis is equally critical
Mulla, Tosif, Thakur, Anil, Tripathi, Ashish
Performance and Emission Characteristics of CI Engines Using Ethanol-Cottonseed Biodiesel Blended with Aluminum Oxide Nanoparticles2025-28-0210To be published on 11/06/2025
As global energy demands continue to grow and environmental challenges intensify, biodiesel emerges as a technologically viable and sustainable alternative to mitigate fossil fuel dependency and emissions. This study systematically investigates the performance and emission characteristics of a compression ignition (CI) engine powered by ethanol-cottonseed biodiesel (Cs) blends enhanced with aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) nanoparticles. The experimental fuel blends, consisting of 10%, 20%, and 30% cottonseed biodiesel with 5% ethanol and remaining with conventional diesel, were analyzed under varying engine load conditions. The inclusion of ethanol improved fuel atomization due to its lower viscosity and higher volatility, while Al₂O₃ nanoparticles acted as advanced combustion catalysts, promoting enhanced oxidation rates and thermal efficiency. Among the blends, B10 (10% cottonseed biodiesel) exhibited superior performance metrics, achieving a brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of 32.8
T, Karthi, G, Manikandan, Saminathan, Sathiskumar, M E, Chandhuru, S, Bavanya, S, Arunkumar
Effect of EGR and Ethanol additive on Performance and Emission Characteristics of Diesel Engine Fuelled with Rubber Seed Biodiesel Blends2025-28-0224To be published on 11/06/2025
Alcohols are being considered as an alternative to traditional fuels for compression ignition engines due to their oxygen content and biomass origin. While alcohols have lower cetane numbers, making them more suitable for premixed combustion, they are also a promising option for reducing exhaust emissions in internal combustion engines through methods like exhaust gas recirculation. In this study, we investigate and improve the performance of a single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine by introducing ethanol into the intake port during the intake stroke. The main fuels used were diesel and rubber seed biodiesel, which were injected directly into the combustion chamber. The results showed that increasing the amount of ethanol combined with rubber seed biodiesel and his EGR by 10% improved brake thermal efficiency and reduced NOX emissions. The timing and duration of ethanol injection are optimized for dual fuel operation. The highest brake thermal efficiency for a 20% ethanol energy
Saminathan, Sathiskumar, G, Manikandan, Bungag, Joel Quendangan, T, Karthi
Performance and Emission Study of Watermelon Seed Oil Biodiesel with Ferrous Oxide Nano Particle on Diesel Engine2025-28-0218To be published on 11/06/2025
Most of researches warns the world that our sources for traditional fuels including petroleum would be depleted. Owing to the fact that these fuels are also typically not renewable, a lot of people are worried that a day would come when the demand for these fuels would be more than the supply, triggering a considerable world crisis. The use of alternative fuels considerably decreases harmful exhaust emissions as well as ozone-producing emissions. According to a commonly accepted scientific theory, burning fossil fuels is causing temperatures to rise in the earth’s atmosphere. Lot of people across the globe are of the belief that discovering sources of cleaner burning fuel is an essential step towards enhancing the quality of our environment. Many research works are finding the suitability of various alternative fuels like Jatropha oil, Sunflower oil, Waste cooking oil, Rubber seed oil, and Melon seed oil etc. for IC engines. Therefore, it was proposed to find the suitability of water
G, Manikandan, Subbaiyan, Gunasekharan, Saminathan, Sathiskumar, T, Karthi, S, Gokul, J, Sanmuganathan
Environmental Factors and Off-Highway Vehicle Safety2025-28-0322To be published on 11/06/2025
Off Highway vehicles recreation has rapidly expanded across the globe hence it is important to consider the safety of off-highway vehicles which is significantly influenced by various environmental factors, which can pose unique challenges and risks. it is important to make sure that the entire vehicle operates safely and reliably even in the toughest conditions. This paper investigates the impact of environmental conditions on the safety and performance of off-highway vehicles, such as construction equipment, agricultural machinery, and mining vehicles. By examining factors such as terrain, weather conditions, visibility, and natural obstacles, the study aims to identify key hazards and propose strategies to mitigate them. The paper explores how advanced technologies, including digital twins and predictive analytics, can be leveraged to enhance safety measures and improve vehicle resilience in diverse environmental settings. Through comprehensive case studies and empirical data, we
Mogal, Masthanvali, Chennamalla, Chandra Shekar
Optimizing Heavy-Duty Mining Operations With LNG Powertrains: Enhancing Efficiency And Reducing Environmental Impact2025-28-0236To be published on 11/06/2025
Heavy-duty mining is a highly demanding sector within the trucking industry. Mining companies are allocated coal mine sites, and fleet operators are responsible for efficiently extracting ore within the given timeframe. To achieve this, companies deploy dumper trucks that operate in three shifts daily to transport payloads out of the site. Consequently, uptime is crucial, necessitating trucks with exceptionally robust powertrains. The profitability of mining operations hinges on the efficient utilization of these dumper trucks. Fuel consumption in these mines constitutes a significant portion of total expenses. Utilizing LNG as a fuel can help reduce operational fuel costs, thereby enhancing customer profitability. Additionally, employing LNG offers the potential to lower the CO2 footprint of mining operations. This paper outlines the creation of a data-driven duty cycle for mining vehicles and the simulation methodology used to accurately size LNG powertrain components, with a focus
John, Ann Veena, Pendharkar, Koustubh
Onboard Exhaust Capture and Carbon Sequestration for Off-Highway Vehicles: A Sustainable Approach to Emission Reduction2025-28-0215To be published on 11/06/2025
Off-highway vehicles (OHVs) operating in sectors like mining, construction, and agriculture play a significant role in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, especially carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Despite progress in alternative fuel technologies, diesel-powered OHVs continue to prevail because of their strong torque and reliability. This paper suggests an onboard exhaust capture and carbon sequestration system designed to be incorporated into diesel OHVs to temporarily contain and utilize emissions, thereby lessening their environmental impact. The system employs nano-porous filters and solid-state carbon absorption materials to selectively trap CO₂ and NOx directly from the exhaust flow. The gathered CO₂ is then subjected to compression and temporary storage, with possible uses for conversion into carbon-based fuel additives or direct sequestration in industrial applications. Unlike conventional catalytic converters that only diminish NOx emissions, this system provides
Vashisht, Shruti
Experimental Study on Hydrogen-Methane Co-Combustion in Small Gas Engines2025-32-0055To be published on 11/03/2025
In a decarbonized society, adapting internal combustion engines (ICEs) to various carbon-free fuels is crucial for their sustainable use. One such application is gas heat pumps (GHPs), which currently rely on hydrocarbon-based fuels. However, a transition to decarbonized and low carbon fuels, such as hydrogen and synthetic methane, is essential for achieving carbon neutrality. Hydrogen is a carbon-free fuel, but its tendency to ignite with extremely low energy and a wide flammability range, making it highly reactive. While these properties enable efficient combustion, they also increase the likelihood of abnormal combustion, such as backfire and knocking, when used in ICEs. Furthermore, hydrogen’s low volumetric energy density has been reported to result in reduced engine output compared to hydrocarbon fuels. On the other hand, methane, the simplest alkane, has a volumetric energy density approximately three times higher than that of hydrogen and exhibits lower combustibility than
Tanaka, Kenta, Tani, Toshihiro, Sako, Takahiro
Development of high-efficiency, fully recyclable eMotors for light mobility applications produced in the EU2025-32-0098To be published on 11/03/2025
The growing awareness of the environmental impact of human activities, particularly in the field of transport, coupled with the European "Green Deal" strategy aiming for carbon neutrality, has triggered a revolution in mobility compared to the 20th century. Alongside the general focus for automotive sector, light mobility market is particularly rising in current years with tremendous creative solutions as well in terms of functionality as in the design, while the production volumes tend to increase by a fast rate. This domain is being developed using mainly existing permanent magnet rich motor technologies focusing on functionality and cost leaving aside efficiency, lifespan guarantee and end-of-life management which is one of the adjacent problems of the domain. Moreover, European Critical Raw Material act tends to develop a strong, resilient, and sustainable value chains requiring a different approach as well for light mobility powertrains. This article aims at presenting the
CISSE, Koua Malick, Milosavljevic, Misa, Mallard, Vincent, Valin, Thomas, De Paola, Gaetano
Development of 2-cylinder Diesel Engine for European quadricycles to achieve EURO 5+ standard2025-32-0068To be published on 11/03/2025
The EURO 5+ standard (134/2014/EU) has been enforced in the year 2025 for quadricycle in Europe. The exhaust emission under this standard has significantly tightened compared to the EURO4. Additionally, this standard also limits vehicle weight, which remains stringent and unchanged from the EURO4 standard. We introduce the original technologies to meet EURO5+ standard in this paper. Emission limit values of the EURO 5+ standard are more stringent, requiring an 84% reduction in NOx and a 94% reduction in PM compared to the previous standard. Diesel engines equipped with mechanical injection control systems for the previous standard are required significant technological advancements to meet EURO 5+ standard of exhaust emission. To meet this, the adoption of engine aftertreatment components such as SCR(Selective Catalytic Reduction) for NOx reduction and DPF(Diesel Particulate Filter) for PM reduction is an common solution. However, to meet this new regulation, adding the weight of these
Nagai, Naotaro, Tennomi, Masanari, Tamura, Akira, Mochizuki, Hiroaki, Kobayashi, Yasushi, Onishi, Takashi
Study on CO2 Absorption via Atomization Utilizing Surface Texturing and Surface Energy for Small Engine Applications2025-32-0076To be published on 11/03/2025
This study aimed to absorb and capture CO₂ emissions from small engines by investigating a method that atomizes a CO₂-absorbing solution. We investigated the conditions necessary for atomizing the sprayed droplets by utilizing the relationship between the surface tension of the droplets and the surface free energy of the impingement plate with surface textures.
Nohara, Tetsuo, Nara, Shotaro, Kawamoto, Yuki, Fukushima, Naoya, Ochiai, Masayuki
Experimental Study on Single Cylinder Diesel Engine Port Water Injection and Blends of Biodiesel for Performance & Emission.2025-32-0062To be published on 11/03/2025
The increasing demand for alternative fuels due to environmental concerns has sparked interest in biodiesel as a viable substitute for conventional diesel. Most of automotive engines use diesel fuel engine. They contribute a major portion of today's air pollution, which causes serious health issues including chronic bronchitis, respiratory tract infections, heart diseases, and many more. Greenhouse gases are produced using fossil fuel in the engines and causes global warming. To combat with air pollution, we need clean renewable and environment friendly fuels. Due to depletion in fossil fuels, it has become necessary to find alternative fuel which are safer for the environment and humankind. One such possible solution is Biodiesel. In present study series of experiments were carried out on 435cc naturally aspirate DI Diesel engine with port water injection and different blend of Jatropha based Biodiesel. Biodiesel was derived from Jatropha oil, produced using a heterogeneous catalyst
Bhoite, Vikram, Syed, Kaleemuddin, Chaudhari, Sandip, Khairnar, Girish, Jagtap, Pranjal, Reddy, Kameswar
Hydrogen-Assisted Renewable Fuels RME and HVO in the Compression-Ignition Engine2025-32-0048To be published on 11/03/2025
The article presents the research results on performance, thermodynamic parameters, and toxic exhaust emissions from the combustion in a compression-ignition engine fueled by the hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) or the rapeseed methyl ester (RME), both with hydrogen addition. Furthermore, regular diesel fuel was used to obtain the reference data for comparing HVO, RME, and diesel fuel. Hydrogen was injected into the intake manifold of a CI engine with a compression ratio of 17. Typically, diesel fuel combustion in a CI engine initiates through its self-ignition, usually simultaneously occurring at many points across the engine cylinder. Hydrogen, as a very chemically reactive substance, can promote pre-ignition reactions and accelerate flame kernel formation, shortening the ignition lag. This is crucial in the case of the smooth running of the compression-ignition engine. Hydrogen was added at amounts not exceeding 7% by volume as regards air sucked into the engine cylinder. The heat
Szwaja, Stanislaw, Juknelevicius, Romualdas, Pukalskas, Saugirdas, Rimkus, Alfredas, Szymanek, Arkadiusz
Clean cuts, clear conscience: Advanced engines, optimized tools, eco-friendly fuels2025-32-0087To be published on 11/03/2025
Handheld outdoor power equipment is used worldwide to shape and maintain the environment and are daily assistants in forestry, operated under very demanding environmental conditions. In the power tool sector, as elsewhere, the shift from petrol to battery-powered products is already well underway, especially for consumer applications. However, internal combustion engines will continue to be indispensable for professional users of power tools, who place the highest demands on their equipment in terms of performance and energy density. These power tools are often used in remote locations and thus far away from a possible charging infrastructure. To make a contribution to climate protection, biofuels and RFNBOs are necessary. The continuous optimization of engine technology and its overall system, including cutting tools (saw chain set, cutting wheel, etc.) is an important development goal of STIHL. The interaction between the saw chain, guide bar and power train are essential for optimal
Beck, Kai W., Maier, Georg, Müller, Matthias, Lux, Thomas, Kölmel, Armin, Lochmann, Holger, Melder, Jens
Analysis of Flame Propagation Characteristics in a Hydrogen Engine using an Optically Accessible Engine2025-32-0061To be published on 11/03/2025
In recent years, the progress of global warming and the response to environmental problems have become important global issues, and efforts are being made to achieve carbon neutrality. In this context, the automotive and energy industries, which are required to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, have an urgent need to move away from fossil fuels. Especially in small engines, efficiency and cleanliness are important themes, and the introduction of hydrogen fuel is attracting attention as one solution to this. Hydrogen does not emit carbon dioxide when combustion and is considered to be a clean energy source, but due to the difference in characteristics from hydrocarbon fuels used in the past, there are still many unclear points about its combustion behavior and application to engines, and this information is indispensable for improving the performance and efficient operation of hydrogen engines. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the effect of hydrogen on flame propagation and
Arai, Yuto, Ueno, Takamori, Suda, Ryosuke, Sato, Ryoichi, Nakao, Yoshinori, Ninomiya, Yoshinari, Matsushita, Koichiro, Kamio, Tomohiko, Iijima, Akira
Experimental and kinetic study of methane blending on the laminar combustion and emission characteristics of ammonia under various oxygen contents at high temperature and pressure2025-32-0060To be published on 11/03/2025
As a carbon-free fuel, ammonia is one of the alternatives to traditional fossil fuels, but its combustion characteristics are poor, and it is usually optimized by blending methane and increasing oxygen content. However, there are few relevant studies under different conditions under high temperature and high pressure conditions. In this study, the laminar burning velocities (LBV) and flame instability of NH3/CH4/O2/N2 mixtures at high initial temperature (T), high initial pressure (p), various oxygen contents (Ω) and methane energy ratios (α) are analyzed using a constant volume combustion chamber (CVCC). According to numerical simulation, how various oxygen contents and methane energy ratios affect the combustion characteristics of NH3/CH4/O2/N2 mixtures and NOx emission is analyzed. The results show that LBV is positively correlated with T、α、and Ω, and negatively correlated with p. Markstein length (Lb) does not change significantly with T, but increases with α and decreases with p
YU, Yuantao, Dai, Zhizhuo, Hou, Chunlei, Ye, Mingyuan, Zhang, Xiaolei, Cui, Zechuan, Yin, Shuo, Nishida, Keiya
Assessment of E-fuels applicability as gasoline replacement in a small two-stroke Engine2025-32-0058To be published on 11/03/2025
The push for reducing greenhouse gas emissions has extended to various sectors, including outdoor power equipment. While electrification is a promising solution for low-power gardening tools, the substitution of small two-stroke engines becomes critical for applications requiring higher power and range. Biofuels and e-fuels produced from renewable sources present a viable short-term alternative, leveraging existing engine technologies to minimize dependence on fossil fuels. However, the ability of current engines to operate with these fuels while maintaining performance and emissions levels without modifications requires thorough evaluation. This study investigates the feasibility of using e-fuels as sustainable replacements for gasoline in small two-stroke engines. Preliminary computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were conducted to evaluate the performance of two e-fuel formulations assessing possible challenges in combustion performance and emissions. Experimental tests were
Breda, Sebastiano, Fontanesi, Stefano, Merolla, Santo, Gagliardi, Vincenzo, Cicalese, Giuseppe, Pati, Matteo, Dalseno, Luca, Kuschel, Mario
Effect of In-cylinder Hydrogen Mixture Formation on Hydrogen Combustion2025-32-0065To be published on 11/03/2025
Countries around the world are making long-term efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in response to global climate change, with a target of Zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. In the automotive sector, discussions are ongoing on carbon-free powertrains in the future. Hydrogen is a fuel that can achieve zero carbon emissions and production, and is positioned as a key technology that is expected to play an active role in a wide range of fields, including power generation, transportation, and industry. Hydrogen engines are attracting increasing attention because conventional engine components can be diverted. In particular, hydrogen direct injection engines are attracting attention in order to achieve high power and high efficiency. In a hydrogen direct injection engine, the generation of backfire can be suppressed by injecting high-pressure hydrogen in the compression process, but it is known that the formation of air-fuel mixture in the cylinder becomes difficult, which greatly
Hisano, Atsushi, Saitou, Masahito, Sakurai, Yota, Ichi, Satoaki
Improving the efficiency of EVAP system development by utilizing CAE simulations and surrogate models2025-32-0014To be published on 11/03/2025
Evaporative gases from fuel tanks in cars and motorcycles are harmful to human health, which prompting the implementation of strict regulations. To meet these regulations, many gasoline vehicles use evaporative emission control systems (EVAP systems) that utilize carbon canisters. Developing EVAP systems is not just about meeting these rules but also about making sure the engine drivability is not affected. Moreover, as future regulations become increasingly strict, there will be a growing demand for higher-performance systems that reduces evaporative gas into the atmosphere. This will make the control systems more complicated and increase production costs. To overcome these challenges, more efficient ways of development are necessary. One effective method is model-based development (MBD) using CAE technology. In recent years, CAE simulations have become more advanced, and combining different types of CAE simulations allows for faster and more accurate results. Another approach that
Okuno, Keisuke, Hidai, Atsuya, Torigoshi, Masaki, Kinoshita, Hisatoshi
Investigation of degradation of catalyst performance due to phosphorus poisoning in practical catalysts2025-32-0073To be published on 11/03/2025
Although exhaust gas regulations for internal combustion engines have been in place for quite some time, they are still getting stricter every year. Motorcycles are no exception. Exhaust gas regulations for after-degradation durability have already been applied, and the next regulation is expected to require vehicles in use in the market to meet the exhaust gas regulation values. Technology to comply with exhaust gas regulations mainly deals with catalyst performance degradation. The main issues are metal sintering and poisoning. In particular, it is difficult to clearly explain the change in catalyst performance due to poisoning alone, as it is necessary to distinguish it from sintering and to determine the distribution of deterioration. However, phosphorus poisoning from oil cannot be ignored unless oil consumption is reduced to zero. In order to understand the change in practical catalyst performance due to poisoning with a distribution of degradation, it is necessary to explain the
Ibara, Takeru, Itou, Shiori, Yusa, Kazuma, Kinoshita, Hisatoshi, Motegi, Takuya
Exhaust emissions tests of small gasoline engines used as drives for power generators and handheld machinery2025-32-0072To be published on 11/03/2025
The paper presents the results of the investigations on the exhaust emissions carried out under real operating conditions of gasoline small engines. During the operation of these devices the authors measured the exhaust emissions: CO, HC, NOx and CO2. For the measurements the authors used a portable exhaust emission analyzer (PEMS). The presented method is a new solution in determining of the exhaust emissions from such engines. In the paper the results of exhaust emissions measurement has been presented. Moreover, some remarks according to measurement method has been presented. The obtained results were compared with the applicable emission requirements. Besides, based on the performed investigations, the authors attempted an evaluation of the possibilities of the use of the measurement method for development works and legislation related to the reduction of the emission from small gasoline engines.
Lijewski, Piotr, Markiewicz, Filip, Fuc, Pawel, Dobrzynski, Michał
On Board Monitoring of Water Injection Inducement System and Particulate Filter for 3-Wheeler BS VI OBD II B Diesel Vehicle Norms.2025-32-0086To be published on 11/03/2025
To mitigate greenhouse emission reduction Government of India implemented Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) norms from year 2020. Moving to more stringent emission norms poses challenges for automakers in several ways such as meeting exhaust emissions, on board diagnostic, drivers’ inducement, and catalyst monitoring on vehicles. It is imperative to upgrade engine management system for On-board diagnostics (OBD) that refers to a vehicles self-diagnostic and reporting ability. OBD systems enables owner of vehicles to gain access of the various vehicle sub-systems. OBD-II standards were made more rigid, requiring the Malfunction Indicator Lamp (MIL) to be activated if emission-related components fail. Also, vehicle emissions not to exceed OBD thresholds. Consequently, the use of specific NOx emission control systems became necessary in BS VI OBD II B for 3-wheeler applications. Additionally, the performance and integrity of the catalytic converter must be monitored. Driver warnings, inducement
Jagtap, Pranjal, Syed, Kaleemuddin, Chaudhari, Sandip, Khairnar, Girish, Bhoite, Vikram, Reddy, Kameswar
Integration of a Compact 4-Stroke Engine into a Model Vehicle with Dynamic Emission Analysis on a Small Chassis Dynamometer2025-32-0074To be published on 11/03/2025
The increasing importance of reducing emissions and improving the efficiency of internal combustion engines extends not only to applications in large vehicles, but also to small drive systems. This study focuses on the implementation of a compact 4-stroke engine in a model vehicle and on dynamic emission tests carried out with a specially developed test rig. The aim was to investigate the integration of small combustion engines into model platforms and to evaluate their emission behavior under transient conditions. The 4-stroke engine was carefully selected and adapted to the physical and operational conditions of the model vehicle. A test rig with a small roller dynamometer was developed to simulate real driving cycles and enable dynamic measurement of emissions. To optimize oil emissions, an online mass spectrometer was used to analyze the effects of lubricant composition and hardware variations, such as different piston ring designs, on emission behavior. High-resolution measuring
Gohl, Marcus, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Kuboyama, Tatsuya, Arakawa, Hitomu
Electrification potential of Small ICE Powertrain Applications2025-32-0094To be published on 11/03/2025
The reduction of the CO2 footprint of transport vehicles is a major challenge to minimize the harmful impact of technology on the environment. Besides passenger cars and light and heavy-duty vehicles, this affects also the two-wheeler category and the non-road mobile machinery (NRMM). One promising path for the de-carbonisation is the transition from fossil-fuel powered ICE powertrains to electric powertrains. Several examples of electrified powertrains showcase possibilities for small hand-held powertools or small mopeds and scooters. As the powertrain categories two-wheeler and NRMM are very diversified and consist of various sub-categories and sub-classes with many different applications, the feasibility of electrification for the whole category cannot be judged by few examples. In this publication a methodology for assessing the electrification potential of small NRMM and two-wheelers is shown. The method uses 4 different factors, which determine the feasibility for electrification
Schmidt, Stephan, Schacht, Hans-Juergen, Weller, Konstantin, Absenger, Johann Friedrich
A Simulation Approach for the Impact Assessment of an Axial Flux Traction Motor Applied on Road Electric Vehicle2025-32-0077To be published on 11/03/2025
In the transition towards sustainable mobility, Circular Design principles are crucial. Electric Motors are subject to continuous innovation to improve efficiency, performance density and reduce externalities associated with their production. Therefore, the choice of technological solutions during design phase must guarantee optimal performance and minimal environmental impact throughout the entire product life cycle: production, use, and end-of-life. In the automotive sector, the use phase is particularly critical since the efficiency of the traction system is directly related to total energy consumption during the life cycle and, consequently, to its environmental impact. This research introduces a simulation-based approach to evaluate the use phase of an Axial Flux Electric Motor equipped with Permanent Magnets (AFPM). While providing high performance for electric traction motors, these magnets are composed of Rare Earth Elements (REEs), e.g. Neodymium, classified as Critical Raw
Guadagno, Maurizio, Berzi, Lorenzo, Pugi, Luca, Delogu, Massimo
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