Browse Topic: Environment

Items (42,917)

Trajectory Reconstruction Method for Earth-Moon Low-Energy Transfer

2026-99-2980

10/19/2026

In Earth-Moon low-energy transfers, the strict geometric constraints among the Sun, Earth, and Moon often complicate trajectory redesign when the original transfer window is missed. To address this issue, this paper presents a nominal-trajectory-based reconstruction method for Earth-Moon low-energy transfers. Using the original mission trajectory as the reference, the method fixes the middle arc and performs segmented reconstruction that combines position targeting with velocity matching, so that only the escape and lunar insertion phases are locally corrected. This approach enables rapid trajectory reconstruction, efficient search for feasible launch windows, and evaluation of the corresponding velocity increment. Following this strategy, the existence and distribution of feasible solutions are examined on the hour, day, month, and year timescales. Simulation results show that feasible transfer windows with relatively low cost still exist within approximately four to six hours before or after the nominal window. Once the departure time shifts by one day, the total velocity increment rises sharply, and local reconstruction is no longer engineering-feasible. After waiting for about one synodic month, feasible windows reappear, and the required velocity increment falls back within the 200 m/s threshold. Within a one-year range around the nominal epoch, the feasible windows exhibit an overall periodic pattern that repeats approximately every 27 days. The proposed method provides a reference for trajectory reconstruction after a missed transfer window.

Wang, Yuxia, Li, Xiangyu, Zhou, Xingyu, Wang, Shen

Low-Cost Ground Station Network Siting for Geostationary Space-to-Ground Laser Communication

2026-99-2951

10/19/2026

The deployment of multi-link ground station networks for geostationary space-to-ground laser communication is constrained not only by local weather conditions but also by infrastructure accessibility and engineering cost. Existing ground station siting studies have mainly emphasized cloud-related meteorological indicators and site diversity, while giving insufficient attention to deployment-oriented cost factors. As a result, meteorologically favorable solutions may still be expensive to implement in practice. To address this issue, this paper investigates the low-cost siting problem of a ground station network under a target network availability constraint and proposes a two-stage method for a multi-link, single-telescope scenario. Under the adopted assumption, each ground station can provide at most one available link at any given time, so the number of available network links is equal to the number of clear-sky available stations. The network availability is therefore defined as the probability that at least a required number of links are simultaneously available. Using half-hourly cloud mask data from the Himawari 8 geostationary meteorological satellite for the year 2023, site-neighborhood cloud metrics and inter-site weather correlation metrics are constructed. A data-center clustering and distance-decay model is then introduced to build an infrastructure impact cost field. On this basis, nationwide optimization is carried out through candidate construction and final subset selection. A baseline method without data-center factors is also evaluated under the same total-cost definition. The results show that, under the same target network availability requirement, the proposed method can effectively reduce total deployment cost. This indicates that incorporating data-center factors during siting improves the engineering tradeoff of multi-link geostationary laser communication ground station networks and provides a reproducible route for low-cost planning under service availability constraints.

Zhang, Chi, Zhao, Juntong, Li, Wenfeng, Zhao, Kanglian

An Adaptive Cloud Prediction Network for Supporting Space-Ground Laser Communication Links

2026-99-2982

10/19/2026

Space-ground laser communication links are highly susceptible to interruptions caused by cloud cover. Reliable dynamic scheduling of ground stations and seamless link handover, therefore, requires accurate short-term cloud-layer forecasts. However, cloud evolution is inherently chaotic, and atmospheric conditions exhibit evident seasonal non-stationarity. These factors weaken the prediction stability of existing models and make it difficult to maintain consistent accuracy over extended forecasting horizons. To address these challenges, this paper proposes KFMNet, an adaptive cloud prediction network that integrates Koopman theory with frequency-domain Mamba modeling. Unlike conventional frameworks that mainly process cloud features in the spatial domain, KFMNet embeds a linear state-space modeling mechanism into the frequency-domain feature evolution process. Specifically, an adaptive spectral gating mechanism is used to capture global cloud distribution patterns in the frequency domain, thereby reducing the computational burden associated with high-resolution image sequences. Meanwhile, a Koopman seasonal gating module introduces monthly prior knowledge into the network, enabling the model to adapt to atmospheric drift across seasonal transitions. Within the encoder-decoder backbone, KFMNet jointly incorporates temporal modeling, frequency-domain representation, and physical consistency constraints, providing a more stable framework for short-term cloud prediction. We evaluate KFMNet on multi-season cloud images collected over Nanjing and Beijing. The climate profiles of these two cities are markedly different. Under these conditions, KFMNet achieves competitive accuracy in cloud segmentation and shows a better ability to handle seasonal and regional shifts than several reference models. In essence, our method adapts well to changing atmospheric conditions and provides a new cloud prediction approach for space-ground laser link assurance. This method combines physical interpretability with the actual needs of real-world deployment.

Wu, Xibing, Meng, Xiangxu, Zhong, Yun, Li, Wenfeng, Zhao, Kanglian

Methodological Study on Fluid-Structure Interaction Dynamics of Spacecraft in Martian Rarefied Atmosphere Aerobraking

2026-99-2932

10/19/2026

During aerobraking, spacecraft deploy large flexible solar arrays to obtain enough aerodynamic drag. In the rarefied Martian atmosphere, rapidly varying dynamic pressure causes low-frequency elastic vibrations of these appendages, leading to coupled translation-rotation-vibration fluid-structure interaction (FSI) that affects both aerodynamic characteristics and attitude stability. Traditional high precision methods such as DSMC are difficult to apply to long-duration simulations owing to their high computational cost. To solve this problem, this paper proposes a one-way FSI framework, which conbines a cross-regime panel method for aerodynamic calculation with a reduced-order multibody dynamic model. The simulation results show that the framework can reduce the computational burden while retaining the main physical characteristics required for the analysis. The aeroelastic response of a representative spacecraft configuration is analyzed, and the results can support configuration design, aerobraking corridor constraints, and control system development.

Zhou, Tianhao, Cui, Hutao

Pose Tracking and Formation Keeping Control of Spacecraft Formations under High-Order Control Barrier Functions

2026-99-2976

10/19/2026

Aiming at the constraint issues of adjacent spacecraft solar panel collision avoidance and formation keeping in the pose tracking control of spacecraft formation, this paper proposes a distributed relative position and attitude cooperative control strategy on the basis of high-order control barrier functions. First, nominal control strategies for relative position and attitude tracking using the sliding mode control method to achieve high-precision tracking of relative motion are de-signed. Then, high-order control barrier functions suitable for solar panel collision avoidance and spacecraft formation keeping constraints are constructed. The control strategy constraints satisfying safety specifications are derived based on the forward invariant set theory. Finally, a quadratic programming optimization framework is established by combining the nominal control strategies and constraint conditions and then we obtain the optimal control strategy by solving this framework. Numerical simulations verify that the designed control scheme achieves precise tracking of relative position and attitude for spacecraft formation, avoids collisions between solar panels of adjacent spacecraft and prevents excessive loosening of the formation configuration.

Zhu, Ziqi, Qin, Wenyu, Lyu, Yueyong

Coupled Vibration Analysis and Vibration Suppression for Spacecraft Multi-Panel Structures by Stiffness-Tunable Hinges

2026-99-2924

10/19/2026

Spacecraft hinged-panel structures feature a multi-hinged configuration, substantial dimensions, low stiffness, and low damping, making them susceptible to sustaining low-frequency vibrations under multi-source excitations. To address this challenge, a novel stiffness-tunable hinge is proposed for low frequency vibration attenuation. Firstly, the hinge structural geometry and stiffness-tunable principle are presented. Subsequently, FEM models of multi-panel structures incorporating stiffness-tunable hinges are developed. The natural frequencies and mode shapes of the system are investigated. Simulation results indicated that the multi-panel structures reveal bending vibrations, torsional vibrations, and coupled bending–torsional vibrations of the hinge-panel structure. Finally, a microgravity experimental platform was developed, this experimental platform offers several advantages, including extremely low friction, unconstrained horizontal motion, a compact structure, a small footprint, and robust reliability. The gravitational load of the hinged-panel is nearly counterbalanced, thereby enabling its unrestricted, omnidirectional translation across the horizontal plane. The experimental results rigorously validated the link between hinge stiffness-tuning and system eigen-frequency migration. Furthermore, vibration suppression at low frequencies of 0.29 Hz (for three-panel) and 0.31 Hz (for four-panel) was realized using non-contact magnetic excitation. This approach achieved amplitude reductions of approximately 9.70 dB at 0.29 Hz and 12.53 dB at 0.31 Hz. These findings demonstrate a novel strategy for suppressing low-frequency vibrations in spacecraft structures.

Bi, Zhiwei, Lin, Hui, Hu, Wei, Wang, Yufeng, Zhang, Ce, Yu, Ruijiang

Research on Purification Technologies for Cadmium-Contaminated Water Sources for Spacecraft Environmental Control and Life Support System

2026-99-2958

10/19/2026

In addressing the challenges of deep purification of cadmium (Cd) heavy metal contamination and membrane fouling control in spacecraft drinking water sources and recirculation systems, this study adopts a coagulation-ultrafiltration coupled process, with polyaluminium chloride (PACl) as the coagulant and sodium polyacrylate (PAANa) as the complexing agent. A systematic investigation was carried out to examine the effects of key operating parameters—including coagulant dosage, complexing agent dosage, and humic acid (HA) concentration—on Cd removal efficiency, floc morphological characteristics, and ultrafiltration membrane resistance distribution. The results indicate that for simulated raw water containing 0.05 mg/L Cd and (50 ± 0.5) NTU turbidity, under the optimized conditions of 20 mg/L PACl, 20 mg/L PAANa, and pH = 7, the Cd concentration in the effluent treated by the coagulation-ultrafiltration coupled process is reduced to as low as 0.004 mg/L, which meets and even exceeds the hygiene standard limits for both spacecraft drinking water and domestic drinking water. HA was found to promote floc growth and enhance the complexation-based removal of Cd, yet it exacerbates membrane surface adsorption and gel layer fouling. Membrane resistance analysis reveals that gel layer resistance and concentration polarization resistance are the primary sources of fouling, and membrane fouling can be effectively mitigated through rational regulation of operating parameters. This coagulation-ultrafiltration coupled process is characterized by high purification efficiency, stable effluent quality, and strong modularity. It is well adapted to the requirements for closed-loop circulation of spacecraft water resources and drinking water safety assurance, and can provide technical support for water circulation systems in manned spacecraft, drinking water purification at launch sites, and in-situ water treatment during deep space exploration.

Li, Xinyue, Zhang, Jie, Wei, Xiang

Lightweight and Fast Reconstruction Algorithm for 5D Spatio-Temporal-Frequency Situation Based on Kronecker Compressive Sensing

2026-99-2984

10/19/2026

Large-scale UAV clusters make real-time reconstruction of joint spatio-temporal-frequency (STF) situations difficult because the monitored state is high-dimensional and strongly coupled. This paper proposes a lightweight reconstruction algorithm based on Kronecker Compressive Sensing (KCS). First, a Multi-Channel Random Demodulation (MCRD) sensing model is built, and a Spatio-Temporal-Frequency 5D Grid (STF-5D Grid) is used to represent space, frequency, and time resources in a unified form. Next, a Tensor Orthogonal Matching Pursuit (T-OMP) algorithm is developed under the KCS framework. By using the separability of Kronecker products, the method replaces storage and multiplication of a global high-dimensional sensing matrix with dimension-wise operations. Two simulation studies are conducted to evaluate computational feasibility and reconstruction quality. In the city-scale case with 62.91 million grid cells, the factorized implementation avoids constructing the global sensing matrix and completes the tested reconstruction in 9.44 s. The reported memory value is interpreted as additional algorithmic storage for the factorized operators rather than total process peak memory, and should be rechecked with full tensor input/output and runtime overhead included. In noise-free, highly sparse proxy tests, several reconstruction errors approach the numerical precision floor; these results are therefore treated as ideal upper-bound evidence rather than practical field accuracy. The simulations suggest that KCS-based T-OMP can reduce storage and computational pressure for STF reconstruction, while its engineering performance still requires validation under noisy observations and realistic platform constraints.

Tian, Jinghao, Wang, Qianzhe, Di, Shen, Wei, Tan, Song, Bowen

Prediction of Tropospheric Scatter Transmission Loss Based on Meteorological Factors

2026-99-2974

10/19/2026

Troposcatter communication is an important beyond-line-of-sight transmission technology for long-distance terrestrial links in infrastructure-limited environments. However, its transmission loss is strongly affected by meteorological conditions, and the resulting short-term fluctuations make accurate link-state prediction difficult. To address this issue, this paper investigates the prediction of troposcatter transmission loss based on meteorological factors and proposes an attention-enhanced prediction model for short-term forecasting. First, the physical relationship between atmospheric conditions and troposcatter transmission loss is analyzed. On this basis, an hourly dataset is constructed by combining meteorological parameters extracted from the ERA5 reanalysis dataset with the corresponding transmission-loss observations of a troposcatter link. The meteorological field is represented through spatial sampling along the link direction and vertical reconstruction across multiple altitude levels, so that both spatial structure and temporal evolution can be incorporated into the model input. The proposed model utilizes a convolutional neural network (CNN) for the extraction of spatial features from meteorological profiles and then uses a Transformer encoder to capture long-range temporal dependencies within the historical observation window. Simulation results suggest that the proposed model can track the time-varying pattern of transmission loss more accurately than benchmark models, including CNN and CNN-LSTM. The results demonstrate that the attention mechanism can effectively enhance the short-term prediction capability for troposcatter transmission loss and provide useful support for dynamic link assessment and operational decision-making.

Zhang, Kangkang, Zhao, Kanglian

Simulation Study on the Influence of Acceleration on Mass Flow Distribution of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide inside Complex Capillary Pipeline Structures

2026-99-2961

10/19/2026

Supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO2) power cycles present promising application prospects in spacecraft and mobile energy systems owing to their outstanding advantages including high thermal efficiency and compact system structure. As a key component of sCO2 heat exchange systems, the complex capillary pipeline structure significantly influences heat transfer performance and system stability through its internal flow distribution uniformity. In this study, a multi-physics numerical simulation approach is employed to establish a complex capillary pipeline model with four compartments labeled A, B, C and D, aiming to explore the effects of different acceleration (overload) conditions on internal flow distribution. Various acceleration cases are considered, such as zero gravity, horizontal placement (0, 1g, 0), vertical placement (-1g, 0, 0), (0.15g, -0.7g, 0), (5g, -3g, 0) and (8g, -3g, 0). Meanwhile, the regulation effect of orifice plates on flow distribution is analyzed. The results demonstrate that both the magnitude and direction of acceleration exert remarkable impacts on the flow distribution ratio within the pipeline. Under vertical acceleration, flow distribution among the different branches becomes more uneven. Under high acceleration conditions, compartment A is prone to obvious flow deviation, which deteriorates overall flow uniformity. Orifice structures adjust flow distribution under acceleration pretty well—they work by changing the flow resistance characteristics. The present research provides reliable theoretical foundation and data support for the optimal design of complex capillary pipeline structures under variable acceleration environments.

Chen, Weihua, Wei, Xiaorui, Yang, Tianyu, Wang, Cong, Qin, Jiang

Coking Inhibition Characteristics of Dimethyl Disulfide during Supercritical Pyrolysis of n-Decane

2026-99-2993

10/19/2026

Inhibition of coking from pyrolysis of hydrocarbon fuel is critical for ensuring the safe operation of high-speed aircraft. In this work, the inhibitory effects of dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) on coke during the supercritical pyrolysis of n-decane were investigated. Experiments using an electrically heated micro-reactor tube were conducted to study the influences of presulfidation and cofeeding methods with varying DMDS concentrations. The pyrolysis products were analyzed via gas chromatography, while pressure drop and coke mass were measured. The composition and morphology of coke were further characterized by energy-dispersive spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The results show that the influence of DMDS on coke formation depends on its application method and concentration. At a DMDS concentration of 500 ppm, the coke inhibition rate reached 85.5% with presulfidation and 81.7% with cofeeding. However, with increasing DMDS concentration beyond 500 ppm, the amount of coke formation increases. Coke formation during supercritical pyrolysis of n-decane primarily involves metal-catalyzed coking and bulk-phase coking processes. The H2S and HS radicals generated from pyrolysis of DMDS react with transition metals such as Fe and Ni, thereby inhibiting the formation of metal-catalyzed filamentous coke. The presulfidation process forms a sulfide layer earlier than the cofeeding process, more effectively suppressing the generation of filamentous coke. However, excessively high DMDS concentrations can lead to its decomposition into sulfur-containing radicals such as thiol radicals (CH3S·), which incorporate into the coke matrix, enhance its reactivity, and promote coke formation. This work offers valuable insights for the application of DMDS as a coke inhibitor in endothermic hydrocarbon fuels.

Liao, Yan, Yao, Yixuan, Yang, Can, Huang, Qin, Chen, Yu

SAE Truck & Off-Highway Engineering: October 2026

26TOFHP1010/15/2026

MAHLE axes range anxiety for commercial EVs New onboard range extender aims to accelerate the electrification of heavy-duty trucks thanks to less weight and reduced TCO. Ground defense goes driverless A new generation of military ground vehicles has arrived with robotic and fully autonomous capability thanks to recent advances in AI and other technologies. Cummins delivers on a lighter Class 8 driveline How the new RPL35+ was engineered to reduce weight without conceding on any other factors - and why the hollow spline sleeve at its core took three years to get right. Editorial Defense goes on advanced-tech offensive Self-driving vehicles demand new cybersecurity thinking Hydrogen ICE development takes big steps toward commercialization Cost savings, circular economy benefits core to steady growth for heavy-duty engine reman John Deere launches JD, an AI assistant to enhance farmers' efficiency and eventually assist operators in the cab Product Briefs SPOTLIGHTS: Connectors; Hydraulics and Flow Control Q&A Westport's dual fuel injector enables sparkless CNG ignition

Effects of Methane Addition to Diesel in Dual-Fuel Mode Combustion Utilizing the Advanced Fuel Ignition Delay Analyzer

04-19-03-0013

10/8/2026

With the rising pressure of a global energy transition to cleaner energy systems, the transportation sector faces a challenge in maintaining its current structure and adapting to all the required changes. Dual-fuel technology emerges as a promising alternative to keep the viability of the sector while utilizing environmentally friendly fuels alongside traditional hydrocarbons, without deep structural changes in the current framework. This work investigates the impact of the use of methane gas coupled with diesel fuel, specifically focusing on its influence on the ignition delay time (IDT) in a dual-fuel combustion setting. The investigation employed the Advanced Fuel Ignition Delay Analyzer (AFIDA), a constant-volume combustion chamber capable of automatically measuring multiple samples in a single run. Methane gas was introduced into the chamber at molar concentrations of 1%, 2%, and 3% and at initial pressures of 5 and 10 bar, with temperature values ranging from 653 to 723 K. With the same amount of diesel being injected for all experiments, it was possible to replace up to 40% of the total energy release with methane during the combustion process. Compared to pure diesel, the IDT values of the methane–diesel mixtures were only affected in low-temperature settings. At higher temperatures, the IDT values remained largely consistent with those of pure diesel, suggesting that higher substitution ratios of methane are feasible without compromising the ignition delay. This work also uncovered that the percentage of energy replaced by methane does not have a direct correlation with IDT or peak pressure values.

Pacheco Virginio, Thiago, Eraqi, Basem, Sakleshpur Nagaraja, Shashank, Sarathy, S. Mani

Effect of High-Energy Ignition and Spark Plug on Combustion and Fuel Economy of a Dedicated Hybrid Engine

03-19-05-0026

10/6/2026

High exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates in dedicated hybrid engines (DHEs) cause combustion instability and fuel economy degradation. This study investigates a 2.0L turbocharged DHE with a high-tumble combustion system optimized by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. At the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) operating point (2750 r/min, brake mean effective pressure [BMEP] 11 bar), engine bench tests evaluated the effects of three ignition energy levels (120 mJ, 150 mJ, 200 mJ) and two spark plug configurations (1.1 mm nickel alloy and 0.7 mm pin-to-pin iridium) on combustion characteristics, fuel economy, the misfire-limited EGR rate (hereinafter the EGR misfire limit), and engine-out emissions. Results show that above 23% EGR, intake condensate weakens ignition and destabilizes combustion. Raising ignition energy to 200 mJ extends the EGR misfire limit from 23% to 28%, shortens ignition delay (CA0-10) and combustion duration (CA10-90) by 4.5°CA and 2.8°CA and reduces BSFC by 3.2 g/kWh. The 0.7-mm iridium plug outperforms the 1.1-mm nickel alloy plug above 27% EGR: CA0-10 and CA10-90 shorten by 2.9°CA and 2.5°CA, the EGR misfire limit extends by 0.5 percentage points, and BSFC improves by 0.9 g/kWh. The combined optimization extends the EGR misfire limit to 28.5% with a cumulative BSFC reduction of 4.5 g/kWh. HC emissions decrease with reduced spark plug gap, while NOx and CO remain insensitive to the ignition strategy. The coupled optimization of high-energy ignition and small-gap spark plug effectively overcomes ignition degradation under high EGR. The reduced breakdown voltage of the small gap and the sufficient energy reserve of high-energy ignition form a synergistic effect, providing quantitative design guidance for ignition systems in next-generation high-efficiency DHEs.

Wang, Peng, Ren, Siming, Cong, Rizhen, Deng, Xiaorong, Liu, Zonghui, Zhu, Yunfeng, Li, Hongzhou, Yan, Pingtao

Thermoelectric Generators for Battery Charging: Waste Heat Utilization with Minimized Back Pressure

13-07-02-0009

10/1/2026

Waste heat recovery has become a critical research area in the quest for improving automotive energy efficiency. Internal combustion engines lose a large amount of their energy as heat through exhaust gases. Thermoelectric generation technology presents a promising approach to capturing and converting this waste heat into useful electrical energy. In this work, a theoretical study on the application of thermoelectric generators (TEGs) for battery charging by converting waste heat from internal combustion engine exhaust into usable electrical energy is proposed. A prototype system incorporating TEG modules was designed focusing on the minimization of back pressure; flow of exhaust gas is ensured through a circular internal cross-section. Thermal simulations were performed using Ansys Workbench, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis was conducted to quantify the back pressure. Two heat exchanger materials, aluminum and copper alloys, were evaluated for their heat transfer performance. The results indicate that copper achieves superior heat transfer, with hot-side temperatures approximately 8.6% to 23.9% higher than aluminum. However, aluminum remains a viable alternative due to its lightweight and cost-effectiveness. With the cold side being maintained at 91°C to simulate realistic engine coolant conditions, the experiment shows that a series-parallel configuration of six TEG modules (three in series × two in parallel) can effectively generate the necessary voltage (13–15 V) and current (3.5–7 A) to charge a 12-V automotive battery. CFD analysis confirmed that the circular internal geometry produces low back pressure, with pressure drops of 28 Pa, 63 Pa, and 168 Pa for inlet velocities of 25 m/s, 40 m/s, and 70 m/s, respectively. This research underscores the potential of TEG-based battery charging systems in enhancing energy efficiency, though further development is required for real-world automotive integration. Future work could focus on on-vehicle testing, optimizing thermoelectric materials, and integrating advanced cooling mechanisms and maximum power point tracking controllers to improve overall system viability.

Satheesh, Amal, Satheesh, Akul, Pillai, Ashwin S., Mahisankar, J.S., Sreejith, B.J.

Exhaust Emissions Tests of Small Gasoline Engines Used as Drives for Power Generators and Handheld Machinery in Real-Operating Conditions

2026-01-5080

10/1/2026

The paper presents the results of investigations on the exhaust emissions carried out under real-world operating conditions of gasoline engines used in lawnmowers and power generators. During the operation of these engines, the authors measured the emissions of the following exhaust gaseous components: CO, HC, NOx, and CO2. For the measurements, the authors used Axion R/S+, a PEMS (Portable Exhaust Emission System) analyzer. The presented method is a new approach to exhaust emissions measurements performed on small engines. The emission coefficient, as a related value of the emission of harmful compounds and CO2, was proposed. Additionally, some remarks related to the measurement method were made. The paper presents the modal analysis of the investigations of the exhaust emissions from engines and the total mass of gaseous compounds. Moreover, the obtained results of the exhaust emissions from the power generator engine were compared with the applicable emission standards, and the real emissions of CO and HC+NOx were, respectively, about 10% and 38% higher than Stage II standards. Based on the investigation results, the authors considered the possibilities of using the said measurement method in real-world operating conditions, applying the PEMS equipment for small gasoline engines.

Lijewski, Piotr, Markiewicz, Filip, Fuć, Paweł, Dobrzyński, Michał, Wiśniewski, Sławomir

Physics-Constrained Procedural Generation of Synthetic Environments for the Robust Validation of Autonomous Maneuver and Logistics

2026-01-7549

9/22/2026

The validation of Autonomous Ground Vehicles (AGVs) and intelligent logistics planners is frequently compromised by the ”Sim-to-Real” gap, where simulation environments fail to replicate the physical friction of operational deployment. Ideally, valid test cases must enforce strict mobility constraints and impose realistic sustainment penalties; however, many current generation tools rely on idealized terrain interactions and infinite-resource assumptions. We present a real-time procedural framework designed to generate high-friction validation environments that stress-test the robustness of the System Under Test (SUT). The architecture integrates gradient-based terrain analysis with a stochastic contested logistics model. It ingests synthetic heightmaps to precompute mobility corridors, ensuring that every generated evaluation episode adheres to vehicle-specific traversability limits. Simultaneously, a logistics kernel enforces fuel consumption scaled by terrain gradients and models supply chain interdiction as a parameterized Bernoulli process. We validate this framework through a ”Digital Twin” methodology, demonstrating that terrain-aware generation eliminates invalid initialization states (0% mobility violations) while the logistics model induces operationally relevant failure modes in the SUT. This unclassified, open-architecture approach supports DoD Verification, Validation, and Accreditation (VV&A) requirements by providing deterministic, reproducible edge cases for autonomous system evaluation.

Soykan, Bulent, Rabadi, Ghaith, Bochenek, Grace, Paul, Victor J.

Clemson Off-Road Dataset (CORD): A Multimodal Benchmark for Autonomy beyond the Flat-World

2026-01-7518

9/22/2026

While autonomous perception has matured within the structured confines of urban roadways, it remains brittle when confronting the chaotic, non-rigid terrain of the natural world. This paper introduces the Clemson Off-Road Dataset, a high-fidelity, multimodal dataset engineered to bridge this gap by challenging standard “flat-world” assumptions. Featuring 2.90 TB of sensor data, the dataset captures a diverse spectrum of unstructured environments, ranging from the transitional trails of CU-ICAR and the day/night lighting dynamics of TN3 to the unstructured wilderness of Camp Daniels and the novel coastal scenery of Edisto Island. Distinguishing itself from existing forest-centric benchmarks, the Clemson Dataset provides a first-of-its-kind focus on coastal data, featuring unique adversarial conditions such as extreme solar glare, loose sand, and shifting tide lines. The data is collected aboard a Polaris RZR Pro R 4, a high-performance platform integrated with a sensor suite designed to perceive physics beyond geometry. Alongside 360° HD camera coverage, 3D LiDAR, and Radar, we integrate Cubert Ultris Hyperspectral imaging and Prophesee EVK4 Event-based vision to enable material classification and high-dynamic-range motion tracking. To overcome the bottleneck in ground truth generation, we used our “AI LabelMate,” a context-aware semi-automated annotation agent that fuses Vision-Language Models (Florence-2) with SAM2 to generate 6331 pixel-perfect annotated frames using a specialized off-road ontology and a human-in-the-loop pipeline. We establish performance baselines using Oneformer for semantic segmentation and used SalsaNext for lidar point clouds labelling. Available in both raw ROS2 bag and extracted standard formats, this Dataset serves as a pivotal testing ground for the next generation of robust autonomous systems.The dataset of this paper is available upon request to the Virtual Prototyping of Autonomy-Enabled Ground Systems (VIPR-GS) Center.

Patil, Ashish, Gupta, Prakhar, Bhosale, Mayuresh, Mukwaya, Arthur, Jegede, Akinbobola, Mikulski, Dariusz, Mwakalonge, Judith, Jia, Yunyi

Counterfeit Avoidance and Quality Assurance: Supply Chain Screening of Cots Microelectronics in Tactical System

2026-01-7523

9/22/2026

This paper details the successful scaling demonstration of a comprehensive supply chain screening process for commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) motherboard subassemblies used in tactical servers for naval applications. Our approach leverages Power Fingerprinting (PFP) technology, which uses unintended analog emissions and machine learning to provide independent, non-destructive, and scalable integrity assessment of microelectronics. The primary goal of the effort was to demonstrate the effectiveness and scalability of the PFP screening process without disrupting or delaying the manufacturing workflow. The screening successfully detected hardware and firmware modifications and identified two cases of abnormal behavior: unusual BIOS power reset and elevated CPU sensor readings on two motherboard subassemblies. Following our quality control forensic analysis, we determined the root cause of these anomalies and their potential impact on the host platform.

Aguayo Gonzalez, Carlos R., Roberson, Ken

Stuck-Assist: A Large Multimodal Model-Based Stuck Recovery Assist for Driving on Off-Road Deformable Terrains

2026-01-7513

9/22/2026

Recent advancements in off-road autonomy have shown significant progress in perception, planning, and control frameworks, including end-to-end learning approaches. Comprehensive results have been demonstrated in both simulation and real-world experiments; however, there are significant challenges in critical cases that need further evaluation. One such challenge is the immobilization of autonomous ground vehicles (AGVs) in unstructured off-road environments, which can significantly impact agriculture, space exploration, military operations, and search and rescue missions. Addressing this problem requires recovery strategies that are context-sensitive, adaptable to terrain and vehicle conditions, and effective in integrating multimodal inputs. To this end, this paper investigates the use of a large multimodal model (LMM) providing higher-level planning assistance with human-in-the-loop evaluations for vehicle recovery after immobilization in unstructured off-road terrain. The experimental simulation platform developed was based on the Algoryx (AGX) Dynamics engine for high-fidelity terramechanics interaction and vehicle physics combined with Unreal Engine 5. This platform was further integrated with a driving simulator equipped with steering wheel and pedal interfaces for human-in-the-loop experiments. We evaluated ten representative unstuck scenarios across two deformable terrains (loose sand and compact sand) under two modes: an unskilled baseline, where participants attempted recovery unaided, and a co-intelligence mode, where participants used LMM advisory instructions. The results show that LMM assistance improved stuck recovery rates by 70% compared to unaided and unskilled human driving.

Bhosale, Mayuresh, Whitson, Jordan A., Vahidi, Ardalan, Jia, Yunyi

Evaluating the Robustness of Segmentation Models against Adversarial Patches in Off-Road Environments

2026-01-7520

9/22/2026

Semantic Segmentation (SS) is critical for autonomous vehicles to navigate off-road environments by identifying drivable terrain. Although models like ResNet34+UNet and EfficientViT have been proposed for these tasks, their susceptibility to localized adversarial patches in unstructured environments remains under-researched. This paper presents a comprehensive robustness evaluation of six real-time SS architectures, including the state-of-the-art YOLOv11 and YOLOv12 segmentation variants against five diverse adversarial patch schemes. Our experiments, conducted on a modified YCOR dataset, demonstrate that EfficientViT is the most resilient architecture, maintaining high accuracy with minimal performance degradation. In contrast, single-stage models like YOLOv11n-seg exhibit significant vulnerability, with pixel accuracy drops reaching 26.55%. We also show how decreases in overall segmentation accuracy impact the segmentation models’ ability to discern traversable terrain from non-traversable terrain.

Salas, Christopher, Pesé, Mert D., Li, Bing, Smereka, Jonathon, Cheng, Long

Exploring the Benefits of Multiple Injections in a Premixed Charge Compression-Ignition Engine Operated with Modified Injector Orientation and Diesel–Gasoline Blends

03-19-05-0025

9/22/2026

The current study examines the combined effects of injection strategy, injector configuration, and fuel blending on the combustion performance and emission behavior of a light-duty compression-ignition (CI) engine operated in premixed charge compression-ignition (PCCI) combustion mode. Experiments were conducted in PCCI combustion mode using a diesel–gasoline blend (D80G20, 80% diesel and 20% gasoline by volume). A modified injector configuration, with a split-injection scheme comprising pilot and main injection events, was implemented to enhance mixture preparation and control combustion characteristics. The baseline configuration utilized PCCI mode with diesel (D100) and an inclined injector orientation. The results indicate that blending gasoline into diesel prolongs ignition delay and facilitates charge premixing, hence improving the stability of the PCCI combustion regime. Using a vertically oriented injector with a symmetric spray pattern significantly improves air–fuel mixing, and split-pulse injection enables more accurate control of combustion phasing. Among the tested strategies, the D80G20 blend, combined with a vertical injector and optimized split injection, achieved the highest brake thermal efficiency at 60% load, improving by 10.1% over the baseline case. In addition, unburned hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions were significantly reduced by 54.1% and 49.4%, respectively. Additionally, the load extension was increased to 77%, which is limited to 60% of the engine-rated load in PCCI with diesel fuel. The current integrated approach provides a viable pathway to implement the PCCI mode to improve engine thermal efficiency and reduce pollutant emissions without significant hardware modifications, thereby supporting the transition to cleaner combustion technologies.

Ranjan, Ashish Pratap, Krishnasamy, Anand

Recovery Equipment for Mobile Thermal Management Systems

J3264_202609 (Current)

9/21/2026

This SAE Standard covers equipment used to remove refrigerant from a Mobile Thermal Management System to be sent for reclamation rather than on-site recycling. The refrigerant could be contaminated and should not be mixed with recycled refrigerant. This could also be any refrigerant that the technician is not going to recycle and reuse. The refrigerant could also be a blend or a refrigerant for which Recovery/Recycling/Recharging equipment is not available.

ICTMS Service Committee

Low Mu/Winter Driving Skill Certification

J3300/1_202609 (Current)

9/21/2026

This SAE Recommended Practice is intended to establish a procedure to certify the low mu/winter driving skill levels of professional drivers. This certification can be used by the individual driver to qualify their skills when seeking employment or other professional activity. These certification levels may also be used by test facilities or other organizations when seeking test or professional drivers of various skills. This document provides directions for obtaining certification through Probitas Authentication®1 and the low mu/winter driving skill examination requirements. This document is a supplement to SAE J3300, providing information specific to the low mu/winter driving skill certification and clarifying the application of the rules set forth in SAE J3300 to the low mu/winter driving certification. While the references, definitions, rules, and guidelines presented in SAE J3300, Sections 1 through 5 apply to the low mu/winter driving certification, they are not repeated in this document.

Driving Skills Standards Committee

Understanding Tyre Wear Particle Emissions: Volatile Dominance, Variability, Coarse Particles and Measurement System Development for Chassis Dynamometer Use

2026-24-0018

9/21/2026

This paper presents a set of targeted tyre emissions studies carried out within the UK Department for Transport’s (DfT) Brake and Tyre Emissions programme. The work was aimed at improving the measurement of airborne particles generated by tyres, and at examining the factors that influence particle number and particle mass emission. It also explored physical tread wear. To achieve this, a revised sampling duct system was developed with high extraction flow and partial wrap-around of the tyre, and a coarse hard-wearing surface was applied to the chassis dyno roller. The sampling system supplied Total PN4, PN10 (volatile and non-volatile), PM2.5, and particle size instrumentation. Several tyre types were selected to represent a broad range of sizes, constructions, manufacturers, compounds, and mileages. Tests were performed on a dedicated chassis dynamometer testing facility using PG42, WLTC, and RDE based cycles, together with additional cycles designed to investigate the influence of temperature, speed, and braking. Tread depth and tyre mass were recorded before and after the test programme to determine wear rates, and macro particle sampling was undertaken to assess particle size distribution beyond the airborne PM2.5 range. Airborne particle measurements showed that tyre PN is dominated by volatile ultrafine particles below 10 nm, with the non-volatile PN10 fraction representing only a small proportion of the total. PM2.5 mass from tyres was generally low and often near the detection limit, with most of the physical wear mass present as large particles (>50 μm) rather than as respirable material. Wear rates varied across tyres but showed no consistent relationship with airborne PM2.5 or PN10. Tyre temperature had the clearest influence on airborne PN emissions: elevated temperatures and high speed/braking conditions produced higher volatile and non-volatile PN. Overall, the study provides improved understanding of tyre-related airborne particle formation, the limitations of PM2.5 and PN10 as regulatory indicators, and the role of tyre temperature and operating conditions in determining emissions. The findings support the development of future tyre wear measurement methods and associated regulatory frameworks.

Andersson, Jon, Campbell, Michael, de Vries, Simon, Kramer, Louisa, Marshall, Ian, Southgate, Jason, Waite, Gary

Analysis of Full Torque Determination in a Diesel Engine Operating in Dual Fuel mode with Hydrogen and Diesel

2026-24-0014

9/21/2026

A 15kW diesel engine is modified in the laboratory to operate in dual fuel combustion mode. The engine is a three-cylinder, displacement of 1 Liter, originally fueled with diesel in its baseline configuration. The engine is modified by installing three PFI injectors, positioned toward the intake valves within the intake manifold. Hydrogen injection is synchronized with valve opening during the engine cycle using controlled delay units. The standard diesel injection system, managed by the original ECU, initiates combustion of the premixed air/hydrogen charge. The dual fuel operation is tested at 2000 rpm maximum torque. To maintain this condition, both diesel quantity through accelerator input and hydrogen flow via injectors duration are adjusted. Constraints included reducing diesel fuel and avoiding knock caused by excessive hydrogen. The engine operated reliably under all tested conditions. A maximum hydrogen energy substitution HES of 70% is achieved at high load, though higher values increased PPRR. A premixed equivalence ratio of 0.40 is identified as the limit before self-ignition occurred. To prevent this and achieve maximum power, an alternative strategy is introduced. Starting from diesel-only maximum torque, diesel is gradually reduced while hydrogen is increased. Rated torque is successfully achieved with an HES up to 45%. These results demonstrate that dual fuel operation can significantly reduce fossil fuel consumption while maintaining performance. It provided combustion stability and knock limits carefully managed through appropriate control of mixture composition. Further optimization could enhance efficiency and emissions performance in future applications.

Mancaruso, Ezio, Rossetti, Salvatore, Cameretti, Maria Cristina

Data-Driven System Dynamics and Chauvenet-Based Outlier Detection for Assessing Global CO₂ Emissions under Fossil Energy and Electric Vehicle Transition Scenarios

2026-24-0020

9/21/2026

Understanding the structural drivers of global CO₂ emissions requires integrated analysis of fossil fuel production, total energy consumption, and electric vehicle (EV) deployment trends. This study presents a data-driven modeling framework combining system-dynamics formulation with statistical outlier detection implemented in Python to evaluate emission trajectories over a ten-year historical period. The methodology incorporates historical datasets of global CO₂ emissions, primary energy consumption, fossil fuel production, and EV manufacturing volumes. A computational routine developed in Python applies the criterion proposed by William Chauvenet to identify statistically inconsistent observations within the dataset, ensuring robustness prior to regression and correlation analyses. Carbon intensity (CO₂ per unit of energy) is calculated to assess decoupling behavior, while correlation matrices and elasticity indicators quantify the relative influence of fossil production and EV penetration on emissions. The dynamic structure expresses CO₂ emissions as a function of fossil energy share, total energy demand growth, and electrification rate. Sensitivity analysis evaluates the responsiveness of emissions to variations in these parameters. Results indicate that emission reductions are strongly dependent on carbon intensity evolution rather than EV growth alone. Outlier detection enhances model reliability by preventing anomalous years from biasing trend interpretation. The proposed framework provides a transparent and computationally efficient tool for emission diagnostics, transition scenario evaluation, and policy-oriented forecasting within the context of sustainable mobility and global energy transformation.

Gutierrez, Marcos, Taco, Diana

Thermal Management of Pre-Chamber Spark Plugs for the Mitigation of Abnormal Ignition in Hydrogen-Fueled Engines – An Experimental and Numerical Study

2026-24-0007

9/21/2026

The internal combustion engine will continue to contribute to global mobility, particularly when operated with carbon dioxide low-carbon fuels. Pre-chamber ignition systems are increasingly investigated to improve efficiency, emissions, and combustion stability. In combination with hydrogen as a carbon-free fuel, they extend the lean operating limit while ensuring reliable ignition under demanding conditions. A key challenge is the thermal management of pre-chamber spark plugs. While the thermal behaviour of conventional spark plugs is well understood, limited knowledge exists for pre-chamber systems. Chamber geometry, material selection, manufacturing, and installation strongly influence thermal loading, where elevated local temperatures may contribute to knock, pre-ignition, and material degradation. The objective of this study is to establish a system-level understanding of pre-chamber thermal behaviour. Experiments are conducted on a single-cylinder research engine using hydrogen and research octane number 95 (RON 95) as a reference fuel. Dedicated temperature measurements identify thermal hotspots and assess parameter sensitivities. For the investigated configuration (14:1 compression ratio (CR), 1500 revolutions per minute (rpm), 12 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)), measurements and conjugate heat transfer (CHT) simulations suggest wall temperatures are not the primary contributor to pre-ignition. Reduced pre-ignition is observed with increasing scavenging bore diameter, indicating a strong influence of mixture preparation and residual gas effects. A coupled CHT model is integrated into a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation with moving boundaries. The model includes realistic wall thicknesses, temperature-dependent material properties, and calibrated boundary conditions, enabling cycle-resolved analysis of heat fluxes and temperature fields for pre-chamber optimization.

Nenzel, Markus, Alkezbari, Ahmad Anas, Rottenkolber, Gregor

Characterisation of Brake Wear PM2.5 and PN10 Emissions Across Pad/Disc Technologies, Light-Duty Vehicle Types, and Braking Behaviours Under Real World Conditions

2026-24-0022

9/21/2026

Targeted brake emissions investigations undertaken within the Department for Transport’s Non-Exhaust Emissions programme are described in this paper. The non-exhaust emissions study aimed to improve understanding of particulate mass and particle number emissions from friction braking, and to quantify the influence of component selection, vehicle technology, operating conditions, and emissions control measures. A brake enclosure and sampling methodology, developed in an earlier project phase, was refined to improve airflow control, reduce leakage, and minimise artefacts. The updated system incorporated MPEC (hot and cold), APC10, DMS500, and eFilter instruments, enabling simultaneous measurement of volatile and non-volatile PN10, plus PM2.5. Nine brake pad formulations and two disc types were evaluated using a common C-segment platform during chassis dynamometer and on-road drive cycles, and under specific controlled braking events. Speed, deceleration and temperature effects on PM2.5 and PN10 emissions were investigated. The common platform testing included ICE, PHEV, and EV variants to capture test mass and regenerative braking influences, together with assessments of aged components. Results showed clear, repeatable differences between pad formulations, with low dust/ceramic pads yielding the lowest PM2.5 and PN10 emissions. Disc type effects were minimal, while component ageing/conditioning reduced emissions and improved repeatability. Brake temperature and energy input dominated emissions behaviour: dynamic braking produced the highest emissions, these increasing with road speed and disc temperature. Regenerative braking reduced EV and PHEV PM2.5 versus ICE, but PN10 remained comparable due to the dominance of non-volatile PN emissions during friction braking events. Increased vehicle mass led to proportionally higher emissions.

Andersson, Jon

How Micromobility is Reshaping Urban Mobility: A Systematic Literature Review

2026-24-0025

9/21/2026

Micromobility is rapidly reshaping urban mobility by transforming travel behaviour, urban space, and transport systems. Its growing role in reducing car dependency and supporting low-carbon mobility has positioned cycling, e-scooters, and e-bikes as key components of sustainable urban transport. This study examines the role of micromobility in urban mobility through a systematic literature review. The review provides a structured synthesis of existing research, identifies major publications and thematic trends, and highlights gaps in current knowledge across several dimensions of urban mobility. The findings show that the effects of micromobility are neither uniformly positive nor negative. They depend particularly on infrastructure provision, governance arrangements, regulation, user behaviour, and integration with public transport. The review therefore suggests that micromobility should be considered as part of the wider urban transport system rather than as an isolated group of modes. The review identifies priorities for further research and provides evidence that can support transport planners and other stakeholders in developing approaches to micromobility and public transport integration.

Olkhova, Mariia, Comi, Antonio

Global–Regional Energy Balance Climate Modeling Framework for Country-Level Temperature Projections Based on CO₂ Radiative Forcing

2026-24-0021

9/21/2026

This study presents a computational framework for estimating country-level temperature projections based on global radiative forcing from CO₂ emissions. The methodology integrates a carbon-cycle accumulation module, a logarithmic radiative forcing formulation, and a dynamic one-box energy balance model (EBM) to simulate global mean temperature evolution. Atmospheric CO₂ concentration is computed from cumulative global emissions using an airborne fraction parameter. Radiative forcing is then determined using the established logarithmic relationship between concentration and forcing. The global temperature response is calculated dynamically by solving the transient energy balance equation, incorporating effective heat capacity and climate sensitivity parameters. To regionalize projections without relying on high-resolution General Circulation Models (GCMs), an empirical regional amplification factor is introduced. This coefficient is derived from historical regression between observed regional and global temperature anomalies. The resulting formulation enables country-level temperature estimation as a scaled response to global mean warming while preserving physical consistency with radiative forcing theory. The framework is computationally efficient and suitable for implementation in lightweight numerical platforms, enabling rapid scenario testing of emission pathways. Although the model does not resolve atmospheric circulation, precipitation changes, or nonlinear feedback variability at regional scales, it provides a transparent and physically grounded approach for comparative warming assessments across countries. The proposed methodology establishes a structured link between global climate energetics and regional temperature response, supporting engineering-oriented climate risk analysis and emission policy sensitivity evaluation.

Gutierrez, Marcos, Taco, Diana, Sampietro-Saquicela, Jose, Bermudez-Herrera, Leandro, Valencia-Ortiz, Nakira, Ulloa de Souza, Raul

From Crowdshipper Behavior to Urban Mobility Governance: Policy Insights for Sustainable Crowdshipping

2026-24-0029

9/21/2026

Crowdshipping has recently attracted significant attention as a potentially sustainable solution for urban logistics, as it leverages individuals’ underutilized travel capacity to perform last-mile deliveries. While existing research has extensively examined crowdshipper participation through motivational patterns, considerably less attention has been devoted to the governance and policy implications emerging from crowdshipper behavior. This represents a critical gap, particularly in the context of sustainable urban mobility, where logistics innovations are often implicitly assumed to generate positive externalities without adequate regulatory design. This paper addresses this gap by translating crowdshipper motivational evidence into policy-relevant insights for sustainable urban mobility planning. The analysis is based on data collected through a structured questionnaire administered to potential and active crowdshippers. The survey collected information on socio-demographic characteristics, mobility habits, motivations, risk perception, trust, and willingness to participate under alternative crowdshipping conditions. While such conditions are commonly used to estimate participation patterns, this study reinterprets them through a governance-oriented lens to explore trade-offs between economic incentives, environmental motivations, and mobility-related impacts. Using a governance-oriented interpretation of survey data, the analysis highlights how different incentive structures activate heterogeneous crowdshipper participation patterns, with distinct mobility impacts. Results show that participation driven by strong economic incentives and operational flexibility may encourage additional vehicle-kilometers traveled, while participation embedded within routine trips and influenced by environmental considerations tends to operate within more limited spatial and temporal constraints. Taken together, these findings indicate that crowdshipping outcomes are not inherently aligned with sustainable urban mobility objectives, but critically depend on incentive design and regulatory integration within Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans (SUMPs).

Comi, Antonio, Idone, Ippolita

Life Cycle Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle with Different Powertrain Configurations in Europe

2026-24-0019

9/21/2026

Plug in hybrid electric vehicles play an important role in transportation decarbonization. Compared with battery electric vehicles, plug in hybrid electric vehicles generally have a lower production carbon footprint due to their smaller batteries, which require far less raw material. Despite their smaller capacity, these batteries are typically sufficient to cover most daily travel distances in pure electric mode. The hybrid powertrain can be configured in multiple ways depending on the number and position of electric machines within the driveline. These configuration differences significantly influence both the total carbon footprint and the use phase greenhouse gas emissions. In this study, we evaluate the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with various powertrain configurations in the European context. All configurations share the same premium mid-size sport utility vehicle glider. Battery capacity ranges from 20 kWh to 45 kWh, enabling an electric range of over 200 km under the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle. The number of electric machines varies from one, as in the P2 configuration, to three, as in the P1+P3+P4 configuration. Use phase emissions for each configuration were estimated in accordance with the latest European Union emission legislation. The P2 powertrain exhibited the lowest weighted fuel and electricity consumption, whereas the P1+P3+P4 layout demonstrated the highest overall electric and fuel consumption. A sensitivity analysis of use phase emissions was performed, followed by projections for scenarios with increased renewable energy shares in both electricity generation and liquid fuel production. Finally, an extreme scenario assuming 100 % renewable electricity and fuel was analyzed.

Nguyen, Duc-Khanh, Andersson, Simon, Kristoffersson, Annika

Thermal Effects and Combustion Behavior of Hydrogen and Natural Gas in a Heavy-Duty Gas Engine

2026-24-0003

9/21/2026

To accelerate the adoption of renewable fuels in heavy-duty transportation, a conventional diesel engine was retrofitted to operate on gaseous fuels. This approach supports the transition from diesel to renewable energy carriers while maximizing the reuse of existing engine platforms. However, converting a liquid-fuel engine to gaseous operation does not inherently ensure stable or efficient performance. Gaseous fuels require external ignition, and hydrogen, with its low minimum ignition energy and wide flammability range, places particularly high demands on combustion development. In spark-ignited heavy-duty gas engines, port fuel injection (PFI) is widely used because of its simpler integration and lower fuel-pressure requirements compared with direct injection (DI). However, PFI reduces volumetric efficiency and increases sensitivity to abnormal combustion, including backfire and pre-ignition. DI can mitigate these limitations by enabling fuel delivery after intake valve closure and allowing later injection timings, thereby improving system efficiency and mixture formation control. Experiments were conducted on a 1991 cc single-cylinder research engine representative of heavy-duty applications. Two fuel supply systems were evaluated: low-pressure PFI up to 15 bar and high-pressure DI up to 200 bar. Two novel injector designs were tested with hydrogen and natural gas to assess the effects of fuel type, pressure level, load, and speed. The cylinder head was instrumented with ten thermocouples to evaluate local thermal distribution. In parallel, exhaust emissions, including NOx, hydrogen slip, and unburned hydrocarbons, were analyzed to link injection strategy, mixture formation, combustion behavior, emissions, and thermal loading.

Rößlhuemer, Raphael, Fitz, Patrick, Fellner, Felix, Prager, Maximilian, Jaensch, Malte

Tailoring ICEs Towards Future Global Market Requirements – Multi-Fuel Capability To Ensure Next Decade Market Success

2026-24-0030

9/21/2026

The entire mobility industry currently faces enormous regulatory demands due to the Paris agreement and its corresponding initiatives to eliminate the business sector-related greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) emissions. A major focus is hereby set on wide-spread electrification of all kinds of applications, but from current perspective it is obvious that a quick and complete shift is highly unlikely, especially with view on heavy and challenging industrial and commercial applications. In line with this, it’s apparent that internal combustion engines (ICEs) maintain to play an important role in the overall propulsion system line-up. For compliance with the engaged CO2 reduction policies and efficiency improvement demands, a fast and broad replacement of fossil fuels needs to be realized. Due to the specific properties of carbon-neutral fuels and as well the variety of the range of industrial applications, different types of alternative fuels are considered. These novel fuels can be subdivided into preferred solutions for smaller or on-highway applications vs heavy off-highway and marine applications, or simply according to local or national preferences or policies. As of now, Hydrogen as well as Methanol/Ethanol is highly attractive for on-highway applications as well as construction/agricultural applications, the heavier and larger applications tend to more energy-dense energy carriers like NH3 and partially Methanol/Ethanol. In addition, to support a smooth transition to fully carbon-neutral operation, intermediate dual-fuel layouts are requested, partially requiring a full redundancy between classical Diesel operation and powering with new fuels. This complexity and variety in customer demands provide a major challenge for globally operating OEMs as future engines designs and definitions need to be developed under extreme cost pressure. The paper at hand delivers an interesting approach to design and develop modern ICE platforms for the anticipated multi-fuel case, aiming at superior key performance indicators concerning power output and efficiency, while maximizing the degree of commonality between the individual engine versions and variants. This flexibility and modularity needs to be incorporated in the base engine design, especially in the top end of the assembly, as it implicates different demands in air delivery and as well the transition from a diffusive combustion system to a pre-mixed combustion principle. This affects on one hand the installation of key sub-systems like fuel injection and ignition, but as well also the decision about an appropriate compression ratio and the definition of an adjusted in-cylinder charge motion. The article closes with recommendations for a future multi-fuel engine definition and an assessment concerning the major design changes in contrast to a refined and optimized Diesel engine layout.

Koerfer, Thomas, Dhongde, Avnish, Yadav, Jaykumar

A Bicriteria Mathematical Programming Model for Strategic Road Freight Fleet Renewal under Environmental and Economic Objectives

2026-24-0033

9/21/2026

Road transport is a major contributor to freight-related greenhouse gas emissions, and its relevance for efforts to decarbonize the transport sector as a whole is increasing. It is by now agreed that decarbonization of road freight will ultimately hinge on a transition away from oil-based fuels, mainly diesel and gasoline, which continue to dominate the sector. However, alternatives to oil span a multitude of technologies, ranging from electricity to biofuels, and entail varying levels and forms of investment. To support the development of informed decarbonization strategies in this context, we describe a bicriteria mathematical programming model for optimizing vehicle replacement decisions in a fleet of trucks to be operated over several years. Given a specification of the initial fleet, the model generates a set of renewal strategies that achieve different tradeoffs between aggregate well-to-wheel emissions and total investment and operation costs. The model captures heterogeneity across vehicle technologies, truck types, payloads, and operational profiles, while explicitly accounting for their implications for costs and emissions. The model also incorporates the installation costs of charging and alternative fueling infrastructure, of maintenance and insurance, as well as proceeds from salvage actions. Leveraging cost and emission data informed by French logistics operators, we investigate Pareto efficient strategies for the renewal of a fleet representative of real-world freight activity. The results reveal a clear cost–emissions tradeoff, with intermediate renewal strategies achieving substantial emission reductions before the sharply increasing marginal costs associated with full electrification are incurred. More broadly, the paper demonstrates how multi-objective, as opposed to single-objective, fleet renewal models make cost-emissions tradeoffs explicit and support the selection of decarbonization pathways simultaneously aligned with environmental goals and economic constraints.

Mifrani, Anas, Michel, Pierre, Mendes Alves, Breno, Chasse, Alexandre

Emissions Reduction Assessment in Buses During Real Driving Tests using Hydrogen-Methane Blends as Fuel

2026-24-0006

9/21/2026

Increasing concern over climate change on planetary scale and urban pollution on a local spatial dimension are the pressing needs which invite to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in transportation as well as pollutant emissions. Both goals have prompted governments, industry stakeholders, and researchers to pursue innovative pathways toward sustainability in the on-the-road transportation sector trying to interpret this concept on the three requested dimensions, social, economic and environmental. Within this framework, hydrogen–methane mixtures have emerged as a promising alternative fuel solution which in someways match the three expectations. This primary solution matches the needs of urban transportation by buses, representing a further innovation step after the diesel-fuel to methane conversion. Hydrogen is characterized by carbon-free combustion, while methane is a comparatively clean and widely available fossil fuel. When blended, these two fuels can lower overall emissions relative to the use of pure CNG, while still being compatible with existing internal combustion engines if the content of hydrogen in the blend do not exceed 20 % by volume. Greater shares till to 35-40 % are compatible simply re-setting the ignition time according to the engine load. This compatibility makes the adoption of such blends both economically viable and technically achievable in the short to medium term, also increasing the market demand for hydrogen, reducing its cost. The social dimension of this choice is also saved, re-focusing attention on the reciprocating internal combustion engines which represent a great part of the industrial economy. This study describes the methodology adopted to assess the emissions performance of a hydrogen-methane-fueled (HCNG) bus for on-road emission testing. Two experimental campaigns were carried out: the first using conventional CNG, and the second employing an HCNG blend composed of 15% hydrogen and 85% CNG by volume. Tests were conducted along two routes, representing urban and extra-urban driving conditions, with different drivers and traffic conditions. The experimental results enabled a direct comparison between the two fuels. In both driving scenarios, a slight decrease in CO₂ emissions was observed when using the HCNG blend, corresponding to a reduction in fuel consumption. More significant decreases were recorded for pollutants such as CO, HC, and PN, whereas NOx emissions showed a modest increase of only a few percentage points. No modification has been implemented on the aftertreatment devices. The study indicates that the HCNG blend enhances vehicle responsiveness compared to conventional CNG and represents a step ahead in public urban transportation like the one from diesel fuel to methane.

Di Battista, Davide, Di Bartolomeo, Marco, Di Prospero, Federico, Di Diomede, Domenico, Cipollone, Roberto

Use-Phase Emissions Comparison of Battery Electric and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles in Canada

2026-01-5074

9/17/2026

The objective of this study was to evaluate the in-use emissions and energy consumption of similar model internal combustion engine (ICE) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in Canada. For the ICE vehicles (ICEVs), carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions were measured at the tailpipe. For the BEVs, the carbon intensity of different energy sources was used along with vehicle energy consumption to estimate the in-use CO2 equivalent (CO2e) emissions. Three ICEVs, the Ford Transit, Ford F-150, and Nissan Versa, and three BEVs, the Ford E-Transit, Ford F-150 Lightning, and Nissan LEAF, were tested over standard test cycles on a chassis dynamometer. The Nissan Versa, Nissan LEAF, Ford F-150, and Ford F-150 Lightning were tested at two temperatures, 25°C and −7°C, to investigate the effect of colder temperatures on emissions and energy consumption. The Ford Transit 150 and E-Transit were tested at two test weights, 2722 kg (6000 lb) and 3629 kg (8000 lb), to study the effects of cargo loading on emissions and energy consumption. In most conditions, the BEV use-phase CO2e emissions were found to be lower than those of the ICEVs. Results showed a significant increase in both emissions in ICEVs (up to 20%) and energy consumption in BEVs (up to 78.5%) at −7°C when compared to 25°C. Results also showed the significant effect of the carbon intensity of electricity on the CO2e emissions of BEVs, where more carbon-intensive electricity grids resulted in higher BEV CO2e emissions, even surpassing ICEV CO2 emissions in certain cold-temperature conditions.

Araji, Fadi, Humphries, Kieran, Hornung, Jeremy, Shantz, Emory

Short-Term Load Forecasting of Sustainable Power Systems Based on Newton–Raphson-Based Optimizer–Extreme Gradient Boosting under Extreme Weather Events

13-07-02-0008

9/17/2026

With continuous advancements in load-side resources such as distributed photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles, and virtual power plants, the low-carbon and sustainable development attributes of power systems have been significantly enhanced. Meanwhile, the coupling intensity between sustainable power systems and meteorological conditions has been further consolidated. Considerable impacts are exerted by weather variations, particularly extreme weather events, on the dispatching and operation of sustainable power systems. Accurate load forecasting is critical for enabling sustainable power systems operators to optimize power generation strategy, ensuring supply stability and resilience against extreme weather-induced disruptions. However, the intrinsic non-stationarity and volatility of extreme weather events present significant challenges to conventional forecasting approaches. Herein, we introduce a hybrid algorithm integrating Newton–Raphson-based optimizer (NRBO) with extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) to enhance short-term load predictions under such conditions. The model uses optimally selected meteorological and load features as inputs, while NRBO systematically tunes XGBoost’s hyper-parameters to maximize performance. Evaluated on an Irish dataset, the proposed framework is quantitatively compared against five baseline models, including traditional decision trees and neural networks. The case studies show that the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of the proposed model is 2.57%, which is the lowest among these decision tree and neural network algorithms.

Wang, Yi, Zhou, Jian, Wu, Gang, Ma, Tiannan, Ma, Ruiguang, He, Chuan, Zhu, Huixian

Correlation of Tribological Characteristics with Brake Emission Factors in Automotive Disc Brakes

2026-01-0829

9/14/2026

Following the recent introduction of the Euro 7 regulations, research on non-exhaust emissions, including brake wear particles, has increased. However, full-scale dynamometer tests are affected by complex variables such as vehicle class and brake system specifications, which makes it difficult to analyze the unique characteristics of friction materials independently. Previous studies have predominantly focused on comparing emission levels by friction material composition or on disc surface treatments, and quantitative correlations, resolved by friction material type, between the physical wear mass of friction materials and the Brake Emission Factor (BEF), remain scarce. In this study, the brake emissions from various friction materials were precisely measured using a scale dynamometer reflecting the UN-GTR No. 24 standards. By applying the WLTP cycle, a quantitative correlation was derived between the friction characteristics and the BEF for each braking section. The results show that BEF varies with friction material type depending on the friction- and wear-related factor, while disc wear and total wear were confirmed, regardless of friction material type, to be common key indicators that exhibit a statistically high correlation with BEF.

Jang, Pan Gyu, Kim, Duck Hyeon, Jeong, Yoon Oh, Kwon, Sung-Wook, Jung, Kwang Ki, Lee, Jungju

Influence of Ferritic Nitrocarburizing with Smart-ONC® on the Modal and Damping Behavior of Gray Cast Iron Brake Rotors

2026-01-0798

9/14/2026

Ferritic nitrocarburizing (FNC) with in-process post-oxidation has been developed as a production-capable surface engineering solution for gray cast iron (GCI) brake rotors to meet the Euro 7 non-exhaust particulate emission limits. While prior investigations have demonstrated significant PM₁₀ reduction, improved corrosion resistance, and stable braking performance, the influence of FNC on noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) performance requires systematic evaluation. This study quantified the relative contributions of the alloy composition, rotor geometry, and FNC treatment to the modal frequency and damping behavior. Seven ventilated disc types from multiple foundries were characterized to assess the composition-driven variability. In addition, 120 production discs (ventilated and solid) were measured before and after FNC processing to isolate the treatment effects. Modal properties were obtained using impulse-hammer testing under free–free boundary conditions in accordance with VDA 301, and damping was evaluated using the half-power bandwidth method (Q-factor). The results show that the natural frequency is governed primarily by geometric parameters, scaling with the friction-ring thickness and disc diameter. In contrast, the damping behavior is dominated by the alloy composition and graphite morphology. Variations in silicon, chromium, and carbon equivalent produced a 3–4× difference in the Q-factor across foundries. FNC treatment had a negligible effect on the natural frequency (<1%) but produced a measurable increase in the Q-factor, typically 7–10% for solid discs and 22–32% for ventilated discs. The findings establish a clear hierarchy of influence: composition controls the damping, geometry controls the frequency, and the FNC introduces a secondary shift. Within production-relevant composition windows, FNC + Smart-ONC® does not represent a limiting factor for the NVH performance of Euro 7–compliant brake systems.

Awe, Samuel Ayowole, Holly, Mike, Winter, Karl-Michael

Predicting Temporal Friction Torque of Drum Brake Systems: A Mixed-Effects Random Forest Approach

2026-01-0809

9/14/2026

Drum brake systems are becoming increasingly important in electric vehicles (EV) and purpose-built vehicles due to cost competitiveness and EURO-7 particulate emission regulations. Despite this trend, drum brake friction behavior remains incompletely characterized due to its dependence on multiple coupled variables: temperature history, braking conditions, and component interactions. To address this gap, this study presents a method for developing a time-series friction torque prediction model using the Mixed-effects Random Forest (MERF) machine learning framework. Time-series data collected from sensors during drum brake dynamometer tests were analyzed to identify the key variables that govern the friction torque. Significant inputs were selected through Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA), considering test-to-test variability and potential mixed effects, and were then used to train and tune the MERF model. Model performance was evaluated by comparing predicted friction torque with measured torque, and prediction error was quantified by using Mean Absolute Error (MAE) to check whether predicted model is reliable. The proposed prediction model demonstrates a high level of agreement with experimental measurements, confirming that the MERF approach can effectively capture the non-linear and transient characteristics of drum brake friction torque from time-series sensor signals. These results indicate that friction torque estimation is feasible using only sensor signals already available from conventional test instrumentation, without additional dedicated sensors. This capability is expected to support broader applications, including brake performance prediction for vehicles equipped with drum brakes and enhanced simulation of drum brake thermal performance across operating conditions.

Yoon, Jungro, Cho, Sunghyun, Kim, Wonjoon

Aerodynamic Disc Brake Drag: An Elusive Source of Variability

2026-01-0802

9/14/2026

The ever-present drive to increase vehicle range and efficiency has resulted in disc brake caliper requirements at or near zero residual drag. It is increasingly critical to understand and design around potential edge cases that can drastically increase off-brake drag. One frequently observed, but often misunderstood, phenomenon is drag induced by aerodynamic forces surrounding the brake pad. Complex airflow characteristics surrounding the pad in the brake corner environment can lead to Venturi Effect induced air pressure differentials on each side of the pad, leading to transient, yet pronounced, increases in brake drag. This paper will follow a case study during which brake pad pressure differentials were discovered and objectively measured, review the Venturi Effect as it relates to brake corners, and explore modelling approaches for identifying and correcting designs that are prone to this phenomenon.

Robere, Matthew, Tresmondi, Thales

Predicting Wear of NAO Brake Pad Using Scaled-Down FMVSS 135 Testing and Machine Learning

2026-01-0808

9/14/2026

Brake pad wear is a major and growing source of non-exhaust particulate emissions, projected to reach 1.3 million tons annually by 2030 and contributing up to roughly 55% by mass of non-exhaust traffic-related PM10 in urban environments, underscoring the need for improved durability and material optimization. This study investigates a three-stage eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) ensemble paired with a residual Fully Connected Neural Network (FCNN) corrector to predict brake pad wear rate and support formulation optimization. Experiments used a simplified FMVSS 135 protocol on a Universal Mechanical Tester (UMT) simulating realistic braking across eight friction regimes. Wear rate was the sole machine-learning prediction target, while coefficient of friction (CoF) was retained as an input feature rather than a target. Despite a limited but high-quality 280-cycle dataset, regime-aware stratified splitting, sample reweighting, and hyperparameter optimization enabled robust generalization. The three-stage XGBoost ensemble with residual FCNN correction achieved a global held-out test R2 of 0.976 for wear rate prediction. A Taguchi L8 design of experiments defined the brake pad compositions, reducing experimental time and material consumption compared to conventional approaches. The framework demonstrated strong agreement between measurements and predictions for the dominant low-severity regime, while per-regime analysis identified the high-severity minority regimes as the priority for additional data collection, since within-regime R2 remains negative for every regime given current sample sizes. A sequence-aware mean absolute scaled error (MASE) analysis further shows that, despite the high global R2, none of the four pipeline stages currently outperforms a naive one-cycle persistence forecast on absolute error, a distinction reported here for transparency. The scalable architecture enables straightforward integration of additional material and process parameters, supporting iterative brake formulation development in industrial settings and, by reducing empirical testing requirements, sustainable brake material development with reduced replacement frequency and associated emissions.

Katakam, Abhishek, Eslamiat, Hossein, Kancharla, Sai Krishna, Filip, Peter

Preconditioned Air (PCA) Unit Air Quality, Humidity Management, and Cabin Connection

ARP6986 (Current)

9/11/2026

The provisions of this SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) cover minimum performance requirements and design parameters for preconditioned air (PCA) devices supplying air to the aircraft cabin. It identifies the need for interim and future performance improvement for ground equipment delivery systems, to meet industry requirements for reducing airborne compounds or particulates (“source types”) in the aircraft cabin and flight deck. This ARP will guide SAE, IATA, airline operators, and airframe and PCA manufacturers to meet new requirements. This ARP defines: Minimum performance and maintenance requirements for filtration, hose assemblies, operations, and maintenance. Level of humidity supplied by the ground equipment to the aircraft cabin. Minimum performance and maintenance requirements for digital communication of cabin parameters between the cabin and the PCA. Installation of the sensor unit within the aircraft cabin. The data collected by these sensors is not intended to assess impacts on aircraft occupant health and shall not be used to make a finding of airworthiness.

AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee

Structural Design and Stability Research of a Two-DOF Transformable Wheel for Enhanced Obstacle-Crossing Performance on Complex Terrain

2026-99-1130

9/11/2026

Under the constraints of conventional chassis layouts, traditional wheeled vehicles struggle to maintain stable obstacle-crossing performance on complex terrain. This study aims to enhance both the obstacle-crossing capability and stability of such vehicles. First, a transformable wheel capable of varying its effective radius and actively adjusting the wheel–ground contact configuration is designed, and its degrees of freedom are analyzed using screw theory. Next, based on screw theory and Lie group theory, position-level and velocity-level kinematic models of the transformable wheel are established, and system-level performance indices—including workspace, singular configurations, and force-transmission characteristics—are formulated. Finally, taking these performance indices as optimization objectives, a constrained optimization model of the mechanism’s geometric parameters is constructed, from which an optimal dimension set for the transformable wheel is obtained. The results show that the optimized transformable wheel has significantly improved minimum singularity and dexterity. The designed transformable wheel can achieve changes in wheel radius and wheel rim inclination angle, improving the vehicle's passability in complex terrain.

Lu, Shichuang, Wang, Tie

Analysis of Differences Between the Current CLTC and China’s Current Traffic Operation Characteristics

2026-99-1541

9/11/2026

With the significant increase in the ownership and market share of new energy vehicles, the current characteristics of China’s traffic operation have undergone remarkable changes compared with those before 2020. This paper focuses on a systematic study of the differences between the current China Light-duty Vehicle Test Cycle (CLTC) and the current traffic operation characteristics. Firstly, the data are derived from the actual on-road operation data of nearly 400 new energy vehicles collected during 2020-2025. Based on this, a comparative analysis framework is established from two dimensions: differences in variable characteristics and differences in test energy consumption. The results show that due to the substantial rise in new energy vehicle ownership and market share, the maximum speed on roads has increased significantly, and the acceleration and deceleration have become more intense. The significant changes in traffic operation characteristics have further widened the deviation between the energy consumption tested under the existing CLTC and the actual energy consumption. Comprehensive research indicates that the increased market penetration of new energy vehicles has brought about obvious changes to the traffic operation characteristics formed during the era dominated by traditional fuel vehicles. Therefore, launching a new round of revision work on the CLTC is of great practical significance for promoting the high-quality development of the new energy vehicle industry in the future.

Yu, Hanzhengnan, Cao, Xiaofei, Zhang, Hao, Yi, Junyu, Zhang, Yongren, Wang, Yang, Wang, Chuanjin, Liu, Te, Ma, Dehui

Research on Planting Concrete Preparation and Alkali Reduction Technology

2026-99-1518

9/11/2026

Planting concrete has drawn much attention due to its great potential in highway slope protection and ecological restoration. However, its practical application has been limited as its highly alkaline environment imposes severe restrictions on the germination of plant seeds and the growth of seedlings. To address this key issue, this paper conducted a systematic study on planting concrete preparation and alkali reduction technology. First, planting concrete samples that meet the basic physical and mechanical property requirements are prepared by optimizing the raw material ratio, mixing, molding, and curing processes. On this basis, the post-molding concrete samples are soaked in calcium superphosphate solution, so that the phosphate ions in it can have chemical reactions with the free calcium hydroxide in the concrete to make insoluble calcium phosphate salts, thus realizing chemical alkali reduction.

Liu, Ying, Yang, Wanting, Ma, Lijie

Numerical Calculation of The Ice-Breaking Resistance of the Icebreaker

2026-99-1517

9/11/2026

This study investigates the governing characteristics of ice resistance encountered by icebreakers operating in multi-year ice regions, with particular emphasis on the effects of bow truncation length, vessel speed, and ice thickness. A numerical simulation framework was developed using the finite element platform LS-PrePost to reproduce ice bending, failure, and ship–ice interaction throughout the icebreaking process. The numerical predictions were subsequently validated against physical model test data. The results indicate that ice resistance exhibits an increasing trend as the bow truncation length, navigation speed, and ice thickness increase. The ice resistance of different bow truncation lengths in the multi-year ice area is different. By truncating the model ship at different positions from the bow and analyzing the ratio of the ice resistance of the truncated models to that of the full-scale model, researchers can better understand the effects of bow size. This can provide a theoretical basis for conducting ice resistance tests with truncated model ships in a limited-scale ice water tank, and has certain practical value for the design and optimization of the icebreaker’s hull lines.

Liu, Yanwei, Zhang, Xiufeng, Yu, Yingjie, Wang, Lucai, Zhao, Weihang

Study on Life Cycle Carbon Emissions of Light Commercial Vehicles

2026-99-1539

9/11/2026

In alignment with China’s national strategic objectives of “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality”, this study aims to pinpoint key greenhouse gas emission sources across the full life cycle of light commercial vehicles. A specific model of gasoline-powered truck is selected as the research subject for this investigation. Using a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) framework and strictly following relevant international and national standards, this study constructs a three-stage accounting model covering the “raw material– manufacturing–use” process. This model quantifies the vehicle’s carbon emissions across all life stages and provides a detailed breakdown of their composition. Over 90% of the truck’s total carbon footprint stems from its use phase alone, highlighting this stage as the primary emission source. Within the use phase, the well-to-wheel emissions of gasoline are the main emission source. During the materials acquisition and processing stage, the smelting processes of steel and aluminum (including aluminum alloys) are the primary contributors to carbon emissions. The findings of this study can provide data support and technical references for commercial vehicle enterprises in low-carbon product design, green supply chain management, and the formulation of industry carbon emission standards.

Hu, Xiaona, Li, Jing, Chen, Ke, Cui, Chen

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