Browse Topic: Environment

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Cost Optimization Techniques for EV Charging Stations based on Renewable Energy Sources and Grid power2024-28-0146To be published on 12/05/2024
Adoption of Electric Vehicles (EVs) reduces air pollution by reducing harmful gas emissions. Such adoption, however, needs a reliable and convenient charging infrastructure, including smart EV charging. Renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaic cells, battery and wind energy systems can address these infrastructural gaps which work in conjunction with main grid power supply thereby providing low-cost electricity. This paper introduces an energy management algorithm for integrated renewable and grid power sources available at charging stations across India that considers techno-economic and environmental factors. The current work proposes a supervisory controller model that manages the load power demand of the charging station. The controller effectively deploys low cost energy sources based on the status of all available power supplies and reduces the overall charging costs in real time. The energy management algorithm ensures adequate stand-alone energy generation and
SHUKLA, ANKIT, Kushwah, Yogendra Singh, Suman, Saurabh
Technical Paper
Virtual recording generation using Generative AI and Carla Simulator2024-28-0261To be published on 12/05/2024
A Field Operation Test (FOT) and Use case scenario recording capture is very expensive due to the amount of necessary material (vehicles, measurement equipment, headcount, data storage capacity/complexity, trained drivers/professionals) and all-time robust working vehicle setup is not available, mileage is directly proportional to time, along with that it cannot be scaled up due to physical limitations. During the early development phase, ground truth data is not available, and data that can be reused from other projects may not match 100% with current project requirements. All event scenarios/weather conditions cannot be ensured during recording capture. Carla is an autonomous open-source driving simulator, used for the development, training, and validation of autonomous driving systems, by integrating generative AI, particularly Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) and Retrieval Augmented Generation (RAG) which are deep learning models, the process of creating synthetic data, and
Sehgal, Vishal, Sekaran, Nikhil
Technical Paper
Impact Of Time Aligned Measurement Parameters On Brake Specific Emissions2024-28-0132To be published on 12/05/2024
As per global emissions legislation requirements running test cycles and reporting brake specific emissions is the key requirement. Engine gaseous emissions measurement is mandatory requirement for ON Highway and OFF Highway applications for transient duty cycles during testing at test cells. To meet the stringent emission limits is one of the challenging tasks considering the nature of transient duty cycles with accurate measurement of lower emission values. Similarly calculating accurate results is critical since there are several factors which impacts the accuracy of calculated results. As per regulatory test methods, there is guidance on measuring the time lag through an experiment method and accounting the same during the results calculation, however during dynamic conditions, the time lags will vary and influence the calculated results. This paper focuses on understanding critical parameters which leads to variations in dynamic condition of time lag of measured emissions
Patil, Rahul Chandrakant, Rajoapdhye, Sunil, Mudassir, Mohammed, Mokhadkar, Rahul, Phadke, Abhijit Narahari, Bharambe, Niraj, DHURI, SANTOSH
Technical Paper
Dynamic modeling of torque & emissions: Digital twin to simulate combustion process and exhaust emissions for diagnostics & prognostics applications2024-28-0172To be published on 12/05/2024
A large fraction of today’s energy consumption is attributable to the transportation sector. Therefore, further development of internal combustion engines has a huge potential to reduce environmental impact through modelling complicated, fast and unsteady phenomena including the changes of emission gases concentration and output torque observed during diesel emission and combustion process. This paper presents research on the emission and combustion characteristics of a heavy vehicle diesel engine, elaborating an engineered framework for prognostics/diagnostics, state monitoring, and performance trending of heavy-duty vehicle engine and after treatment system (ATS). The proposed framework leverages advanced simulation and modeling methodologies to ensure precise predictions and diagnostics. By integrating physics-based models with data-driven techniques, the framework accurately models engine and exhaust system behaviors under various operating conditions. For exhaust system, framework
Singh, Prabhsharn, Thakare, Ujval, Hivarkar, Umesh
Technical Paper
Analyzing effect of reinforcement on stir casted 7075 Aluminum alloy2024-28-0165To be published on 12/05/2024
Growing demand for fuel-efficient vehicles and lower CO2 emissions has led to the development of lightweight materials. Aluminum composites are being used to achieve light weighting in order to improve performance, efficiency, and sustainability across various industries. The unique properties of aluminum composites make them an attractive choice for researchers and designers looking to optimize their products. Reinforcement materials play a vital role in the development of these composites, acting as barriers to dislocation movement within the aluminum matrix. This effectively strengthens the material and prevents deformation under load, resulting in increased tensile strength and fatigue resistance. Additionally, aluminum composites exhibit improved thermal and electrical conductivity, making them suitable for automotive applications. In this study, metal matrix composites (MMCs) of aluminum 7075 alloy were developed using silicon carbide (SiC) and fly ash as reinforcements. Three
Manwatkar, Asmita Ashok, Santosh Jambhale, Medha, Mahagaonkar, Nitin, Sharma, Dipesh
Technical Paper
Novel UWS mist injection technique for SCR performance improvement2024-28-0133To be published on 12/05/2024
The present study aims to meet the Euro-VII compliance applicable for internal combustion engines (diesel and hydrogen) by improving the performance of selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system using a novel UWS mist generation technique. The SCR system helps to convert the harmful NOx emission into harmless by-products by injecting the UWS, which is converted into ammonia (NH3). Despite the proven technology, there are several challenges presented in the existing system which degrade the SCR performance: (i) incomplete droplet evaporation (ii) solid deposit formation (iii) non uniformity of NH3 distribution at the catalyst entrance. The past studies shows that the droplet size plays a major role in this context. Further, it is noted that the smaller size droplets are desirable to overcome the impediments and enhance the efficiency of SCR application. Therefore, the current work numerically investigates the effect of mist (contains very fine size droplets) injection on the droplet
Venkatachalam, Palaniappan, Shiva, Shashidhar, GOVINDARAJAN, VAISHALI, Soni, Prerna, PATIDAR, SACHIN
Technical Paper
A predictive controller for battery cooling systems to tackle the comfort-safety-efficiency dilemma2024-28-0147To be published on 12/05/2024
The advent of electric vehicles has increased the complexity of air conditioning systems in vehicles which now must maintain the safety and comfort of occupants while ensuring that the high voltage battery temperature is kept within safe limits. This new task is critical due to the influence of the cell and battery pack temperature on the efficiency. Moreover, high temperatures within the battery pack can lead to undesirable effects such as degradation and thermal runaway. Classical solutions to this problem include larger air conditioning components to support worst case scenario conditions where the cooling request from the battery and the cabin happen at the same time. In such conditions, for the safety of the battery, the cooling request is assigned to battery system which may cause discomfort to the passengers due the significant temperature increase in the cabin during such events. The probability of such events happening is certainly dependent on the weather conditions but in
Palacio Torralba, Javier, Kulkarni, Shridhar Diliprao, Shah, Geet, Jaybhay, Sambhaji, Kapoor, Sangeet, Locks, Olaf
Technical Paper
Precise and robust SoC estimation using adaptive filters-based techniques for Electric Trucks2024-28-0152To be published on 12/05/2024
The traction for zero emission vehicles in the transportation industry is creating a focus on Battery Electric vehicles (BEV) as one of the potential alternate powertrain sources. To the relevance of electric trucks, the range estimation and optimum energy prediction & utilization brings utmost importance. Battery management system (BMS) controller is needed for optimized and safe operation of high voltage (HV) battery. For correct behavior of battery management system, it is important to accurately estimate the state of charge (SoC). SoC is an important and decisive factor for deciding operating limits such as current limits, voltage limits & battery operational range (charge-discharge interval). Inaccurate State of Charge (SoC) estimation can accelerate battery aging and cause damage to components, affecting energy throughput. Current state of art deploys coulomb counting technique for SoC calculation, this approach encounters the challenges like sensor noises and initial SoC error
Kumar, Raman, AHMAD, MD SAIF, Challa, Krishna, Ranjan, Ashish, Bayya, Madhuri
Technical Paper
Best Practices in Sensor Selection for Object detection in Autonomous Driving: A Practitioner’s Perspective2024-28-0218To be published on 12/05/2024
Object detection is one of the most important aspects in Autonomous Driving (AD) application. This depends on the strategic sensor’s selection and placement of sensors around the vehicle. The sensors should be selected based on various constraints such as range, use-case, and cost limitation. This paper introduces a systematic approach for identifying the optimal practices for selecting sensors in AD object detection, offering guidance for those looking to expand their expertise in this field and select the most suitable sensors accordingly. In general, object detection typically involves utilizing RADAR, LIDAR, and cameras. RADAR excels in accurately measuring longitudinal distances over both long and short ranges, but its accuracy in lateral distances is limited. LIDAR is known for its ability to provide accurate range data, but it struggles to identify objects in various weather conditions. On the other hand, camera-based systems offer superior recognition capabilities but lack the
Maktedar, Asrarulhaq, Chatterjee, Mayurika
Technical Paper
Anomaly Detection in Fleet Vehicle Data and Statistical approach to develop Engine System OBD thresholds2024-28-0195To be published on 12/05/2024
On-Board-Diagnostics are crucial for ensuring the proper functioning of Vehicle’s emission control system by continuously monitoring various sensors and components. When the failure is detected, the Check Engine Light (CEL) is triggered on Vehicle’s dashboard, alerting the driver to seek professional service to address the issue. However, the task of developing the Diagnostics strategies and perform robust calibration is a challenging and time consuming. Model in Loop Testing and Simulation is a technique used to understand and estimate the behavior of system or sub system. The diagnostics model can be tested and refined within the model-based environment allowing a complex system to be efficiently regulated. Model in loop framework could be used at various stages of development from very early in the design phase to later stages of series developments through vehicle fleet data. This framework allows an early identification and correction of errors and bugs. In this paper, the
Kumar, Amit, HEGDE, KARTHIK, Challa, Krishna, H, YASHWANTH
Technical Paper
A method on HPR critical route identification and evaluation in electric trucks2024-28-0150To be published on 12/05/2024
Heavy-duty vehicles, particularly those towing higher weights, require a continuous/secondary braking system. While conventional vehicles employ Retarder or Engine brake systems, electric vehicles utilize recuperation for continuous braking. In a state where high voltage battery of electric vehicles is at 100% of its designed capacity, at such scenario if vehicle travels on a route which has brake requirement, all this recuperated energy generated from the vehicle operation is passed on to high performance brake resistors(HPR) and this energy gets converted from electrical energy into waste heat energy. This study focuses on a method for identification of such a routes, which are critical for Brake Resistors, by analyzing the elevation data of existing charging stations, the route’s slope distribution, and the vehicle’s battery SOC. In the results entire method is demonstrated with the example of all the charging stations of Switzerland. This method has a significant applications in
Thakur, Shivam, Salunke, Omkar, Ambuskar, Mandar, pandey, Lokesh
Technical Paper
Domestically Produced Bioethanol Contributing to India’s Pursuit of Energy Self-Reliance and De-Carbonization of The Road Transport Sector2024-28-0126To be published on 12/05/2024
This paper explores India's energy landscape, critically analyzing the challenges and potential solutions for sustainable development. With aspirations to become the world's third-largest economy, India faces heightened energy demands fueled by economic growth, population expansion, and urbanisation. The country grapples with a heavy reliance on imported crude oil and a substantial carbon footprint from existing primary energy sources, emphasizing the need for strategic interventions. The research advocates a multi-fuel strategy, particularly emphasising the promising role of bioethanol. Key stakeholders in India's bioethanol ecosystem include farmers, Sugar mills, Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs), Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), and consumers. The National Policy on Biofuels (NPB) aims to boost bioethanol usage, aligning with national energy security, climate change mitigation, and employment generation objectives. The research underscores the positive energy value of
Singh, Rajnesh
Technical Paper
An approach to reduce noise generated by thermal management systems in electric vehicles2024-28-0211To be published on 12/05/2024
Electric vehicles are transforming the future of transportation for the world while achieving the goal of sustainable development. While the concept and use of battery-powered vehicles has also penetrated the logistics and supply chain industry, it has also brought upon new challenges during its development. As OEMs strive to develop EVs with extended range, the components within the propulsion and drivetrain system tend to demand a higher power output from the energy storage systems. This results in EVs generating higher levels of thermal heat energy, which must be dissipated / rejected for optimal performance and safety. Eventually, to reject this heat, EVs must deploy thermal management systems with higher capacities. This increase in size is accompanied by the inclusion of many parts that generate noise and contribute to increased noise levels in EVs. In today’s EV market, optimization of noise levels is a significant factor when ensuring passenger comfort, while also showing
Shedge, Atharva Vikas, Shalgar, Sandeep, SRIVASTAVA, SARVESH, Nagarhalli, Prasanna V
Technical Paper
Data Quality Evaluation and Assurance of Emissions on IC Engine2024-28-0134To be published on 12/05/2024
Engines are the predominant source of Earth's Air pollution contributor, hence there are various emission laws which mandate the use of Emission test cycle to verify that engine adhere to predetermined emission limits. A protocol found in an emission standard that enables consistent and comparable measurement of exhaust emissions for various engines is known as an emission test cycle. Values of emission parameters are the result of emission cycle. Measurements of GHG emissions - particulate number and particulate matter, carbon monoxide, total hydrocarbon, and nitrogen oxides are used to determine exhaust gas thermodynamic characteristics, fuel-air ratio, combustion efficiency, and emission indices. Because they link engine performance to environmental impact. The engine and aftertreatment system's exhaust emissions are currently having a significant negative impact on the environment. The emission indices (EI) are the characteristics that engine engineers and atmospheric emissions
Baraskar, Shweta, Rajoapdhye, Sunil, DHURI, SANTOSH, Patil, Rahul, Mudassir, Mohammed, Phadke, Abhijit Narahari, Mokhadkar, Rahul
Technical Paper
Assessment of Performance and Emissions from a Hybrid Vehicle Integrated with a Low Temperature Combustion Engine Undergoing a Drive Cycle2024-28-0140To be published on 12/05/2024
In the last decade, the increased global temperature, stringent regulations, and customer demand for high fuel economy have led to the accelerated development of alternative propulsion solutions, with particular focus on electrified vehicles. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), the combination of electric machinery with conventional powertrains, allows the diversification of powertrain architectures. In addition, it has been demonstrated that engines employing advanced low temperature combustion concepts, such as dual fuel reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI), and able to operate on both renewable and conventional fuels, produce ultra-low nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions while maintaining thermal efficiency similar to conventional diesel operation at part load operating conditions. Therefore, the combination of both technologies creates a promising horizon to be implemented in production vehicles in the near future. This study aims to investigate the
Marwaha, Tejasva, Khedkar, Nikhil Dilip, Sarangi, Asish Kumar
Technical Paper
Development of an Automated Testbench for Functional Testing of Dosing Unit2024-28-0202To be published on 12/05/2024
Increasingly stringent emission regulations continue to be legislated around the world to signifi-cantly minimize pollutants released to the air by internal combustion engines. After Treatment Systems (ATS) meant for reducing oxides of nitrogen (NOx) in the exhaust into non-harmful species have evolved at a rapid pace over the past two decades. Stringent emissions requirements have driven complex ATS architecture through sensors to measure delta-pressure, NOx, and tem-peratures. Accurate and precise performance of individual components as well as the integrated ATS is required to ensure regulatory compliance and efficient performance. Both of which require substantial amounts of performance and validation testing. Manufacturers have been developing the ability to accurately and efficiently test the ATS components. To meet the norms for tail pipe or stack emissions of NOx in ‘as new’ condition and during the entire ‘emissions useful life (EUL)’ of the ATS, all components of an ATS must
RAUT, Pratiksha C, Ottikkutti, Pradheepram, Phadke, Abhijit Narahari, Magar, Vijay A.
Technical Paper
Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) Associated Corrosion Risk Prediction for Aftertreatment System2024-28-0258To be published on 12/05/2024
Topic Name: Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) Associated Corrosion Risk Prediction for Aftertreatment System. Authors: Tushar S Udhane, Enoch Nanduru, Michael J Warwick, Donald E Willey, Tanishq Parikh, Nikhil Giri. Abstract: With emission regulations becoming increasingly stringent, the integration of Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) in aftertreatment systems has become essential for reducing nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions in compliance with these evolving standards. DEF dosing is a critical component in Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) systems, where it chemically reacts with NOx emissions in the exhaust stream to form harmless nitrogen and water vapor, thus significantly reducing the environmental impact of diesel engines. However, the introduction of DEF presents a challenge of corrosion risk within the aftertreatment system components. This study aims to predict the location of corrosion risks associated with DEF usage in Diesel aftertreatment system by employing a multi-faceted approach
Udhane, Tushar Sudam, Nanduru, Enoch, Warwick, Michael, Willey, Donald, Giri, Nikhil, Parikh, Tanishq
Technical Paper
Overview of Electric Vehicle Adoption in Bhutan2024-28-0130To be published on 12/05/2024
Nestled in the Himalayas, the Kingdom of Bhutan has a distinctive commitment towards sustainability and environmental conservation guided by the mandates of its supreme constitution and the concept of Gross National Happiness (GNH). The foundation of Bhutan's commitment to environmental conservation is built through strong policy enactments in conservation, waste management, and energy practices. Despite efforts to utilize clean and sustainable energy sources, Bhutan still heavily relies on non-renewable energy sources such as coal and its derivatives, biomass, and petroleum products, accounting for 62.4% of its energy share, with electricity from hydropower, wind, and solar energy accounting for 37.6%. Although the government has promoted EV adoption through policies and initiatives like the "Low Emission Development Strategy" and the "EV Roadmap 2035," the transport sector remains a significant consumer of energy, amounting to over 108,768.10 KOE (14.4% of the total energy consumed
Wangchuk, Singye, Dema, Dorji
Technical Paper
ML (Machine Learning) Approach to control Thermal Strategies and mitigate Sensor Failure penalty on Emissions2024-28-0170To be published on 12/05/2024
As vehicle emission standards are becoming stringent worldwide because of the looming climate crisis, it is important to control the pollutants that vehicles emit. To achieve the stringent emission target, it has become a priority to enhance the capability of emission control system (ECS) which consist of Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC), Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) sub-systems. One of the bottlenecks is the limited operating temperature range of the after-treatment system. In modern emission control systems, the temperature characteristics should always be optimized to have the best efficiency. To achieve the optimal operating temperature, different thermal control strategies are followed in the Engine and emission control unit. Temperature sensor values are one of the primary inputs for thermal management strategies. In the event of temperature sensor malfunction, the ECS performance is affected due to incorrect temperature input, resulting
Kumar, Amit, V H, YASHWANTH, Kumar, Raman, HEGDE, KARTHIK, Manojdharan, Arjungopal
Technical Paper
Efficient NOx sensor failure detection using frequency spectrum analysis2024-28-0216To be published on 12/05/2024
In the present times it is the responsibility of the vehicle manufacturer to reduce and monitor the emissions that their vehicle is emitting into the environment. One such vehicle emission which is very harmful for the environment is Nitrogen Oxides (NOx). All internal combustion engine operated vehicles will have NOx sensor in them to monitor the NOx getting generated by the engine. The information from this sensor is crucial in order to take the correct action by the vehicle emission control system to treat NOx before releasing it to the environment. Hence it is very important to detect the failure in NOx sensors. This paper addresses the challenges in identifying NOx sensor failures, specifically concerning complex and time-consuming diagnostic methods that require dosing of fuel for testing. The conventional approach involves NOx sensor rationality checks, heating catalysts, and comparing engine outlet NOx and vehicle outlet NOx sensor values. To overcome these limitations, this
Ramesh, Prashanth Mysore, Velichappattil, Anvar Hussain
Technical Paper
Electromagnetic interference measurement study from various electric vehicle drive train2024-28-0138To be published on 12/05/2024
The article presents measurement results from a semi-anechoic automotive EMC chamber with different electric drivetrains under various loading conditions. The measurements are conducted based on CISPR 12 standard guidelines, in which radiated broadband emission in the frequency range of 30 MHz to 1GHz using quasi peak and peak detectors are measured. Two wheeler, three wheeler and passenger cars with various drivetrains are selected for this study. Usually the measurements are done with no road loading condition as per standard recommendation. But in this paper we studied the effects of various parameters such as rolling, wind, and gradient resistance with the help of chassis dynamometer. The study examines and discusses how various vehicle architecture behaves under different conditions. According to the study, there are particular drive trains that emits more electromagnetic emissions when they are under various loading situations
Mulay, Abhijit B, M, Gokul, Patel, Jinay M
Technical Paper
Multiple Pathways to decarbonize PV Sector2024-28-0127To be published on 12/05/2024
The cumulative accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) historically has resulted in the current problem of global warming. This is further compounded by developed nations, therefore, to fill this gap enhanced global actions are decided. Considering Country's development need, available resources, government boost for agriculture, A holistic approach for 4W PVs is taken considering well to wheel emissions, as there are other ways to reduce tank to wheel emissions but may not be very effective for overall country's GHG reduction. Major emissions in vehicle use are calculated based on Carbon intensity of various fuels & optimum pathway for Indian scenario is prepared & discussed in the paper considering all aspects CO2 reduction, development & motorization need This paper explains multiple pathways for PV Sector to be considered to meet country's GHG needs
Sarna, Nishant, jaiswal, Harsh, Rani, Abha, Dwivedi, Vipin, Vashisth, Ajay, Bhat, Anoop
Technical Paper
Examining Ethanol-Biodiesel-Diesel Blends: Impact on Diesel Passenger Car Performance and Emissions Under Legislative Test Cycles2024-28-0125To be published on 12/05/2024
Incorporating ethanol and biodiesel into diesel fuel offers substantial benefits from bioenergy perspective. This approach aligns with the National Policy on Biofuels by reducing dependency on fossil fuels, promoting sustainability, and strengthening the agricultural sector through increased demand for bio-based feedstocks. To assess the effect of these alternative fuels, a study was conducted with different Ethanol-Biodiesel-Diesel (B7, E2B7 and E5B7) fuel blends on the performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel passenger car under Modified Indian Driving Cycle (MIDC) and Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC). A four-cylinder 1.5 L Common Rail Turbo based diesel passenger car was selected for the study. The test findings reveal that biodiesel blend (B7) produces higher CO emissions compared to neat diesel; however, these emissions decrease with the addition of ethanol (E2B7 and E5B7) due to its embedded oxygen content. Under MIDC, THC emissions decrease with
Dhyani, Vipin, Patil, Yogesh J, Singhal, Nikita, Khandai, Chinmayananda, kannala, Raghava, Muralidharan, M
Technical Paper
The Ranking of major Noise sources of a Multi Cylinder Diesel Engine2024-28-0131To be published on 12/05/2024
The internal combustion engine has become a prime source of mechanical power. In modern times, petrol and diesel engine-powered vehicles find wide application in the field of transport and agriculture. However, the progress has resulted in newer problems of different type of pollution problems like air and noise Pollution. Noise pollution is because of unwanted sound from engine structure, intake and exhaust are the principal sources of noise pollution & components. In the present problem, we have studied mechanical-induced and Areo Dynamic noise. Mechanical noise refers to noise generated by the vibrating surface of the engine structure, engine components and engine accessories after excitation by reciprocating or rotary engine components. In the present study, we are working on identification of the following engine sources: 1.Engine Structural Noise 2.Fuel Pump 3.Oil Pan 4.Air Suction Noise 5.Exhaust Noise These four noise sources like Fuel pump, oil pan,Suction noise and Exhaust
Goel, Arunkumar, Meena, Avadhesh Kumar
Technical Paper
Sustainable Storage & Transition from CNG to Hydrogen2024-28-0128To be published on 12/05/2024
As the world becomes more environmentally conscious, a sustainable transition from Compressed Natural Gas(CNG) to a hydrogen economy is necessary. Hydrogen is a clean and abundant fuel that has the potential to replace fossil fuels and significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This paper explores the feasibility of a transition from CNG to a hydrogen economy and the challenges that need to be overcome. The paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of both CNG and hydrogen and compares the two fuels in terms of energy efficiency, infrastructure requirements and environmental impact. The paper also analyses the status of the hydrogen economy and the policies and incentives that government is implementing to promote its adoption, storage, dispensing and usage . Finally, the paper presents recommendations for a successful and sustainable transition from CNG to a hydrogen economy
Vora, Kamalkishore Chhaganlal, Parasumanna, Ajeet Babu Kumar, Shembekar, Prashant Sharad
Technical Paper
Detailed FE Modeling of battery pack to predict Thermal Runaway2024-28-0154To be published on 12/05/2024
Electrified powertrain is the essential need to meet the C02 and NOX emissions compliance. Thereby focus of automotive industry is shifting towards to Electric Vehicle (EV). Thermal Runaway (TR) is still a big challenge to the safety of the EV. The major cause of TR is internal short-circuit of batteries under external mechanical abuse. When Anode and cathode of the battery comes in contact and short circuit happens. Internal short circuit is causing high amount of current flow and energy generation which leads to high increase in temperature. The approach that is used till date by OEMs is to protect the battery pack from structural damage during crash resulting into overdesigning of the vehicle. In this paper, detailed FE modeling of the battery system is considered for evaluating internal short circuit and TR. Solid Randle circuit is used for Multiphysics coupling simulation in Ls-dyna. Solid Randle circuits solves this Multiphysics and derives these electrical and thermal parameters
JAIN, TRIPTI, Bonala, Sastry, Dangare, Anand
Technical Paper
IMPACT OF LOADING DISTRIBUTION OF ABRAMS SUSPENSION ON TRACK PERFORMANCE AND DURABILITY2024-01-3114To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT High life cycle costs coupled with durability and environmental challenges of tracked vehicles in South West Asia (SWA) have focused R&D activities on understanding failure modes of track components as well as understanding the system impacts on track durability. The durability limiters for M1 Abrams (M1, M1A1, and M1A2) T-158LL track systems are the elastomeric components. The focus of this study is to review test methodology utilized to collect preliminary data on the loading distribution of a static vehicle. Proposed design changes and path forward for prediction of durability of elastomers at the systems level from component testing will be presented
Ostberg, David, Bradford, Bill
Technical Paper
Challenges in Adapting State-of-the-Art On-Highway Diesel Engine Technologies To Meet Military Specifications2024-01-3101To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT State-of-the-art Diesel engines used for on-highway operation are integrated systems containing multiple subsystems for performance and emissions enhancements. The drive to lower tailpipe emissions on on-highway engines drives system complexity which is both undesired and unnecessary for military ground vehicles. There are, however, on-highway technologies such as high pressure fuel injection systems and advanced turbocharger systems that allow improving the engines’ efficiency and therefore lowering its fuel consumption. The aforementioned technologies are currently available and present possible near term opportunities for military ground vehicles. The adaptation to allow reliable operation in military vehicles will be discussed as part of this near term view. The authors will also discuss the electronic controls architecture requirements that come along with these sophisticated technologies and discuss the advantages and opportunities that present themselves using advanced
Tatur, Marek, Tomazic, Dean, Koehler, Erik
Technical Paper
INVESTIGATION OF THE DURABILITY TRANSFER CONCEPT FOR VEHICLE PROGNOSTIC APPLICATIONS2024-01-3209To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT Vehicle prognostics are used to estimate the remaining useful life of components or subsystems, based on a limited number of measured vehicle parameters. Ideally, sensors would be available for every component and failure mode of interest, such that accurate data could be measured and used in prognostic estimates. However, this is impractical in terms of the number of sensors required and the costs to install such a system and maintain its integrity. A better solution is to relate the loading on a specific component to more generic vehicle behavior. This paper reviews a methodology referred to as the “Durability Transfer Concept”, which suggests that damage, or severity of usage, at various points of interest on a vehicle can be predicted simply from measured accelerations at some nominal location – a wheel axle, for example. Measured accelerations are double integrated to get displacements. Those displacements are then filtered using the Rupp or Lalanne method. A transfer
Halfpenny, Andrew, Hussain, Shabbir, McDougall, Scott, Pompetzki, Mark
Technical Paper
BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS OF A COMMERCIALLY BASED DIESEL ENGINE MODIFIED FOR OPERATION ON JP 8 FUEL2024-01-3185To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT The majority of commercial off the shelf (COTS) diesel engines rely on EGR to meet increasingly stringent emissions standards, but these EGR systems would be susceptible to corrosion and damage if JP-8 were used as a fuel due to its high sulfur content. Starting with a Cummins 2007 ISL 8.9L production engine, this program demonstrates the modifications necessary to remove EGR and operate on JP-8 fuel with a goal of demonstrating 48% brake thermal efficiency (BTE) at an emissions level consistent with 1998 EPA standards. The effects of injector cup flow, improved turbo match, increased compression ratio with revised piston bowl geometry, increased cylinder pressure, revised intake manifold for improved breathing, and piston, ring and liner designs to reduce friction are all investigated. Testing focused on a single operating point, full load at 1600 RPM. This engine uses a variable geometry turbo and high pressure common rail fuel system, allowing control over air fuel ratio
Lutz, Tim, Modiyani, Rajani
Technical Paper
ACHIEVING BALANCED SYSTEMS THROUGH STRUCTURED DECISIONS2024-01-3406To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT To support customers during product development, General Dynamics Land Systems (GDLS) utilizes a set of Operations Research/Decision Support processes and tools to facilitate all levels of decision-making aimed at achieving a balanced system design. GDLS employs a rigorous Structured Decision (SD) process that allows for large, highly complex or strategic decisions to be made at the system-of-systems, system, and/or subsystem level. Powerful, robust tools -the Advanced Collaborative System Optimization Modeler (ACSOM) and Logical Decisions for Windows (LDW) - are used to make relatively quick assessments and provide recommendations. The latest ACSOM algorithms have increased the response time for trade study analysis by over 2,000 times and future versions will incorporate logistics analysis helping to reduce vehicle Life Cycle Cost
Gerlach, James, Hartman, Gregory, Williams, Darrell, Parent, Jeffery
Technical Paper
SOIL-MACHINE INTERACTION: SIMULATION AND TESTING2024-01-3424To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT Researchers at Caterpillar have been using Finite Element Analysis or Method (FEA or FEM), Mesh Free Models (MFM) and Discrete Element Models (DEM) extensively to model different earthmoving operations. Multi-body dynamics models using both flexible and rigid body have been used to model the machine dynamics. The proper soil and machine models along with the operator model can be coupled to numerically model an earthmoving operation. The soil – machine interaction phenomenon has been a challenging matter for many researchers. Different approaches, such as FEA, MFM and DEM are available nowadays to model the dynamic soil behavior; each of these approaches has its own limitations and applications. To apply FEA, MFM or DEM for analyzing earthmoving operations the model must reproduce the mechanical behavior of the granular material. In practice this macro level mechanical behavior is not achieved by modeling the exact physics of the microfabric structure but rather by
Alsaleh, Mustafa
Technical Paper
Low Temperature Operation of Lithium Start Batteries2024-01-3359To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT The department of defense currently uses a number of models of vehicle start batteries with the “6T” form factor. These batteries are typically found in almost every vehicle in the DOD fleet and other systems that require 28VDC power. The use of power and energy on the battlefield is significantly changing and the Warfighter now requires a “start” battery that is used for more than just starting, lighting and ignition (SLI) for the vehicle. Lithium ion battery technologies are showing great promise in addressing these challenges by providing higher power capability for extended silent watch, battery monitoring and extended cycle life. One concern, however, is their ability to operate at low temperatures. One of the most challenging aspects of battery use in military applications is their operation at extreme high and low temperatures. These wide temperature swings can potentially have a dramatic effect on cycle life and performance. One significant concern, especially for
Marcel, Mike, Knakal, Tony, Helm, Jeff, Fagan, Bailey, Alexander, Les
Technical Paper
CAM-7/LTO LITHIUM-ION CELLS FOR BATTERIES WITH HIGH CHARGE/DISCHARGE PERFORMANCE AT EXTREME LOW TEMPERATURE2024-01-3364To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT TIAX is developing laminated prismatic lithium-ion (Li-ion) cell technology capable of rapid charging at low temperature (to -50 °C) to replace current lead-acid vehicle batteries. The novel cells are based on TIAX’s high energy, high power CAM-7 cathode material, high rate capability lithium titanate (LTO) anode material, and novel electrolyte formulation, and target cell-level energy content greater than 90 Wh/kg and 250 Wh/l. CAM-7 cathode material promises significant boost in power and run time of Li-Ion batteries for a wide range of DoD applications, and is now being commercialized by a separate company, CAMX Power, which is scaling up production in a 50 metric ton per year plant installed in Massachusetts
Ofer, David, Dalton-Castor, Sharon, Nation, Leah, Pullen, Adrian, Rempel, Jane, Barnett, Brian, Sriramulu, Suresh
Technical Paper
BRINGING PALADIN INTO THE 21st CENTURY2024-01-3452To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT The M109A7/M992A3 Paladin Integrated Management (PIM) is a sustainment program designed to bring the M109 Family of Vehicles (FOV) up-to-date and extend the service life of the fleet. PIM consists of the sustainment and upgrade of two military tracked vehicles; the Paladin M109A6 Self Propelled Howitzer (SPH) and the M992A2 Carrier Ammunition, Tracked (CAT). The M109A7/M992A3 program is engineered to improve readiness, avoid component obsolescence, and increase sustainability. These changes will increase the performance of the M109A7/M992A3, eliminate obsolescence issues associated with supplying new parts to the M109A6 and M992A2, and ease the logistics burden within the Artillery Brigade Combat Team (ABCT) through commonality of spares parts. The PIM project has been a multi-phase project with development expected to continue into 2015
Bailey, Bruce, Miller, Mark R., Brinton, Gordon, Swartz, Eric, Hamilton, George, Uetz, Paul, Jochum, Eric, Regmont, Dennis
Technical Paper
THE DISCRETE PARTICLE APPROACH TO MODELING AIR, SOIL AND HE FOR BLAST SIMULATIONS2024-01-3478To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT Discrete Particles are just as they sound, individual particles that represent Air, Soil and HE (High Explosives). They are not based upon a continuum theory and should not be confused with SPH (Smooth Particle Hydrodynamics) which is a full Lagrangian continuum theory. The modeling of Air, Soil and HE (High Explosives) with discrete particles requires millions of particles to accurately model the blast event. The innovation in software coupled with the advent of GPU Technology provides an efficient and robust solution to perform the analyses. Consider that the latest GPU processor, the Tesla K40, based upon NVIDIA Kepler™ Architecture, has 12 GB of GDDR5 memory and 2880 CUDA Cores. A standard workstation with an NVIDIA Tesla GPU is all that is required to perform the calculations and the benefits are a high degree of accuracy and simplified model setup. To demonstrate the use of Discrete Particles to model the blast event and show the effectiveness of GPU computing, the
Mindle, Wayne L., Gasbarro, Michelle D., Olovsson, Lars
Technical Paper
ADVANCED PERCEPTION SYSTEM FOR VEHICLE AUTONOMY2024-01-3170To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT An approach for a perception system for autonomous vehicle navigation is presented. The approach relies on low-cost electro-optical (EO) sensors for terrain classification, 3D environment modeling, and object/obstacle recognition. Stereo vision is used to generate real-time range maps which are populated into a hybrid probabilistic environment model. Textural and spectral cues are utilized for terrain classification and spatial contextual knowledge is proposed to augment object recognition performance
Flannigan, William C., Rigney, Michael P., Alley, Kevin J.
Technical Paper
RUGGEDIZED MAST – THE RIGHT SOLUTION FOR TODAY’S BATTLEFIELD SURVEILLANCE ENVIRONMENT2024-01-3068To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT Today’s battlefield requires access to information in a multitude of environments with varying terrains (both urban and rural) in either passive or active engagements. Ground vehicles need sensors that can be rapidly deployed to different locations and networked into the family of vehicles in order to effectively share information. Masted sensor systems, in particular, are a potential valuable resource with their ability to perform long-range surveillance over obstructions while minimizing vehicle exposure. To maximize effectiveness these systems must withstand harsh battlefield conditions without undue maintenance. The need for variable mast heights, on-the-move (OTM) sensor performance, the ability to support a wide variety of long-range sensors, internal cabling to better resist battlefield damage, resistance to armored vehicle vibration and shock environments, and rapid mast deployment and stowage have driven Lockheed Martin to a robust mast solution that meets this
Neely, David, Fosen, Keith, Poteat, Daniel, Carmichael, D. Brian
Technical Paper
Value Proposition of Lithium Ion versus Pb-Acid for Military Vehicles2024-01-3464To be published on 11/15/2024
ABSTRACT This paper will focus on understanding the value proposition associated with utilizing advanced lithium-ion 6T solutions versus legacy Pb-acid 6Ts for military ground vehicles. The value proposition will include an analysis of the benefits associated with lithium-ion 6T batteries and reduction in life cycle cost (LCC). The analysis of benefits will include comparative discharge curves at various rates and temperatures, discuss enhancements features such as an integrated battery management system that provides real-time battery diagnostics via CANBus J1939 protocol, increased power/energy density, reduced charge time and increased cycle life. The LCC analysis will investigate acquisition cost comparison, replacement rates, and reduced installation & transportation costs. The LCC analysis concludes with a detailed review of how the lithium-ion 6T solution can drastically reduce the operation and maintenance (O&M) cost of the Joint Light Tactical Vehicle (JLTV) over its 20 year
Helm, Jeff, Marcel, Mike
Technical Paper
Emissions analysis for a hydrogen-fueled low-pressure-ratio split-cycle engine2024-01-4312To be published on 11/05/2024
Recuperated low-pressure-ratio split-cycle engines represent a promising engine configuration for applications like transportation and stand-alone power generation by offering a potential efficiency as high as 60%. However, it can be challenging to achieve the stringent NOx emission standard, such as Euro 6 limit of 0.4 gNOx/kWh, due to the exhaust cylinder high intake temperature. This paper presents experimental investigation of hydrogen-air combustion NOx emissions for such engines for the first time. Experiments are carried out using a simplified constant-volume combustion chamber with glow-plug ignition. Two fuel injection techniques are performed: direct injection and injection via a novel convergent-divergent injector. For the direct injection scenario, NOx levels are unsatisfactory with respect to the Euro 6 standards over a range of operating temperatures from 200 °C to 550 °C. Recorded NOx levels can reach twice the permissible limit which necessitates the implementation of
Eldakamawy, Mohamed Hossam, Picard, Mathieu
Technical Paper
Quantifying Environmental and Health Impacts of Conventional Diesel and Methane Diesel RCCI Engine Emissions: A Numerical Analysis2024-01-4307To be published on 11/05/2024
A reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI) engine offers ultralow soot and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission in addition to higher thermal efficiency than diesel or compression ignition (CI) engines. However, the higher emissions of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) from RCCI engines pose a significant challenge that hinders their adoption in the future automotive sector. Additionally, HC includes several hydrocarbons that harm human health and the environment. This study aims to minimize HC and CO formation and emissions by implementing different injection strategies, including adjustments to spray angle configuration, injection timing, and fuel premixing ratio. Additionally, the study examines how different injection strategies affect the spatial and temporal distribution of HC and CO inside the combustion chamber. To achieve this objective, a numerical investigation is conducted on a single-cylinder diesel engine modified to operate in RCCI mode, utilizing a
Yadav, Neeraj Kumar, Chandel, Amit Singh, Maurya, Rakesh Kumar, Padhee, Srikant Sekhar
Technical Paper
Energy Efficiency Evaluation of a Hybrid Electric Tractor-Semi-Trailer Prototype2024-01-4319To be published on 11/05/2024
The objective of the project was to evaluate the energy efficiency of a hybrid electric tractor-semi-trailer combination prototype. The prototype was developed for log hauling application by integrating an existing tractor with an electric semi-trailer to improve fuel consumption and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. One of the conventional axles of the quad axle semi-trailer was replaced with a drive axle powered by an electric motor. Tests were conducted on a 105 km test route with a maximum difference in elevation of 355 m, including a hilly section with a length of 89 km. The results indicated fuel savings ranging from 10.5% to 14% per test run, with an average fuel savings of 12% when the electric drive axle was engaged. The hybrid electric tractor semi-trailer consumed 17.5% less fuel up-hill and 9.4% less down-hill. Throughout each test run, the battery’s state of charge fluctuated, averaging between 88% at the start and 52% at the end. Prior to each run, the batteries were
Surcel, Marius-Dorin, Mercier, Steve, Bonsi, Adime Kofi
Technical Paper
Efficiency Improvement in a 48-Volt Mild Hybrid Vehicle Using Rankine Cycle Waste Heat Recovery2024-01-4317To be published on 11/05/2024
The automotive industry faces significant obstacles in its efforts to improve fuel economy and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Current conventional automotive powertrain systems are approaching their technical limits and will not be able to meet future carbon dioxide emission targets as defined by the tank-to-wheel benchmark test. As automakers transition to low-carbon transportation solutions through electrification, there are significant challenges in managing energy and improving overall vehicle efficiency, particularly in real-world driving scenarios. While electrification offers a promising path to low-carbon transportation, it also presents significant challenges in terms of energy management and vehicle efficiency, particularly in real-world scenarios. Battery electric vehicles have a favorable tank-to-wheel balance but are constrained by limited range due to the low battery energy density inherent in their technology. This limitation has led to the development of hybrid
Kraljevic, Ivica, Spicher, Ulrich
Technical Paper
The effect Mechanism of Grain Size with Nanoscale and Microscale on Physical and Chemical Properties of Cu/SSZ-13 SCR catalyst2024-01-4305To be published on 11/05/2024
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technology is currently one of the most effective methods to reduce NOx emissions for engine. In order to cope with the energy crisis and environmental pollution problems, hydrogen engines have been widely studied in recent years. However, high NOx emissions under some working conditions still need to be further solved. NH3-SCR technology is considered to be the most promising hydrogen engine after-treatment device. This paper used Cu-SSZ-13, which is widely commercially available, as the research object, and explored the relationship between micron and nanoscale grain sizes through experimental methods such as BET, XRD, NH3-TPD, UV-vis-DRS and activity testing, the influence mechanism of micron-scale and nano-scale grain size on the morphology and properties of Cu-SSZ-13 catalyst was explored. The results show that the fresh nanoscale 900F sample has higher low-temperature NOx conversion efficiency, while the micron-scale 1800F sample has poor low
Chen, Yajuan, Lou, Diming, Zhang, Yunhua, Tan, Piqiang, Fang, Liang, Hu, Zhiyuan
Technical Paper
Investigation of Combustion Stability in an RCCI Engine Using Recurrence Analysis of Cylinder Pressure Data2024-01-4287To be published on 11/05/2024
The Reactivity Control Compression Ignition (RCCI) engine, with its dual fuel system and coordinated injection strategy, offers superior emission control and fuel efficiency compared to conventional diesel engines. However, cyclic variations leading to engine combustion instability poses a significant challenge to their development and commercialization. In this study, statistical (COV and Histogram) and nonlinear dynamic (Recurrence Plot and its Quantification) analysis techniques are applied on the time-series data obtained from a single-cylinder diesel engine modified to operate in CNG-Diesel RCCI mode. The engine, while advancing the main injection timing (SOI-2), is tested under various operating conditions, including different engine loads, direct injection mass ratios (DIMR) and port fuel injection (PFI) masses, to help identify the configurations with better temporal correlations and deterministic traits. Such configurations hold potential for control strategy implementation
Prashar, Rajat, Kumar, Kamal S., Yadav, Ratnesh Kumar, Maurya, Rakesh Kumar
Technical Paper
Emission characteristics of different TCR Diesel fuels in comparison to diesel fuel derived from other sources2024-01-4289To be published on 11/05/2024
As part of the European Green Deal, the EU has set itself the binding target of achieving climate neutrality by 2050 with the European Climate Act. At the same time, the EU is currently being confronted with an unprecedented energy crisis coupled with an increasing economic pressure, caused by military conflicts and geopolitical tensions resulting in increased fossil fuel prices. However due to high energy density liquid hydro-carbons are still critical needed fuels for transportation. On the other hand Biomass wastes, like sewage sludge and paper sludge, are currently a significant challenge to environmental protection. As a result due to nitrate pollution in soil, e.g. sewage sludge is no longer permissible to distribute on agricultural fields in a growing number of areas such as parts of Italy and Germany. Therefore there is currently a growing move towards the use of sewage sludge or paper sludge in thermal conversion processes. The Fraunhofer-Institute for Environmental, Safety
Seeger, Jan, Taschek, Marco
Technical Paper
The impact of dispersant additives in next generation lubricating oils for transportation sector2024-01-4301To be published on 11/05/2024
Next generation lubricating oils for transportation sector require higher durability in operation, compatibility with new engine technologies, aftertreatment devices and fuel economy (FE) characteristics, thus contributing to the reduction of CO2 emissions, both in passenger cars and heavy-duty vehicles. The current paper aims to highlight the impact of dispersant technologies for their main properties, that are preventing sludge and deposits formation on engine surfaces, and in regard to the effect on frictional properties of lubricating oils, through a multi-step activity. Oil contamination by soot is a big concern not only for diesel but also for new generation of direct injection gasoline (GDI) engines. The presence of soot leads to oil thickening that heavily impacts on friction coefficient thus enhancing the role of dispersant in controlling soot and related viscosity increase and, indirectly, fuel consumption for long running periods. After an introduction on dispersant
Lattuada, Marco, Manni, Massimo, Notari, Marcello, Ferraro, Giovanni, Fratini, Emiliano
Technical Paper
Prediction of WLTC Mode Drive Fuel Consumption of Vehicles Using Blended Gasoline2024-01-4291To be published on 11/05/2024
For the survival of internal combustion engines, the required research right now is for alternative fuels, including drop-ins. Certain types of alternative fuels have been estimated to confirm the superiority in thermal efficiency. In this study, using a single-cylinder engine, olefin and oxygenated fuels were evaluated as a drop-in fuel considering the fuel characteristic parameters. Furthermore, the effect of various additive fuels on combustion speed was expressed using universal characteristics parameters. In addition, the prediction of CO2 emission from passenger cars were carried out by changing the fuels. The CO2 emission in running WLTC was estimated using Modelica. As a result, it was found that the CO2 emission can be reduced by adding olefin and oxygenated fuels
Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Kuboyama, Tatsuya, Kawakami, Sota, Wang, Zhiyuan
Technical Paper
Effect of Direct Injection Timing and Premixing Ratio on the Deterministic Characteristics of Combustion Dynamics Diesel-Butanol RCCI Engine2024-01-4292To be published on 11/05/2024
The population growth has led to a significant rise in car demand, raising pollution levels. It compelled governments to enact more stringent pollution standards. Researchers are exploring alternative fuels and advanced low-temperature combustion modes to meet the emission standards. The reactivity-controlled compression ignition strategy is one of the potential combustion strategies to reduce the particulate matter and NOx simultaneously while maintaining higher fuel conversion efficiency. This study investigated the influence of Diesel injection timing and premixing ratio on the cyclic variation of RCCI engines fueled with gasoline and butanol as low reactivity fuel. The experiments were carried out on the single-cylinder diesel engine modified to operate in RCCI mode. All the experiments were carried out at constant load and engine speed. A developmental ECU was used to regulate fuel mass and injection time. The recurrence plot and recurrence quantitative analysis were used to
Yadav, Ratnesh Kumar, Mohite, Avadhoot Abaso, Maurya, Rakesh Kumar
Technical Paper
Parametric Sensitivity Study of Methanol Combustion Engine Assisted by a Glow Plug2024-01-4284To be published on 11/05/2024
This work numerically investigated the methanol compression ignition combustion assisted with a glow plug (GP). The GP was positioned in the middle of the two intake ports. A heating power of 50 W was applied to maintain a quasi-steady temperature of 1323 K for the heating medium. Sensitivity analyses were conducted on various parameters affecting engine combustion characteristics and performance, including radial distance (RD) between the glow plug and injector, relative angle (RA) between the GP and its nearest jet, intake temperature, split ratio of pilot injection, and intake and injection pressures. Due to the complex fuel jet-GP interaction, the optimum RA shifted from 10° at RD = 22.5 mm to 17.5° at RD = 12.5 mm. The optimal RD among the studied values (12.5, 17.5, and 22.5 mm) was found to be 12.5 mm, achieving an indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) of 42.1% at RA = 17.5°. Increasing intake temperature promoted combustion speed and engine performance, but excessively high intake
Liu, Xinlei, Sim, Jaeheon, Raman, Vallinayagam, Viollet, Yoann, AlRamadan, Abdullah S., Cenker, Emre, Im, Hong G.
Technical Paper
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