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Optimization of Active–Passive Integrated Evaluation Weighting for Pedestrian Protection

2026-01-0577To be published on 04/07/2026

Pedestrians, as the most vulnerable road users, largely determine the severity of traffic accidents through the extent of their injuries. Traditional vehicle safety evaluations have primarily emphasized passive safety. However, with the widespread implementation of active safety technologies such as Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB), passive-only assessments no longer adequately reflect a vehicle’s true pedestrian protection performance.This study employed finite element models of a sedan and an SUV to analyze changes in pedestrian head and lower limb injury metrics before and after AEB intervention, thereby quantifying the associated injury-mitigation benefits. The results show that AEB reduced the maximum head injury value (HIC15) by about 50%, lowering the proportion of severe head injuries from 0.217 to 0.118. Conversely, braking-induced pitch effects increased the proportions of severe femur and tibia bending moment injuries to 0.235 and 0.294, respectively, making them higher

shi, Xinxin, YE, BIN, Liu, Yu, Zhan, Zhenfei, Sun, Bowen, Zhao, yuanyi, zhu, lei

Correlating CFD and experimental vehicle aerodynamics using multi-fidelity simulation approaches

2026-01-0595To be published on 04/07/2026

The automotive industry faces several challenges requiring faster product development, where numerical simulations and digitalization are key enablers to reduce time to market and development costs. Numerical methods require both short turnaround times and high-fidelity results. Capturing small differences across vehicle designs, by accurately predicting complex flow phenomena is crucial for aerodynamics optimization. The disruptive and fast development of GPGPU computing hardware, promising accelerated turnaround times at lower costs, found its natural position in this landscape. This paper describes simulation approaches with increasing fidelity applied to a set of variants of a Stellantis estate production car: these include geometrical, yaw angle and ride height changes, and all were tested in wind tunnel test facilities. Correlation between aerodynamics CFD simulations using Simcenter STAR-CCM+ and wind tunnel measurements is verified by comparing drag trends, pressure probes and

Landi, Simone, Altmann, Peter, Cannavacciuolo, Ciro, Johannesson, Mani, Borowiec, Grzegorz, RIBES, Charles, Guzman, Arturo, Miretti, Luca

Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of 1U CubeSat Structures using ANSYS: Insights for Mobility Applications

2026-01-0145To be published on 04/07/2026

Particularly for small satellites like CubeSats, the growing commercialization and downsizing of space technology have brought both new opportunities and problems in the areas of heat management and structural design. A Single Unit (1U) CubeSat structure's design and simulation analysis are presented in this work, with an emphasis on the structure's mechanical and thermal performance during launch and orbit. The CubeSat platform, which is frequently constructed using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components, needs robust and lightweight structures that can handle mechanical loads and high temperature changes. In order to conduct mechanical stress loading (MSL) and thermal analysis (TA) on a 3D CubeSat model, this work uses ANSYS in a simulation-driven manner. Geometry modeling, meshing, boundary condition application, and simulation of important space environment elements including microgravity, solar radiation, and launch-induced stresses are all part of the process. The findings

Hussain, Muzammil, Azeem, Naqash, Adeel, Muhammad

A Study on the Engine Vibration Control of Parallel Hybrid Vehicle based on the On-line Estimation of Engine Torque Fluctuations

2026-01-0002To be published on 04/07/2026

For a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) with a crankshaft-integrated e-motor, the e-motor can be utilized to compensate for typical combustion engine vibrations. This paper presents a feedforward engine vibration control methodology based on efficient real-time estimation of engine torque fluctuation, primarily derived from in-cylinder pressure profiles obtained through steady-state dynamometer tests at various operating points. The measured pressure profiles are decomposed into motoring pressure and combustion pressure components, where the motoring pressure component is further decomposed into idle speed pressure and throttle-associated motoring pressure components. These pressure components are converted into corresponding fluctuating torque elements. The resulting torque profiles are tabulated, then scaled and shifted according to the torque demand and ignition angle under real driving conditions, thereby enabling estimation of the pressure torque and subsequently total torque

Park, Keychun

Development and Trial of a Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm for Rapid Engine Calibration

2026-01-0285To be published on 04/07/2026

In the quickly changing automotive powertrain landscape, calibration processes are a major bottleneck to production and new technology development. The implementation of rapid powertrain calibration processes can reduce development resource requirements, improve performance, and reduce risk. In previous works the author successfully developed an internal combustion engine calibration strategy using a Lagrange-Multiplier genetic algorithm for multi-constraint optimization. In the present work, this previous algorithm is expanded to create and demonstrate a new non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm which is aimed at identifying the entire Pareto front of the relationship between two engine performance parameters. Accurate and rapid identification of Pareto fronts enables designers to effectively and efficiently balance performance tradeoffs and identify optimal calibration settings. The algorithm developed here optimized the calibration of three combustion control parameters

Mansfield, Andrew

In-Situ Raman Measurements of Fuel Dilution of Lubricant Films in a Direct-Injection Spark-Ignition Engine

2026-01-0355To be published on 04/07/2026

To measure the fuel proportion within the lubricant film, an in-situ Raman spectroscopy technique was employed in a specially modified single-cylinder direct-injection spark-ignition engine. The engine block was engineered for optical access with a fused silica window, enabling a focused laser beam to probe the lubricant film on the engine liner under motoring conditions. The lubricant used was GTL8 base oil with ZDDP additive, and iso-octane was injected as a model fuel to study fuel-lubricant mixing. A calibration curve was established by recording Raman spectra of known mixtures of GTL8 oil and iso-octane. The Raman intensity ratio of the iso-octane peak to the oil peak was used as a quantitative indicator of fuel concentration. During engine operation, Raman spectra were acquired in real time, on a cycle-by-cycle basis, through the optical window. Upon iso-octane injection, its characteristic Raman peak appeared in the spectrum, and the intensity ratio was referenced against the

Bolle, Bastien, Augoye, Kobi, Wong, Janet, Aleiferis, Pavlos, Hall, Jonathan, Bassett, Mike, Cracknell, Roger

The effect of diesel fuel compositions and distillation properties on PM production

2026-01-0346To be published on 04/07/2026

Although overall demand for petroleum products is expected to decline, diesel fuel demand is projected to remain stable. Modern refineries produce diesel fuel by blending straight-run diesel fuel with cracked fractions like Light Cycle Oil (LCO) and kerosene. Cracked fractions are characterized by high concentrations of aromatic and naphthenic compounds compared to straight-run diesel fuel, whereas kerosene exhibits lighter distillation properties. This study quantitatively assesses the effects of diesel fuel composition and distillation properties on PM formation using engine bench tests designed to reflect practical refinery blending operations. To isolate the impact of fuel composition, test fuels were formulated with substantial variations in aromatic and naphthenic content, while other key parameters were held constant. To investigate the influence of distillation properties, two sets of test fuels were prepared: one series with varying front-end volatility achieved by adjusting

Katori, Kohei, Seo, Masahiro, Takahashi, Ko

Virtual Sensor Development for Real-Time Estimation of Transient NOx Emissions for Internal Combustion Engine

2026-01-0370To be published on 04/07/2026

Accurately measuring NOx emissions under transient engine conditions is becoming increasingly important with upcoming Euro 7 and EPA 2027 regulations. Traditional physical sensors often struggle with cost and response time, especially with aging of sensors in dynamic operation. This paper introduces a machine-learning–based virtual NOx sensor that can provide real-time emission estimates while reducing reliance on hardware sensors. The approach uses multiple machine-learning methods (Random Forest, Bootstrap Aggregating, Adaptive Boosting, Gradient Boosting, Extreme Gradient Boosting) and selected best one to establish correlations between engine operating parameters, measured steady-state data, and transient duty cycle NOx emissions. Validation across different duty cycles has shown strong alignment with physical sensor readings, with R² values above 0.9995 for known data sets and above 0.9534 for unseen conditions. The model needs to be trained with larger training samples to further

Kumar, Chandan, Dahodwala, Mufaddel, Thawrani, Kiran

Experimental Study on the effect of Ignition Strategy on Combustion and Emissions in a Direct Injection Hydrogen Engine

2026-01-0330To be published on 04/07/2026

Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines (H₂ICEs) are a promising pathway toward carbon-neutral transportation, but their efficiency and emissions performance are highly sensitive to ignition control strategies. This study systematically investigates the combined effects of spark timing (−10 to −26 °CA bTDC) and spark energy (25–40 mJ) on combustion characteristics in a port fuel-injected H₂ICE operating at a constant speed of 1400 r/min under low, medium, and high load conditions. Results show that spark timing advance produces load-dependent effects: at low load, it increases the peak heat release rate while delaying peak pressure and shortening combustion duration; at medium and high loads, it advances both peaks toward TDC with an optimal spark timing shifting closer to −14 °CA. Ignition delay was only slightly reduced at low load but significantly shortened—by about 3 °CA—at high load. NOₓ emissions increased nearly linearly with spark advance, while slight retardation

ZHAO, KEQIN, Lou, Diming, zhang, yunhua, Fang, Liang, Tan, Piqiang, Hu, Zhiyuan

Curvature-Based End-to-End Autonomous Vehicle Path Planning at Intersections

2026-01-0045To be published on 04/07/2026

Autonomous vehicle navigation requires accurate prediction of driving path curvature to ensure smooth and safe trajectory planning. This paper presents an end-to-end approach to curvature prediction using deep neural networks trained on real-world driving data. We develop a comprehensive neural network architecture that directly maps high-dimensional sensor inputs to curvature predictions, eliminating the need for intermediate feature engineering steps. The model processes multi-modal inputs including vision features, vehicle state parameters, and environmental context through a deep learning pipeline. Our end-to-end approach demonstrates the feasibility of learning complex driving behaviors directly from raw sensor data, providing a more robust and generalization solution compared to traditional rule-based methods. The neural network architecture incorporates dropout regularization and adaptive learning rate scheduling to ensure stable training and optimal performance. Results show

Hajnorouzali, Yasaman, Wang, Hanchen, Li, Taozhe, Burch, Collin, Lee, Victoria, Tan, Lin, Arjmandzadeh, Ziba, Xu, Bin

Pre-Crash Scenario Analysis and Generation for Integrated Safety System Virtual Testing with Real Accident Data

2026-01-0062To be published on 04/07/2026

Integrated active and passive safety protection systems have made substantial contributions to reducing traffic accidents and mitigating human injuries. However, assessing such systems through vehicle collision tests is limited, as this approach can not cover the wide range of accident scenarios. To address this gap, identifying and generating representative pre-crash scenarios from real-world accidents provides key boundary conditions for the set up of virtual test scenarios. In this study, we used the Future Mobile Traffic Accident Scenario Study (FASS) dataset to reconstruct 112 two-wheeler accidents. For each case, we extracted pre-crash dynamic information, static attributes, and environmental context. An auto-encoder was employed to encode high-dimensional features of scenarios, and K-means clustering was applied to categorize the accidents into eight representative pre-crash scenarios. For each scenario, we examined the motion states of participants and further compared the

Wang, Guojie, Gao, Xin, Liu, Siyuan, Liu, Jiaxin, Li, Quan, shi, liangliang, Nie, Bingbing

Modeling Non-Uniform Temperature Distribution in Lithium-Ion Batteries

2026-01-0120To be published on 04/07/2026

Effective thermal management is critical to the performance, lifespan, and safety of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles (EV). Transient and non-uniform temperature distributions within cells accelerate degradation, cause pack imbalance, and reduce efficiency. Localized hotspots, in particular, promote lithium plating, solid electrolyte interface (SEI) growth, and other failure mechanisms. Persistent non-uniformities increase the likelihood of thermal runaway under high-stress operation. To address these challenges, this work develops a one-dimensional thermal model that captures heat generation and dissipation under dynamic operating conditions, incorporating both conduction within the cell and active convective cooling. Using a DFSS-based approach, we evaluate design and cooling strategies that minimize temperature differentials while maintaining acceptable operating ranges. The findings provide practical guidance for battery thermal management system design, emphasizing

El-Sharkawy, Alaa, Asar, Mona, Serpento, Stan, Sheta, Mai

Low-Cost Packaging of SiC Power Modules for EV Traction Inverters

2026-01-0119To be published on 04/07/2026

The increasing demand for efficient and cost-effective power electronics in electric vehicle (EV) traction inverters necessitates innovative power module designs. This paper presents a novel SiC power module packaging focused on low-cost fabrication and assembly.. The proposed design features a simplified sandwich structure consisting of a lead frame, the innovative epoxy composite deposited on a high-performance cold plate. The novel epoxy composite eliminates the critical solder connection typically found between the DBC/AMB and the cold plate. This significantly streamlines the thermal path by reducing the number of material layers and interfaces between the SiC chip and the coolant. As a result, the integrated stack-up achieves significantly low junction-to-coolant thermal resistance (Rth) while delivering substantial cost savings related to power module module packaging. This work provides the details on the power module prototype fabrication steps and functionality including the

Chen, Yu, Mena-Garcia, Javier, Chen, Hao, Xiao, Kewei, Gupta, Man Prakash, Degner, Michael

BEV incremental CO2 emissions in a ranked order electric grid

2026-01-0424To be published on 04/07/2026

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) have been promoted and required by many governments towards the need to reduce transportations CO2 emissions. BEV are not “Zero Emissions Vehicles” because they run on grid electricity, but could be ‘effectively ZEV’ if the incremental CO2 is ‘very small’. To answer this question at the national level, three metrics are needed and estimated: (1) ICEV fuel consumption, approximated by the total US gasoline consumption divided by the total fleet miles driven, 25 mpg or 350 g CO2/mi. For strong HEV it is about one third less, 240 g CO2/mi. (2) BEV energy consumption, using data from systematic on-road testing of a wide range of vehicles, estimated at 40 kWh/100 mi for a US sales mix. (3) Electric grid marginal CO2, with ranked order sourcing: zero-CO2 sources are prioritized and supplemented by fossil sources. IEA hourly data show that the US 48 contiguous states are nearly self-contained, with zero-CO2 sources providing about a third of total demand. The

Phlips, Patrick

CFD-Based Investigation of Fuel Tank Sloshing: Crash Safety and Noise Concerns

2026-01-0490To be published on 04/07/2026

A computational study using the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method in SimericsMP+ was conducted to investigate fuel sloshing in automotive fuel tanks under both crash and sudden stop conditions. The SEALs method was employed to rapidly generate the fuel tank mesh, enabling efficient simulation setup. At the outset, a benchmark sloshing case was simulated and compared against experimental data, showing excellent agreement to validate the simulation method. This simulation method was then applied to the fuel tank sloshing scenarios mimicking crash and sudden stop conditions. The study initially focused on a crash scenario where fuel waves impact valves, pumps, and other internal structures. Capturing these localized impact forces is critical for evaluating the risk of component failure and potential leakage. A baffle-equipped tank was simulated and compared with sensor data. Results show that the computed shock forces on valves and baffles closely matched the measurements, demonstrating the

Jia, Kun, Rahman, Ashique

Exploring Bionic Twisted TPMS Designs for Improved Energy Absorption

2026-01-0243To be published on 04/07/2026

Triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) lattice structures have emerged as a promising class of customizable mechanical metamaterials owing to their outstanding potential in lightweight design and multifunctional engineering applications. However, previous studies have mainly concentrated on global parameters such as wall thickness, cell size, and periodicity, while the local deformation and pre-deformation characteristics of unit cells, particularly the twist effects along specific directions, have not been systematically investigated. To address this gap, a bioinspired twisted design strategy was proposed in this study, in which controllable pre-twist was introduced along the build direction to tailor the energy absorption behavior of lattice structures. Twisted lattice specimens with different twist angles were fabricated using selective laser melting, and their mechanical properties were comprehensively examined through numerical simulations and experimental validation. The results

Liu, Zhe, Lian, Yuehui, Li, Youguang, Guo, Pengbo, Zhong, Gaoshuo

Physics-Based Simulation for Sustainable Fuels Part 2.1: Inter-Ring Pressure Measurements and 2D/3D Ring Dynamics Analysis Across Multiple Engine Platforms – Light Vehicle

2026-01-0281To be published on 04/07/2026

The growing demand for sustainable mobility and transportation is accelerating the adoption of alternative fuels, particularly hydrogen, in internal combustion engines. The first part of this publication series highlights the significance of 2D simulation as a crucial and computationally efficient tool for the precise development of hydrogen Power Cylinder Units. This approach demonstrates predictive capability proofed through engine tests, achieving a reduction in lube oil consumption by 5–7 g/h during high-load operations, alongside a 28% decrease in blow-by and an 11% reduction in hydrogen flow to the crankcase. To provide deeper insights into the complexities identified in Part 1, this study employs inter-ring pressure measurements across various engine types and configurations, including light vehicles, heavy-duty trucks, and large-bore applications, covering a broad range of engine displacements from 2 to almost 100 liters. This investigation in Part 2.1 focuses on understanding

Moreira, Rui, Rösch, Hannes, Ehnis, Holger, Köser, Philipp

Prediction of Pressure Pulsation in Brake Line Considering Wave Propagation Characteristics of Fluid Contained in Flexible Hose for Automotive Hydraulic Brake System

2026-01-0225To be published on 04/07/2026

Brake pulsation noise caused by fluid-borne vibration, which is generated by pressure pulsations from the pump in the Electronic Stability Control (ESC) modulator, occurs when the control brake function is activated under various driving conditions, such as Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) and regenerative-friction brake coordination. This noise is particularly noticeable in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), where the background noise from the power source is lower than that of internal combustion engine vehicles. The simulation of pressure pulsations in the brake system requires the excitation force of the pump built into the ESC modulator, the characteristics of valves, and the characteristics of the flexible hose; however, it is extremely difficult to determine these parameters with high accuracy from the design specifications. For this reason, in this study, the pump and valves were experimentally identified, while the flexible hose was represented by a three-element Voigt model to

Koike, Yohei, Komada, Masashi, Yano, Masahiro, Yoshioka, Nobuhiko

A Holistic Approach to Pre-Chamber Design, Integration, and Operational Optimization

2026-01-0310To be published on 04/07/2026

As internal combustion engines continue to play a critical role in hybrid on-road and numerous non-road applications, there is a continued push to increase efficiency and minimize tailpipe emissions. However, reduced investment in new engine architectures means retrofittable technologies are favored to continue incremental performance improvements to existing engine platforms. To maintain the relatively low capital cost of engine-based powertrains, these technologies must be low-cost and compatible with the diverse mix of fuels that may be encountered across various market segments in the future. Pre-chambers have shown significant potential for improving spark-ignited engine performance across a wide range of engine sizes, from motorsport applications to stationary power, and operating conditions, from stoichiometric operation to ultra-lean. Understanding the degree to which this central combustion technology must be tailored to optimize its performance with a variety of fuels and

Peters, Nathan, Pothuraju Subramanyam, Sai, Hoth, Alexander, Bunce, Mike

Investigation on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in the Dissimilar Joining of WE43 to AA7075 Alloy using FSW

2026-01-0229To be published on 04/07/2026

This research investigates the alterations in microstructure, microhardness, and joint strength resulting from the dissimilar friction stir welding (FSW) of WE43 magnesium alloy to AA7075 aluminium alloy. The study specifically analyses the role of FSW process parameters in the formation of intermetallic compounds (IMCs), the evolution of grain structure, the resultant microhardness distribution across the weld zone, and the joint tensile strength. A comprehensive microstructural characterization was performed utilizing optical microscopy (OM), field emission scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (FESEM-EDS), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). These analyses confirmed significant refinement of grain in the stir zone and the identification of various IMCs at the weld interface. Microhardness mapping indicated a gradient profile, with the weld nugget exhibiting superior hardness attributed to its dynamically

Ahmad, Tariq, Khan, Noor Zaman, Ahmad, Babar, Siddiquee, Arshad Noor

Real-Time Observations of the Effect of Fuel Dilution in an Engine Transient Friction Rig. Along with Real-Time Observations of Fuel Entering and Leaving Internal Combustion Engine Oil, over both Standard Engine, ICE and Hybrid, HEV Dynamic Drive Cycles.

2026-01-0351To be published on 04/07/2026

Hybrid electric vehicles with an increasing level of electrification, are becoming a major part of the global energy transition. To achieve lower engine tailpipe exhaust emissions and improve total fuel consumption, typically the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) control system efficiently and frequently switches between the internal combustion engine and electric motor drive, with multiple stops and restarts of the internal combustion engine. A consequential result of this switching is typically slower, or even incomplete engine warm up times, depending on the engine speed, load pattern and run time of the vehicle drive cycle. Along with the speed and load transient control, the engine stop and start processes are also challenging to control, with respect to cold start fuel and combustion by-products entering the oil. Consequently, contamination enters the engine oil but may not completely leave. These effects are highly transient over the drive cycle with contaminants, in particular fuel

Butcher, Richard, Bradley, Nathan, Thedering, Dennis

Leveraging Large Language Models for CAD Automation and Multi-Objective Optimization of Automotive Heat Exchangers

2026-01-0506To be published on 04/07/2026

The design of automotive heat exchangers is a critical challenge, requiring the careful balance of thermal performance, aerodynamic efficiency, structural integrity, and manufacturability. Traditional design processes rely heavily on manual CAD modeling and iterative simulations, which are both time-intensive and computationally demanding. Recent advances in artificial intelligence, particularly in Large Language Models (LLMs) and Transformer-based architectures, open new possibilities for automating these tasks. This work introduces a novel framework that integrates LLMs with CAD kernels to generate parametric heat exchanger geometries directly from natural language descriptions. The models are automatically exported into standard formats for computational fluid dynamics simulations and seamlessly incorporated within a multi-objective optimization pipeline. By coupling natural language-driven CAD automation with advanced optimization techniques, the framework enables rapid exploration

Chaudhari, Prathamesh, Tovar, Andres

Dual Battery Pack System for Multi-Voltage Electric Vehicle Operation

2026-01-0392To be published on 04/07/2026

Electric Vehicles (EV) have become a major focus in the automotive industry. This paper introduces a propulsion system design, which supports the Wide Torque Band (WTB) concept to boost the power density of PM (permanent magnet) motors in EV Trucks resulting in performance, efficiency, and cost benefits. The WTB drive requires an 800V battery for vehicle operation. The chosen solution combines two 400V battery packs to create a selectable 400V/800V DC bus. The electrical hardware and controls to manage the dual battery packs in either series (800V) or parallel (400V) mode are presented in this paper. A prototype battery management system (BMS) along with existing production Voltage, Current, Temperature Monitoring (VITM) hardware are applied to perform mode switching, safety, and cell balancing. The success of this dual pack hardware enables high voltage dynamometer testing of a new 800V DU (Drive Unit) and inverters for EVs. The flexibility of switching between two voltage levels (400

Zhu, Yongjie, Lee, Chunhao, Gopalakrishnan, Suresh, Namuduri, Chandra

ENERGY AND OPERATIONAL EFFICIENCY OF SHARED AUTONOMOUS FLEET

2026-01-0464To be published on 04/07/2026

Electrifying shared autonomous fleets (Robotaxis) presents challenges in balancing decarbonization, service quality, and operational costs, given the limited driving range, long charging times, and suboptimal planning of charging infrastructure. This study develops an integrated energy management and fleet dispatching simulation framework to support cost-effective, low-carbon Robotaxi deployment. The proposed system models both battery electric vehicles (BEV) and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) technologies, and is extensible to other powertrain types. The study also integrates a life cycle assessment module to evaluate well-to-wheel carbon emissions. A total of 1,440 scenarios are designed to test the performance of two service modes (ride-hailing vs. ride-pooling) in terms of energy consumption, emissions, service quality, and operational costs, across varying levels of trip demand and market penetration of different powertrain technologies. The test aims to verify the

Tang, Kang, Abdulsattar, Harith, Yang, Hao, Wang, Jinghui

Simplified Thermal Runaway Propagation Modeling to Enable Mass-Optimized Battery Pack Design

2026-01-0404To be published on 04/07/2026

This paper presents a simplified approach to model thermal runaway propagation in a multi-cell battery pack, with the goal of designing a safe and lightweight pack for mass-sensitive applications. The key parameters which characterize single-cell thermal runaway, including heat release profile, apparent cell emissivity and mass loss, were extracted from empirical nail penetration tests. This characterization was used to drive a three-dimensional thermal model of a 19-cell hexagonal sub-pack with a center trigger cell. To enable rapid design exploration, a symmetry-based computationally simplified domain was used for a full-factorial Design of Experiments (DOE) varying cell spacing, epoxy thickness, heat spreader thickness, and cup geometry. The DOE results were used to identify dominant heat-transfer mechanisms, capture main and interaction effects, and determine mass-efficient design levers governing peak-neighbor cell temperature during propagation. Insights from the DOE study

Kalyankar, Apoorv, Owen, Elliot, Strohmaier, Kyle, Mardall, Joseph

A Novel Development Method for a Control Model of TWC in Hybrid Electric Vehicles Based on Mechanism Simplification and Temperature Update

2026-01-0371To be published on 04/07/2026

Under increasingly stringent emission regulations, hybrid electric vehicles face heightened requirements for tailpipe emission control. Their complex operational profiles and frequent transitions between power modes pose significant challenges to experimental efforts in emission measurement and aftertreatment control, leading to substantially increased economic and temporal costs that severely constrain emission optimization. To address these challenges, this study employs the development and calibration of a high-accuracy virtual model to conduct simulation experiments that accurately replicate real-world driving conditions, significantly reducing development costs while maintaining predictive accuracy. Focusing on hybrid electric vehicles, we developed an aftertreatment model integrating catalytic reaction mechanisms and energy conservation equations, incorporating coupled temperature and concentration calculations. This model enables real-time monitoring of dynamic oxygen storage

Lian, Xuetong, Wang, Zhiao, Liu, Weiqiang, Chen, Tao

Assessing Energy Use, Cost, and Emissions of Small Regional Rail Vehicles: Methodology and Case Study on a German Track

2026-01-0419To be published on 04/07/2026

The decarbonization of regional rail remains a pressing challenge in the European Union, where nearly half of the 200,000 km network remains unelectrified. Lightweight, single-car railbuses historically provided efficient service on such lines, but modern replacements are scarce. This work evaluates a standardized 30-ton, 16 m railbus platform for unelectrified regional service, focusing on propulsion system design and trade-offs between range, cost, and emissions. A MATLAB/Simulink drive-cycle model was developed to simulate energy consumption under realistic operating conditions. The Erfurt–Rennsteig route in Germany (130 km round trip, gradients up to 6 %) was selected as a representative case study. The model incorporates sub-models for traction motors, lithium-ion batteries (LFP and LTO), fuel storage, fuel cells, and ICE gensets across multiple fuel options (diesel, gasoline, methane, ethanol, methanol, HVO, FAME, and hydrogen). Battery lifetime is estimated using a combined

Ahrling, Christoffer, Tuner, Martin, Gainey, Brian, Torkiharchegani, Amir, Scharmach, Marcel, Hertel, Benedikt, ALAKÜLA, Mats

Predictive Modeling and Sensitivity Analysis of Thermal Runaway in 800V Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Module Using DFSS Methodology

2026-01-0124To be published on 04/07/2026

Thermal runaway in high-voltage lithium-ion battery modules should focus on critical safety and design challenges in electric vehicle applications, which need predictive methods that enhance passenger safety and support regulatory compliance. The primary purpose of a lithium-ion battery in an electric vehicle is to provide reliable energy storage while maintaining safe operation under different operating conditions. This study proposes a Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) methodology to virtually predict and correlate thermal runaway and its propagation in an 800V high-power lithium-ion battery module. Conventional propagation analysis relies heavily on physical testing, whereas the DFSS-based virtual framework enables cost-effective evaluation at early design stages. Input factors included are heat transfer pathways, which are sensitive to the temperature changes, as well as thermal propagation time. Control factors are the design or process parameters that engineers use to establish the

Dixit, Manish, Raja, Vinayak, Gudiyella, Soumya

Adaptive Driver-Centric ADAS Using Machine Learning for Personalized Assistance

2026-01-0063To be published on 04/07/2026

Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are becoming increasingly integral to vehicle safety; however, most current implementations rely on static algorithms with fixed thresholds that do not account for individual driver behavior. This can lead to false positives or unnecessary alerts, thereby reducing user trust and system effectiveness. This paper presents a Driver-Adaptive ADAS framework that leverages machine learning to dynamically tailor assistance logic based on real-time driver behavior and driving style. Instead of treating all drivers uniformly, the system learns patterns such as reaction time, maneuver preferences, and braking tendencies. It adjusts key parameters like Time-To-Collision (TTC) thresholds, Forward Collision Warning (FCW) timings, and Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) triggers accordingly. A software-based proof of concept is developed using Python and MATLAB, where simulated vehicle and driver behavior data are processed to classify driver types and adapt

Bhargav, Matavalam

Is Implicit Knowledge Enough for LLMs? A RAG Approach for Tree-based Structures

2026-01-0111To be published on 04/07/2026

Large Language Models (LLMs) are effective at generating responses using contextual information, which is especially useful when working with structured data like code. Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) enhances this capability by retrieving relevant documents to supplement the model’s context. However, the best way to represent retrieved knowledge—particularly for hierarchical structures such as trees—remains underexplored. In this work, we introduce a novel method to linearize tree-structured knowledge, making it suitable for storage in a knowledge base and direct use with RAG. We compare this approach to applying RAG on raw, unstructured code, evaluating both the accuracy and quality of the generated responses. Our results show that while response quality is comparable between the two methods, our linearized approach reduces the number of vector documents by almost 4x. Without any loss of generality, we applied and benchmarked our method to a specific automotive use case, that is

Gupte, Mihir, Giusto, Paolo, S, Ramesh

A System-Level Calibration Framework for Embedded Vision: Integration of Sensor, Firmware, and Software Enhancements

2026-01-0013To be published on 04/07/2026

Embedded vision systems are essential for contemporary applications, including robotics, advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), and intelligent surveillance; yet they frequently experience diminished image quality due to resource constraints, environmental variability, and inconsistent illumination conditions. Such degradations impact multiple visual attributes-sharpness, contrast, color accuracy, noise levels, and structural similarity-that are critical for reliable perception in safety- and performance-driven domains. This study introduces a comprehensive system-level calibration architecture that integrates three coordinated layers: sensor-level adjustment, firmware optimization, and adaptive software enhancements. At the sensor level, exposure control, gain tuning, and white balance adjustments mitigate luminance imbalance and color shifts under changing light conditions. Firmware optimization leverages image signal processor (ISP) parameters to reduce temporal and spatial

Indrakanti, Rama Kiran Kumar, Vishnoi, Nitin, KAMADI, VENKATA

CAE-based Electro-Thermal Characterization and Design Optimization of Automotive Inverter Busbars

2026-01-0642To be published on 04/07/2026

High power density demands in automotive inverters need precise thermal management to ensure efficiency, reliability and extended component lifetime. This paper presents a systematic, integrated electro-thermal workflow utilizing Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) tools to characterize and optimize internal inverter components by directly linking electrical performance to thermal behavior. The methodology comprises three main steps: first, detailed frequency-dependent electrical parameters (RLCG, Z, S) and current density maps are extracted using computational calculations by ANSYS HFSS and ANSYS Q3D Extractor. Second, these parameters inform comprehensive power loss calculations (conduction, dielectric, switching), which are then mapped onto detailed 3D thermal fields using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) through ANSYS Icepak. Finally, the results are analyzed to identify critical components and inform targeted design modifications. The workflow's effectiveness is demonstrated

Oliveira, Felipe, Aguiar, Cláudio, Justino, Marco, Tarrago, Vinicius, Almeida, Oberti

Advanced Integrated Chassis Control for Improved Energy Efficiency and Driving Experience in Electric Vehicle Applications

2026-01-0643To be published on 04/07/2026

Complexity of modern ground vehicles grows constantly, since car manufacturers want to provide functionality, while customers are expecting innovation and recent technologies to be integrated into the latest models released to the market. Recent advances in hard- and software opened the gates for new means of vehicle control and operation. Especially the transition to electric propulsion systems and decoupled chassis actuators offer completely new opportunities of dynamics control and manipulation. This paper presents an approach for integrated chassis and vehicle motion control in (battery) electric vehicle applications by using new and innovative controllers as well as mechatronic chassis systems. In several experiments on public roads with a fully instrumented vehicle demonstrator, that features in-wheel based rear-wheel drive and a hybrid brake-by-wire-system, the proposed control is tested under real environmental and traffic conditions with respect to aspects like energy

Heydrich, Marius, Mitsching, Thomas, Ivanov, Valentin

Oscillatory Behavior of Understeering Vehicles

2026-01-0623To be published on 04/07/2026

Oscillations in understeering vehicles are occasionally described in the literature, primarily in terms of the poles of the yaw rate response, but perhaps not completely appreciated in their complexity. This work shows that as speeds of the understeering vehicle increase, the increasingly underdamped poles of the yaw rate transfer function combine with the effects of a low frequency zero and a reduced steady-state response to result in oscillations greater than would be expected from eigenvalues alone. A speed range for acceptable yaw rate response is suggested, and it is shown that a typical understeering passenger car operates within this range. As the understeering vehicle’s speed increases beyond this range, the high speed limit of the oscillation frequency is found.

Williams, Daniel

A Comprehensive Review of System Risk in Automotive Crash Safety

2026-01-0557To be published on 04/07/2026

Occupant protection has been at the forefront of risk evaluation regarding vehicle crashworthiness design. However, the vehicle is a member of a larger transportation system with varied stakeholders. This paper identifies an opportunity for assessing risk in a crash event through emerging safety science paradigms. Conventional Safety I and Safety II frameworks handle well-defined hazards but falter with uncertainty, variability, and emergent behaviors in real crashes. A comprehensive literature review was performed spanning standards, regulatory guidance, safety science, and peer-reviewed research to situate automotive crash safety risk within the Safety III paradigms. The review addresses two questions: (1) How is “risk” defined across the crash safety literature and adjacent safety science domains? and (2) What limitations arise from these definitions in practice? Findings show a dominant probabilistic framing alongside a minority of systems-oriented interpretations, with substantial

Rye, Patrick J.

Extreme Scale Automotive Aerodynamic Simulations

2026-01-0597To be published on 04/07/2026

Achieving an optimal balance between simulation accuracy and computational efficiency remains a central challenge in automotive aerodynamics. While the adoption of AI and machine learning (ML) methods in vehicle development is expected to grow significantly, the demand for highly scalable, computationally efficient, and accurate computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods persists. The emergence of GPU technology presents new opportunities to deliver cost-effective, high-fidelity, scale-resolving simulations to industrial users. A comprehensive evaluation of Simcenter STAR-CCM+’s parallel scalability and accuracy across extensive CPU and GPU resources was executed on the Frontier supercomputer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Steady-state and transient aerodynamic scalability simulations were executed using the DrivAer notchback vehicle configuration. Simulation accuracy was evaluated through transient simulations employing the SST-DDES turbulence model on an initial mesh of 200

Larsson, Torbjörn, Grover, Ronald O., Landi, Simone, Altmann, Peter, McManus, Liam, Dowding, Steven

Propulsion System Design Considerations for HEV versus EV Applications

2026-01-0641To be published on 04/07/2026

The design and development of EVs and HEVs has become a growing issue recently due to concerns about pollution and dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels. Accordingly, General Motors (GM) has an evolving vehicle electrification plan over the past several decades and into the future to deliver low-cost and efficient EVs and HEVs. Propulsion system requirements for the applications of EV and HEVs are quite different and therefore, the design principles and directions are also distinct between these cases. From micro-hybrid and full plug-in hybrid applications to full EV applications, design requirements, strategies and outcomes can widely vary. Continuous and peak duty are substantially different depending on the application of the vehicle. Motor operational duty is significantly higher for EV compared to the electric motor of a hybrid electric vehicle. Motor torque, power and efficiency requirements are also higher for EV motors, which greatly influences the choice of motor type and

Momen, Faizul, Jensen, William, Das, Shuvajit, Chowdhury, Mazharul, Alam, Khorshed, Anwar, Mohammad, Reinhart, Timothy

Designing an e-SUV to Meet Global Front Crash Safety Standards

2026-01-0580To be published on 04/07/2026

Vehicle crashworthiness has improved tremendously over the past 20 years with increasing scenarios being defined and assessed by governments and nonprofits every few years. Bodies such as NTHSA, IIHS and EuroNCAP created safety ratings to distinguish objectively which vehicles are the safest for consumers. In doing so, automotive OEMs must spend more resources and design additional crash safety features onto their vehicles, often making them heavier in the process. As a result, negatively impacting the driving range of an electric vehicle. At Lucid Motors, through a holistic and first-principles approach, CAE simulations were used to guide the design of the Lucid Gravity to pursue highest possible crash safety ratings and battery protection while minimizing weight on the vehicle structure. By keeping the weight low, the Lucid Gravity Grand Touring was able to achieve an estimated EPA-rated range of 450 miles, which is groundbreaking for a full size 3-row electric SUV. This paper

Ng, Meng

Accelerating Electrification Through Modular Propulsion: GM’s Strategy for BEV and BET Platforms

2026-01-0410To be published on 04/07/2026

General Motors continues to advance its electrification strategy through the development of scalable Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) and Battery Electric Truck (BET) platforms. This paper highlights GM’s latest BEV and BET products that leverage shared Drive Unit (DU), Rechargeable Energy Storage System (RESS), and integrated power electronic (IPE) components across multiple vehicle programs. By adopting a modular and commonized propulsion architecture, GM achieves significant benefits in manufacturing efficiency, cost optimization, and product flexibility. The shared DU, RESS, and IPE components are engineered to meet diverse performance requirements while maintaining high standards of energy efficiency, thermal management, and durability. This approach enables rapid deployment of electrified solutions across various segments, from passenger vehicles to full-size trucks, without compromising on capability or customer experience. The paper outlines the technical rationale behind

Liu, Jinming, Sevel, Kris, Anwar, Mohammad, Oury, Andrew, Welchko, Brian, Gagas, Brent

The Stellantis North America Aero-Acoustic Wind Tunnel Upgrade

2026-01-0609To be published on 04/07/2026

The Stellantis North America Aero-Acoustic Wind Tunnel (AAWT), which came into operation in June of 2002, has undergone the significant upgrade of installing a state-of-the-art moving ground plane system. A 5-belt Moving Ground Plane (MGP) has been installed. The center belt measures 8.5m long by 1.1m wide. The new balance is capable of testing all of the Stellantis North America’s vehicles, from small cars to large pickup trucks. Flow quality and other wind tunnel performance parameters were unchanged and remain at previously published specifications, which are on par with the latest industry standards. The new 5-belt rolling road system brings the AAWT to world class capability and it became operational in October 2024.

Lounsberry, Todd, Ladouceur, Brent, Fadler, Gregory

Research on Vehicle and Longitudinal Tire Model Parameters Identification Based on Electro-Mechanical Brake System

2026-01-0634To be published on 04/07/2026

The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system is a novel type of brake by wire systems with independently controllable characteristics. This system aids in the decoupling analysis of the vehicle and actuator dynamics, thereby improving the accuracy of parameter identification. Therefore, this paper proposes an innovative parameter identification method for vehicle parameters and longitudinal tire model parameters, based on the characteristics of the EMB system and onboard sensors. First, based on the wind resistance and rolling resistance coefficients obtained from the vehicle coasting conditions, a decoupled constant clamping force sequence braking condition for the front and rear axles is designed by integrating the characteristics of the EMB actuator and vehicle dynamics. This approach enables the identification of vehicle and nonlinear longitudinal tire model parameters, significantly improving the accuracy of parameter identification. Next, considering the nonlinear characteristics of

Huang, Jiayi, Cheng, Yulin, Zhuo, Guirong, Le, Qiao, Wei, Wei, Shu, Qiang

Research on Intelligent Vehicle Fleet Longitudinal Control Based on Fuzzy Model Predictive Control

2026-01-0040To be published on 04/07/2026

Addressing the challenge of balancing tracking efficiency and stability in longitudinal cooperative control of intelligent vehicle platoons, this paper proposes a hierarchical control strategy integrating fuzzy logic with Model Predictive Control (MPC). The upper-layer controller, based on the platoon's longitudinal dynamics model, formulates an optimization objective function that considers both tracking performance and ride comfort. A fuzzy logic system is introduced to adaptively adjust the weighting coefficients within the MPC objective function in real-time based on the prevailing tracking state, outputting an optimal desired acceleration. The lower-layer controller, utilizing an inverse longitudinal dynamics model incorporating the engine's universal characteristic map and a brake system model, accurately translates the desired acceleration into throttle opening or brake pressure via a Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) control algorithm. To validate the control strategy, a

Li, Ye

Monocular 3D Perception and Lane-Aware Bird’s-Eye-View Mapping for Autonomous Driving

2026-01-0012To be published on 04/07/2026

Accurate perception of the surrounding environment is fundamental and essential to safe and reliable autonomous driving. This work presents an integrated vision-based framework that combines object detection, 3D spatial localization, and lane segmentation to construct a unified bird’s-eye-view (BEV) representation of the driving scene. The pipeline provides geometric information on object position and orientation by employing Omni3D to infer 3D bounding boxes of objects from monocular camera frames. Detections are subsequently projected onto a 2D BEV canvas, where object instances are represented with respect to the ground plane for enhanced interpretability. To complement the object-level perception, we utilized YOLOPv2 to perform lane segmentation, producing both lane masks and lane line masks in the image domain for future coordinate transformation. By adopting a pinhole camera model, the coordinate transformation of these masks from the perspective image plane into the BEV canvas

Tan, Lin, Wang, Hanchen, Li, Taozhe, Hajnorouzali, Yasaman, Burch, Collin, Lee, Victoria, Xu, Bin, Arjmanzdadeh, Ziba

Holistic Solution of Unified Framework for Integration of Safety Process into Automotive Software Development Process

2026-01-0068To be published on 04/07/2026

The rapid advancement of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving has significantly increased the software content and complexity within modern vehicles. Consequently, ensuring both high process quality and compliance or qualification with functional safety standards becomes critically important. Automotive Software Process Improvement and Capability Determination (ASPICE 4.0) focuses on evaluating and improving software development processes, while ISO 26262-2018 standard ensures the establishment of functional safety in road vehicles. The efficient integration of the process and standard remains a key challenge due to differences in their objectives, terminologies, and assessment criteria. The misalignment between ASPICE 4.0 and ISO 26262-2018 standard often results in duplicated efforts, rework of work products, and delays in product release schedules. This paper proposes a unified framework to bridge ASPICE 4.0 process areas with ISO 26262-2018 safety

Ravi, Reshma, Easwaramoorthy, Prasad Vignesh, Promise, Dinu

THE IN-VEHICLE CONNECTIVITY FOUNDATION POWERING AUTONOMOUS DRIVING

2026-01-0009To be published on 04/07/2026

Achieving full vehicle autonomy is not just about adding sensors or compute-it requires a fundamental shift in how vehicles are architected. Autonomous systems rely on higher-resolution sensors, massive processing power, and the ability to fuse data from multiple sources in real time. Centralized in-vehicle architectures, which consolidate computing and enable sensor fusion, place unprecedented demands on connectivity. Precise time synchronization across all systems becomes critical, as does advanced control to ensure safe and reliable operation. Any delay or data loss can impact decision-making, making robust, resilient communication links essential. High-performance connectivity is the backbone of this evolution. It must deliver the highest bandwidth to handle massive streams of sensor data, support long-reach connections across the vehicle, and maintain error-free performance even in the most challenging electromagnetic environments. This combination of speed, reach, and reliability

Shwartzberg, Daniel

Conjugate Heat Transfer Modeling for Predicting Thermal Behavior of X76 Emotor Windings

2026-01-0118To be published on 04/07/2026

A computational study based on a conjugate heat transfer (CHT) method in SimericsMP+ was performed to predict the winding temperatures in an X76 emotor. In this study, the thermal load was represented in the simulation through the solution of electromagnetic equations in SimericsMP+, where heat generation was driven by root-mean-square (RMS) current, while liquid cooling was applied at flow rates ranging from 1 LPM to 6 LPM. Simulations were conducted to measure the temperature on three thermocouple locations on each side of the winding crown and weld regions under steady operation. The computational strategy employed a loosely coupled approach. A fluid-only simulation was first carried out to establish stable flow conditions, followed by coupling with solid conduction where the winding acted as the heat source. The predicted temperature distributions were then compared with test data. Results obtained show good agreement, with differences remaining within an acceptable range, thereby

Jia, Kun, Schlautman, Jeff, Srinivasan, Chiranth

Beyond PFAS: Unlocking the Potential of R290 and R744 for EV Efficiency

2026-01-0127To be published on 04/07/2026

The anticipated PFAS ban in the US by 2029 has created a need to evaluate alternative refrigerant solutions for automotive thermal management systems. This work compares three candidates—Propane (R290), Carbon Dioxide (R744), and R1234yf—through system-level testing and demonstration projects. R1234yf remains the current industry baseline. Test results show that Propane (R290) delivers comparable efficiency while offering a significantly lower global warming potential. However, its flammability presents integration challenges, not present with R1234yf or R744. CO₂ (R744) demonstrated promising performance as well. In AVL’s Refrigerant Cooling Project, direct CO₂ cooling battery plate simplified the thermal system architecture and provided adequate cooling capacity during high charging loads. To address safety concerns with Propane, AVL developed mitigation measures including rapid leak detection, robust containment strategies, and optimized circuit layouts designed to reduce ignition

bires, Michael, Possegger, Jonathan

RRT*_Heuristic_Adaptiv_maxR: A practical path planning method based on novel adaptive framework for autonomous mobile agent

2026-01-0038To be published on 04/07/2026

Aim at addressing the problem of random sampling and low efficiency of rapidly-exploring random tree (RRT) path planning algorithm, a practical path planning method is proposed for autonomous mobile agents, named RRT*_Heuristic_Adaptiv_maxR. This method is based on a new adaptive framework, balancing the search efficiency and convergence accuracy of path planning by dynamically adjusting the maximum radius parameters in the search process. Combining the heuristic search strategy, guiding the sampling direction, accelerating convergence to the target area, the obstacle detection mechanism is used to optimize the path in real time to avoid collisions. Experimental results show that the proposed method, RRT*_Heuristic_Adaptiv_maxR, has higher planning success rate and path quality in complex environments compared with various RRT algorithms, and it is verified the effectiveness of the adaptive framework and the maximum radius dynamic adjustment strategy in mobile agent path planning.

Dong, Xiaomei, Zeng, Dequan, Petitti, Antonio, You, Jingyi, xiong, min, GAO, Letian, Jiang, Xiaomeng, Yu, Yinquan, CARBONE, GIUSEPPE, Hu, Yiming, Nawaz, Aamir, Linh, Nguyen Vu

Optimization of Lightweight Gear Blanks to Improve NVH for an Electric Drive Unit

2026-01-0001To be published on 04/07/2026

A single-speed electric drive unit (eDU) with multi-stage reduction can have high gear whine due to high pitch-line velocity in the absence of engine masking noise. A comprehensive investigation is conducted focusing on the optimization of the first-stage transfer gear blanks to improve NVH performance and reduce mass for EV applications. A multibody dynamic model of the eDU was constructed, incorporating asymmetric gear blank geometry, shaft elasticity, bearing stiffness, and housing flexibility, in order to characterize realistic operating conditions and simulate gear contact mechanics with high fidelity and computational efficiency. NVH excitation sources, including static transmission error and dynamic meshing force, were systematically evaluated for solid and slotted gear configurations. Based on a DOE optimization study, an 8-slot gear blank design is selected to balance mass reduction, stress, NVH, and manufacturing requirements. Micro-geometry optimization was conducted for the

He, Song, Du, Isaac, Li, Bo, Bahk, Cheonjae, Grguras, Zachary, Baladhandapani, Dhanasekar, Patruni, Pavan Kumar

Radar-Based Dynamic Pixel Activation in Camera Sensors for Optimized Image Processing, Power Efficiency, and Thermal Management

2026-01-0047To be published on 04/07/2026

This paper presents a radar-based dynamic imager pixel activation method designed to optimize image processing efficiency, power consumption, and thermal management in automotive In-cabin monitoring systems (DMS and OMS). By integrating radar sensing with high-resolution cameras, the proposed approach selectively activates image sensor pixels only within radar-identified regions of interest, such as moving occupants or key cabin areas. This selective pixel activation substantially reduces the computational workload and data bandwidth required, as the camera transmits high-resolution data solely for relevant zones while maintaining lower resolution or deactivating pixels elsewhere. The fusion of radar and camera data enables adaptive sensor control that caters to distinct scenarios, including driver gaze tracking and passenger monitoring, thereby enhancing DMS and OMS functionality. The architecture supports mounting configurations such as headliner or rearview mirror installations

Kasarla, Nagender Reddy, Patel, Krunal, Balaraman, Nirmal Kumar

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