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Data-Based Modeling of Power-Split Hybrids Using Cascaded Neural Networks

2025-01-0522To be published on 11/25/2025

Power-split hybrid powertrains represent one of the most advanced and complex types of powertrain systems. The combination of multiple energy sources and power paths offers great potential but results in complex interactions that require improved strategies for optimal efficiency and emission control. The development and optimization of such operating strategies typically involve algorithms that demand fast computational environments. Traditional high-accuracy numerical simulations of such a complex system are computationally expensive, limiting their applicability for extensive iterative optimizations and real-time applications. This paper introduces a data-based approach designed specifically to address this challenge by efficiently modeling the dynamic behavior of power-split hybrid powertrains using cascaded neural networks. Cascaded neural networks consist of interconnected subnetworks, each specifically trained to represent individual drivetrain components or subsystems. This

Frey, Markus, Itzen, Dirk, Yang, Qirui, Grill, Michael, Kulzer, André Casal

Safety Model for Battery Resistance Monitoring and Lifecycle Optimization

2025-01-0515To be published on 11/25/2025

This paper presents a risk assessment framework to evaluate the safety implications of internal resistance growth in EV batteries, focusing on NMC and LFP chemistries. How the resistance growth affects performance, efficiency, and thermal stability, posing safety risks during the battery lifecycle. The framework integrates empirical and model-based estimation methods, including DCIR, EIS, historical regression, equivalent circuit models, and physics-based approaches. Simulations incorporate temperature, depth-of-discharge, and cycle count to predict resistance trends and their impact on power output and efficiency. A scoring system that evaluates safety risks based on state-of-resistance, state-of-health, and risk indicators, aiding battery pack selection for second and third life applications. Results show that NMC and LFP cells exhibit distinct resistance growth patterns, emphasizing the need for chemistry-specific safety strategies. The scoring system is a weightage based equation

Prakashkumar, Balagopal

In-Flight Evaluation of Sustainable Hydrocarbon Fuels in Compression Ignition Aircraft Engines

2025-01-0533To be published on 11/25/2025

With global air traffic projected to increase significantly in the coming decades, reducing the associated climate impact requires scalable solutions. While alternative propulsion technologies such as electric and hybrid-electric systems might offer long-term potential, their current applicability remains limited due to low energy density, limited range and scalability, and system complexity. Consequently, thermodynamic propulsion systems—such as gas turbines and piston engines—are expected to remain dominant in the medium term. In this context, sustainable hydrocarbon-based aviation fuels represent a practical and necessary solution. Certified sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) pathways are currently approved exclusively for use in gas turbines, with certification standards tailored to turbine-specific requirements. Consequently, fuel properties such as cetane number and evaporation behavior are not included in existing specifications. However, when SAF-kerosene blends are used in

Kleissner, Florian, Hofmann, Peter, Vogd, Philipp, Vauhkonen, Ville, Käkölä, Jaana, Greve, Alina

Potential and Challenges of Next Generation Fuel Cell Powered Heavy-Duty Long Haul Trucks

2025-01-0525To be published on 11/25/2025

Vehicle manufacturers are to reduce the CO₂ emissions of new trucks dramatically within the next decade. That requires to consider emission-free/neutral vehicles in the fleet mix. Especially for the application of heavy-duty (HD) long haul trucks, fuel cell powered trucks demand a holistic concept for the integration of the entire powertrain, its auxiliaries and the complete vehicle’s energy management. Key topics and takeaways: - Challenges of mechanical, thermal, EE and functional integration - Importance of predictive energy management for cost-efficient operation and lifetime optimization - Achievements in the latest fuel cell system developments and its impact on truck integration - Potential of further fuel cell stack improvements

Döbereiner, Rolf, Schörghuber, Christoph, Schenk, Alexander, schubert, Thomas, Stöckl, Bernhard

Electrode-Level Modeling of Thermal Decomposition Reactions as a Foundation for Multiscale Thermal Runaway Analysis in Lithium-Ion Batteries

2025-01-0523To be published on 11/25/2025

Thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries represents a critical safety challenge, particularly in high-voltage battery systems used in electric vehicles and stationary energy storage. A comprehensive understanding of the multi-scale processes that initiate and propagate thermal runaway is essential for the development of effective safety measures and design strategies. This study provides a structured theoretical overview of the thermal runaway phenomenon across four hierarchical levels: electrode, single cell, module, and high-voltage battery system. At the electrode level, thermal runaway initiation is linked to electrochemical and chemical degradation mechanisms such as solid electrolyte interphase decomposition, separator breakdown, and internal short circuits. These processes lead to highly exothermic reactions that, at the cell scale, can result in rapid temperature increases, gas generation, and overpressure. On the module and system levels, thermal runaway can propagate through

Ceylan, Deniz, Kulzer, André Casal, Winterholler, Nina, Schiek, Werner, Weinmann, Johannes

Investigation of Active Pre-Chamber Ignition on an Optically Accessible Ultra-Lean DI Hydrogen Engine

2025-01-0524To be published on 11/25/2025

Hydrogen is a promising alternative to conventional fuels for decarbonizing the commercial vehicle sector due to its carbon-free nature. This study investigates the ignition and flame propagation characteristics of hydrogen in a 2-liter single-cylinder optical research engine representative of the commercial vehicle sector. The main objective was to enable high power density operation while minimizing NOx emissions. For that, ultra-lean combustion was employed to lower in-cylinder temperatures, addressing the challenge of NOx formation. To counteract delayed and unstable combustion under lean conditions, an active pre-chamber ignition system was implemented. It uses a gas-purged pre-chamber with separate hydrogen injection and spark plug ignition. Turbulent hot gas jets from the pre-chamber ignite the fresh mixture in the main combustion chamber, enabling faster and more stable ignition compared to conventional spark plugs. Additionally, the low volumetric energy density of hydrogen

Borken, Philipp, Dinkelacker, Friedrich, Hansen, Hauke

ANALYSIS OF FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT POTENTIAL OF A WINDING CHANGEOVER IN AN ELECTRIC MACHINE

2025-01-0518To be published on 11/25/2025

The winding configuration of an electric machine has a decisive influence on the properties of a traction drive. When designing the electric drive, the optimum compromise must be found between maximum torque, maximum power and high efficiency over a wide operating range. A decisive factor in this design conflict is the choice of the winding configuration. The concept of winding switching offers a way of solving the design conflict and improving the characteristics of the drive through the additional degree of freedom of the variable winding configuration. Switching the number of parallel winding branches in a serial and parallel configuration is a promising approach to overcome the challenge of a high spread between maximum power and high efficiency in customer related driving scenarios of an electric vehicle. The aim of this study is to identify factors influencing the efficiency improvement potential of the winding switching topology under consideration compared to a reference drive

Oestreicher, Raphael, Koenen, Christian, Kulzer, André Casal

Sustainable Engines with carbon-neutral fuels – Fast Adaptation for Efficient Multi-Fuel Operation by tailored charge motion design

2025-01-0534To be published on 11/25/2025

As a fundamental element of global measures to reduce the carbon footprint of the commercial transport and the mobile machinery and equipment sector, carbon-neutral fuels are increasingly coming into focus for heavy applications where electrification is seems to be actually not a viable option. In addition to diesel substitute fuels, alternative energy carriers like natural gas, hydrogen, methanol and ammonia are gaining increasing attention worldwide. The energy conversion of these fuels is typically taking place on the principle of premixed combustion, which places different demands on fuel injection and mixture formation, supported by proper in-cylinder charge motion and turbulence, compared to current highly optimized diesel-like combustion. Accordingly, the demand to layout multi-fuel capable engine designs centers to a high share on the above mentioned cylinder head design that can burn these different fuels with high efficiency and at the same time support a high degree of

Koerfer, Thomas, Dhongde, Avnish, Boberic, Aleksandar, Zimmer, Pascal, Pischinger, Stefan

Simulative temperature determination of an electric machine from test bench tests

2025-01-0520To be published on 11/25/2025

One of the most important components of an electric vehicle is the drive motor. Induction motors are often used for this purpose. Power losses occur during the operation of these motors, particularly at high speeds. Among other things, this power loss corresponds to the sum of winding losses, iron core losses and mechanical losses. The power losses generate heat, causing the temperature in the rotor and stator to rise. The increase in temperature of the components inside the motor can lead to premature wear and fatigue failure. To prevent overheating, the motors are air or water cooled. Water cooling can be achieved by jacket cooling, for example. In this case, the heat generated is dissipated directly by forced convection. However, the cooling jacket makes it difficult to determine the temperature inside the motor. Determining these temperatures is necessary to prevent the motor from fatiguing prematurely. The temperatures that occur inside the motor during operation are of particular

Schamberger, Stephanie, Reuss, Hans-Christian

Cellular energy architecture to secure resilient energy supply for critical infrastructure

2025-01-0516To be published on 11/25/2025

Introduction of renewable energy systems offers the opportunity to achieve energy self-sufficiency or autarky in addition to contributing towards carbon neutrality by reducing the dependency on energy logistics. Amidst growing geo-political conflicts, the scenario of energy shortage or disruption of energy logistics is a major threat, especially for Europe due to the significant reliance on import of primary energy. Achieving autarky, however, requires a distinction between energy consumers that need uninterrupted energy supply and consumers that could potentially be cut-off during energy shortages to avoid prohibitive costs resulting from over sizing the system. Critical infrastructure such as hospitals, communication systems, emergency services and key mobility nodes like fuelling stations and charging points needed to sustain the services provided by them, always need uninterrupted energy supply. The architecture in current tools for optimising the design and operation of

Vijay, Arjun, Thaler, Bernhard, Köcheler, Valentin, Oppl, Thomas, Trapp, Christian

Road Test Emulation – A Data-Driven Calibration Approach

2025-01-0521To be published on 11/25/2025

The resource-intensive process of road testing constitutes an elementary part of the development of vehicle software. A significant proportion of explorative tests and adjustments for use in service are conducted during the vehicle test phase. However, the observed trends of decreasing development cycles and increasing system complexity generate a field of conflicts. In order to address this issue, this paper proposes road test emulation as a data-driven approach for continuously adapting vehicle software to the evolving overall system. Therefore, test scenarios equivalent to in-service conditions are determined based on customer data and test drives. These test scenarios enable an emulation of road testing and the analysis of the system in a real-world operational context from the early stages of the product development process. Sensitivity analyses are utilised to generate system-specific data for the vehicle under development, which is then employed to define initial parameter

Martini, Tim, Kempf, André, Winke, Florian, Auerbach, Michael, Kulzer, André Casal

Thermal Model of a Traction Inverter for an Automotive Application including DC-link capacitor, power modules and electrical connections

2025-01-0519To be published on 11/25/2025

In automotive applications a traction inverter is used for energy conversion between battery and electrical machine. For high performance drives lightweight design is demanded. Additionally, higher efficiency of the inverter results in lower cooling requirements but is often achieved by increasing component weight. Hence, thermal modelling of the components and their interactions is essential to determine the best compromise between weight, efficiency and cooling requirements. In traction inverters the DC-link capacitors, power modules, high voltage electrical connections and low voltage devices dissipate power. In this paper the focus is on the thermal modelling of the DC-link capacitor, power modules and high voltage electrical connections and their system, as the performance of the inverter is defined by these components. The thermal models are derived based on geometries and physical properties. First, the DC-link capacitor thermal model is presented and considers the anisotropic

Blaschke, Wolfgang Maximilian, Mengoni, Leonard, Pflüger, Robin, Kulzer, Andre Casal

Ammonia Combustion with Active Pre-Chamber Spark Plug - a CO2-free Combustion Process

2025-01-0527To be published on 11/25/2025

As a zero carbon fuel, ammonia has the potential to completely defossilize combustion engines. Due to the inert nitrogen present in the molecule, ammonia is difficult to ignite or burn. Even if the ammonia can be successfully ignited, combustion will be very slow and there is a risk of flame quenching, i.e. the flame going out before the ammonia-air mixture has been almost completely converted. Both the difficult flammability and the slow combustion result in high ammonia slip, which should be avoided at all costs. The engine efficiency is also greatly reduced. Safe ignition and burn-through can be achieved by drastically increasing the ignition energy and/or using a reaction accelerator such as hydrogen. The planned paper will use detailed 1D and 3D CFD calculations to show how high the potential of ammonia combustion in an internal combustion engine is when an active pre-chamber is used as the ignition system. As a result of the flare jets penetrating into the main combustion chamber

Sens, Marc, von Roemer, Lorenz, Rieß, Michael, Fandakov, Alexander, Casal Kulzer, Andre

Energy and Mobility – The Illustrated Energy Primer for Modern Drivers

2025-01-0517To be published on 11/25/2025

The path to carbon-neutral mobility is one of the greatest cultural transformations. Caught between industrial tradition, innovative mobility solutions, and energy providers are the drivers of 1.5 million motor vehicles. Conflicting publications on resource availability, energy efficiency, and the climate impact of different propulsion technologies add to their uncertainty. This led to the motivation to an energy guide for consumers, the „Illustrated Energy Primer for Modern Drivers“. The target audience focusses on technically interested individuals, whether as engaged citizens or as professionals. The guide presents the fundamentals of energy and power in a clear and accessible way. Typical energy demands of motor vehicles and households—both in personal use and scaled to a national level—complete this section of the guide. The guide then presents examples of energy generation systems. From coal-fired power plants to wind turbines, solar farms, and even balcony-mounted mini solar

Daberkow, Andreas

Development of an Accelerated Stress Test for Fuel Cell Freeze Start Durability Using Real-World Driving Data of Light-Duty FCEVs

2025-01-0526To be published on 11/25/2025

The reliability and durability of vehicles are crucial for the acceptance of new technologies by customers. Realistic test methods are necessary to ensure the lifespan of vehicles and their components, particularly regarding freeze start. This article provides an overview of the current state of research on the effects of freeze starts on the degradation of fuel cells. With this knowledge, relevant operating and boundary conditions for potential damage of the fuel cell are identified (e.g., start temperature, duration in subzero operation, dehydration). Based on these findings, the field data from the BMW demonstrator fleet of iX5 Hydrogen Next were analyzed to gain insights into realistic freeze start related stress to the fuel cells. It was found that the dynamics of heating rates and the influence of the operating strategy are best represented on a FCS. An experimental setup for a stack centered test on a fuel cell system was developed including a climatic chamber and a subzero

Schwarz, Markus, Albert, Albert, Eichel, Rüdiger-A.

Development of a Comprehensive Predictive QD Knock Simulation Model for Hydrogen, Methanol, and an Ammonia–Hydrogen Blend

2025-01-0528To be published on 11/25/2025

This work presents a comprehensive predictive 0D simulation model for the knock behavior of hydrogen, methanol, and an ammonia-hydrogen blend. With the increasing focus on carbon neutrality, synthetic fuels are gaining attention as viable alternatives to fossil fuels. Their potential applications include land and marine transport, construction machinery, and automotive powertrains, sectors with high carbon dioxide emissions. As their development requires extensive experimental validation, simulations offer a cost- and time-efficient alternative. In particular, 0D simulations offer a good balance between predictive capability and computational effort, making them well suited for concept evaluations and parametric studies. In spark-ignition engines, knock is a major limitation to achieving high thermal efficiency, emphasizing the need for accurate and fuel-specific knock prediction methods. The objective of this work is to enable a predictive and versatile 0D knock modeling framework for

Benzinger, Steffen, Yang, Qirui, Grill, Michael, Kulzer, Andre Casal, Plum, Lukas, Hermsen, Philipp, Günther, Marco, Pischinger, Stefan, Hurault, Florian, Foucher, Fabrice, Rousselle, Christine

Feasibility of Ammonia as a Spark-Ignition Engine Fuel: Strategies for Combustion Stability and Engine Efficiency

2025-01-0531To be published on 11/25/2025

Ammonia (NH3) is a promising energy carrier and a potentially alternative fuel to selected sectors due to its carbon-free nature and its relatively high energy density. However, its low reactivity and slow flame propagation pose significant challenges for a direct use in an internal combustion engine, and stable operation at all engine’s conditions. This study investigates three combustion strategies for utilizing NH3 in an adapted four-cylinder 2L turbocharged, compression-ignition engine, adapted for spark-ignition (SI) operation. Initially, the engine was tested using pure ammonia as fuel, obtaining high efficiencies and acceptable stability at medium/high loads. Nevertheless, intense combustion instabilities could not be avoided below a minimum load level (which increases with engine speed), making engine operation unfeasible in approximately 30% of its operating map. To address these limitations, two enhancement strategies are explored: Firstly, hydrogen (H2) doping pre-mixed with

Karageorgiou, Dimitrios, González-Domínguez, David, Gomez-Soriano, Josep, Lujan, Jose, Myslivecek, Matej, Alcarria Laserna, Gerardo, Gaillard, Patrick

Multi-Objective Optimization of Oxyfuel Gas Engine Using Stochastic Engine Model and Detailed Chemistry

2025-01-0529To be published on 11/25/2025

The energy transition initiatives in Germany’s renown coal mining region Lusatia have driven research into Power-to-X-to-Power (P2X2P) technologies, where synthetic fuel is produced from renewably sourced hydrogen and captured CO2, and converted to electricity and heat through oxyfuel combustion. This work investigates the multi-objective optimization of oxyfuel gas engine using stochastic engine model (SEM) and detailed chemistry. EGR rate, initial cylinder temperature and pressure, spark timing, piston bowl radius and depth are selected as design parameters to minimize the exhaust temperature at exhaust valve opening (EVO) and indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) corresponding to oxyfuel operation with different dry and wet exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates. The optimization problem is solved for a dry EGR and four wet EGR cases with various CO2 / H2O fractions, aiming to achieve comparable performance as in conventional natural gas / air operation, along with an energy

Asgarzade, Rufat, Franken, Tim, Mauss, Fabian

Knock Phenomenon Investigation In SI Engine fuelled with Ammonia-Hydrogen mixture

2025-01-0532To be published on 11/25/2025

Ammonia is one of the most promising carbon-free fuels for decarbonizing sectors relying on thermal conversion processes, such as energy production and transportation. However, ammonia exhibits combustion properties that differ significantly from conventional fuels, including a low laminar burning velocity, narrow flammability limits, and a high autoignition temperature. To enhance the efficiency and stability of ammonia combustion in internal combustion engines (ICEs), high compression ratio engines are often combined with ignition promoters such as hydrogen, which can be obtained through on-board ammonia cracking. Nevertheless, the addition of hydrogen to ammonia fuel can promote the occurrence of knock. The objective of this study is to investigate knock propensity as a function of engine parameters as combustion chamber geometries and compression ratios. Experiments were conducted at different engine speeds (1000, 1500, and 2000 RPM), across several intake pressure conditions (from

Hurault, Florian, BREQUIGNY, Pierre, Foucher, Fabrice, Rousselle, Christine

Visualisation of Ammonia Engine by prechamber igniter

2025-01-0530To be published on 11/25/2025

Ammonia is considered more and more as a promising carbon-free fuel for internal combustion engines to contribute to the decarbonization of several sectors where replacing conventional engines with batteries or fuel cells remain unsuitable. However, ammonia properties can induce some challenges for efficient and stable combustion. The objective of this study is to investigate ammonia ignition and combustion development by means of passive prechamber igniter in a single-cylinder spark ignition engine with optical accesses based on natural chemiluminescence imaging to analyze flame development. The engine has a compression ratio of 9.5 and the experiments were conducted at 1000, 1500 and 2000 rpm. The experiments are focused on the lean operating limit as equivalence ratio as a function of the load, just before strong cycle-to-cycle variations and misfiring occurrence. By examining the effects of these strategies on ignition delay, flame propagation and stability, this study aims to

Rousselle, Christine Mounaim, BREQUIGNY, Pierre, Gelé, Raphaël, Moreau, Bruno

Investigating the Influence of Intake Runner Configuration on Scavenging and Combustion Processes in Elliptical Rotor Engines

2025-32-0089To be published on 11/03/2025

Elliptical rotor engines (ERE), also known as X-engines, feature intake and exhaust ports located on the rotating rotor. As the rotor turns, these ports traverse the entire combustion chamber, sequentially completing the scavenging process in three distinct combustion chambers through coordination with the cylinder walls. This intake and exhaust characteristic significantly differs from the characteristic found in traditional Wankel rotor engines. This study established an optical elliptical rotor engine to obtain the in-cylinder flow field by using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and constructed a CFD model based on the experimental results. Then the effects of two different intake runners on the scavenging and combustion process of ERE were investigated. The results indicated that: Due to structural limitations, the prolonged intake port opening duration results in significant gas backflow during the intake process. The curved intake runner exhibits a higher turbulent kinetic energy

Qin, Jing, Wang, Yingbo, Pei, Yiqiang, Yao, Dasuo, Deng, Xiwen

Forward-Looking SiL-Based Fuel Consumption Simulation for Dual-Clutch Transmission Software Evaluation

2025-32-0070To be published on 11/03/2025

Evaluating the impact of software changes on fuel consumption and emissions is a critical aspect of transmission development. To evaluate the trade-offs between performance improvements and potential negative effects on efficiency, a forward-looking Software-in-the-Loop (SiL) simulation has been developed. Unlike backward calculations that derive fuel consumption based solely on cycle speed and engine speed, this approach executes complete driving cycles as the Worldwide Harmonized Light-Duty Vehicle Test Cycle (WLTC) within a detailed SiL environment. By considering all relevant influencing factors in a dynamic simulation, the method provides a more accurate assessment of fuel consumption and emission differences between two versions of the transmission software. The significant contribution of this work lies in the high-fidelity integration of a real virtual Transmission Control Unit (vTCU) software within a comprehensive, validated forward-looking SiL environment. This approach

Kengne Dzegou, Thierry Junior, Schober, Florian, Rebesberger, Ron, Henze, Roman

Computational investigation on a boosted uniflow scavenged direct-injection combustion engine (BUSDICE) with alcohol fuel

2025-32-0027To be published on 11/03/2025

Alcohol fuel, produced by renewable energy, is recognized as a crucial solution to achieving a life-cycle neutral zero-carbon for internal combustion engines. The boosted uniflow scavenged direct-injection combustion engine (BUSDICE) shows great potential for high thermal efficiency with an aggressive downsizing design. In this work, a computational study was conducted to investigate the combustion characteristic of BUSDICE fuelled with methanol and ethanol, compared with gasoline. The results indicate alcohol fuel can operate under the high-load condition without knocking, while the spark timing has to retard to avoid knocking for gasoline, since the high heat load in two-stroke engines. As a result, methanol and ethanol demonstrate a higher thermal efficiency than gasoline. Due to the oxygen content, methanol and ethanol have less unburnt emissions, such as unburnt hydrocarbon and CO, as well as soot emissions. Furthermore, the in-cylinder temperature is decreased when fuelling

Feng, Yizhuo, Lu, Enshen, Dong, Shuo, Keshtkar, Hossein, Wang, Xinyan, Zhao, Hua

Ultralightweight Emission Measurement Systems for Motorcycles: Accuracy and Practicality in RDE Testing

2025-32-0011To be published on 11/03/2025

Real Driving Emission (RDE) testing for motorcycles presents unique challenges due to the motorcycles lightweight construction, limited mounting space, and sensitivity to added mass and aerodynamic drag. Full-functional automotive Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS), while highly accurate, are often impractical for two-wheelers as their weight and size can alter driving resistances, fuel consumption, and emission profiles, but also complicate installation and probably effect the drivability of the vehicle. To address these limitations, lightweight alternatives such as Mini-PEMS and ultralightweight alternatives such as Sensor-based Emission Measurement Systems (SEMS) offer compact, low-power solutions tailored for small vehicles. SEMS are typically equipped with lower cost sensors and low-tech gas conditioning systems compared to PEMS. Due to this these systems may not meet regulatory homologation requirements. Nevertheless, they provide justifiable accuracy for many real

Schurl, Sebastian, Lienerth, Peter, Japs, Leonid, Schroeder, Matthias, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland

Preliminary Development of a Novel 2-Stroke Petrol Engine for a Hybrid Sport-Tourer Motorcycle

2025-32-0025To be published on 11/03/2025

While hybrid electric powertrains are the standard for passenger cars, the application to motorcycles is almost nil. The reason is the increase in weight, cost and overall dimensions, which can compromise the layout and dynamics of the motorcycle. A viable path is to replace the standard internal combustion engine with a much smaller and lighter unit, which leaves room for the installation of the electric components. The 2-Stroke (2S) cycle technology, thanks to the double cycle frequency and inherent simplicity, can be the key to reduce engine dimensions, weight and cost, while keeping high power outputs. The HybridTec project, discussed in this paper, aims to develop a compact and lightweight V-90° two-cylinder 2S engine, coupled to an electric motor installed downstream of the gearbox (P3 configuration). The total installed power should be about 110 kW. The engine features loop-scavenging, actuated by a crankshaft-driven supercharger, while an exhaust rotary valve and electronic

Rinaldini, Carlo Alberto, Scrignoli, Francesco, Volza, Antonello, Mattarelli, Enrico, Montanari, Luca, Magnani, Gianluca

Effect of hydrogen injection timing in a compression ignition engine operating in hydrogen diesel dual fuel mode

2025-32-0051To be published on 11/03/2025

Stringent European CO2 emission regulations have stimulated the development of alternative technologies such as Dual Fuel (DF), which involves partially replacing fossil fuel with a low-carbon alternative. Hydrogen represents an ideal candidate for DF due to its properties, including the absence of carbon, high flame propagation speed, and high diffusivity. This study analyzes the combustion and performance of a 1L, naturally aspirated, three-cylinder in-line compression ignition off-road engine with a 17.5:1 compression ratio, originally equipped with a conventional diesel system and modified for diesel-hydrogen dual fuel operation. The conversion involved installing three PFI injectors in the intake manifold for hydrogen injection, attempting to minimize the volume between the intake valve and injector tip. Tests were conducted at a fixed engine speed of 2000 rpm, varying the engine load from 30% to 85% of maximum torque. The diesel contribution was maintained at 10%, while hydrogen

Rossetti, Salvatore, Mancaruso, Ezio

Development of the Anti-SideSlip Control for Motorcycles Using IMU

2025-32-0037To be published on 11/03/2025

Motorcycles typically turn by generating camber thrust by leaning the body. However, in Competitions that emphasize speed like races, there is a technique to intentionally make the rear wheel slide laterally to reduce the turning radius, allowing for faster turns than using only camber thrust. While this technique is effective for faster riding, it is difficult to execute and carries risks such as falling. Therefore, the aim was to develop a control system that detects lateral sliding and controls the amount of slide, enabling natural and highly stable cornering. However, detecting lateral sliding in motorcycles presents challenges, particularly in detecting the slip angle. While electronic stability control (ESC) for preventing lateral sliding is already practical in four-wheeled vehicles, motorcycles differ as they turn by leaning the body, making it impossible to detect the slip angle using steering angle and yaw rate. To determine the slip angle in motorcycles, optical sensors like

Nakano, Kyosuke, Kawai, Kazunori, Takeuchi, Michinori

A Study of the Relationship between the "Leaning" Characteristics of Motorcycles and Vehicle Specifications, Report 1.

2025-32-0034To be published on 11/03/2025

It is crucial to understand the mechanism to improve the initial examination accuracy of the dynamic characteristic for the efficient development of motorcycles. In this paper, we focus on “leaning” which is one of the dynamic characteristics. While the rider operations and the physical characteristics have an impact on the motorcycle dynamics, since we focus on the vehicle characteristics themselves, bicycles are used for making an unmanned running state. At first, several specifications with different "leaning" characteristics are prepared based on the riding feel of the experimental rider. In experiment, it is observed that the roll angle and steering angle synchronize or do not synchronize depending on the differences in mass distribution. Therefore, the hypothesis is established that the “leaning” is strongly influenced by the phase lag between roll and steering angles. In addition to that, the lag, at least, changes with the mass distribution. Next, based on this hypothesis

SAKAI, Hideki, NAKAGAWA, Yoshihiro, TEZUKA, Yoshitaka, YAMASHITA PhD, Hiroki, MIYAGISHI PhD, Shunichi

Development of Integrated Forming of New "NMAX" YECVT Parts Using the Plate Forging Method

2025-32-0005To be published on 11/03/2025

Yamaha Motor Engineering Co., Ltd. provides plastic processing technology based on fuel tank press forming technology, and is developing various plastic processing methods, including forging, and developing mold equipment to realize them. This time, the core parts of the YECVT unit mounted on Yamaha Motor Co., Ltd.'s small premium scooter "NMAX" were not made by welding individual parts to each other, but by integrally forming them from a single thick plate using the cold forming method, resulting in lightweight, compact, high-strength, high-precision parts. By incorporating a composite plastic processing method that takes advantage of the characteristics of the material while making full use of analysis technology and mold technology, we were able to develop a composite plastic processing method (plate forging method) that creates new added value and mass produce it. In addition,this development has made it possible to achieve a thickness increase of 1.7 times the standard material

Hongo, Hironari, Tamaru, Shogo, Uda, Shinnosuke

Measurement of the liquid fuel film on the combustion chamber wall of a gasoline engine using a novel capacitance sensor

2025-32-0018To be published on 11/03/2025

During a cold start and warm-up operation of an SI gasoline engine, a liquid fuel film is formed on the intake port and piston walls. The liquid fuel film attached to the wall increases exhaust unburned HC, particulate matter (PM) emissions, and oil dilution. It is essential to investigate the formation process of the fuel liquid film to reduce exhaust emissions and improve thermal efficiency. Compact fuel film measurement sensors are required for application in the production engine measurement. In this study, a liquid film sensor detecting changes in capacitance due to the liquid film has been developed. The newly developed liquid film sensor was installed and demonstrated into the combustion chamber wall of a single-cylinder gasoline engine. As a result, the liquid film behavior on the combustion chamber wall was successfully detected.

Kuboyama, Tatsuya, Nakajima, Takeru, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Takayama, Satoshi, Nakabeppu, Osamu

Establishing the method for simulation of electric potential in cooling water passages of outboard motors

2025-32-0008To be published on 11/03/2025

Producing 3D models of cooling water passages of outboard motors, and calculating distribution of electric potential on the water passage surfaces using BEM, we have developed the new method for simulation of electric potential distribution. The outboard motor is a propulsion system attached to the transom of the boat with steering function. As the water around the boat is drawn in for cooling of the engine, the engine parts are susceptible to severe corrosion. As a means to help prevent corrosion, a part referred to as the anode metal, which has a lower natural potential, is provided. Such a method is called the sacrifice protection because the anode metal corrodes before the engine parts due to the difference of electric potential. Since anti-corrosion currents occur preferentially to areas close to the anode metal, the anode metal is required to be located at the most effective place for corrosion protection. However, there are certain restrictions in the layout of anode metal from

Shibuya, Ryota, Suzuki, Hiroki

Sustainable Manufacturing Approach: Application of Post Consumer Recycled Aluminium in Engine Component

2025-32-0009To be published on 11/03/2025

India has committed for carbon neutral by 2070. European Commission has notified Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) to reduce the carbon emitted during production of raw materials that are imported to Europe. It is necessary to align with these regulations and transit to a low carbon economy to combat climate change. In the two-wheeler automotive sector, the raw material manufacturing stage accounts for 10-12% of the life cycle emissions. Aluminium is the commonly used lightweight material in automotive applications due to its high strength to weight ratio. Virgin aluminium is the preferable choice in automotive applications due to its high purity, consistent quality, and superior mechanical properties. But, production of virgin aluminium is highly energy-intensive, emitting approximately 10-16 tonnes of CO2 per tonne of aluminium produced, yielding it be a major contributor to CO2 emissions during upstream processes. However, secondary aluminium has emission factor less than 2

Pandi, Dinesh Babu, Anbalagan, Prathap, Nagarkatti, Arun, SHANMUGAM, GOMATHY PRIYA

Development of Supercharged Direct-injection Two Stroke Engine with Intake and Exhaust Valve for Series Hybrid (2nd Report)　- To Realize Lean Burn -

2025-32-0023To be published on 11/03/2025

The two-stroke engine has a small displacement and high performance, and therefore saves space when the engine is installed in a vehicle. Thus, the application of two-stroke engines to HEVs is a very effective means of reducing vehicle weight and securing engine space. On the other hand, the unfired element increases in the exhaust gas with a two-stroke engine because the air-fuel mixture is blown through to the exhaust system during the scavenging process inside the cylinder. Moreover, combustion becomes unstable due to the large amount of residual burnt gas in the cylinder. To solve these problems, we propose a two-stroke engine that has intake and exhaust valves that injects fuel directly into the cylinder. We previously reported the engine shape and the method that can provide high scavenging efficiency and stable combustion in such a two-stroke engine as the first report. In this second report, we report on the results of our research to improve fuel efficiency and realize low

Sakurai, Yota, Hisano, Atsushi, Saitou, Masahito, Ichi, Satoaki

Improving the efficiency of EVAP system development by utilizing CAE simulations and surrogate models

2025-32-0014To be published on 11/03/2025

Evaporative gases from fuel tanks in cars and motorcycles are harmful to human health, which prompting the implementation of strict regulations. To meet these regulations, many gasoline vehicles use evaporative emission control systems (EVAP systems) that utilize carbon canisters. Developing EVAP systems is not just about meeting these rules but also about making sure the engine drivability is not affected. Moreover, as future regulations become increasingly strict, there will be a growing demand for higher-performance systems that reduces evaporative gas into the atmosphere. This will make the control systems more complicated and increase production costs. To overcome these challenges, more efficient ways of development are necessary. One effective method is model-based development (MBD) using CAE technology. In recent years, CAE simulations have become more advanced, and combining different types of CAE simulations allows for faster and more accurate results. Another approach that

Okuno, Keisuke, Hidai, Atsuya, Torigoshi, Masaki, Kinoshita, Hisatoshi

Development of CAE Technology for the Design Support of Piston Pin Circlip

2025-32-0015To be published on 11/03/2025

This study focuses on the technology for establishing design criteria for the piston pin circlip (hereinafter referred to as "circlip"), which is a component that holds the engine piston pin. The circlip is assembled into the piston by compressing it to the size of the piston circlip groove. However, in high-revving engines, the inertia forces caused by engine rotation can cause the circlip to disengage from the groove, potentially leading to the piston pin falling out and damaging the engine. To prevent this, it is possible to compress the circlip more and increase the reactive force acting on the groove to prevent falling out. However, this countermeasure raises concerns about the deterioration of the assemblability of the circlip. Therefore, it is necessary to establish evaluation criteria that prevent the circlip from disengaging and deteriorationg the assemblability of the circlip. To enable appropriate design of the circlip during the engine specifications review phase, we

Ishizuka, Atsushi, Watanabe, Naoto

Experimental Study of HCNG on Single Cylinder 395cc Spark Ignition Engine for Performance and Exhaust Emission.

2025-32-0050To be published on 11/03/2025

There is growing demand for energy utilization due to stricter environmental emission norms to reduce greenhouse gases and other threats posed due to the emissions are major motivation factors for researchers to adopt on strategic plans to decrease the usage of energy and reduce the carbon contents of fuels, the usage of hydrogen or blend of hydrogen with CNG as a fuel in internal combustion engines is the best option. As hydrogen has lower volumetric energy density and higher combustion temperature, pure hydrogen-fueled engines produce lower power output and much higher NOx emissions than gasoline-fueled engine at stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. Blending of hydrogen with CNG provides a blended gas termed as hydrogen-enriched natural gas (HCNG). HCNG stands for hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas and it combines the advantages of both hydrogen and methane. The addition of Hydrogen to CNG has potential to even lower the CNG emissions and is the first step towards promotion of a

Syed, Kaleemuddin, Chaudhari, Sandip, Khairnar, Girish, Sajjan lng, Suresh

Methodology of Minimum Energy Starting for SI Engine

2025-32-0090To be published on 11/03/2025

In a general purpose of small SI engine, it is required to reduced fuel consumption under the operating conditions of repeated start and stop. In other words, the energy distribution during starting from 0 rpm to idling speed is an important factor of information. The SI engine needs to be driven by the motor at the starting, and its electrical energy must be minimized. However, the engine itself needs to accelerate during starting, and its electrical energy is affected by compression, friction and moments of inertia. The purpose of this research is to clarify experimentally the starting condition that minimizes this electrical energy. This research has made it possible to divide and measure the frictional and compressional loss and the loss due to the moment of inertia during engine acceleration. Specifically, the effect of the moment of inertia was eliminated by using a motor to keep the engine in a constant state of rotation. This allows the electrical energy used by friction to be

Matsuura, Yusuke, Tanaka, Junya

Vehicle to Vehicle Recharge and Power Sharing for Modular Public Transportation Systems: Design and Testing of the UNIFI fleet at ENEA CASACCIA Research Center

2025-32-0095To be published on 11/03/2025

An optimized and capillary diffusion of sustainable public transportation systems often involve the availability of modular and scalable solutions that can be easily adapted to a variable transportation demand in a very fast way or even in real-time. For this reason, there is a growing industrial interest for the development of modular transportation systems composed by relatively small electric units (small modular e-buses with installed battery power of about 15kWh) that should be used to assemble smart intelligent compositions according to transportation demand of customers. University of Florence and Enea Research Center of Roma Casaccia have developed a fleet of electric mini-Buses for the testing of technologies related to this kind of applications (assisted or autonomous drive functionalities, motion, and trajectory controllers, coordinated smart power management etc.). In this work attention is focused on design and testing of the energy management system that assure the

Alessandrini, Adriano, Berzi, Lorenzo, Fabbri, Marco, Franci, Michael, Gulino, Michelangelo Santo, Pugi, Luca, Ortenzi, Fernando, Vitiello, Francesco

Development of Automatic Calibration System for PFI Engines

2025-32-0084To be published on 11/03/2025

This report summarizes the research findings on fuel injection calibration methods, aiming to improve engine performance and reduce environmental impact. In PFI (Port Fuel Injection) engines, the injected fuel adheres to the port walls and mixes with air as it vaporizes, then flows into the combustion chamber. Traditionally, the fuel injection quantity is determined by the base map, which is calibrated for a steady state, and corrections for transient conditions. During steady-state operation, the air-fuel ratio of the mixture is uniquely determined by the amount of fuel injected, allowing for reproducible calibration. However, during transient conditions, the amount of fuel adhering to the walls and the amount vaporized do not balance, necessitating transient compensation to achieve the desired air-fuel ratio. Traditional transient compensation has been adapted for each engine model based on experience to accommodate differences in port shapes and injector placements. This approach

Haraguchi, Kazuki

On Board Monitoring of Water Injection Inducement System and Particulate Filter for 3-Wheeler BS VI OBD II B Diesel Vehicle Norms.

2025-32-0086To be published on 11/03/2025

To mitigate greenhouse emission reduction Government of India implemented Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) norms from year 2020. Moving to more stringent emission norms poses challenges for automakers in several ways such as meeting exhaust emissions, on board diagnostic, drivers’ inducement, and catalyst monitoring on vehicles. It is imperative to upgrade engine management system for On-board diagnostics (OBD) that refers to a vehicles self-diagnostic and reporting ability. OBD systems enables owner of vehicles to gain access of the various vehicle sub-systems. OBD-II standards were made more rigid, requiring the Malfunction Indicator Lamp (MIL) to be activated if emission-related components fail. Also, vehicle emissions not to exceed OBD thresholds. Consequently, the use of specific NOx emission control systems became necessary in BS VI OBD II B for 3-wheeler applications. Additionally, the performance and integrity of the catalytic converter must be monitored. Driver warnings, inducement

Jagtap, Pranjal, Syed, Kaleemuddin, Chaudhari, Sandip, Khairnar, Girish, Bhoite, Vikram, Reddy, Kameswar

Knock Sensors for Two Wheelers Applications

2025-32-0079To be published on 11/03/2025

Knock sensors are widely used in automotive engine management applications. It is used for detection of abnormal engine detonation (knocking) and serves to improve combustion performance. It is basically mandatory to comply with regulations for gasoline engines. Pushed by same regulations, and with the implementation of Electronic Fuel Injection (EFI) on two wheelers engines, the door is open to further optimize combustion performance and driving comfort by adding knock sensor. It has large benefit on the ratio of combustion efficiency vs costs. With increased interest of two wheelers OEMs, knock sensors become essential for modern two wheelers applications and set new standards on combustion performances. The sensors are using piezo electric ceramic elements to detect mechanical vibration and transmit the electric signal to the ECU. It has fast analog response and is suitable for high-frequency detection. The wide frequency response allows one common sensor for multiple platforms

van Est, Jeroen, Prieu, Corentin

Analysis of Handlebar Vibration Mechanisms and Perceptual Characteristics During Push-Walking of Electric Motorcycle

2025-32-0020To be published on 11/03/2025

Electric motorcycles produce less vibration and noise than vehicles with internal combustion engines. However, the cogging torque of electric motors can cause vibrations, particularly at low speeds. When push-walking a motorcycle at very low speeds, this cogging torque produces handlebar vibrations, resulting in discomfort for the rider. Since motorcycles are typically turned off during push-walking, it is impossible to reduce these vibrations through motor control. Thus, reducing handlebar vibrations through motor cogging torque design is required. To simulate vibration, a detailed and large-scale model that considers the characteristics of drivetrain components like belts and gears, is required. Consequently, the optimization of vibrations in the early stages of design is challenging. The ultimate goal of this study is to construct a simulation model that can predict handlebar vibration during push-walking. This report investigates the vibration transmission mechanism. Vehicle

Okamura, Tsubasa, Otaki, Ryota, Sugaya, Atsushi, Shimizu, Tsukasa

Impact of Water Injection on Emission Formation in an HVO-fuelled NRMM Engine

2025-32-0067To be published on 11/03/2025

Water injection in diesel engines is a well-known method of lowering combustion temperatures and thus reducing nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. In this study, the influence of water injection in hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) operation on NOx formation, particulate emissions and ignition delay is analysed in comparison to diesel operation. Both the fuel (HVO) and the water injection system were designed as ‘drop-in’ solutions that enable rapid implementation to reduce emissions, even in existing vehicle fleets. The standard engine control unit of the John Deere JD4045 engine was therefore used for the tests. A single water nozzle was installed downstream the charge air cooler to integrate a water injection system. The three operating points of interest were: (1) low speed and high load without exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), (2) high EGR rates at low speed and medium load and (3) the engine's ‘sweet spot’ regarding the emission-tradeoff at high speed and high load. The focus of the

Fuhrmeister, Jonas, Mayer, Sebastian, Günthner, Michael

Optimum Bore-to-Stroke Ratio for a Flathead Uniflow Two-Stroke SI Engine and its Impact on Different Fuels

2025-32-0024To be published on 11/03/2025

This numerical study investigates a spark-ignited, two-stroke engine employing uniflow scavenging, flathead cylinder head design, and an exhaust valve system to identify the optimal bore-to-stroke (B/S) ratio for maximizing brake efficiency at fixed displacement. A single-cylinder prototype engine was constructed, and its experimental data validated a 1D GT-SUITE simulation model. This validated model was then utilized to simulate a full-scale, 1.5-liter displacement, horizontally opposed four-cylinder engine with supercharger-assisted boosting, intended for small aircraft propulsion. The simulations explored a range of B/S ratios from undersquare (0.7) to oversquare (1.5), maintaining a consistent brake power output of 60 kW at 3000 rpm and lambda 0.9. Results showed that increasing the B/S ratio enhanced brake efficiency from 26.0% at B/S=0.7 to 27.0% at B/S=1.5, largely due to reduced frictional losses attributed to shorter stroke and lower piston speeds, decreased heat transfer

Zanchin, Guilherme, Hausen, Roberto, Fagundez PhD, Jean Lucca, Lanzanova, Thompson, Martins, Mario

Obstacle Avoidance Capability of a Personal Mobility Vehicle (PMV) with an Inward Tilting Mechanism under Braking Conditions

2025-32-0033To be published on 11/03/2025

This study delves into the dynamics of three-wheeled Personal Mobility Vehicles (PMVs) equipped with an active tilting mechanism. In three-wheeled vehicles with a single front wheel, the risk of tipping over during sudden braking and sharp turning is often highlighted. To address this issue, the authors have focused their research on three-wheeled PMVs with two front wheels and one rear wheel, equipped with an active tilting mechanism. Previous studies using dynamic simulation tools have demonstrated that such PMVs possess higher obstacle avoidance capabilities compared to motorcycles and even passenger cars. However, these simulations were based on the assumption of avoidance maneuvers without braking, and no studies have yet examined the behavior of three-wheeled PMVs with an active tilting mechanism under the more complex conditions of braking during turning. Therefore, prior to conducting dynamic simulations under braking and turning conditions, this study aims to clarify the

Haraguchi, Tetsunori, Kaneko PhD, Tetsuya

Real Driving Emission (RDE) Assessment for Motorcycles Using a Random Cycle Generator (RCG)

2025-32-0071To be published on 11/03/2025

To protect the atmospheric environment conservation, regulations regarding vehicle exhaust gas emissions have become increasingly stringent over the years. For the case of light duty vehicles (LDVs), Real Driving Emission (RDE) assessments based on Portable Emission Measurement System (PEMS) measurements are being introduced. However, the application of PEMS measurements to motorcycles presents several challenges, including reduced measurement accuracy due to the small engine displacement and number of cylinders, and increased weight due to the PEMS installation. Therefore, an alternative evaluation method that does not rely on PEMS is required. In this study, we have developed a Random Cycle Generator (RCG) to provide an evaluation method that can be performed in a laboratory environment. The RCG allows the creation of evaluation modes by combining different speed patterns of motorcycles. It can generate arbitrary driving cycles that take into account the average and upper limits of

Matsuoka, Masahiro, Hirai, Hiroshi, Ito, Takayuki

Exhaust emissions tests of small gasoline engines used as drives for power generators and handheld machinery

2025-32-0072To be published on 11/03/2025

The paper presents the results of the investigations on the exhaust emissions carried out under real operating conditions of gasoline small engines. During the operation of these devices the authors measured the exhaust emissions: CO, HC, NOx and CO2. For the measurements the authors used a portable exhaust emission analyzer (PEMS). The presented method is a new solution in determining of the exhaust emissions from such engines. In the paper the results of exhaust emissions measurement has been presented. Moreover, some remarks according to measurement method has been presented. The obtained results were compared with the applicable emission requirements. Besides, based on the performed investigations, the authors attempted an evaluation of the possibilities of the use of the measurement method for development works and legislation related to the reduction of the emission from small gasoline engines.

Lijewski, Piotr, Fuc, Pawel, Dobrzynski, Michał, Markiewicz, Filip

Analysis of injected mass shot-to-shot dispersion and injection rate profile for a PFI injector in actual operating conditions

2025-32-0019To be published on 11/03/2025

In order to improve engine emission and limit combustion instabilities, in particular for low load and idle conditions, reducing the injected fuel mass shot-to-shot dispersion is mandatory. Unfortunately, the most diffused approach for the hydraulic analysis of low-pressure injectors such as PFIs or SC R dozers is restrained to the mean injected mass measurement, since the use of conventional injection analysers is unfeasible. In the present paper, an innovative injection analyser is used to measure the injection rate and the injected mass of each single injection event, enabling a proper dispersion investigation of the studied system. The proposed instrument is an inverse application of the Zeuch’s method, which in this case is applied to a closed volume upstream the injector, with the injector being operated with the prescribed upstream-downstream pressure differential. Further, the injector can inject freely against air, thus enabling simultaneous analyses of the resulting spray

Postrioti, Lucio, Maka, Cristian, Martino, Manuel

Safety Critical Series Arc Detection and Measurement in Medium and High Voltage DC Grids

2025-32-0012To be published on 11/03/2025

Direct current (DC) systems are increasingly used in small power system applications ranging from combined heat and power plants aided with photovoltaic (PV) installations to powertrains of small electric vehicles. A critical safety issue in these systems is the occurrence of series arc faults, which can lead to fires due to high temperatures. This paper presents a model-based method for detecting such faults in medium- and high-voltage DC circuits. Unlike traditional approaches that rely on high-frequency signal analysis, the proposed method uses a physical circuit model and a high-gain observer to estimate deviations from nominal operation. The detection criterion is based on the variance of a disturbance estimate, allowing fast and reliable fault identification. Experimental validation is conducted using a PV system with an arc generator to simulate faults. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the method in distinguishing fault events from normal operating variations. The

Winkler, Alexander, Mayr, Stefan, Grabmair, Gernot

RDE testing of small Motorcycle in Indian Road Conditions and study the impact of instrumentation on emission and fuel economy

2025-32-0075To be published on 11/03/2025

This paper presents the results of real-world driving emissions and fuel economy measurements for two-wheelers in India using a state-of-the-art FTIR PEMS technology. The study aimed to characterize the emissions profiles of a small motorcycle under typical Indian driving conditions, including congested urban traffic and highway driving. This is the continuation of the study conducted previously on bigger motorcycle using gas analyzer [ JSAE 20179041 / SAE 2017-32-0041][1], with necessary adaptations to suit the specific conditions of Indian roads and traffic. Key parameters such as NOx, CO, CO2 and Fuel consumption were measured during real-world driving cycles and comparison is done with standard WMTC emission testing cycle. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the actual on-road emissions of two-wheelers in India, which can be used to inform regulatory policies, develop more accurate emission models, and guide the development of cleaner and more efficient two

AGRAWAL, RAHUL, Jaswal, Rahul, Yadav, Sachin

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