Browse Topic: Vehicles and equipment

Items (42,903)

Conception and Experience of Non-driving Related Activities in Semi-autonomous Vehicles

2025-01-0260To be published on 07/02/2025

While semi-autonomous driving (SAE level 3 & 4) is already partially a reality, the driver still needs to take over driving upon notice. Hence, the cockpit cannot be designed freely to accommodate spaces for non-driving related activities. In the following use case, a mobile workplace is created by integrating a translucent acrylic glass pane into the cockpit and introducing joystick steering of the car. By using the technology Virtual Desktop 1, which is a software layer, any desktop application can be represented freely transformable on arbitrary physical and virtual surfaces. Thus, a complete Windows environment can be distributed across all curved and flat surfaces of an interior. The concept is further enhanced by a voice-driven generative AI which helps to summarize documents. A physical and a virtual demonstrator are created to experience and assess the mobile workspace, the well-being of the driver, external influences, and psychological aspects. The physical demonstrator is a

Beutenmüller, Frank, Reining, Nine, Rosenstiel, Reto, Schmidt, Maximilian, Layer, Selina, Bues, Matthias, Mendonca, Daisy

Optimized Cabin Heating Strategy for Battery Electric CEP Vehicles

2025-01-0263To be published on 07/02/2025

Electromobility is gaining importance in the courier, express and parcel (CEP) sector, as parcel service providers increasingly rely on zero-emission vehicles to improve their CO₂ footprint. A common drawback of battery electric vehicles is their reduced range under cold operating conditions, due to the increased energy demand for cabin heating. Another CEP-specific factor influencing both energy consumption and cabin comfort is the frequent opening of doors during parcel delivery. Additionally, during delivery phases, the cabin cools down in the driver’s repeated absence from the cabin, as the heating is inactive. Nonetheless, a sufficient level of thermal comfort must be maintained during the driving phases between delivery stops. This paper presents an optimization-based strategy for the cabin heating of battery electric CEP vehicles. The objective is to maximize cabin comfort during driving phases while maintaining efficient energy consumption. For this purpose, a nonlinear model

Rehm, Dominik, Krost, Jonathan, Meywerk, Martin, Czarnetzki, Walter

An LLM-Based Multi-Turn Task-Oriented Dialogue System for Machine Learning Algorithm Selection in Data Mining

2025-01-0289To be published on 07/02/2025

For the systematic application of machine learning during data mining in product development processes, selecting a suitable algorithm is crucial for success. During an empirical study in the automotive industry, a team applying data mining to develop battery systems for battery electric vehicles was accompanied. Here, it could be observed that data mining tasks are often unique during product development processes and can differ in boundary conditions. Depending on these tasks, suitable machine learning algorithms must be selected. Because of the variety of machine learning paradigms, problems, and algorithms, it is often hard to select a suitable algorithm, especially for inexperienced data miners. This paper presents a large language model (LLM)-based, multi-turn, task-oriented dialogue system to support data miners in selecting machine learning algorithms that are suitable for their specific data mining tasks. This approach, called “Algorithm Selection Assistant” (ASA), enables

Hörtling, Stefan, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert

Safe Obstacle Avoidance Maneuver for Autonomous Vehicles

2025-01-0285To be published on 07/02/2025

This paper focuses on trajectory planning for autonomous vehicles, specifically addressing the challenge of obstacle avoidance during driving. The proposed approach generates a safe and efficient maneuver in real time when a static obstacle is detected in the vehicle's path. The method consists of a path generation algorithm that computes a collision-free trajectory to avoid the obstacle while guiding the vehicle back to its initial lane. Geometric and dynamic constraints are integrated to maintain vehicle stability and ensure the feasibility of the generated trajectories. The algorithm has been validated through an IPG CarMaker professional simulator and an experimental campaign using an instrumented vehicle. Trajectory generation and path tracking are embeded in the vehicle software platform tested on a track. The experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed planning method in generating safe avoidance maneuvers, enhancing the reliability and safety of

VIGNE, BENOIT, GIULIANI, PIO MICHELE, ORJUELA, RODOLFO, Basset, MICHEL

Optimization of Metallic Substrate by 1D simulations to fulfill High Power Cold Start Conditions

2025-01-0308To be published on 07/02/2025

The future of the internal combustion engine is strictly related to his capability to have Life Cycle Emission comparable to the pure Battery Electric Vehicles. To achieve this goal, it will be necessary not only to have carbon free fuels but also to increase the hybridization of the powertrain in order to have lower fuel consumption. On the other hand, it will be necessary to reduce to almost zero any further emissions of pollutants. For this reason, highly sophisticated exhaust aftertreatment must be developed. One particular use case is the so-called High-Power Cold Start. This can occur for the Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles when the transition from pure electric drive to ICE assisted drive happens during high load request, for example an acceleration on the freeway ramp. This use case has been evaluated by CARB and in many other works. Nevertheless, in this particular paper, the Authors would like to investigate which Metallic Substrate Technology fits better during a HPCS. This

Montenegro, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Della Torre, Augusto, Marinoni, Andrea, Pace, Lorenzo, Konieczny, Katrin, Laurell, Mats, Klövmark, Henrik

Improving Gearbox Acoustics Through Elastomer-Based Bearing Damping

2025-01-0323To be published on 07/02/2025

This study analyses the effect of external damping of roller bearings on the acoustic behaviour of gearboxes in electric powertrains. The increasing adoption of electric vehicles has increased the importance of mitigating gearbox noise, as the lack of masking noise from internal combustion engines and the higher operating speeds of electric motors exacerbate the acoustic challenges. Gearbox noise, which is primarily caused by tooth mesh excitation and its transmission through shafts and bearings, requires strategies to minimise its impact on vehicle comfort and performance. External damping is introduced via adapters integrated into the outer bearing ring, which are used to modify the vibrational behaviour of the bearing assembly and reduce both structure-borne and airborne noise emissions. A systematic approach using Design of Experiments (DoE) methodology is used to quantify the effects of this damping. This approach allows the analysis of critical parameters including material

von Schulz, Kai, Linde, Tilmann, Jäger, Steffen

Kinetic Energy Recovery: Assessment on the impact of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor and Battery Dynamic models

2025-01-0303To be published on 07/02/2025

This paper examines the influence of a detailed dynamic model of a Surface Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (SPMSM) on the accurate evaluation of kinetic energy recovery during braking in a mild hybrid vehicle. The model, implemented in MATLAB Simulink, is based on the motor's DQ equivalent circuit, accounting for transient effects, inductance variability, and magnetic saturation. Also, a 2nd Order Thevenin Equivalent model of the battery is used in order to take into account the bus voltage variability. Simulations reveal that the dynamic model predicts significant variations in energy recovery potential, with differences of up to 25% compared to static models under specific braking conditions. These discrepancies are particularly pronounced during high-speed high-torque transitions, where transient electrical behaviors strongly influence energy recovery. The model’s accuracy enhances the reliability of energy simulations, especially in scenarios involving frequent or intense

Lombardi, Simone, Federici, Leonardo, Tribioli, Laura, Bella, Gino

Longitudinal Dynamic Metrics for Describing and Developing the Deceleration Behavior of Vehicles in the Concept Phase

2025-01-0264To be published on 07/02/2025

The brake system is a critical safety component in motor vehicles. Advances in the electrification of the powertrain and the rise of autonomous driving technologies are profoundly influencing the brake system, driving innovative approaches to brake concepts and necessitating the development of new deceleration strategies. A significant technological advancement is the decoupling of the driver from the brake system through Brake-by-Wire technology. A crucial attribute is the attainment of a consistent and concept-independent deceleration behavior and pedal feel. To establish a consistent and OEM-specific deceleration behavior and pedal feel in the early development phase, objective criteria and perceptual thresholds are required, describing the desired subjective braking behavior. Moreover, objective criteria are indispensable for the virtual phase of the vehicle development process. In this article the focus is in deceleration from a straight-ahead drive. To identify objective criteria

Biller, Ralph, Udovicic, Matej, Ketzmerick, Erik, Kirch, Sebastian, Mayr, Stefan, Prokop, Günther, Wagner, Andreas

Systematic Derivation of Requirements for the Perception Task of Free Space Driving Assistance Function applied to Trucks

2025-01-0279To be published on 07/02/2025

The larger size and expanded blind spots of heavy-duty trucks in comparison to passenger cars, create unique challenges for truck drivers navigating narrow roads, such as in urban scenarios. For this reason, the detection of free space around the vehicle is of critical importance, as it has the potential to save lives and reduce operating costs due to less maintenance and downtime. Despite the existence of numerous approaches to free space detection in the literature, few of these have been applied to the trucking sector, disregarding important aspects for these kinds of vehicles such as the altitude at which obstacles are located. This paper aims to present the initial results of our research, a "Not Free Space Warner", a driving assistance function intended for implementation in series trucks. A methodology is followed to define the characteristics that the perception component of this function shall fulfill. To this end, an analysis of the most critical accidents and common driving

Martinez, Cristian, Peters, Steven

Thermal Simulation of CCS Charging Inlet at High Charging Currents with various Optimisation Approaches

2025-01-0278To be published on 07/02/2025

Current status: In Europe, the CCS charging standard for electric vehicles is the most widely used charging system. In order to reduce the inconveniences caused by long charging times, the CCS charging standard has been gradually adapted to the need for higher charging capacities. Currently, charging currents of up to 500A are supported at a charging power of up to 500kW. In order to decarbonise road transport, commercial vehicles are also increasingly being electrified. Problem definition: Battery-electric commercial vehicles in particular have large battery capacities with several hundred kilowatt hours, some of which do not have enough energy for an entire working day, which is why they need to be recharged if necessary. High charging power with correspondingly high charging currents is required to recharge the electrical energy storage units of commercial vehicles in an acceptable time. Due to the electrical losses, waste heat is generated, which places a thermal load on the

Krings, Jochen, Reuss, Hans-Christian, Ziegler, Peter, Steinmetz, Paul

The Automation Concept of the U-Shift II Vehicle

2025-01-0281To be published on 07/02/2025

Autonomous driving technology enables new and innovative driverless vehicle concepts to emerge, like U-Shift. Designed from the ground up, the U-Shift II platform, called driveboard, exemplifies the advantages of separating a vehicle's driving capability from the intended transportation task. It allows different so-called capsules, such as public transport or cargo, to be transported using the same U-shaped driving platform. The driveboard can change the capsules autonomously, thus providing high flexibility for fleet operators. This novel approach introduces new challenges to the task of autonomous driving. On one hand, changing sensor and vehicle configurations, e.g., when transporting a capsule with its own sensors to compensate for occlusions of the driveboard sensors by the capsule itself, requires an adaptive approach to environmental perception. On the other hand, different environments and driving tasks, as well as the augmented motion capabilities of the driveboard, require

Buchholz, Michael, Wodtko, Thomas, Schumann, Oliver, Authaler, Dominik

Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus

2025-01-0266To be published on 07/02/2025

Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of

Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias

Inductance Estimation of an Electric Vehicle

2025-01-0293To be published on 07/02/2025

Electric vehicles are no longer a rarity on Europe’s streets. But battery electric vehicles (BEVs) still have a long way to go to be the dominant vehicle type on the streets. In the last years, not only has the number of passenger cars risen, but also the number of electric trucks and heavy-duty vehicles. In 2023 electric trucks have share of 1.5% in the market. For the truck industry higher charging powers are even more important. Due to European regulations drivers of vehicles with more than 3.5t weight or buses with more than 10 passengers must rest for 45 minutes after 4.5hours of drive. Therefore, higher charging powers were needed, and the Megawatt Charging System (MCS) standard was developed. The voltage level goes up to 1250V and currents of 3000A are defined. This allows the battery of heavy-duty vehicles to be completely charged within the driving breaks. As with the upcoming MCS standard, the charging power increases, also the failure risk rises. Higher charging currents

Grund, Caroline, Reuss, Hans-Christian

Applying Real World Traffic Data on Machine Learning Methods for Graph Based Cooperation Strategies of Automated Vehicles

2025-01-0286To be published on 07/02/2025

With the increasing distribution of smart mobility systems, automated & connected vehicles are more and more interacting with each other and with smart infrastructure using V2X-communication. Hereby, the vehicles' position, driving dynamics data, or driving intention are exchanged. Previous research has explored graph-based cooperation strategies for automated vehicles in mixed traffic environments based on current V2X-communication standards. Thereby, the focus is set on cooperation optimization and maneuver negotiation. These strategies can be implemented through both centralized and decentralized computational approaches and are conflict-free by design. To enhance these previously established cooperation models, real-world traffic data is used to derive vehicle trajectories, providing a more accurate representation of actual traffic scenarios in order to enhance the practical application of the described methodology. Additionally, machine learning algorithms are employed to train

Flormann, Maximilian, Meyer, Felix, Henze, Roman

Experimental Investigation of Factors Influencing Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Battery Cells

2025-01-0306To be published on 07/02/2025

In the fast-paced automotive development environment, experimental testing is often constrained by time and budget limitations. Consequently, tests are frequently conducted to meet regulatory requirements, industry standards, or internal guidelines. This leads to minimalistic testing approaches such as "One Factor at a Time" (OFAT) or "Trial and Error", which fail to capture parameter interactions and system complexities. This study investigates the critical factors influencing the thermal runaway behavior of lithium-ion battery cells under controlled experimental conditions. A statistical full-factorial experimental design was implemented to evaluate the impact of state of charge (SoC), heating trigger power, and cell capacity. The experiments, conducted using an autoclave setup, allowed for precise control of external conditions and detailed measurement of thermal and mechanical responses. The cells investigated are automotive-grade lithium-ion cells from development projects

Ceylan, Deniz, Kulzer, André Casal, Winterholler, Nina, Weinmann, Johannes, Schiek, Werner

Improving Speed Trajectory Optimization for Electric Vehicles with Pre-Calculated Energy Maps and Dynamic Profile Discretization

2025-01-0318To be published on 07/02/2025

Ongoing research and development in the field of electric vehicles (EVs) have resulted in a continuous expansion of their range. Additionally, advancements in vehicle connectivity have created new opportunities for intelligent driving assistance and energy optimization, particularly through the use of cloud data. However, the integration of eco-driving assistance with numerical optimization of speed trajectories remains challenging due to the high computational demands of these methods. To address this challenge and make such a system feasible for integration into vehicle systems, the computational effort required for an optimized driving trajectory must be minimized. This paper presents a method to accelerate speed trajectory optimization using pre-calculated energy and time consumption maps. For this purpose, a dynamic discretization of the anticipated driving profile is applied. Initial results show a substantial reduction in computation time, varying with different scenarios

Schilling Johnson, Rene, Henke PhD, Markus

Design and Analysis of a Battery Thermal Management System for Fast Charging in Extreme Hot Condition

2025-01-0322To be published on 07/02/2025

Fast charging of lithium-ion batteries presents significant thermal management challenges, due to the high demanding conditions of high C-rates, particularly at extreme ambient temperatures. This study explores the thermal behavior of a cylindrical lithium-ion cell during fast-charging scenarios designed to achieve a full charge in 15 minutes or less (SOC: 0%–100%), across a wide range of ambient temperatures. The analysis covers a broad spectrum of ambient temperatures, from 303 K to 333 K, addressing real-world operational challenges faced by electric vehicles and energy storage systems. A validated thermal model, calibrated with experimental data on the open circuit voltage (OCV) and internal resistance of the cell across varying conditions, is employed to accurately predict the temperature distribution of the cell at different states of charge (SOC). The model also includes scenarios involving high initial cell temperatures to assess their effect on thermal performance during fast

Jahanpanah, Jalal, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Babaie, Meisam, Konno, Juho, Akbarzadeh, Mohsen

A New Electrified Planetary Gear Set - The Cost- and Fuel-Efficient Alternative to Continuously Variable Transmissions

2025-01-0309To be published on 07/02/2025

In order to mitigate the effects of climate change, the global transport sector, one of the largest emitters of CO2, needs to drastically reduce its emissions. Although hybridization and electrification are becoming increasingly popular as a solution for a variety of applications, their use in two- and three-wheelers, as well as in recreational and powersports vehicles, remains limited due to their high costs and complexity compared to conventional drivetrains with continuously variable transmissions (CVTs). Despite their affordability and simplicity, CVTs suffer from low mechanical efficiency, with transmission losses ranging from 20–50 %, highlighting a significant opportunity for improvement. In response to these limitations, this study presents the development and experimental evaluation of an electrified planetary gear set (ePGS) in a lightweight off-road vehicle. It is designed to overcome the efficiency limitations of CVTs while maintaining high driving comfort and low system

Jakoby, Moritz, Engels, Michael, Fahrbach, Timm, Andert, Jakob

Data-Driven Analysis of Vehicle Lateral Control in the Country Road Domain

2025-01-0268To be published on 07/02/2025

The optimization and further development of automated driving functions offer significant potential for reducing the driver's workload and increasing road safety. Among these functions, vehicle lateral control plays a critical role, especially with regard to its acceptance by end customers. Significant development efforts are required to ensure the effectiveness and reliability of this aspect in real-world conditions. This work focuses on analyzing vehicle lateral control using extensive measurement data collected from a dedicated vehicle fleet at the Institute of Automotive Engineering at the Technical University of Braunschweig. Equipped with state-of-the-art measurement technology, the fleet has driven several hundred thousand kilometers, allowing for the collection of detailed information on vehicle trajectories under various driving conditions. These measurements have been classified into different driving environment domains - namely city, country road, and highway - with

Iatropoulos, Jannes, Panzer, Anna, Arntz, Martin, Prueggler, Adrian, Henze, Roman

Modular Thermal Management Framework for Electric Drive System Development

2025-01-0262To be published on 07/02/2025

The automotive industry is undergoing a major shift from internal combustion engines (ICE) to hybrid (HEV) and battery-electric vehicles (BEV), which has led to significant advancements and increased complexity in drivetrain design and thermal management systems. This complexity reflects the growing need to optimize energy efficiency, extend vehicle range, and ensure system reliability in modern electric vehicles. At the Institute of Automotive Engineering, a specialized synthesis tool for drivetrain optimization is used to identify the best drivetrain configurations based on specific boundaries and requirements. Building up on this toolchain a modular and adaptable thermal management framework has been developed, addressing another critical aspect of vehicle and drive development: efficient thermal circuit layout and its impact on energy consumption and overall system reliability. The thermal framework emphasizes the dynamic interactions between key components, such as electric

Notz, Fabian, Sturm, Axel, Sander, Marcel, Kässens, Christoph, Henze, Roman

A Modular Framework for Lateral Movement Modeling

2025-01-0269To be published on 07/02/2025

The lateral movement of vehicles within their lane determines occurring occlusions, and thus decides on the range of visions of vehicle sensors used by automated driving functions and the objects detected by down-stream algorithms. As simulations play an integral role in the validation of automated driving functions, their ability to realistically model the lateral movement is crucial. However, currently applied methods such as microscopic traffic simulations and the scenario-based approach making use of maneuver-based scenario descriptions simplify or neglect the lateral movement of vehicles. For that reason, a two-level stochastic model has been introduced in earlier work. It consists of a Markov model for the systematic coarse movement and a noise model for the residual fine movement. In follow-up publications, several advancements for both model components have been presented. These follow a modular structure, thus, can be flexibly combined. This paper for the first time gives an

Neis, Nicole, Beyerer, Jürgen

Investigation on Thermal Management of Heavy-Duty Commercial FCEV with Focus on Vehicle System Efficiency

2025-01-0265To be published on 07/02/2025

The primary approach to meet the objectives of the EU Heavy Duty CO2 Regulation involves decarbonizing the road transport sector by battery electric vehicles (BEV) or hydrogen-fueled vehicles. Even though the well-to-wheel efficiency of hydrogen-fueled powertrains like fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) and H2-internal combustion engines (H2-ICE) is much lower in comparison to BEV, they are better suited for on-road heavy-duty trucks, long haul transport missions and regions with scarce charging infrastructure. Hence, this paper focuses on heavy-duty FCEVs and their overall energetic efficiency enhancement by intelligently managing energy transfer across coolant circuit boundaries through waste heat recovery, while ensuring that all relevant components remain within required temperature boundaries under both cold and hot ambient conditions. Results were obtained using a 1D-model that comprises all thermal fluid circuits (refrigerant, coolant, air) created through GT-Suite software

Uhde, Sophia, Langhorst, Thorsten, Wuest, Marcel, Naber, Dirk

U-Shift IV: Innovations and challenges in autonomous urban mobility

2025-01-0284To be published on 07/02/2025

The U-Shift IV represents the latest evolution in modular urban mobility solutions, offering significant advancements over its predecessors. This innovative vehicle concept introduces a distinct separation between the drive module, known as the driveboard, and the transport capsules. The driveboard contains all the necessary components for autonomous driving, allowing it to operate independently. This separation not only enables versatile applications - such as easily swapping capsules for passenger or goods transportation - but also significantly improves the utilization of the driveboard. By allowing a single driveboard to be paired with different capsules, operational efficiency is maximized, enabling continuous deployment of driveboards while the individual capsules are in use. The primary focus of U-Shift IV was to obtain a permit for operating at the Federal Garden Show 2023. To achieve this goal, we built the vehicle around the specific requirements for semi-public road

Pohl, Eric, Scheibe, Sebastian, Münster, Marco, Osebek, Manuel, Kopp, Gerhard, Siefkes, Tjark

Optimization of the lubricating oil composition to reduce emissions from hydrogen engines

2025-01-0212To be published on 06/16/2025

The decarbonization of the transport sector has become a priority for governmental authorities and industrial stakeholders alike, driving regulatory measures and innovation in powertrain technologies. Among the innovative solutions, hydrogen combustion engines have gained significant attention due to their customization to diverse applications, including heavy-duty vehicles, passenger cars, generators, and even two- and three-wheelers. Hydrogen combustion, characterized by high ignitability, rapid flame speed, soot-free operation, and water as a combustion by-product, introduces distinct challenges for engine lubrication. These unique characteristics require the development and adaptation of lubricant formulations to ensure optimal engine performance and durability. Specifically, tailored lubricants play a vital role in addressing four key challenges: pre-ignition, particulate emissions, water contamination, and wear protection. This study investigates the impact of crucial formulation

Gohl, Marcus, Wulff, Robert, Scholl, Peter, Günthner, Michael, Jung, Philipp Emanuel, Chapelot, Pierre

Comparison of HRD and Petro Diesel in Industrial Engine Applications

2025-01-0243To be published on 06/16/2025

Renewable fuels are seen as a key enabler on the path to a lower carbon future. A low greenhouse gas fuel of particular interest is hydrotreated renewable diesel (HRD), also known as hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO). HRD is of interest because it is a drop-in replacement to existing petroleum fuels used in diesel engines. An experimental investigation was undertaken to evaluate combustion characteristics of HRD versus a standard petroleum diesel. The work was carried out using a 2.5-liter fully instrumented single-cylinder research engine. This engine was chosen because it provides a very precise view of the difference in combustion and emissions of the fuels. Results represent the difference in combustion characteristics of the fuels, rather than potential differences in engine performance seen in a production engine, as each particular engine model will react a bit differently to the changes in combustion. The engine was operated according to three ISO 8178-4 test cycles: C1, D2, and

Bardell, Michael, Abi-Akar, Hind, Seiler, Patrick, Nash, Brady, McMahon, Donna, Ioannou, Marios

Understanding how blending different ratios of renewable fuels with diesel impacts the toxicity of exhaust particulates to human health.

2025-01-0207To be published on 06/16/2025

The urgent need to decarbonise transport has increased the utilisation of renewable fuels with current hydrocarbons. Heavy duty vehicle electrification solutions are yet to be realised and therefore the reliance on diesel engines may still be present for decades to come. Currently, the diesel supplied to fuel stations across the UK is a 7% blended biodiesel, whilst in South Korea a 5% blend is utilised. Biodiesel is produced from renewable sources for example; crops, waste residue and oils or biomass. Particulates from diesel combustion are known to be toxic, due to the presence of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) however there is very limited understanding of blending oxygenated fuels on the toxicity of the particulates produced. PAHs are aromatic structures that can be metabolised into chemicals which can disrupt DNA replication and potentially influence cancer mechanisms if inhaled in high quantities. Soyabean methyl-ester (SME) was blended at lower ratios, e.g., 5%, 10%, 15% and

Hailwood, Emma, Hellier, Paul, Ladommatos, Nicos, Leonard, Martin

Noise Management in Electric Vehicle Compressors for Superior Cabin Comfort

2025-01-0191To be published on 06/16/2025

“This research addresses the issue of noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) in electric buses, which can hinder their widespread adoption despite their environmental benefits. With the absence of traditional engines, NVH control in electric vehicles focuses on auxiliary components like the air compressor. In this study, the air compressor was identified as a major source of vibration, causing harsh contact between its oil sump and mounting bracket. Analyzing the vibrations revealed that the sump and bracket were not moving freely, increasing noise. Modifying the bracket design to allow more movement between the components successfully reduced both noise and vibration. The paper details the experimental process, findings, and structural damping methods to mitigate NVH in electric buses”.

Paroche, Sonu, Patel, Shubhanshi, Patidar, Ashok Kumar

Adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy based on Bayesian Optimization

2025-01-0194To be published on 06/16/2025

The Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) is an effective approach for managing energy flow in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), balancing the use of electric energy and fuel consumption. The strategy's performance depends heavily on the Equivalent Factor (EF), which governs this trade-off. However, the optimal EF varies under different driving conditions and is influenced by the inherent randomness in factors such as traffic, road gradients, and driving behavior, making it challenging to determine through traditional methods. This paper introduces Bayesian Optimization (BO) as a solution to address the stochastic nature of the EF parameter tuning process. By using a probabilistic model, BO efficiently navigates the complex, uncertain performance landscape to find the optimal EF parameters that minimize fuel consumption and emissions across variable conditions. Simulation results for the WLTP and Artemis driving cycles demonstrate that the EF parameters optimized with BO

Zhang, Cetengfei, Zhou, Quan, Jia, Yiqi, Xiong, Lu

A Pich Shift Synthesis Algorithm for Electric Vehicle Sound Based on Quadratic Interpolation and Continuous Sample Indexing

2025-01-0254To be published on 06/16/2025

The electric vehicle driveline generates less vibration and noise compared to a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle, making it hard-er for the driver to perceive the vehicle’s operating status through driveline sounds, thereby diminishing driving engagement and experience. To compensate for the absence of engine sound in EV drivelines, Active Sound Design (ASD) technology has become a crucial method for drivetrain sound enhancement, with sound synthesis algorithms playing a key role in this process. Although pitch-shifting algorithms based on frequency variation principles can synthesize engine sounds, they suffer from spectral leakage and stuttering caused by sound splicing. To ad-dress these issues, a pitch-shifting synthesis algorithm (QCPS) is proposed in this paper, which combines a quadratic interpolation method with a continuous audio sample indexing strategy. First, the frequency variation coefficient of the sound is calculated. Based on this coefficient

Liu, Dezhu, Xie, Liping, Liu, Zhien, Lu, Chihua

NVH Improvement of Transmission Electric Oil Pump with Uneven Pitch Control

2025-01-0252To be published on 06/16/2025

Acoustic noise and vibration are always main issues to overcome in electric oil pumps for gearboxes in HEV and BEV. This paper introduces a noise reduction control method of electric oil pump in wet-type dual clutch transmissions. This paper proposes an uneven pitch control for electric oil pumps. For the noise reduction of vane pumps, mechanical arrangements of uneven pitch vain angle are widely used. However, the tooth angle of gear-type pumps should be even mechanically. The proposed uneven pitch control provides similar effects of the mechanical uneven pitch arrangement by instantaneous motor torque controls of the electric oil pump which cannot have uneven pitch mechanically. The magnitude of motor torque for each pump tooth is determined by an uneven pitch formula which is widely used for mechanical vane pumps in previous study and patents. A formula for the shape of motor torque is proposed by analyzing pressure fluctuations of pump as a combination of trigonometric and

Choi, Chinchul, Kim, Jongbeom

Sound Granular Synthesis Method for Science Fiction Sound Quality of Electric Vehicles

2025-01-0253To be published on 06/16/2025

Since the powertrain systems of electric vehicles (EVs) lack the traditional engine sound, their NVH performance differs from that of conventional fuel-powered vehicles, making the use of active sound design (ASD) systems increasingly common to provide compensatory sound. With the increasing demand for ASD systems, sci-fi sounds are emerging as a design direction to enhance the acoustic feedback of powertrain systems and to elevate the futuristic and immersive driving experience of vehicles. A method for generating sci-fi soundscapes using a granular synthesis algorithm is proposed in this paper. First, a sci-fi sound is designed based on the characteristics of sci-fi sounds, which serves as the target sound for the synthesis algorithm. Then, it is proposed that sound grains are generated using the adaptive main frequency method, and granular synthesis is achieved through the overlap-and-add (OLA) method. In addition, a method for optimizing the composite cosine window function based

Liu, Dezhu, Liu, Zhien, Xie, Liping, Lu, Chihua

Modern Low Friction Coating Technology for Automotive Tribology

2025-01-0247To be published on 06/16/2025

According to Forbes, China, armed with electric vehicles (EVs), could have several companies among the top 10 global brands by sales in 2030. Their global market share is expected to be 33% in 2030. EV's friction is mostly boundary and mixed lubrication, more severe than ICE with hydrodynamic lubrication. Electrical surface failures are clustering, frosting, fluting, cratering, white etching, color change of grease, current marks, gear fluting and microbubbles. Modified friction test condition of ball on disk for EV parts is 1 m/s, 50 N, 1.1 GPa, 80 V, 12.5 kHz (vs. conventional pin on disk, 0.1 m/s, 10 N, 1 km). For the protection of EV's wear and friction, the coatings, DLC, CrN and CrCuN, are compared in the literature. Global coating companies developed with the keywords: hybrid process (PVD/PACVD + FLAD), low-temperature process for polymer/seal coating (ta-C), HIPIMS+CVD for CFRP cutting tool. Fraunhofer IWS has a low friction coating project for ultra-smooth and super

Cha, Sung Chul, Moon, Kyoung Il, Kim, Jongkuk, Park, Chang Ho, Kim, Dong Sik

Development of the Central Coordinated Motion Control System for Pure Electric Vehicles

2025-01-0188To be published on 06/16/2025

The IM L6 is the fourth product under the IM brand, featuring both rear-motor two-wheel drive and dual-motor all-wheel drive configurations. This article introduces the Ling Xi Digital Intelligent Chassis system of the IM L6, which includes air springs, CDC (Continuous Damping Control), rear-wheel steering system, braking system, front-wheel steering system, and electric drive system. The study explores how adjusting the damping of the CDC achieves a more comfortable damping effect. Through precise control of the rear-wheel steering system, the vehicle achieves smaller turning radii, crab walk capability, optimized response in moose test conditions, and improved performance on split-friction surfaces. By coordinating the IBS (Intelligent Brake System) and VMC (Vehicle Motion Control), an exceptionally comfortable braking experience is achieved.

Zhou, Yuxing, Li, Wen

A study on improving the methodology for Torque modeling using a virtual engine model

2025-01-0204To be published on 06/16/2025

This study aims to develop an engine torque prediction model using virtual engine simulation data. Accurate torque prediction is essential for minimizing shift shock and ensuring consistent driving performance, particularly in hybrid vehicles where smooth transitions between electric motors and internal combustion engines are necessary. The Engine Control Unit (ECU) uses a physics-based torque prediction model, requiring ignition timing swing data for precise calibration. The virtual engine model, based on 1D gas dynamics, was calibrated using real engine data obtained from a small number of main operating points. The simulation data obtained from the virtual engine model showed a good correlation with the experimental data. By combining large-scale simulation data with limited experimental data, we effectively calibrated the torque prediction model in ECU and confirmed that the calibration results met the development goals. This study demonstrates the potential for efficient engine

Hur, Donghan, Paeng, Jeonghwan, Kim, Kyusup, Chang, Jinseok, Park, Jongil

Commercial Vehicle’s Exhaust Front Pipe Reliability Improvement through Virtual Simulation and Experimental Validation

2025-01-0209To be published on 06/16/2025

The exhaust front pipe is a critical structural component in commercial vehicles, ensuring the leak-proof flow of exhaust gases into the exhaust after-treatment system while withstanding engine and frame vibrations. To isolate these vibrations, the front pipe is equipped with a flex connector capable of enduring various displacements at frequencies between 8-25 Hz. The position of the flex connector relative to the engine crank axis significantly impacts its structural reliability over its service life. This paper compares the existing design, which features a horizontally positioned flex connector, with a modified design that positions the flex connector vertically and changes the material from SS-304 to SS-321. Finite element analysis was conducted using Nastran software. The fatigue life of the existing flex connector design is approximately 1015 cycles. In contrast, the improved design demonstrates a fatigue life of 1727 cycles, representing a 70% increase in durability compared to

Chandel, Kushal, Paroche, Sonu, Namdev, Akhilesh, Jain, Shailendra, Patil, Keyur

Influence of Fuel Surface Tension and Viscosity on Internal Flow Bubble Formation and Atomization in Flash Boiling Sprays

2025-01-0221To be published on 06/16/2025

Flash boiling spray can achieve atomization effects similar to high-pressure subcooled sprays at lower injection pressures, which reduces engine hardware costs and aligns with the trend toward increased efficiency and miniaturization for hybrid vehicle engines. Thus, it is considered a promising next-generation fuel atomization technology. The atomization characteristics and spray structure of flash boiling sprays differ significantly from those of subcooled sprays, with distinct mechanisms in the primary breakup stage being a major cause of these differences. Previous studies have established the bubble-rupture primary breakup model, which is closely linked to bubble generation during internal flow. However, existing research has primarily focused on controlling the superheat index and injection pressure, without sufficiently considering the impact of fuel properties on bubble generation. As carbon neutrality goals advance, alternative fuels such as e-fuels (e.g., e-gasoline), low

Zhang, Yijia, Li, Yilong, Wang, Shangning, Zeng, Tingxi, Xu, Min, Hung, David, Li, Xuesong

Overview of Indian Government Policies, Regulations and Automotive Company Strategies toward Net-zero Emissions

2025-01-0184To be published on 06/16/2025

The automotive sector in India is undergoing a transformation, driven by government policies and regulations aimed at achieving net-zero carbon emissions. In alignment with global climate goals, the Indian government has set ambitious targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with a focus on promoting Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs). Initiatives like the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) Scheme, along with tax incentives, subsidies, and charging infrastructure development, are designed to accelerate the adoption of cleaner vehicles. The introduction of stricter emission standards and the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) further underscores the push toward sustainable mobility. In response, Indian automotive companies are shifting strategies to align with these government directives. Major players are significantly increasing investments in EV technology, focusing on enhancing battery performance

Patil, Nikhil Nivrutti, Saurabh, Saurabh, Bhardwaj, Rohit, Gawhade, Ravikant, Gadve, Dhananjay, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya

Techno-Economic Analysis of an Integrated E-Methanol Production Plant Utilizing First and Second Generation Biomass Resources

2025-01-0182To be published on 06/16/2025

Building upon foundational research utilizing Aspen Plus modeling for e-methanol production from sugar cane and sugar beet biomass, this study advances by incorporating a comprehensive techno-economic assessment (TEA) of an integrated e-methanol production system. The established integrated system converts biomass into ethanol through fermentation and synthesizes e-methanol using both captured CO2 and syngas derived from biomass residue gasification. The approach optimizes dual utilization of CO2 and biomass thereby fostering a circular carbon economy. The TEA quantifies capital expenditures (CAPEX), operational expenditures (OPEX), and levelized costs of energy (LCOE), providing a detailed economic analysis of the potential for commercializing e-methanol. Additionally, a sensitivity analysis is conducted to evaluate the impact of variable factors such as feedstock prices, process yields, and energy costs on the economic outcomes. This sensitivity analysis is crucial for understanding

Fernandes, Renston Jake, Shakeel, Mohammad Raghib, Nguyen, Ducduy, Im, Hong G., Turner, James W.G.

NVH Improvement of BEV transmission using housing modal analysis co-relation and design optimization

2025-01-0106To be published on 05/05/2025

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are extremely sensitive in terms of NVH requirements. While the engine is being replaced with an almost silent electric motor, the transmission noise appears persistent and demands more silent transmission. This has raised demand for improvement in design as well as manufacturing quality. Various innovations are being made to drive an improvement in the NVH. The following paper will discuss the improvement in NVH achieved through a design optimization of the housing using modal analysis. Firstly, the NVH results were co-related with the modal analysis and the cause for the dominant peak in amplitude of the NVH graph associated with the housing modes were mapped. A simple Excel based correlation matrix is used to map the list of all Eigenfrequencies of housing and its corresponding gear tooth frequency. Further optimization is done in housing design to defer the modal frequencies and another NVH test was run. It was proven that housing design

Pingale, Abhijeet Satish, Deshpande, Prasannakumar

Vibration refinement of two wheeler sub chassis and aesthetic parts due to engine unbalanced excitation forces

2025-01-0113To be published on 05/05/2025

Two wheelers are important and essential transportation mode in India. Designing a motorcycle with better riding comfort and minimal vibration are thus a major challenge for engineers now a day. Engine and road excitations are two sources of vibration acting on motor bike or scooter. These vibrations are transmitted to chassis, sub chassis, aesthetic parts and then to the rider and pillion. Unwanted vibrations will create discomfort to the rider/pillion as well as produces noises and hence needs to be minimized. This study is focused on diagnosis and control of output vibration responses of sub chassis/aesthetic parts due to engine unbalanced excitation forces. There are numerous parameters of motor bike/ scooter that govern the vibration responses of sub chassis/ aesthetic parts. Engine unbalanced inertia force characteristics and their transmission to rider and pillion has been studied and reported here. Environmental benefits demands for a complete NVH refinement for lesser

Khare, Saharash

Identification and Evaluation of Passthroughs That Affect the Acoustic Performance of a Dash System

2025-01-0121To be published on 05/05/2025

This paper discusses a systematic process that was developed to evaluate the acoustic performance of a production electric vehicle dash system. The production dash panel was tested under different configurations to understand the importance of passthroughs in the acoustics of the dash system. Results show that often the performance of the passthroughs strongly affects the overall performance of the dash system and this may become the limiting factor to increase the system STL. The dash with passthroughs was then extensively tested to understand the acoustic strength of different passthroughs and to understand how these passthroughs affect the overall performance of the dash system. Subsequently a test procedure based on flat panel tests was developed so the OEM can develop target values and the suppliers can provide test results of their passthroughs that are meaningful and useful to the OEM to help build an acoustically competitive vehicle.

Saha, Pranab, Baack, Gregory, Geissler, Christian, Kaluvakota, Srikanth, Pilz, Fernando

Hybrid 3D Sound Intensity and Simulation for Optimizing Acoustic Output of Truck Rear Axles

2025-01-0105To be published on 05/05/2025

This study presents a novel methodology for optimizing the acoustic performance of rotating machinery by combining scattered 3D sound intensity data with numerical simulations, focusing on the rear axle of a truck. Using Scan&Paint 3D, sound intensity data is rapidly acquired over a large spatial area with the assistance of a 3D sound intensity probe and infrared stereo camera. The experimental data is then integrated into far-field radiation simulations, enabling detailed analysis of the acoustic behavior and accurate predictions of far-field sound radiation. This hybrid approach offers a significant advantage for assessing complex acoustic sources, allowing for quick and reliable evaluation of noise mitigation solutions. While the current application focuses on the truck's rear axle far-field radiation, the same method can be extended to predict in-cabin sound pressure, providing a versatile solution for many industrial problems.

Fernandez Comesana, Daniel, Vael, Georges, Robin, Xavier, Orselli, Joseph, Schmal, Jared

NVH improvement of the BEV transmission by altering bearing mounting arrangement.

2025-01-0104To be published on 05/05/2025

As per metaphor, “The squeaky wheel gets the grease” the transmission of battery electric vehicle (BEVs) gets topmost attention in terms of NVH improvement. While the engine is getting replaced with an almost silent electric motor, the transmission noise appears persistent and demands more silent transmission. This has raised demand for improvement in design as well as manufacturing quality. Various innovations are being done to drive an improvement in the NVH. Following paper will discuss the improvement in NVH achieved through a design innovation in the way bearings are installed and demonstrated a significant amount of improvement. We have used SMT MASTA used as a simulation tool to predict the expected results and a Transmission Dyno test bench in an anechoic chamber to test the NVH performance on physical sample. The innovation was done on a small single speed two stage reduction gearbox coupled with a 100 NM, 14000 RPM battery electric motor. Though the bearings have

Pingale, Abhijeet, Soni, Jaldeep

Virtual Gear Noise Analysis and Case Design Investigation for Concept Parallel Axis Drive Unit

2025-01-0102To be published on 05/05/2025

For electric vehicles, it is critical to develop drive units that produce a minimal amount of noise while meeting efficiency needs for a given application. Modern computational resources and accumulated experience allow for engineers to evaluate gear noise early in the development process and influence the design of the drive unit. This paper documents a high-fidelity virtual engineering approach to evaluate gear noise in a concept parallel axis drive unit and provide learnings to influence design of the external structure to improve NVH performance. By using the latest simulation tools to calculate and visualize the noise and vibration characteristics of the drive unit, designers and developers can implement design changes in optimization iterations to reduce noise and vibration. Gear harmonic response is firstly analyzed through a system model which considers structural deflection and misalignment, then a FE housing model is incorporated which is used for noise radiation evaluation

Lima, Luiz, Shi, Zhenghong, Xu, Hai, Reynolds, Craig, Miller, John

Sound Design for Electric Vehicles: Enhancing Safety and User Experience Through Acoustic Vehicle Alerting System (AVAS)

2025-01-0068To be published on 05/05/2025

Silent engines are an excellent strategy to combat noise pollution. Still, they can pose risks for pedestrians who rely on auditory cues for safety and reduce driver awareness due to the absence of the familiar sounds of combustion engines. Sound design for silent engines not only tackles the above issues but goes beyond safety standards towards a user-centered approach by considering how users perceive and interpret sounds. This paper examines the evolving field of sound design for electric vehicles (EVs), focusing on Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems (AVAS). The study analyzes existing AVAS, classifying them into different groups according to their design characteristics, from technical concerns and approaches to aesthetic properties. Based on the proposed classification, an (adaptive) sound design methodology, and concept for AVAS are proposed based on state-of-the-art technologies and tools (APIs), like Wwise Automotive, and integration through a functional prototype within a

Rodrigues Ferraz Esteves, Ana Raquel, Campos Magalhães, Eduardo Miguel, Bernardes de Almeida, Gilberto

A review on Electric Vehicle NVH challenges and recent trends

2025-01-0042To be published on 05/05/2025

Electric vehicles (EVs) present a distinct set of challenges in noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) compared to traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. As EVs operate with significantly reduced engine noise, other sources of noise, such as motor whine, power electronics, and road and wind noise, become more noticeable. This review paper explores the key NVH issues faced by EVs, including high-frequency tonal noise from electric motors, gear meshing, and vibrations. Additionally, it examines recent advancements and trends in NVH mitigation techniques, such as active noise control, improved material insulation, and advanced vibration isolation systems. Furthermore, this paper discusses the role of computational tools, simulation technologies, and testing methodologies in predicting and addressing NVH concerns in EVs. By providing an in-depth analysis of the challenges and the latest innovations, this review aims to contribute to the ongoing development of quieter and

Hazra, Sandip, Khan, Arkadip Amitava

Subjective Development of EV Propulsion Noise to Drive Product Differentiation

2025-01-0067To be published on 05/05/2025

The frequency and amplitude content of powertrain noise is motor torque and speed dependent and tends to influence the driver’s subjective perception of the vehicle. This provides manufacturers with an opportunity to drive product differentiation through consideration of powertrain noise in early stages of the development cycles for electric vehicles (EVs). This paper focuses on the evaluation of customer preference and perception of acoustic feedback from different powertrain design options based on targeted powertrain orders and expected wind and road masking during high acceleration maneuvers. A jury study is used to explore customer feedback to a two-stage gearbox design with AC permanent magnet motor order combinations. The subjective influence of order spacing, dominant frequency content and the number of audible orders is studied to understand aural perspective product differentiation opportunities.

Joodi, Benjamin, Jayakumar, Vignesh, Conklin, Chris, Pilz, Fernando, Iyengar, Shashank, Weilnau, Kelby, Hodgkins, Jeffrey

Comprehensive Analysis and Optimization of Door Closing Sound Quality of a Heavy Truck

2025-01-0066To be published on 05/05/2025

Based on the objective and subjective experiment and finite element analysis, the influencing factors on the door closing sound quality of a heavy-duty truck is analyzed and optimized. Results show that the loudness and sharpness can be reduced apparently by increasing stiffness and damping of the door. The sound quality can be enhanced by increasing the pressure release area, which can decrease the air resistance of dooring closing. By adding holes on the inner liner and changing the pressure release location, the dooring closing air resistance is reduced from 289 Pa to 181 Pa. In terms of the rebound sound, the sound level is positively relative to the door closing force. Increasing the protrusion height and decreasing the stiffness of the vibration absorber of the handle can improve the rebound sound quality. Optimizing the absorbers on both ends and adding damping material can decrease the loudness by 47.8%, reduce the cavity sound, dismiss the trembling and improve the compact

Wang, Jian, Zhang, Yongshen, Feng, Lei, Xie, Chenhao, Lin, Jiewei, Sun, Changchun

Research on Shift Sound Quality Control Strategy for Active Sound Generation System in Automobile

2025-01-0019To be published on 05/05/2025

The active sound synthesis system of electric vehicles plays an important role in improving the sound perception and transmission of working condition information inside the vehicle. Nowadays, the active sound synthesis system inside the vehicle has become standard equipment in electric vehicles of major electric vehicle manufacturers to meet the user groups' demand for driving and riding experience. In order to enrich the driving experience of electric vehicles and automatic transmission vehicles, the sound performance should be close to the immersiveness and dynamic feedback brought by traditional manual transmission fuel vehicles. Based on the active sound synthesis algorithm in the car, this paper proposes an adaptive shift sound quality control strategy suitable for complex and changeable working conditions, with the aim of simulating the real shift sound of the engine. First, the motor speed offset is accurately calculated based on the transmission ratio of each gear of the

Zhou, Xilong, Liu, Zhien, Xie, Liping, Yu, Shangbo, Lu, Chihua, Gao, Xiang, Yongsheng, Wang

Active Control of Engine Order Noise for Heavy-duty Trucks: Using the Genetic Algorithm for the Optimization of Error Microphone Arrangement

2025-01-0013To be published on 05/05/2025

The arrangement of error microphones for a vehicle active noise control (ANC) system is no trivial work, especially for heavy-duty trucks due to the dilemma resulted from the large volume of the cab and the limited number of microphones accepted by most manufacturers in the auto industry. Most ANC developers resort to trial and error, which is not only a heavy workload given the amount of interested working conditions to be test, but also does not guarantee to yield the optimum noise cancellation performance. In this paper, the authors proposed an error microphone selection methodology using a genetic-algorithm (GA) -based mechanism. The target vehicle was a heavy-duty truck with a six-piston diesel engine, and two scenarios were particularly interested, i.e. driver & copilot and driver & one passenger sleeping on the berth. We first arranged eight microphones at different locations in the cab, five on the headrests, two on the B pillars and one at the head position of the sleeping

Wang, Jian, Ling, Zihong, Zhang, Zhe, Cai, DeHua, lv, Xiao, Zhang, Ming, Gao, GuoRan

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