Browse Topic: Recreational vehicles and equipment

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Measurement of Exhaust Sound Levels of Stationary SnowmobilesJ2567_202607 (Current)7/6/2026
This SAE Standard establishes the test procedure, environment, and instrumentation for determining the sound levels of snowmobiles in the stationary test mode. This test method is intended to provide an accurate measurement of exhaust and other engine noise and may be used to evaluate new and in-use snowmobiles to determine compliance with noise control regulations. Sound level measurements obtained with this test method are not intended as an engineering determination of overall machine noise. For this purpose, the use of SAE J192 is recommended.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
Comparative Study of EV Transmission Performance Used in Various Vehicle Segments2026-26-05841/16/2026
The transition to electric mobility has accelerated the evolution of drivetrain technologies, particularly in the design and performance of electric vehicle (EV) transmissions. Unlike traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs utilize simpler yet diverse transmission systems cater to specific performance, efficiency, and application requirements. The growing adoption of electric vehicles across diverse transportation sectors has intensified the need for optimized electric transmission systems as per vehicle requirements. This research presents a comparative study of electric transmission performance across various vehicle segments, including Passenger Cars, Small commercial Vehicle, Commercial three-wheelers and All-terrain vehicles. The study evaluates different transmission configurations namely single-speed and multi-speed, based on key performance metrics such as Drag loss and Efficiency. Through a combination of literature review, and performance benchmarking, the analysis highlights how different segments prioritize specific transmission characteristics. The efficiency & drag losses were measured in the powertrain testbed where the test units were placed between two Transient Dynamometers at Output and one lower inertia prime mover at Input. The main aim of the test was to validate overall efficiency as a function of input speed and torque The study concludes that no single transmission architecture universally outperforms others across all segments; instead, optimal performance is highly dependent on use-case scenarios and design goals. These insights aim to support EV manufacturers and powertrain engineers in selecting or developing transmission systems that align with specific performance, cost, and efficiency targets. The paper also identifies areas for future research, including control strategy optimization and the impact of emerging materials and manufacturing technologies on transmission performance.
Jain, Sankalp, P, Ekhesh
Snowmobile Passenger HandgripsJ1062_202507 (Current)7/21/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice is intended to give information to engineers and designers in order that access to a passenger handgrip, when used, is easily obtained, and that such handgrips offer maximum safety for a person at least as large as a 95th percentile adult male during snowmobile operation.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
PRODUCT BRIEFS25TOFHP06_136/1/2025
Hatz Americas (Waukesha, Wisconsin) expanded its power generation product portfolio to include AC and DC mobile diesel generators for the recreational vehicle and industrial markets. The new offerings provide prepackaged, sound-attenuated solutions for power generation and hybrid battery charging. Manufacturing and testing of the 1B30VE engines used in the generators will continue to take place at the primary engine plant in Ruhstorf, Germany. Final assembly of the generator sets will occur at Hatz's new production facility in Italy. The first model released will be the GD3200-120 Silent Pack with RV package, which is available to order. This will be followed by the BD3000-56 Silent Pack for use in either 28V or 56V hybrid battery charging systems. https://www.hatzamericas.com
Efficient Sidewalk Route Planning on Aerial Images with Cost-Based A* and Mini-Max Objective Function2025-01-80324/1/2025
With the growing diversification of modern urban transportation options, such as delivery robots, patrol robots, service robots, E-bikes, and E-scooters, sidewalks have gained newfound importance as critical features of High-Definition (HD) Maps. Since these emerging modes of transportation are designed to operate on sidewalks to ensure public safety, there is an urgent need for efficient and optimal sidewalk routing plans for autonomous driving systems. This paper proposed a sidewalk route planning method using a cost-based A* algorithm and a mini-max-based objective function for optimal routes. The proposed cost-based A* route planning algorithm can generate different routes based on the costs of different terrains (sidewalks and crosswalks), and the objective function can produce an efficient route for different routing scenarios or preferences while considering both travelling distance and safety levels. This paper’s work is meant to fill the gap in efficient route planning for sidewalks on aerial/HD maps.
Bao, Zhibin, Lang, Haoxiang, Lin, Xianke
CFD Modeling of Elastomeric Silicone Material Dispensing to Enable Equipment Design & Optimization for Efficient Automotive Manufacturing2025-01-83184/1/2025
In the automotive industry, it is essential to consider not only how well specialty materials perform and are formulated, but also how efficiently and economically they can be applied during manufacturing. This becomes especially important during the early stages of development to prevent issues when these materials are used in new designs by automotive suppliers or manufacturers. With the rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs), new materials are being used more frequently, and these materials may not have been as thoroughly tested as those used in traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure that these materials can be applied correctly and efficiently from the start. One way to speed up the development process is through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling. CFD helps predict how materials will behave when dispensed, which is essential for developing the right equipment and conditions for applying these materials. Working with Graco, a leading manufacturer of fluid management and dispense solutions, Dow and Graco have used these models to design better equipment solutions and improve the software used. This ensures high-quality and efficient application at start up. This paper will present two case studies how material models were developed, tested, and validated with real-world data to ensure they work as intended. The goal is to demonstrate how optimizing dispensing equipment based on material characteristics is critical for maintaining process windows and product quality. By doing so, manufacturers can achieve better results, reduce waste, and ensure the reliability of new materials in automotive applications.
Kenney, J. Andy, Delgado, Roberto, Hossain, Arif, Ng, Sze-Sze, Thomas, Ryan, Chyasnavichyus, Marius, Tsang, Chi-Wei, Hwang, Margaret, Wu, Lance, Dietsche, Laura, Mcmichael, Jonathan, Raines, Kevin, Nelson, Grant
Structural Analysis of Two-Wheeler Handlebars under Varied Loads2025-28-00532/7/2025
This study presents a comprehensive structural analysis of a two-wheeler handlebar subjected to various loading conditions, aiming to evaluate its strength, durability, and safety. During operation, two-wheelers encounter multiple forces, making the handlebar a critical component for rider control and safety. The analysis begins by investigating the different types of loads experienced during typical riding scenarios, including static loads when the bike is stationary, and dynamic loads arising from rider movements, braking, and handling. The primary objective is to understand how these loads impact the handlebar's structural integrity. To achieve this, critical load cases are identified and categorized. Braking loads, which apply force primarily in the forward direction due to deceleration, are examined. Manhandling loads are analyzed to understand the multidirectional forces acting on the handlebar during transportation and parking. Additionally, vertical loads are assessed, considering the rider's weight and impacts from terrain irregularities such as bumps and drops. Clamping load analysis is also performed to evaluate durability. Material properties play a significant role in the handlebar's performance. Common materials such as aluminum and steel are analyzed for their respective strengths, flexibilities, and resistance related to durability. The geometric design of the handlebar, including shape, diameter, and thickness, is crucial in determining its response to various loads. These factors are incorporated into the analysis to ensure an accurate representation of real-world conditions. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is employed to create a detailed FE (Finite Element) model of the handlebar. This model is subjected to calculated loads to simulate the resulting stress distribution and deformations. Hypermesh, OptiStruct tools is used for analysis. FEA allows for a comprehensive visualization of stress concentrations and potential failure points, providing critical insights into the handlebar’s structural performance. The study concludes with recommendations for design improvements and enhanced safety measures to ensure the handlebar's reliability and longevity. These findings are crucial for manufacturers aiming to produce high-performance, safe two-wheeler handlebars capable of withstanding the rigorous demands of everyday riding
Prajapati, Akash, Rathore, Avijit Singh, Bhaskara Rao, Lokavarapu
Children’s SnowmobileJ1038_202501 (Current)1/21/2025
This SAE Standard establishes the test procedures, performance requirements, and criteria necessary to evaluate minimum safety and reliability requirements of a children’s snowmobile as identified in 1.2.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
Sound Level Determination for Snowmobiles under Typical Trail Operating ConditionsJ3120_202412 (Current)12/6/2024
This SAE Recommended Practice establishes the method to determine Sound Level of a snowmobile under typical trail operating conditions. Snowmobiles have different engine power levels that depends on the model.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
Speed Control Assurance for SnowmobilesJ1222_202412 (Current)12/5/2024
This SAE Standard provides minimum requirements and performance criteria for devices to prevent runaway snowmobiles due to malfunction of the speed control system.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
The Implications of Surface Friction on Snowsport Helmet Oblique Impact Kinematics09-12-02-001711/12/2024
Head injuries account for 15% of snowsport-related injuries, and the majority of head impacts occur against ice or snow, low-friction surfaces. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate how surface friction affects snowsport helmets’ oblique impact kinematics. Ten helmet models were impacted using an oblique drop tower with a 45-degree anvil and NOCSAE headform, at three locations, two surface friction conditions, and a drop speed of 5.0 m/s. Our findings indicate that friction affects peak linear acceleration, peak rotational acceleration, and peak rotational velocity during helmet impacts, with changes in post-impact rotation and impact response varying by location. Surface friction affects head impact kinematics, underscoring the need for sport-specific lab testing and emphasizing the need for friction-specific and sport-specific testing, particularly for snowsports, where surface conditions like snow and ice can alter kinematics.
Stark, Nicole E.-P., Calis, Andrew, Wood, Matthew, Piwowarski, Summer Blue, Dingelstedt, Kristin, Begonia, Mark, Rowson, Steve
Design, Modeling and Analysis of Roll Cage for SAE BAJA Vehicle2024-28-001210/17/2024
This paper studies design parameters, selection of materials and structural analysis for an All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) BAJA roll cage at the event site in any possible situation. SolidWorks 2022 was used for creating the prototype of the roll cage and then both static structural as well as dynamic crash analysis for the roll cage was done using Altair HyperWorks 2023 for various collisions like front, rear, side, rollover, torsional, front bump, rear bump, front roll over, side roll over and rear roll over. In addition to their corresponding deformation, Von Mises stresses were observed and a safety factor was calculated for these load cases which was found to be in the range of 1.5 to 3. Without reducing the roll cage’s strength, the roll cage designed for a four-wheel drive configuration is developed with driver comfort and safety in mind. Finding the optimal safety factor is the core objective of the analysis, as it ensures in any situation, the ATV’s roll cage will stay secure.
L, Ravi Kumar, Sanjay P, Chiranjeev, T J, Pravin Chander, Moses J, Jebish, D, Parthesun, G, Sureshmani
Dynamic Cushioning Performance Criteria for Snowmobile SeatsJ89_202408 (Current)8/12/2024
This SAE Standard provides a test method, an evaluation method, and a performance criterion for shock-absorbing characteristics of a general foam-type snowmobile seat. This SAE Standard applies to seats that are similar in design, dimensions, construction, and/or intended usage as described and illustrated in SAE J33.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
Snowmobile Drive MechanismsJ1279_202408 (Current)8/12/2024
This SAE Standard is applicable to snowmobiles as defined in SAE J33.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
Anti-Rollover Control for All-Terrain Vehicle Based on Zero-Moment Point2024-01-50554/30/2024
To investigate the rollover phenomena experienced by all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) during their motion caused by input from the road surface, a combined simulation using CarSim and Simulink has been employed to validate an active anti-rollover control strategy based on differential braking for ATVs, followed by vehicle testing. In the research process, a nonlinear three-degrees-of-freedom vehicle model has been developed. By utilizing a zero-moment point index as a rollover warning indicator, this approach could accurately detect the rollover status of the vehicle, particularly in scenarios involving low road adhesion on unpaved surfaces, which are characteristic of ATV operation. The differential braking, generating a roll moment by adjusting the amount of lateral force each braked tire can generate, was proved as an effective method to enhance rolling stability. Simulation and on-road testing results indicated that this control strategy effectively monitored the state of the ATV and enhanced the stability during rollover tests.
Hong, Hanchi, Wang, Kuan, d’Apolito, Luigi, Quan, Kangning, Yao, Xu
Optimization of Suspension and Steering Systems of an Electric All-Terrain Vehicle (e-ATV) for Improving Vehicle Performance2023-01-51592/23/2024
The Baja Electrical All-Terrain Vehicle eATV is a versatile off-road vehicle designed to tackle challenging terrains and endure extreme conditions. Suspension system in a car connects the chassis to its wheels and it comprises of a system of springs, dampers and linkages. Independent suspension systems typically offer better handling and ride quality. This paper focuses on the optimization of the eATV’s suspension and steering systems to enhance its performance, stability, and maneuverability. For explanation purpose the design methodology that has been chosen for the suspension system of an all-terrain vehicle. A double wishbone independent suspension is designed for the front half, and an H-arm independent suspension is designed for the rear half. The steering system uses a Rack & Pinion gearbox along with this Ackerman geometry being used for the steering assembly. Theoretical values were validated with the help of ‘Lotus Shark’ software. Also highlights the challenges faced by this design and the solutions adopted to overcome them.
Ayyakkannu, Vadivel, Sakthi Sundar, R., Rubesh, N., Prasanth, S., Haritharan, S.S., Hari Haran, R.
Optimization of Upright System of an Electric All-Terrain Vehicle (e-ATV) with Force Calculation and Finite Element Analysis2023-01-51652/23/2024
In an All-Terrain Vehicle design competition Knuckle is an important component which carries the complete wheel assembly and loads with itself. Loads in the wheels are directly transferred to the upright which can withstands itself with the proper design and force calculations. Forces are generated in the links of the upright and transferred to the chassis via tyre. The following study aims to design and manufacture knuckle by reducing the weight with the help of necessary force calculations on dynamic conditions in addition with Finite Element Analysis. Mass is the primary optimization in this analysis. We reduced up to 48.5% of mass from original design to get a final mass in rear upright and necessary force calculations for the front upright. The shape of the Upright is also well optimized according to compensate the suspension hardpoints. The front upright has Tie rod, caliper mounting, upper and lower arms. Lower the weight of the upright, higher the stability of the All-Terrain vehicle which contributes to the upsprung mass, impacts, and concluding remarks of the work.
Ayyakkannu, Vadivel, Ajay Subramani, N., Boojithkumar, N., Siva Subramaniyan, J.
Design, Modeling and Analysis of Customized Brake Caliper for SAE BAJA Vehicle2023-01-51062/23/2024
All-terrain vehicles are gaining more popularity due to their off-roading nature. In this ATV one of the most important components which gives us a safe ride and control is the braking system. This study presents a detailed view of the design, modelling and analysis of brake caliper using Solidworks 2022 and Altair Hyperworks software for an all-terrain vehicle. A single piston floating caliper which is designed to fulfil conditions such as compact size to fit into wheel assembly, to provide adequate strength and great efficiency of about 80% during off-road conditions. This caliper is mainly designed to withstand a braking torque of 315645 Nm. The main aim of designing the caliper is to fit inside the wheel assembly of the ATV so that the interaction between the caliper is not with any other components. Furthermore, considerations are accounted as machinability are integrated into the design process, ensuring that the proposed brake caliper systems are performing well.
Ravi Kumar, L., Prathiesh Lalan, R. A., Shriram Naibal, B., Chiranjeev Sanjay, P., Gananathji Naveen Kishore, S., Vasundharadevi, D.
Design and Analysis of the Transmission System in Go-Kart2023-01-51482/23/2024
Transmission system is one of the most significant portions of the vehicle architecture that helps in movement of the vehicle by transmitting power. This research paper is to explain the complete transmission system involving the methodology, calculations, design and analysis of a go-kart. There are many ways of transmitting power to the kart, but the traditional way of transmission is by using shafts and chain drives. This paper also explores various aspects including gear selection and torque management. Further, it defines the different aspects which impacts on the overall performance of the go-kart, like traction force and safety factors by focusing on the material to be used, total load acting, service factor, design load, bearing stress and so on. Also, the total road resistance that is caused in various gears is computed to ensure that the vehicle has good power distribution. The paper also comprises the calculations for the rear axle to determine the suitable diameter for the shaft. The ultimate aim is to develop a lightweight, low-cost, and highly efficient transmission system.
Akash, S., Sharadha, S., Kavi Priyadarson, V.V., Siddharth, K., Sudhakar, M.
Design and Optimization of Go-Kart Chassis2023-01-51352/23/2024
A chassis is the main skeleton of a go-kart containing distinct components such as the engine, brakes, fuel tank, rear axle, etc. It supports the entire weight and load of the components, so it must be steady enough to withstand shock, twisting, vibration, and other stress. This paper reviews the study carried out on the chassis, highlighting the area where the Nodes, Primary and Secondary members, Horizontal and Vertical members, and Chassis stiffness support the jacking effect with the constraints of maximum Torsional stress, deflection, and critical regions under loading conditions. AISI 4130 is used as the chassis material. When dealing with the software, SolidWorks 2023 and Fusion 360 are used for designing the chassis whereas ANSYS 2022 is used for the analysis of the designed chassis. In order to reduce weight, improve material consumption, and provide an appropriate cross-section, a simulation technique was used in design optimization.
Vignesh, D., Sanchan Kumar, S., Saravanan, V., Sudhakar, M.
Computer Aided Engineering Analysis of Four-Wheel Drive Mechanical Powertrain of an Electric All-Terrain Vehicle (e-ATV)2023-01-51662/23/2024
An Electric All-Terrain Vehicle (E-ATV) can able to run in a rough and rugged terrain conditions. The four-wheel drive (4WD) powertrain of the E-ATV provides enough traction to the vehicle to maneuver over the terrain surface by providing significant amount of power and enough traction. The mechanical powertrain has components such as gearbox, differential, Continuous Variable Transmission (CVT), propeller shaft and Drive shafts, etc. For successful implementation of the powertrain system, it must follow some steps such as mathematical modeling, designing, analyzing, manufacturing, assembling and testing the powertrain components. An electric motor provides power to the Continuous Variable Transmission (CVT). The CVT in turn transmits the power to a two-stage reduction gearbox. The gearbox then transmits the power to four wheels using drive shafts and propeller shafts via differentials in front and rear. For Computer aided designing (CAD), SolidWorks is used. For Computer Aided Engineering Analysis (CAE), Ansys is used. MATLAB Simulink software is used for checking system level performance of a modified CVT.
Ayyakkannu, Vadivel, Perumalraj, V., Subramani, N., Sriram, P., Gowtham, A., Vinoth, R.
Design and Analysis of Brakes in Go-kart Vehicle2023-01-51682/23/2024
The braking system is a major part of dealing with Go-karts, where speed and control combine to create an enthusiastic experience. This research article discusses the design and analysis of the braking system of a go-kart vehicle. In this case, constraints are based on rulebooks, and optimisation is performed depending on the requirements. The process flow also carries material selection for components and an analysis to determine their structural and thermal properties. This study also includes a comparison of brake rotors and their specifications to meet the higher performance. The design combines mechanical and hydraulic principle-based components to balance efficiency, cost, and maintenance requirements. In this investigation into the braking system, various design and analysis softwares are used. This study offers a concept for an optimized braking system with enough information to construct the go-kart vehicle's braking system.
Naren, KARTHIKEYAN S. S., Santhosh, Kumar S., Ilamparithi, M., Srisakthivel, S., Sudhakar, M.
Analysis of the Roll Cage of an Electric All Terrain Vehicle (e-ATV) Using the Finite Element Method2023-01-51782/23/2024
The design and analysis of the roll cage for the ATV car are the subjects of this report. The roll cage is one of the key elements of an ATV car. It is the primary component of an ATV, on which the engine, steering, and gearbox are mounted. The vehicle's sprung mass is beneath the roll cage. The initiation of cracks and the deformation of the vehicle are caused by forces acting on it from various directions. Stresses are consequently produced. FEA of the roll cage is used in this paper in an effort to identify these areas. We have performed torsional analysis as well as front, rear, side impact, and rollover crash analyses. These analyses were all completed using ANSYS Workbench 2020 R1. The design process complies with all guidelines outlined in the SAE rule book of E-Baja.
Ayyakkannu, Vadivel, Sri Ram, P., Vijayakumar, Vishnu
High Speed Driveline Power Loss and Influencing Factors2024-26-03371/16/2024
Energy savings in automotive applications has always remain an important aspect of research. In addition, today’s highspeed requirements in electric vehicles require high-efficiency drivelines to match overall vehicle mileage or range. This paper presents the validation of the overall efficiency & drag losses of the highspeed Driveline for an ATV with 4-Wheel Drive System. The efficiency & drag losses were measured in the powertrain testbed where the test units were placed between two Transient Dynamometers. The main aim of the test was to validate the overall efficiency as a function of input speed and torque. All these measured values of the gearbox efficiency are included in various graphs. The tests were performed for complete functional range of test unit at max operating oil temperatures for Transmission and Front Differential testing. Drive shafts tests were performed at its complete range and various inclination angle up to max failure point. The wheel hub was tested at various radial loading on bearings in different surrounding temperature maintained by a closed chamber. This paper will give us the actual losses (%) which can be referred during the initial designing phase, advanced simulations, and other electric vehicle design to minimize losses and optimize the performance of drivelines.
Jain, Sankalp, Singh, Parminder
Snowmobile HeadlampsJ280_202312 (Current)12/1/2023
This SAE Standard provides test methods, performance requirements, installation requirements, and guidelines for snowmobile headlamps.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF DRIVING ROBOTS FOR CONDUCTING UNMANNED TESTS OF OFF-ROAD VEHICLES2024-01-40118/10/2023
ABSTRACT This paper contains descriptions and demonstrations of automated test drivers (ATDs) for several different style off-road vehicles. These robotic ATDs can be used without a human operator, to drive vehicles in scenarios that are unsafe for human drivers. Full-scale vehicle tests including rollovers, pitchovers, and crashes involving Recreational Off-Highway Vehicles (ROVs), All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs), and Zero-Turn Riding Mowers (ZTMs) are included in the paper. The mechanical actuators used to control steering, throttle, and braking differ for the different ATDs. However, they use similar control strategies, network architecture, and electronics. Using these similar items as a starting point would be beneficial for developing ATDs for different styles of military vehicles. Citation: G. Heydinger, S. Zagorski, D. Andreatta, M. Bartholomew, “Development and Use of Driving Robots for Conducting Unmanned Tests of Off-Road Vehicles,” In Proceedings of the Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS), NDIA, Novi, MI, Aug. 15-17, 2023.
Heydinger, Gary, Zagorski, Scott, Andreatta, Dale, Bartholomew, Meredith
Analytical and Experimental Studies on Ride Comfort in a Combat Vehicle (CV)2023-01-11185/8/2023
Extremely uncomfortable levels of bounce and pitch vibrations are produced when a CV moves over uneven terrain. The present study was carried out to ascertain the vibrational response at the driver’s, commander’s and trooper’s seats. A 23 -degrees of freedom (DOF) lumped parameter 3-D model of a combined CV and human body was made. The vehicle had 15 DOF corresponding to the bounce, pitch and roll of the hull (sprung mass) and bounce motions of the 12 wheel stations (unsprung masses) on either side. The human body was idealized as having 8 DOF corresponding to bounce motions of the pelvis, abdomen, diaphragm, thorax, torso, back and head. The seat was also assigned a bounce DOF. The lumped masses of the body parts were distributed and connected by springs. The differential equations of motion for the linear rigid body model were formulated and the natural frequencies of different parts of the human body and the military tank were determined by eigenvalue analysis using MATLAB. Subsequently, vertical and longitudinal accelerations at the driver's, commander's and trooper's seats were measured on both the Sinusoidal track and Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG) using accelerometers connected to the DEWESoft data acquisition system (DAS). Fast Fourier transform (FFT) spectra and power spectral densities (PSDs) were determined at each location. Also, the measured root mean square (RMS) accelerations computed in 1/3 octave bands were multiplied with ISO weighting factors and were compared with ISO ride comfort boundaries for assessment of ride comfort. Thereafter, exposure values, A(8) and vibration dose value (VDV) were calculated. A full multi-body dynamics model (MBD) was idealized to get insight into the dynamic behavior of the CV. The vibrational response of the CV was simulated during steady-state runs on Sinusoidal and Aberdeen Proving Ground (APG) tracks through MSC ADAMS (ATV) and the results were compared with those obtained from experimental work. The measured acceleration data correlated well with the computed results.
Chandramohan, Sujatha, Sinha, Adheesh
Development of an Electronic Stability Control Algorithm for All-Terrain Vehicles2023-01-06614/11/2023
An Electronic Stability Control algorithm has been developed for All-Terrain Vehicles. The algorithm is implemented on SEA’s Robotic Test Driver which has been customized to drive ATVs unmanned. The ESC algorithm is incorporated in the real-time controller. When activated, ESC monitors vehicle states and when they exceed pre-determined thresholds, ESC intervenes by dropping throttle and applying the vehicle’s brakes. The intention of this algorithm is to prevent yaw instability and ultimately limit the vehicle’s roll angle. ESC is implemented on two vehicles, which exhibit varying degrees of understeer. Test data is provided to illustrate the determination in setting threshold limits. The efficacy of the ESC is demonstrated by showing the system being enabled and disabled.
Zagorski, Scott, Heydinger, Gary
Test Results of Tires for All-Terrain Vehicles from a Flat-Trac® Machine2023-01-06714/11/2023
This paper presents tire data from an All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV). Data is collected on a Flat-Trac® machine where force and moment data were collected for three tires: one front tire and two rear tires. Tests were conducted at slip angles of +/-28 degrees, varying normal loads and inclinations angles. Additionally, tests were conducted at varying levels of inflation pressure. Key parametric data such as aligning moment, cornering and vertical stiffness levels are presented. One key finding from this study is that, in general, as inflation pressure increases cornering and aligning moment stiffness decreases. This effect is counter to typical passenger vehicle tires, where higher inflation pressure usually results in higher stiffness levels. Using results from the tire test data, understeer calculations are made for a vehicle under varying loading conditions.
Zagorski, Scott, Heydinger, Gary
Snowmobile Pole Crash Tests: Additional Testing and Analysis2023-01-06264/11/2023
This paper presents the results of five additional instrumented snowmobile crash tests and the updated findings when combined with the dataset from our previous publication (SAE# 2021-01-0876). This additional work expands on, and aims to better the understanding of, snowmobile collision dynamics and the severity of real-world collisions, given that minimal crash test data exists for snowmobiles compared to passenger vehicles. In the five new tests, the test snowmobile was accelerated forward into a pole, made from a tree trunk 38 cm in diameter. The first two pole impacts were completed at low-speed (i.e., less than 15 km/h) to determine a damage threshold. The subsequent two tests targeted 40 km/h impact speeds, and the last test targeted an impact speed of 80 km/h. From the tests, a more reliable damage threshold of 9 km/h was determined using the low-speed tests, equations were derived for the relationship between the maximum crush and the impact speed for snowmobiles sustaining frontal pole impact damage, and the data from this crash testing was combined with updated impact speed–maximum crush relationships, along with stiffness coefficients calculated in previous research.
Griffiths, Harrison, Paquette, Mark
Acceleration Performance Data of Mountain Snowmobiles2023-01-06154/11/2023
Published data relevant to snowmobile crash reconstruction is comparatively limited, especially pertaining to mountain snowmobiling and riding in deep snow. Snowmobiling is a unique motorsport activity as it requires substantial rider input and physical interaction to properly control the vehicle. The added complexities of varying slope angle and snow depth in mountain terrain make application of test data from testing done on flat surfaces less useful when applied to sloped terrain analysis. New data from testing performed in deep snow conditions on various slopes is presented in this paper. Acceleration tests were performed using two late model mountain snowmobiles from a stop on various slope angles. Additional related factors such as snow density, trenching, and snow mass momentum exchange are also discussed. Comparison of these test results to previously published snowmobile testing data advances the understanding of snowmobile acceleration parameters into mountain terrain. Significant changes in acceleration performance can result from small changes in slope. Even for the most advanced mountain snowmobiles in loose snow, acceleration becomes more limited as slope increases. Acceleration results are comparable to earlier data, irrespective of snowmobile horsepower and snow conditions. In earlier published data, flat terrain accelerations on packed snow in the range of 0.60g were recorded. In this testing, 0.65 was at the low end of the data, with average full-throttle accelerations of between 0.65g and 0.75g being achieved by both snowmobiles on flat undisturbed powder snow. Keeping in mind that these are different machines, the findings show that traction and horsepower are as significant as snow characteristics when analyzing snowmobile performance.
Warner, Wyatt, Warner, Mark
Automotive Trailer Tow ConnectorJ2863_202302 (Current)2/20/2023
This SAE Standard provides the minimum requirements for automotive or RV, seven position, self-draining trailer tow connector interface. The procedures included within this specification are intended to cover the test methods, design, and performance requirements of the electrical interface of the seven-position trailer tow connector in low voltage (0 to 20) road vehicle applications.
Connector Systems Standards Committee
Conversion of a Quad Bike to an Autonomous Vehicle and Performance Assessment2022-28-059011/18/2022
Future of transport is in autonomous driving. Autonomous driving promises safe travel thereby reducing accidents. An autonomous vehicle can sense its surroundings and drive itself through the pre-planned path [1]. The vehicle senses its surroundings using sensors like radar, lidar, camera and GPS. This paper focuses on modifying an available All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV), quad bike using various actuation mechanisms into an autonomous driving vehicle. The steering is a crucial unit which needs to be actuated as a part of autonomous driving. Automation along with the relocation of throttle and brake from handlebar to foot pedal is also done as a part of autonomous driving. Therefore the ATV has to be modified to implement the following automation mechanisms. The steering actuation unit needs to be highly precise and robust in nature, as the torque required would be high [2]. High torque servo motor along with a recirculating ball screw is selected as a result. The actuation unit is controlled by a microcontroller with inputs from the software. The foot rest was redesigned to house the brake and throttle systems. An additional set of batteries are included for powering various actuation systems. All the actuation systems must be calibrated according to the output of software for flawless working of the vehicle. The objective is to convert an available vehicle to an autonomous vehicle.
T C, Sedwin, M A, Jayakrishnan, P P, Lalu, Sadique, Anwar
Maximum Velocity of Personal WatercraftJ2882_202209 (Historical)9/8/2022
This SAE Recommended Practice establishes a uniform test procedure for determining the maximum velocity of a personal watercraft.
Personal Watercraft Committee
Effect of High-Blend Ethanol Fuel on the Performance and Emissions of a Small Off-Road Engine with Minimal Modifications2022-01-10318/30/2022
Much development in the automotive industry relates to the use of high-content ethanol blended fuels to reduce the emissions produced by on-road engines/vehicles. However, less research has been done on the effect of operating small off-road engines (SORE) on high-blend ethanol fuels without substantial modifications. Most manufacturers of such engines only certify proper operation on low content ethanol blends such as E10 (10% ethanol, 90% gasoline by volume). This paper focuses on the use of E77 fuel in a small off-road engine which is speed-governed. Such engines are commonly used in lawn mowers, small recreational vehicles, or other equipment. The exhaust emissions and performance of the engine were evaluated using the EPA 6-mode duty cycle for small recreational engines where testing and analysis followed the recommendations of SAE J1088. This test cycle consisted of operating the engine at steady state load points using a fixed engine speed. The performance of the engine was compared to a baseline, found using E10 fuel. Following this, the engine was tested using E77 fuel utilizing the original un-modified carburetor with the original size jet and modified jet openings to provide better fuel-air mixture when using the high-blend ethanol fuel. Details of the engine jet modifications and the resulting performance are provided.
Davis, Gregory, Mazzei, Arnaldo
Snowmobile Probe Test for Contact with Power Driven PartsJ2826_202207 (Current)7/8/2022
This SAE Standard establishes the test equipment, procedure, and acceptance criteria necessary to determine the location of power driven components that could—upon inadvertent contact by an operator, passenger, or bystander—inflict injury.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
Design, Analysis, and Simulation of a Four-Wheel-Drive Transmission for an All-Terrain Vehicle2022-01-50395/13/2022
An all-terrain vehicle (ATV) is capable of traveling on any kind of surface or terrain. It is built especially for extreme road conditions. High ground clearance and soft suspension springs are some of the characteristics of an ATV. The use of a four-wheel-drive (4WD) transmission in a light ATV is in high demand. Power on all four tires provides better traction and increases the off-roading capabilities of the ATV. The methodology described in the paper discusses the design and validation of a four-wheel driveline for a light ATV using various modeling and simulation software. Briggs and Stratton engine is coupled with a continuously variable transmission (CVT) to provide infinite ratios within its tuned range to deliver effortless shifting. A two-stage reduction gearbox is used to multiply the torque received from the CVT to provide sufficient traction to the tires. Power is transferred to the front differential via a propeller shaft. A shifting mechanism is installed for shifting between two-wheel-drive (2WD) and 4WD. Components are designed in SolidWorks and Fusion 360 is used for parametric iterations. The analysis is done on driveline components using Ansys and HyperWorks for material selection and to validate their durability. The performance of the driveline is mapped using MATLAB Simscape and Simulink models. This research paper aims to lay a foundation for future developments in the driveline used in a light ATV.
Kannan, C., Ashok, B., Dighe, Harshad, Agarwal, Saksham, Kapoor, Devansh, Kasana, Akshat, Mathew, Amal
A Method for Acquiring and Editing the Load Spectrum of the Drive-Shaft System for an All-Terrain Vehicle2022-01-02683/29/2022
The durability road test of a vehicle is an important test to verify the reliability of vehicle components. In order to carry out the durability bench test for drive shaft systems of all-terrain vehicles, a method for acquiring time domain signals of articulation angles of the CVJ, input torque, and rotational speeds of drive shaft systems is proposed. The acquired load spectrum of drive shaft systems is preprocessed including deleting small amplitudes, de-drifting, deburring, filtering, etc. Peaks and valleys are extracted from the preprocessed load spectrum. Based on the graphic method and the estimator stabilization method, the upper and lower thresholds of the time domain extrapolation of the load spectrum are determined, and then the peaks and valleys excesses that exceed the upper and lower thresholds are extracted. The generalized pareto distribution function is used to fit the distribution of peaks and valleys excesses. Based on the fitted distribution of the extracted peaks and valleys excesses, new peaks and valley excesses with the same number as the original peaks and valleys excesses are randomly generated, and the new peaks and valleys excesses replace the original peaks and valleys excesses, respectively, so as to realize the time domain extrapolation of the load spectrum. The extrapolated load spectrum is subject to level classification processing, and the time-at-level method is adopted to determine the distribution of articulation angles and shaft rotational speeds based on different input torque levels. Based on the above analysis methods, a method for editing the program spectrum of the durability bench test is proposed.
Luo, Qiuqi, Li, Liping, Hou, Qiufeng, Li, Juan, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Validating the Design of CV Axle for BAJA SAE ATV2022-01-06443/29/2022
Axle transmits power from the gearbox to the wheels. There are primarily two reasons for reducing the axle’s diameter in the case of a bipod CV joint (Constant-velocity joints axle), to avoid overdesigning and less articulation angle. As the ATV (All-Terrain Vehicle) goes in bumps and droops, a driveshaft with a larger diameter would hit the walls of the CV joint, which will create a hindrance in its articulation. Moreover, if the driveshaft is overdesigned, it will add unnecessary weight and effort to the power train, which would decrease the overall performance of the vehicle. The diameter of the axle was reduced using real-time testing data of peak torque production from the powertrain unit (Engine + CVT (Continuously variable transmission )+ Gearbox) with the help of various machines to validate that component do not fail under the given load conditions; research work is divided into 3 phases of data collection, axle design, and validation. Total 3 test rigs were set up for data collection and validation, combined with axle design, material selection, heat treatment, and CAE validation. At the same time, the efficiency of Powertrain (CVT) is also calculated as 0.87 from test rig1, which further drops to 0.75 due to slippage between CVT sheaves and belt. An 18% reduction in diameter is achieved throughout the research leading to higher articulation and weight reduction. An analytical, numerical, and experimental result comparison is also performed on the axle as the result comparison.
Bhardwaj, Vasu, Dayal, Neelesh, Sharma, Hiren, Aidhi, Rajender, Saini, Rakesh
Vehicle Dynamics Analysis and Optimization of Electric All-Terrain Vehicle2022-01-09133/29/2022
A Vehicle Dynamics Analysis of an electric All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) is conducted and presented in the following paper. Vehicle performance is analyzed, shortcomings are identified and solutions to optimize the vehicle design are implemented. These optimizations are tested and results are compared with the pre-existing models and validated by conducting physical trials on the actual model. The virtual tests are carried out using Multi-Body Dynamics (MBD) tool- MSC ADAMS. The results obtained from the tests have been put forth in theoretical as well as graphical manner to get a clearer view. This research involved a thorough study of Lateral and Longitudinal Dynamics of the ATV. Trends in dynamic parameters like the ride quality, pitch response, roll stability, yaw response, camber gain and other important parameters of the vehicle have been studied and its correlation with the feedback obtained from the driver is established. Key features of the vehicle that influence these parameters are defined. These key features are then optimized to improve the ride comfort, handling behavior and overall stability of the vehicle. The test results of simulated runs are backed by the strong analytical and mathematical derivations which have been mentioned in depth in the following paper. The research is concluded with an overall optimization of the vehicle in the fields studied.
Shetty, Kartik, Mache, Ashok, Joshi, Akshay, Kulkarni, Manas, Chitnis, Shreeya, Kulkarni, Shirish
Detailed Concept Selection Strategy for Rear Suspension Design Entailing Comparison Between H-Arm and Trailing-Arm Geometries for ATV Application2021-28-024510/1/2021
Choice of suspension geometry is an integral part of an ATV design. It has a direct role in ride comfort and vehicle-dynamic characteristics, the most prominent one being the unsprung mass. In the rear vehicle suspension, teams often face the decision to select either a Trailing-Arm suspension design or an H-Arm design. Teams must take into account their existing parameters to rightly decide which geometry is suitable for their application. In this paper, a concept selection strategy is proposed. This strategy combines the conventional way of analyzing mechanical systems and machines with product design aspects. We analyze several characteristics of the geometry and assign a criteria weight to each of these. These criteria include the cost to manufacture, unsprung mass, load handling capacity, acceleration gain ratio during bumps, ease of manufacturing, and ergonomics of the design. Further, we arrive at the suitable geometry for our team using concept selection methods such as weighted decision matrix and analytical hierarchy process. The criteria weights are validated by extensive studies that prove the importance of the particular characteristic. Furthermore, ratings are assigned for concerned engineering characteristics to each of the two concepts using numerical modeling with MATLAB, computer-aided design and simulation with SolidWorks and Ansys, force analysis on ADAMS. Hence, arriving at a suitable conclusion as to which geometry is efficient and relevant for our case.
Gandhi, Om, Nagar, Tanay
Styling Parameter Optimization of the Type C Recreational Vehicle Air Drag2021-01-50949/30/2021
Recreational vehicles have a lot of potential consumers in China, especially the type C recreational vehicle is popular among consumers due to its advantages, prompting an increase in the production and sales volumes. The type C vehicle usually has a higher air drag than the common commercial vehicles due to its unique appearance. It can be reduced by optimizing the structural parameters, thus the energy consumed by the vehicle can be decreased. The external flow field of a recreational vehicle is analyzed by establishing its computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model. The characteristic of the RV’s external flow field is identified based on the simulation result. The approximation models of the vehicle roof parameters and air drag and vehicle volume are established by the response surface method (RSM). The vehicle roof parameters are optimized by multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MO-PSO). According to the comparison, the air drag is reduced by 2.89% and the vehicle volume is increased by 0.36%. For the RV, the proper geometry parameters can increase the inner space of the vehicle while reducing the air drag.
Huang, Bin, Wei, Xiaoxu
Design and Development: A Simulation Approach of Multi-Link Front Suspension for an All-Terrain Vehicle2021-26-00779/22/2021
In this paper the multi-link suspension for an All-Terrain Vehicle is designed, modelled and simulated. The model was produced by defining the position of the hard point or coordinate before specifying the component characters and joint variety, then after for modelling of the multi-link suspension, CATIA 3D modelling approach is used, sequentially the MBD approach is adopted for full suspension model simulation. The same test was conducted for the base model (double wishbone suspension) which was holding same characteristics. The kinematics and compliance of the simulation are matched with the base model simulation data to verify the suspension design and the result from the simulation exposed a validated virtual suspension system model with a pretty minimal rate of error. The result of the simulation shows that the introduced suspension system increases the cornering stiffness and deceases the bump steer along with this it gives the quick cornering and straight-line stability.
Shingade, Mahesh, Pable, Machhindra, Pawar, Ashish
Mathematical Modeling of the Longitudinal Motion of a Vehicle with a Continuously Variable Transmission2021-01-12379/21/2021
The Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) is a widely adopted transmission system. The operation of a CVT is simple, but successfully foretelling the longitudinal motion of a vehicle that utilizes this transmission is sophisticated. As a result, different vehicles taking part in BAJA-SAE competitions were developed using various strategies to model the vehicle’s longitudinal dynamics and CVT operation. This article aims to provide a tool for obtaining a quantitative estimate of the longitudinal performance of a CVT equipped vehicle and for the selection of an optimal drive-train gear ratio for such a vehicle. To this end, this article proposes a novel, relatively simple, and reasonably accurate mathematical approach for modeling the longitudinal motion of a vehicle utilizing a CVT, which was developed by a novel integration of existing vehicle dynamics concepts. The proposed technique splits the longitudinal motion into three distinct phases - low ratio acceleration, shifting, and over-run - and uses mathematical modeling to simulate each stage. The low ratio acceleration and over-run stages were modeled using an iterative approach based on Newton’s equations of motion, taking into account engine torque and aerodynamic drag variation. On the other hand, the shifting stage was modeled using a differential equation that governs the vehicle’s motion during the said stage. The technique was made more ‘realistic’, another novel aspect, by taking into account the effect of rotating masses. The proposed approach’s potency was validated through experimental validation studies on BAJA-SAE All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs). It is concluded that the proposed modeling technique largely simplifies the motion simulation task while giving a relatively accurate estimate of the vehicle’s actual longitudinal performance. An All-Terrain Vehicle for the BAJA SAE collegiate competitions forms this cornerstone of this article.
Sharma, Ayush, Tanwar, Harshit, Mittal, Ankit
µSMET: A Lightweight Transport Robot2024-01-39438/10/2021
ABSTRACT Modern robotic technologies enable the development of semiautonomous ground robots capable of supporting military field operations. Particular attention has been devoted to the robotic mule concept, which aids soldiers in transporting loads over rugged terrain. While existing mule concepts are promising, current configurations are rated for payloads exceeding 1000 lbs., placing them in the size and weight class of small cars and ATVs. These large robots are conspicuous by nature and may not successfully carry out infantry resupply missions in an active combat zone. Conversations with soldiers and industry professionals have spotlighted a need for a compact, lightweight, and low-cost robotic mule. This platform would ensure reliable last-mile delivery of critical supplies to predetermined rally points. We present a design for such a compact robotic mule, the µSMET. This versatile platform will be integrated with the Squad Multipurpose Equipment Transport (SMET), to ferry supplies to soldiers in combat, evacuate the wounded, transport loads on a forced march, while having the ability to be carried by a soldier. The µSMET’s variable geometry enhances mobility over challenging terrain: its rear wheel assembly can expand to increase its stability or contract to reduce its profile. This publication will describe the design and construction of a prototype µSMET. Citation: K. Grenn, C. Adam, T. Kleinow, B. Mason, O. Sapunkov, P. Muench, S. Lakshmanan “µSMET: A Lightweight Transport Robot”, in Proceedings of the Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS), NDIA, Novi, MI, Aug. 10-12, 2021.
Grenn, Katharina, Adam, Cristian, Kleinow, Timothy, Mason, Brian, Sapunkov, Oleg, Muench, Paul, Lakshmanan, Sridhar
Snowmobile Fuel TanksJ288_202106 (Current)6/10/2021
This SAE Standard establishes a uniform procedure and performance requirements for snowmobile fuel tanks.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
Snowmobile Tail (Rear Position) LampJ279_202106 (Current)6/8/2021
This SAE Standard provides test procedures, performance requirements, design guidelines, and installation guidelines for snowmobile tail (rear position) lamp.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
Measurement of Exhaust Sound Levels of Stationary SnowmobilesJ2567_202105 (Historical)5/13/2021
This SAE Standard establishes the test procedure, environment, and instrumentation for determining the sound levels of snowmobiles in the stationary test mode. This test method is intended to provide an accurate measurement of exhaust and other engine noise and may be used to evaluate new and in-use snowmobiles to determine compliance with noise control regulations. Sound level measurements obtained with this test method are not intended as an engineering determination of overall machine noise. For this purpose, the use of SAE J192 is recommended.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
Snowmobile Pole Crash Tests2021-01-08764/6/2021
Instrumented crash tests are a valuable source of information for collision reconstruction, as the collected data allows for a better understanding of the dynamics and severity of real-world collisions. Numerous published crash tests exist for automobiles, motorcycles, and heavy vehicles; however, none of the published crash testing has involved snowmobiles. This paper presents the results of six snowmobile crash tests to begin to fill the gap in the literature. In five tests, the test snowmobile was accelerated forward into a pole, made from a tree trunk 33 cm in diameter. In the last test, two snowmobiles collided head-on into each other. Prior to testing, each snowmobile was weighed and scanned using a Faro 3D scanner. All of the snowmobiles were instrumented to collect speed and acceleration data during the tests. Each snowmobile was scanned after the test, which allowed for measurements of the extent of crush from impact.
Paquette, Mark, Griffiths, Harrison, Wong, Derek, Anderson, Steve, Wright, Mark
Snowmobile Service Brake SystemJ44_202103 (Current)3/16/2021
This SAE Standard establishes a uniform testing procedure and performance requirements for the level surface testing of hand-operated service brake systems on snowmobiles.
Snowmobile Technical Committee
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