Browse Topic: Commercial vehicles

Items (6,449)
S-cam brake is a drum-type foundation brake used in heavy commercial vehicles. It is a safety-critical device; hence, thorough validation of its performance by lab test rigs and field tests is essential. During prototype testing, an unusual impact was observed during dynamic braking at high pressure application, specifically when the brake drum is rotating, after a period of operation of about 10,000 cycles. This phenomenon was then observed even at static braking when the brake drum was at rest. From initial inspection, it is due to the cam roller, which rides on the web-slot provided at the shoe assembly, while the S-cam is rotating and falls back instantly. This phenomenon occurs repeatedly and creates an audible noise, which needs to be eliminated. The study aims to correlate the phenomenon using finite element analysis (FEA) as in a prototype test and to identify the root cause and optimize the design variables. Since the friction coefficient at the cam roller–web interface is unknown after a period of operation, different values of friction coefficient, ranging from 0.1 to 0.8, are iterated and simulated by rotating the S-cam until the braking effort is reached. The dynamic implicit analysis procedure in Abaqus standard is used to simulate this condition. Based on the results, design variables were improved to mitigate the issue. A quick solution, achieved by modifying a minor feature, successfully prevented the fallback behavior and was validated through physical testing. Furthermore, a permanent solution was developed to eliminate both the “ride-on” and “fallback” phenomena by optimizing component dimensions. This FEA methodology helps to validate the design in an initial concept phase itself for future variants. Using this method, even the structural and fatigue performance of braking parts can be validated at a system-level simulation with better accuracy.
Dinesh Kumar, J.Riyaz Mohamed, D.Vasanth Bharath, S.Rajkumar, S.Murugan, S.
To precisely simulate the nonlinear dynamic characteristics of a robotic arm grasping cylindrical objects from storage units, this study establishes a dynamic model of the robotic grasping process incorporating Coulomb and viscous friction models to characterize frictional properties. Furthermore, to effectively identify unknown parameters in the dynamic model, a parameter identification method based on the Superb Fairy-wren Optimization Algorithm (SFOA) is proposed. The root-mean-square error (RMSE) between the displacement responses from the dynamic model and the experimentally acquired displacement data serves as the optimization objective. Multiple sets of experimental data are utilized to identify the unknown parameters of the dynamic model. The results demonstrate that when the identified parameters are applied to the dynamic model, the goodness-of-fit between the model’s response displacement data and the experimental displacement data exceeds 0.999. This validates the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed method for identifying unknown parameters in dynamic models.
Shen, ShaofengYang, LiuWang, ZihanHan, Qunyi
Solar greenhouses in winter or mountainous areas can be at risk of roof snow accumulation, leading to collapse, poor lighting, and sudden drops in temperature. The snow removal technologies presently employed on these greenhouses have the disadvantages of being cumbersome to adjust, being intricately structured, having a high cost, having high energy consumption, and being poorly adaptable to the curvature of the plastic. An intelligent snow removal device for removing snow on a northern solar greenhouse roof, and an automatic alarm safety system were designed to solve the problems. The device consists of a snow-clearing mechanism, a traversing mechanism, and detection-alarm modules. The mechanism for snow removal consists of a crank-slider with a curved guide rail. The snow removal rod is driven by the gear motor, which goes back and forth on the arched top. A bevel gear transmission system drives the gear motor mechanism. Due to this, the transverse mechanism moves with an interrupting jump-action on transverse rails around many different zones. The system for monitoring snow pressure has a distributed sensor that is programmed as a shield using an Arduino software system. The sensors detect the pressure of the snow in real-time. When the snow pressure hits the threshold, it activates the mechanism for coordinated functioning. This mechanism triggers snow clearing when the pressure threshold is achieved to avoid energy consumed through “premature clearing”. It also fits well on the curved surfaces of the greenhouse without any jamming. The snow removal machine’s various components and operations would accomplish full span snow removal and make it possible to overcome high labour intensity, slow manual response, energy waste, and others. The technology can enhance the safety of winter production of northern greenhouse crops and improve the disaster-resistant capacity of modern agriculture facilities. This technology has been granted a patent for invention.
Fu, ChengguoWei, ShanxiangZhang, RongxianDing, XuefengGao, Yulan
With the development of the power industry, 10kV switchgear (circuit breaker switches) are increasingly widely applied in power grids. When performing power-off maintenance or testing on 10kV switchgear (circuit breaker switches) at substations, maintenance personnel require transport carts to move the equipment to suitable locations for operation. Traditional transfer carts suffer from structural design flaws and significant shortcomings. These include difficulty operating in the confined spaces of switchgear cabinets, high risks associated with manual handling, low efficiency in secondary transfers, and poor adaptability across multiple workstations. These issues collectively pose safety hazards during power-off maintenance or testing. When operating in a 3m×5m high-voltage room, traditional maintenance carts achieve less than 0.5 units transported per hour, with equipment damage rates reaching 3% annually due to drops, resulting in low work efficiency. To address these challenges, a 10kV switch cart maintenance platform has been developed. This standardized equipment facilitates 10kV switch cart maintenance, supporting the intelligent upgrade of power grid operation and maintenance.
Yang, SenZhou, HanSu, HainanYu, XinHu, YutaoWang, Xisheng
To enhance the service life of cemented carbide brazed circular saw blades used in sand willow stump cutting machines and to mitigate the problem of uneven stress distribution on saw teeth during cutting, this study investigates the circular saw blade as the research object. Sand willow, widely distributed in arid and desertification-prone regions of northern China, plays a vital role in ecological restoration and biomass utilization. However, due to the high density and toughness of its stems, conventional saw blades often experience severe tooth wear and premature failure, limiting the efficiency and stability of stump cutting operations. In this work, the dynamic simulation module of ABAQUS was employed to establish a finite element model of the cutting process. A Box–Behnken Design (BBD) combined with response surface methodology was then applied to systematically evaluate the influence of key tooth parameters on stress distribution. Using the maximum equivalent stress at critical nodes as the optimization criterion, a cooperative optimization strategy was developed to balance tooth strength and cutting efficiency. The optimized design markedly improved the mechanical performance of the saw teeth. Compared with conventional blades, the maximum stress value was reduced by 51%, resulting in enhanced reliability and prolonged service life. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of integrating finite element simulation with statistical optimization for tool design in forestry machinery, and provide both theoretical insights and practical support for advancing specialized sand willow cutting equipment, thereby contributing to ecological restoration and sustainable biomass utilization in desertification-affected regions.
Li, ZhongZhang, BinbinHan, YiliangHe, JinjunRen, YuyanYang, JianjunWang, HaichaoPei, Zhiyong
The dynamic characteristics of the electric drive axle of the new energy commercial vehicle is an important performance to evaluate its quality, and the dynamic performance of the two-stage helical gear transmission system in the electric drive axle reducer directly reflects the dynamic performance of the electric drive axle. This study focuses on the secondary gear transmission system of the electric drive axle reducer of the new energy commercial vehicle, and mainly studies the influence of the tooth surface contact stiffness with the change of meshing on the vibration performance of the transmission system. Through establishing the coupled nonlinear dynamic model of torque-begear shaft of high-speed helical gear, the dynamic equations of the system under the influence of time-variable contact mesh stiffness are derived. Taking gear error excitation and support stiffness into consideration, a 3D model software is used to build the simulation virtual model of bevel gear of electric drive axle reducer, and the dynamic simulation analysis of its transmission system is carried out. By setting different tooth contact stiffness coefficients, the variation rules of translational vibration acceleration, angular acceleration and spectrum response of transmission gears are studied systematically. Simulation results indicate that selecting the contact stiffness coefficient within 80% to 90% of the average mesh stiffness value leads to improved meshing performance in the gear transmission system of an electric drive axle reducer. This configuration results in reduced vibration amplitude, narrower sidebands, and decreased dynamic transmission error, thereby effectively enhancing the NVH performance of the transmission system. The findings also provide an important reference for optimizing the meshing behavior of electric drive axle reducers.
Pan, YunpingSong, JunchenDu, ShuaiWu, ChangquanLiao, Lieping
In order to improve the self-sufficiency rate of key mineral resources in China, it is necessary to develop and research deep-sea mining vehicles to improve the mining capacity of seabed mineral resources. The deep-sea mining vehicle is a heavy-duty underwater robot, and its main frame structure, as a critical component, must be designed to be lightweight to improve payload capacity and mining efficiency. This paper first conducted static analysis for the initial main frame structure. Finite element analysis results indicate that the initial structure fails to meet the strength requirements for lifting and recovery operations. The power index penalty factor was introduced into the topology optimization, which was based on the variable density method. The topology optimization objective was set to minimize structural compliance, with the maximum element stress and volume fraction used as constraints. The optimization process finally obtained the optimal material distribution. According to the results of topology optimization and space requirements of the installed equipment on the deep-sea mining vehicle, the new frame structure of the mining vehicle was re-established in the secondary modelling. According to the results of the analysis, the weight of the frame structure was reduced by 2.9%, and at the same time, the maximum stress was reduced by 57.2%, the maximum displacement was reduced by 47.2%, and the first-order natural frequency was increased by 54%. The strength and stiffness of the frame structure were greatly improved.
Tao, YichunYang, Mingyu
Ultrasonic guided waves enable long-range, low-intrusion inspection of pipelines. This study examines how array topology and axial spacing influence the quality of defect echoes when the longitudinal axisymmetric mode L(0,2) is used. We build COMSOL finite-element models of a steel pipe and excite it with PZT-4 at 80 kHz; three practical layouts are compared: (i) odd–even receiving, (ii) 8-transmit/8-receive, and (iii) 16-transmit/8-receive, arranged as two axially separated groups. The spacing between the groups is chosen to suppress parasitic modes such as L(0,1) and to strengthen L(0,2). Results show that the two-group configuration sharpens the defect echo and reduces modal interference; increasing the number of transmitters further raises the defect-wave amplitude and improves the separation from end-reflection echoes. Among the schemes, 8×8 performs well for small-defect identification, while 16×8 yields the clearest boundaries and fastest defect indication. These findings clarify how sensor number and placement govern modal purity and sensitivity, and they offer practical guidance for designing guided-wave arrays that improve the reliability of long-range pipeline inspection. - Ultrasonic guided waves Pipeline non-destructive testing L(0,2) mode; Sensor array layout; Finite element simulation; Guided wave signal processing.
Liao, WeiLi, TengfeiZhang, WenhuiLin, QingmingGuo, Yanbing
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are increasingly integrated into heavy-duty commercial vehicles to improve road safety, mitigate accident severity, and enhance operational efficiency. In the context of braking systems, however, a significant gap remains between system calibration practices and real-world operating conditions, where most evaluations and validations of ADAS and braking performance are conducted under nominal or standardized load assumptions, which fail to represent the wide variability of payload magnitude and distribution typically observed in trucks, semi- trailers, and buses. Variations in vehicle mass and load distribution directly affect braking efficiency, axle load transfer, center of gravity (CG) position, and stability limits, posing critical challenges to both conventional brake systems and brake-related assistance functions. This paper presents an exploratory qualitative study based on a systematic literature review addressing the influence of variable loading on braking performance and the operation of ADAS in commercial vehicles. Scientific publications, experimental investigations, and technical reports from both academia and industry were thoroughly analyzed, with emphasis on service brake efficiency, load-dependent braking behavior, rollover propensity, and the performance of the ADAS systems. The reviewed studies demonstrate that longitudinal, lateral, and vertical CG displacements significantly modify braking force distribution, actuator effectiveness, and stopping distances, particularly under emergency braking and downhill driving conditions. Improper load distribution was consistently associated with reduced braking margins and increased instability risk. The findings further indicate that integrating load-aware strategies into braking control and ADAS calibration can improve braking consistency, reduce component stress, and enhance overall vehicle safety. As a contribution, this work emphasizes the need to incorporate variable load conditions into braking system evaluation, ADAS development, and certification procedures for heavy commercial vehicles, ensuring robust and reliable performance under real operating conditions.
Rubbo, Bruno TiagoDacol, Franco De BastianiDo Nascimento, Vagner
Crawler tractors are essential equipment for modern agricultural mechanization. Most existing mounted implement leveling systems rely on single-cylinder or dual-cylinder structures. These system can only make small-angle leveling and struggle under complex conditions such as large roll angles and asymmetric obstacle crossing. To address this, a modular auxiliary-frame leveling system (MALS) for agricultural implements is proposed. A 3D model of the leveling mechanism is designed, and a fuzzy adaptive PID control algorithm is implemented. The electric cylinder actuator is modeled via a transfer function linking input voltage to mechanical displacement, This provides a theoretical basis for controller design and dynamic performance evaluation. Subsequently, a crawler tractor asymmetric obstacle-crossing simulation model is constructed in Adams and integrated with Simulink to form a co-simulation platform, analyzing system performance under a 220 mm single-side obstacle condition. Simulation results indicate that the MALS achieves an extreme adjustment range of ±25°. Further validation on the integrated prototype confirms the effectiveness of the simulation model and control strategy. This demonstrated that the system can be adapted for use in complex terrain operations.
Lin, QiangLi, ChenyangChen, YuchenFeng, YangyuShao, GuifangZhu, Qingyuan
Given the braking deviation of commercial vehicles, this paper discusses the influencing factors and uses Adams simulation software to accurately model the vehicle model due to the unreasonable match between the suspension system and the steering system. Through K&C analysis and dynamics analysis of the model, the root cause of braking deviation is identified, and the simulation method is used to quickly realize optimization and verification.
Yan, TangWang, JingxianSun, HongyangWu, Zhen
In order to solve the problem of poor terrain adaptability of traditional cranes in the construction of transmission lines in mountainous areas, and to ensure the safe operation of light modular spider cranes in complex terrain, this study is modelled on spider cranes with a rated lifting capacity of 3 tons. According to the Crane Design Specification and the Crane Design Manual, the static finite element analysis of the core structure was carried out using UG and ANSYS Workbench software. Following the principle of balancing load-bearing accuracy and calculation efficiency, the upper and lower structures of the spider crane are simplified in layers. Subsequently, the reaction force, displacement and stress characteristics of the core structure were analysed under the condition of a rated load of 3 tons and the minimum working radius. The research results show that the strength and rigidity of the core structure of the spider crane meet the standard requirements to ensure that it can operate safely in mountainous environments.
Chen, ZhenQu, HongleiSun, JianChen, Guang
Historically, the demand for advanced technology, efficiency, and safety has been a primary driving force in the evolution of commercial vehicles, particularly with respect to braking systems. More recently, the increasing levels of vehicle autonomy and electrification have emerged as irreversible trends, significantly accelerating the development of new functionalities and innovative electrical/electronic [E/E] architectures. These advancements are essentially focused on performance optimization, risk mitigation, and enhanced system reliability through the application of functional safety and cybersecurity standards, thereby shaping the current landscape of braking system design. From an efficiency standpoint, braking systems with higher levels of electronic content, functional integration – included with regenerative braking systems - and harmonization have been developed to improve energy efficiency and support global scalability. Concurrently, new system configurations are continuously being introduced to enhance vehicle safety and advanced driver assistance capabilities, in alignment with evolving regulatory requirements and market expectations. This paper evaluates the impacts of automation and electrification on commercial vehicle pneumatic braking systems, focusing on Anti-lock Braking Systems [ABS], Electronic Braking Systems [EBS] and air management platforms. It provides a technical overview of both architectures, assessing their capabilities to meet modern requirements such as integration with advanced vehicle architecture, regenerative braking for electrified applications, and Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems [ADAS] support. The study details the evolution of air management systems, with emphasis on electrified vehicles, including key functions such as air compressor charge control, Air Processing Unit [APU] desiccant regeneration, and electronic control strategies. Additionally, it examines key drivers of braking system evolution, braking system selection considering ADAS regulatory developments, Net Zero strategies, and automation trends. The paper further evaluates compliance with functional safety and cybersecurity standards and assesses the readiness of both platforms for emerging mobility concepts. Finally, it highlights the risks of deploying higher levels of autonomy in heavy-duty towing vehicles when operating with non- ABS semi-trailers, identifying this as a critical area for further investigation.
Guarenghi, Vinícius MendesNicora, FabioPizzi, Rafael FortunaResende, Angelo Roberto RodriguesPinto, Gustavo Laranjeira
This study investigates the influence of wheel structural stiffness and wheel configuration (single- and dual-tire) on brake drum deformation in commercial vehicles equipped with pneumatically actuated drum brakes. A comprehensive multi-method approach was adopted, combining on-vehicle measurements, controlled bench testing using two- and three-dimensional optical metrology, and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of the rear axle assembly. Three- wheel configurations were evaluated: a dual-tire arrangement (Configuration A) and two single-tire designs with distinct stiffness characteristics (Configurations B and C). Radial distortion was quantified using the displacement difference between the bottom and top regions of the brake drum (ΔZ). The results demonstrate that wheel stiffness and the offset between the wheel-disc attachment point and the ground reaction force are dominant factors governing brake drum deformation. The brake drum equipped with dual-tire configurations exhibited minimal ΔZ, whereas the brake drums equipped with single-tire configurations, particularly the least stiff Configuration C, showed pronounced outward radial displacement and increased deformation asymmetry. Design evaluations conducted under the worst-case configuration confirmed these findings, showing an effective reduction in brake drum deformation achieved by increasing the brake drum collar thickness (–36.1%; +6 kg) and by increasing the wheel rim thickness (–27.8%; +4.5 kg).
de Souza, Cassio Belo ClementeSantana, Flávio ArcanjoHenze, SteffenPulju, HendrikFilho, William Manjud Maluf
This study presents a comparative analysis of the braking performance of a heavy commercial vehicle under in-gear and out-of- gear conditions, combining experimental tests conducted at 60 km/h with high-fidelity computational simulation. The numerical model incorporates real engine torque, power, and motoring/braking curves, full brake system parameters, dynamic load transfer, tire–road friction characteristics, and ABS actuation. Simulation results were validated against experimental MFDD and stopping distance measurements. The simulation demonstrated a high correlation with the experimental MFDD values (5.3 vs. 5.36 m/s2 in the in-gear condition and 5.6 vs. 5.37 m/s2 in the out-of-gear condition), confirming the robustness of the model. Differences in stopping distance were attributed primarily to the real-world behavior of the ABS and to variability in the road surface friction coefficient. The study concludes that braking with the vehicle in gear provides improved longitudinal stability due to the resistive contribution of engine drag torque, which also reduces the thermal load on the service brakes. Overall, the results reinforce the essential role of simulation as a development, optimization, and certification tool for brake systems.
Junior, Getulio SoaresCanale, Antônio Carlosde Oliveira, Sergio Henrique FidelisPizzi, Rafael Fortuna
Aiming at the problems of seed cane pile-up and unstable seed supply efficiency in the sugarcane seed production line caused by the seed supply device, a stable seed supply control system was designed, which consists of a seed collection box, an elastic seed-clearing plate and an electrical control system, etc. The EDEM-RecurDyn coupling simulation was adopted to analyze the seed supply process, and the optimal elastic seed-clearing plate structure was designed. Using the single factor test and Box–Behnken experimental design analyzed the effects of the seed supply belt speed, the speed of the first conveyor belt, the number of sugarcane seeds in the collection box and the seed cutting efficiency on the supply efficiency. Establish a quadratic regression model for the efficiency of seed supply and determine the optimal parameter combination: the seed supply belt speed of 0.097 m/s, first conveyor belt speed of 1.639 m/s, and the number of sugarcane seeds is 14. Using the number of sugarcane seeds as the input quantity for the controller, the real-time data is fed back by the TOF sensor. The controller automatically adjusts the seed-cutting efficiency to maintain the continuity and stability of the seed supply process of the seed supply device. The test results show that after applying this system, the seed supply efficiency reached 1.77 setts/s, which was 6% higher than that of the fixed-parameter system. This research can provide technical support for the stable seed supply of integrated equipment for sugarcane seed production.
Li, ShangpingXu, HechangOuyang, RunhongLi, Kaihua
Embedded electronics are becoming increasingly common in solutions developed for commercial vehicles. Technological advancements enabled the development of electronic solutions that provide braking systems with functions to improve safety, comfort, performance, durability, and cost-effectiveness of wear components. In this context, the electronic braking system, EBS, has become increasingly present in the electronic architecture of commercial vehicles. Considering the functions that can be developed within the electronic braking system, the following stand out: the pedal characterization, which potentially improves comfort and increases the sensation of safety during braking; and the brake force distribution, which can be adjusted to ensure that the vehicle achieves an optimal balance between performance and friction material’s durability. This work consists of the presentation of tests and results of technical activities required to develop an EBS for medium-heavy and heavy-duty vehicles designed for a variety of applications. EBS was developed to prioritize comfort and safety, with optimized braking sensation and performance without compromising the durability of the wear components of the vehicles. Activities started with the experimental determination of the brake factor—a value that transmits to EBS the braking capacity of the truck. In sequence, brake pedal setup was performed based on data extracted from a vehicle equipped with a mechanical braking system and validated by subjective assessment. In addition, the braking force distribution definition started by establishing its target: friction material’s wear equalization or braking performance; went through balancing the mechanical braking power per axle; and finished being validated by data obtained from vehicles in use. Results showed that the implementation of electronic braking systems in commercial vehicles brought several benefits to the product, in particular, improvement of braking feeling when pressing the brake pedal, and in both braking performance and friction material’s durability, which resulted in a better balance between maintenance costs and technical advantages.
Travaglia, Carlos A. P.Rodrigues, AndréRudek, ClaudemirDias, Eduardo MirandaSilveira, Juliana
The anti-lock braking system (ABS) plays a fundamental role in preventing wheel lockup and preserving vehicle steerability and stability during braking. In Brazil, ABS is mandatory for commercial vehicles since 2014, following CONTRAN Resolution 380/11, with the objective of improving traffic safety and reducing road accidents. The performance of an ABS is directly influenced by the characteristics of the vehicle’s braking system, including its pneumatic architecture and mechanical component sizing, which determine brake-force distribution and the frequency of ABS intervention. Regardless of these characteristics, developers must ensure that ABS efficiency complies with applicable regulatory requirements. For performance assessment, NBR 10966 Part 6 establishes procedures for measuring and calculating the adhesion utilization of ABS. Represented by the letter epsilon (ε), adhesion utilization quantifies the relationship between the braking performance achieved with ABS active and that corresponding to the vehicle’s maximum braking capacity without wheel slip. This metric provides an indirect evaluation of system efficiency. This work presents a case study conducted during the development of the ABS for a medium-heavy truck equipped with more than two axles. The study consisted of the analysis of results obtained following the adhesion utilization determination methodology defined in NBR 10966 Part 6, and of the evaluation of its applicability to multi-axle vehicles. Despite the braking system and vehicle configuration meeting all minimum static and dynamic performance requirements, the measured adhesion utilization fell below expectations. This outcome prompted a detailed investigation of both the measurement approach used for this vehicle category and the factors affecting the tire–road friction coefficient, which are independent of the braking system itself. The analysis indicated potential improvements in the test methodology for vehicles with more than two axles and highlighted the significant influence of test-track surface conditions on the results obtained.
Dias, Eduardo MirandaRudek, ClaudemirTravaglia, Carlos Abílio Passos
Metal fins with complex structural surfaces play a crucial role in cooling highly heat-intensive electronic products, and a facile method for fabricating such metal fins is urgently needed. Herein, a simple machining method was proposed for fabricating metal fins with novel waveform structures. The new machining method combined plowing extrusion and cutting (PE-C) processes, enabling one-step fabrication of wavy fins, exhibiting excellent flexibility and efficiency. The combined PE-C tool was first designed and manufactured. Subsequently, experiments for fabricating wavy fins were developed and conducted. Based on this, an in-depth analysis of forming procedures was performed using in-situ experimental insights. Moreover, forming characteristics of wavy fins under key parameters (e.g., the tool rake angle γ^c and the cutting velocity V^c) were discussed. Results show that the novel wavy fins were successfully manufactured by the proposed PE-C method. Wavy fins exhibited excellent, well-developed surfaces with a complete corrugation structure, and their geometric dimensions could be adjusted through processing parameters. The new PE-C method utilized two consecutive stages (i.e., the PE and cutting stages) to achieve the fabrication of wavy fins. The PE stage shaped the uncut metal surface into grooved structures, while the cutting stage transformed the groove structure into a waveform structure. Multiple folding principles, rather than conventional shear deformation, were utilized to achieve wavy fins. Reducing the γ^c and V^c would contribute to obtaining fins with the larger waveform structures. PE-C exhibited excellent potential in the field of heat exchange metal fin manufacturing.
Zhang, BaoyuLiu, ShudengYe, Zhitong
Dual-motor architectures provide additional operating degrees of freedom for electric commercial vehicles (ECVs), but the integration of automated manual transmissions (AMTs) introduces torque discontinuities during gear-related mode transitions. Existing energy management strategies usually focus on steady-state efficiency optimization, while the mechanical feasibility of mode transitions is often considered separately or neglected. To address this issue, this study proposes a topology-aware hierarchical control framework for dual-motor ECVs. The framework combines an offline global efficiency map with an online transition-feasibility arbitration mechanism. In the offline layer, the energy-oriented operating mode and torque split are extracted over the vehicle-speed and wheel-torque domain. In the online layer, a topology-based transition matrix is used to identify mechanically singular mode transitions, and potentially torque-interrupting commands are re-routed through feasible bridge modes. The proposed method embeds powertrain topology constraints into the real-time implementation of an offline optimal map, thereby complementing conventional global optimization methods with transition-feasibility arbitration. Simulation results under the CHTC driving cycle show that the proposed strategy improves torque continuity during mode transitions while retaining most of the energy-saving benefit of the unconstrained efficiency-oriented strategy. Compared with the rule-based strategy, the proposed method reduces SOC-equivalent energy consumption by 10.7%, and recovers 65.5% of the DP-achievable energy-saving potential. Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) results further demonstrate that the proposed online arbitration logic can be executed within the controller sampling period.
Song, DafengChen, LexinZeng, XiaohuaNi, Lixin
This study details the development and experimental validation of a high-fidelity one-dimensional (1D) simulation model for a two-speed transmission designed for off-road vehicles, such as tractors and backhoe loaders used in agricultural and civil engineering applications. The model, implemented in the AMESim platform from Siemens, integrates physics-based loss sub-models for all major components, including gears, bearings, seals, and fluid drag (churning) losses. After development, the model was rigorously validated against test bench data, with efficiency measurements taken across various speed, torque, and oil level combinations, demonstrating a strong correlation with experimental results. A detailed analysis enabled the quantification of the contribution of each loss mechanism, identifying the countershaft gears and input shaft bearings as the primary contributors. Furthermore, a Machine Learning (ML)–based calibration framework, employing Bayesian Optimization, was implemented to reduce discrepancies between simulation and experiment and to generate a synthetic dataset for the creation of fast-executing surrogate models. The study concludes that the proposed methodology constitutes an effective tool for efficiency analysis and optimization during early design stages, establishing a foundation for future integration with ML techniques and the development of digital twins.
Ferreira, Tiago SimaoFallahi, FarzadKedziora, SlawomirHichri, BassemKiefer, Jean-Daniel
Accurate prediction of ground settlement induced by rectangular pipe jacking, a prevalent trenchless technology in urban infrastructure development, remains a significant challenge. This study addresses this by developing and evaluating a robust machine learning (ML) framework. Leveraging 104 sets of field monitoring data from the Liuye Avenue West Extension rectangular pipe jacking project in Hunan, China, key construction parameters including jacking force, advance rate, and grouting pressure were utilized as inputs to predict ground settlement. A Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm was integrated for automated hyperparameter tuning of six distinct ML models: standalone Least Squares Support Vector Machine (LSSVM), Backpropagation Neural Network (BPNN), Random Forest (RF), and their respective PSO-optimized counterparts. Comprehensive performance evaluation using Mean Squared Error (MSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), and Coefficient of Determination (R^2) revealed that the PSO-LSSVM hybrid model achieved superior predictive accuracy and generalization capability. Specifically, on the test dataset, the PSO-LSSVM model yielded an MSE of 0.367, MAE of 0.424, and an R^2 of 0.941. These findings demonstrate that the proposed PSO-enhanced LSSVM model significantly outperforms baseline models, offering a highly effective and reliable tool for predicting ground deformation in similar complex pipe jacking projects.
Hu, ShiweiHu, RongZhang, HongChen, YiHu, Da
In order to achieve precise control of refueling volume, improve oil change efficiency, reduce oil pollution and waste, a new oil change device for the reducer of the range hood equipment is studied. We design a new oil change device that integrates oil discharge and refueling functions based on the operating characteristics of the reducer in the range hood equipment. Using the rotational speed of the power pump and the flow rate of the oil pipeline as variables, we determine the refueling flow rate using a one-dimensional quadratic formula. Based on direct control theory, we optimize the relative position parameters of each component of the device, establish a control matrix, and achieve precise control. The experimental results show that the new oil change device exhibits good performance during both one-time oil discharge and refueling processes, meeting the precise control standards for refueling volume. The design and application of a new oil change device can effectively improve the efficiency and accuracy of oil change in the reducer of the range hood equipment, and have practical application value.
He, PengtaoWei, BoLiang, ZhiyuanDeng, WeirenLiang, WenbinXing, Yuquan
A rotatable pressure vessel transfer device has been designed to meet the positioning requirements of pressure vessels in old factory buildings with limited lifting space or insufficient crane lifting capacity, as well as small factory buildings with limited overall space. The device consists of a main driving rail car, a cable reel, a control box, and a towed transport car. In order to test the load-bearing capacity, passability, and stability of the transfer device for hill parking, experiments were conducted at the factory. The experimental results show that under full load conditions, the transfer device can park stably on the sloping track without any sliding phenomenon. The curved track passes smoothly without any jamming or derailment, meeting the design requirements.
Chen, JinshanSun, YeZhu, JialeiLiang, XiaodongWang, Hongfei
As oil and gas exploitation advances into deep seas, risers linking offshore platforms and subsea extraction systems endure long-term complex marine loads. Fatigue damage from Vortex-Induced Vibration (VIV) has become a key factor limiting the safe operation of deep-sea engineering structures. To address this issue, a bionic adaptive rotating fairing, which is adjustable to ocean current directions, was designed. Its main components include buoyancy blocks, a fairing with spiral guide rails on the inner wall, and clamps, which work together to reduce VIV by regulating flow patterns. Numerical simulations of concave and convex fairings showed that under subcritical flow, shifting from a concave to convex cross-section gradually enhances the fairing’s drag and lift reduction effects on risers, with a steady improvement trend. Further comparisons were made between 0.25D convex fairings, 0.35D convex fairings, and bare risers, focusing on drag/lift reduction, vortex shedding frequency, and Strouhal number. Both convex fairings exhibited similar VIV suppression performance to the bare riser, but differed significantly in the percentage reduction of vortex shedding frequency and Strouhal number. Thus, the 0.25D convex fairing was identified as the optimal configuration for VIV suppression among the concave-convex fairings studied.
Zhang, XuSong, GuangmingWang, BaozhongZhao, JinpengChen, Qianshuo
Nowadays, as computer technology makes quick progress, innovative algorithms like deep learning are getting used more and more in underground engineering and lots of other fields. When working on rectangular pipe jacking tunnel projects, accurately predicting the magnitude of pipeline settlement is really key to keeping the work moving smoothly. But traditional ground settlement prediction methods mainly rely on empirical formulas and numerical simulation software. When applied to tunnels with complex geometries, though, these methods usually don’t work as well as needed. To fix this problem, our study came up with a new model called PSO-LSTM-Self-Attention Mechanism (shortened to PSO-LSTM-SAM), specifically designed to predict pipeline settlement caused by rectangular pipe jacking work. This model takes the data collected from construction monitoring and uses that as the input for time series modeling work. That allows for in-depth analysis of real-time settlement data, and as a result, it can make more precise predictions of long-term pipeline settlement. To verify the effectiveness of the PSO-LSTM-SAM algorithm, the researchers compared its prediction results with those from a conventional LSTM network, an LSTM-SAM network, and a PSO-SVR network. They also checked the model’s performance by looking at pipeline settlement predictions from different monitoring points, using data from the Changsha Railway Transit Line 6 project. The results show that the PSO-LSTM model, with the self-attention mechanism added in, greatly boosts how accurate tunnel settlement predictions are, and the model fits the data better, too. This proves that the PSO-LSTM-SAM model works well: by using the strengths of deep learning, it offers a new way to predict pipeline settlement when building rectangular pipe jacking tunnels.
Chen, YiWeng, XiaoxuanZhang, HongLi, YongsuoHu, Da
Based on the theory of vehicle dynamics, this paper first constructs a dynamic model of the cab air suspension system, laying a core theoretical framework for subsequent optimization research. At the level of performance evaluation indicators, the root mean square (RMS) values of the cab’s vertical acceleration, roll acceleration, and pitch acceleration are selected as key parameters. On this basis, an objective function for the damping matching of the cab air suspension system is established, clarifying the optimization direction. Building on this objective function, the paper further takes into account the constraint conditions in the actual operation of the system, using the probability of the cab air suspension system hitting the limit stop as a constraint. Finally, a complete mathematical model for the damping matching of the cab air suspension system is formed, and a genetic algorithm is used to solve this model, ensuring the scientificity and feasibility of the optimization results. To verify the effectiveness of the established model and optimization method, this paper conducts verification based on the aforementioned dynamic simulation model of the cab air suspension system: the frame displacement signals collected under actual random road conditions are used as the model input, and the established mathematical method for damping matching is applied to carry out the optimal matching design of the damping parameters of the cab air suspension system. The simulation optimization results show that the performance of the optimized system is significantly improved: the RMS value of vertical acceleration is reduced by 5% compared with that before optimization, the RMS value of roll angular acceleration is reduced by 11.2%, and the RMS value of pitch angular acceleration is reduced by 4.7%. In conclusion, the method constructed in this paper can effectively improve a practical and feasible reference for the damping optimization design of the cab suspension system.
Li, SaisaiYang, ChangGuo, RuilingZhang, ZhongyuanLiang, DongWu, Shiyu
The purpose of this document is to establish guidelines for determining the critical R134a and R1234yf refrigerant charge for off-road, self-propelled work machines as defined in SAE J1116 and agricultural tractors as defined in ANSI/ASAE S390. It will develop a minimum to maximum refrigerant charge range in which the HVAC system can maintain proper operation. Operating conditions and characteristics of the equipment will influence the optimum charge. Since these conditions and characteristics vary greatly from one application to another, careful consideration should be taken to determine the optimum R134a and R1234yf refrigerant charge for the HVAC system.
HFTC6, Operator Accommodation
In recent years, with the low-altitude economy developing rapidly, the operation and management of low-altitude airspace has gradually become a hot topic. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) constitute a fundamental component of the low-altitude airspace ecosystem, significantly influencing its structure and functionality. The technological advancement of UAVs has fundamentally transformed the operational paradigm for low-altitude airspace management. This paper presents a comprehensive review of UAV-supported technologies in the context of low-altitude airspace operations and management. It systematically analyzes key technologies and applications of UAVs in areas such as airspace capacity and safety assessment, trajectory planning, and standardized flight management. Drawing from kinematic analysis and traffic flow theory, UAV density control and collision risk prediction offer quantitative insights into airspace capacity evaluation. Additionally, probabilistic analysis and simulation techniques enhance the accuracy and efficiency of safety assessments. In trajectory planning, multi-objective optimization algorithms tailored to operational scenarios—such as logistics delivery and agricultural operations—have significantly improved the utilization of airspace resources. Concurrently, collision avoidance techniques leveraging graph search, numerical optimization, and machine learning ensure flight safety in complex environments. Standardized flight management relies on pilot qualification review, airworthiness certification, and planning standardization, while discussing airspace segmentation strategies based on geofencing and intelligent control systems. Future developments in UAV-supported technologies are expected to trend toward higher precision, intelligence, and regulatory integration. By incorporating cutting-edge fields such as deep reinforcement learning and digital integration, these technologies are poised to further enhance the efficiency and safety of low-altitude airspace management, thereby providing robust technical support for the sustainable growth of the low-altitude economy.
Gong, LeiMa, ZhenxiaoLuo, Qin
Hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engines are a potential carbon-free propulsion solution for high-power applications such as construction machinery and heavy-duty commercial vehicles. However, compared to conventional diesel engines, hydrogen engines exhibit limitations in transient operation and at full load, primarily due to the high reactivity of hydrogen. In spark-ignited hydrogen engines, combustion anomalies represent the main constraint during performance-oriented operation, particularly during transient phases that require mixture enrichment to meet dynamic torque demands. Water injection is investigated in this study as a means to mitigate these limitations. The paper describes the implementation of a port water injection system on a heavy-duty commercial hydrogen engine and evaluates its influence on engine performance with a focus on transient operating conditions. A combustion anomaly evaluation method developed in-house is applied to quantify the effect of water injection on abnormal combustion behavior. The results show that water injection shifts the combustion anomaly limit toward richer air–fuel ratios, thereby enabling mixture enrichment up to stoichiometric conditions or under during transient load changes. Water is injected cyclically into each intake port to achieve a defined water-to-hydrogen ratio during load steps. Even at low water injection rates, a significant reduction in engine response time is observed, leading to transient torque response comparable to that of a diesel reference engine. Improved torque demand tracking is demonstrated in dynamic test cycles. In steady-state operation, the application of water injection also extends the achievable full-load operating range. Overall, the results indicate that port water injection is an effective measure for suppressing abnormal combustion in heavy-duty hydrogen engines and enables more aggressive yet stable engine calibration with minimal water consumption, contributing to diesel-like performance characteristics.
Schneider, DavidChristoforetti, PaulKappacher, PeterKapeller, DavidSchutting, EberhardEichlseder, HelmutTrapp, Christian
This study describes a methodology for synthesizing representative driving cycles for light commercial vehicles. The focus is on taking the usage profiles of these vehicles into account in the driving cycle synthesis. In this methodology, representative routes are simulated using the example of light commercial vehicles in the craft sector. The results of these simulations are representative speed distributions and representative altitude variations. These results are then used as target values for the actual driving cycle synthesis. Furthermore, measurement runs are carried out with a light commercial vehicle to create a database of real-world driving data. The measurement runs include different urban, rural, and motorway sections and cover a total distance of approximately 510 km. Routes with flatter and more challenging altitude profiles are driven. During the measurement runs, the speed signal and the altitude signal are measured. These signals are then processed and cut into short segments, each consisting of a speed and altitude profile. This is followed by the actual driving cycle synthesis, in which those segments with suitable altitude variations are assembled according to the representative speed distributions. This paper examines three different usage profiles of light commercial vehicles in three different cities in Germany. These three cities are Ulm (large city), Stuttgart (metropolitan region), and Munderkingen (small town in rural region). The results of these three analyses show considerable differences both in the calculated speed distributions and in the calculated altitude variations. For example, the usage profile in the rural region of Munderkingen shows significantly higher rural proportions than the usage profile in the Stuttgart metropolitan region. Furthermore, the analysis in Stuttgart shows a much higher altitude variation than the usage profile in Ulm. These differences highlight the need to take vehicle usage profiles into account in the driving cycle synthesis.
Heilmann, OliverGrabow, AndreasCortès, SvenSchlick, MichaelStoll, TobiasKulzer, André Casal
The goal of reducing global CO2 emissions requires actions especially for the transportation sector. To achieve the goal, electric traction motors are frequently implemented in passenger vehicles, as well as in commercial vehicles like heavy-duty trucks or buses. Particularly electric city buses have the potential to reduce the local emissions in urban areas and provide local exhaust-emission-free mobility. While their number of registrations rises, research focusses on the improvement of the overall system in order to increase energy efficiency. High importance is gained by the thermal management of the whole system. This research investigates a simulative approach to improve the thermal management and therefore the energy efficiency of an electric city bus. The different thermal components of an electric city bus like drive system, battery system and heating, ventilation and air conditioning system (HVAC system) are modelled. Their thermal behavior has been validated in previous research. Based on the validated model, this study proposes an improved thermal management that, state-dependent, combines the thermal circuits of the single components to reduce the overall energy demand. Cooling or heating is provided by the HVAC system. Furthermore, the simulation utilizes real driving cycles of a city bus in the Hamburg area. Measurement data from an entire year are examined by a cluster analysis that results in typical application profiles for urban bus traffic. These profiles are used as basis for further research. An operating strategy for the thermal management of an electric city bus under real driving conditions is developed using the simulation model. Results are presented, which show that the overall energy demand decreases due to an improved, application profile-dependent thermal management system.
Schäfer, HenrikHellberg, TobiasMeywerk, Martin
This SAE Standard establishes a test method and a definition for disclosing the performance of suction/blower fans when applied to self-propelled sweepers that solely use a pneumatic conveyance means for the collection and transfer of “sweepings” into a collection hopper.
MTC2, Sweeper, Cleaner, and Machinery
This SAE Standard establishes a test method and a definition for disclosing the suction air volume performance of self-propelled sweepers that solely use a pneumatic conveyance means for the collection and transfer of “sweepings” into a collection hopper.
MTC2, Sweeper, Cleaner, and Machinery
This SAE Recommended Practice covers the safety alert symbol intended for use on construction and industrial equipment as defined in SAE J1116 and on agricultural tractors and machinery as defined in ASABE S390.
HFTC2, Machine Displays and Symbols
The electrification of heavy-duty vehicles is a critical pathway toward improved energy efficiency in the freight sector. The current battery electric truck technology poses several challenges to commercial vehicle operations, such as limited driving range, sensitivity to climate conditions, and long recharging times. Estimating the energy consumption of heavy-duty electric trucks is crucial to assessing the feasibility of fleet electrification and its impact on the electric grid. This article focuses on developing a model-based simulation approach to predict and analyze the energy consumption of electric trucks by considering the impact of weather and geographical conditions on vehicle road load and auxiliary components power consumption, as well as the impact these factors have on driving range. Specifically, drayage trucks employed in logistics around maritime ports are used as a case study, with consideration of seasonal climate variations and geographical characteristics at different locations. The article includes results for three major container ports within the United States, providing region-specific insights into the energy requirements and driving range of the electric drayage trucks in these regions, which will inform decision-makers in integrating electric trucks into the existing drayage operations and plan investments for electric grid development.
Shiledar, AnkurVillani, ManfrediLucero, Joseph N. E.Sun, RuixiaoSujan, Vivek A.Onori, SimonaRizzoni, Giorgio
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - What Baja SAE Teaches That College Can?t135746/26/2026
What does it really take to engineer under pressure? From mud-soaked vehicles and broken suspensions to team dynamics and split-second decisions, Baja SAE has become a proving ground for the next generation of engineering leaders. By challenging engineering students to design, build, and race single-seat off-road vehicles capable of surviving extreme terrain, Baja SAE requires every team to use the same 14 hp Kohler engine -- creating an even playing field and putting the focus on innovation, durability, and teamwork. Listen in as Honda's Adam Hussemann and TTX Company's Jason Rounds pull back the curtain on the intense, unpredictable world of Baja SAE competitions and how they prepare students for careers in manufacturing, mobility, and beyond. After hearing this conversation, you'll understand why more and more companies value Baja experience just as much as a perfect GPA. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, X, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, X, and Instagram.
Patterson, Lori
Understanding the physiological impact of vehicle electrification on operators remains an important but underexplored issue in commercial vehicle research. This study quantitatively evaluates the physiological fatigue of drivers and onboard crew members during real-world operation of commercial refuse-collection vehicles by comparing a diesel-powered vehicle with a fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV). Both vehicles were operated on the same routes under comparable real-world operating conditions, including similar time periods and operational tasks, during municipal waste collection service. Heart Rate Variability (HRV) metrics were obtained from R-R interval (RRI) data recorded using a Polar heart rate sensor. The Root Mean Square of Successive Differences (RMSSD), a time-domain index reflecting short-term parasympathetic activity, and Poincaré (Lorenz) plot area (LP area), a nonlinear HRV index reflecting overall autonomic nervous system modulation, were calculated. In-cabin vibration and noise levels were also measured as supplementary context to support the interpretation of physiological responses. The results indicate that both RMSSD and LP area were higher during FCEV operation than during diesel vehicle operation. For the driver, RMSSD increased by approximately 61.65% and the LP area by approximately 49.91%. For the onboard crew member, RMSSD increased by approximately 18.79% and the LP area by approximately 46.02%. These findings suggest a consistent association between reduced vibration and noise characteristics in the FCEV and increased HRV indices, indicating reduced physiological fatigue during operation. This study provides quantitative evidence that fuel cell electric commercial vehicles are associated with improved occupational conditions, extending beyond conventional environmental benefits.
Utsumi, AtsukoYakoh, Takahiro
Knowing a detailed operating cycle is critical for developing and testing equipment. Operating cycles can be separated by two clear distinctions: (1) regulatory or non-regulatory and (2) application at the engine-only or full machine level. The Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Nonroad Transient Cycle (NRTC) may be a good representation of engine use in many types of equipment, but there is a gap in standardized and validated drive cycles specifically for nonroad material handlers. Lacking a standardized drive cycle makes it difficult to accurately benchmark machine performance and validate new powertrain technologies. The objective of this investigation is to illustrate the development of a custom drive cycle augmented with real-world customer use data that serves multiple purposes: (1) understand the range of operation and utilization that formulated inputs for electrified architecture analysis and (2) develop a repetitive and consistent maneuver to establish baseline energy consumption enabling equivalent comparison to future electrified prototype builds. This article presents a solution specifically for a 23-ton nonroad material handler in which material handling, machine transport, and extended idle were homologated to form representative short cycles defined by machine velocity and hydraulic cylinder position. The most intensive material handling short cycles had a load factor of 40% and an average fuel rate of 16 L/h. Combined with a visual aid, the short cycles exhibited low variability, having less than 5% root mean square (RMS) error in lift and reach position with respect to the average. The machine’s performance on these short cycles at the Advanced Power Systems Research Center (APSRC) was compared to results from two real-world customer locations operating the instrumented test machine in a cyclical manner, and for similar ground conditions were found to be comparable in fuel consumption.
Czarnecki, AlexanderGoodenough, BryantWorm, JeremyRobinette, DarrellLaTendresse, PhilWestman, John
Agricultural vehicles operating in rough environments experience increased fatigue damage accumulation, which may decrease machine safety and reliability. Autonomous agricultural machines offer an opportunity to incorporate fatigue damage considerations into path planning. This work investigates whether machine learning can predict fatigue damage to a tractor chassis using light detection and ranging (LiDAR)-based terrain features, vehicle speed, and rotational vehicle state data (e.g., triaxial angle, angular velocity, and angular acceleration). Fatigue damage was estimated using the Rupp filter and the Durability Transfer Concept. Following poor predictive performance of the machine learning models, an exploratory analysis of damage histograms, dominant frequency, and acceleration magnitude was performed. Results indicated that most estimated fatigue damage occurred in the 0–2 Hz band, which coincides with the frequency range of terrain-induced acceleration. On-road driving led to the greatest fatigue damage, potentially due to the harder driving surface and increased vehicle speed. Differences between root mean square (RMS) acceleration magnitude and fatigue damage indicate that isolated high-magnitude events may have contributed to increased estimated fatigue damage. Several suggestions for future development were identified. Identification of the endurance limit of the tractor chassis will permit the removal of nondamaging events, improving label accuracy. Furthermore, the presence of a front-loader implement may have impacted chassis acceleration. Thus, a comprehensive dataset with multiple implement configurations is needed to determine the influence of implement configuration on dynamics and resultant damage.
Govers, Megan EmilyHamilton-Wright, AndrewHassan, MarwanOliver, Michele L.
A novel looped-freezing mean approach based on Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) approach is developed in context of assessing underhood cooling performance in heavy-duty vehicles. The method involves computing a temporally averaged flow field from DES simulations, which is then frozen and used by the energy solver to predict temperature distributions. This process is iteratively repeated until a statistically steady-state temperature field is achieved. It is demonstrated that traditional DES approach demonstrates superior accuracy in capturing forced convection heat transfer compared to the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) method. The validation against experimental data for flow over a heated sphere at a Reynolds number of 105 shows that DES yields Nusselt numbers with better correlation than RANS. However, it is observed that DES approach captures unsteady flow features that introduce temporal fluctuations in heat transfer. In the context of underhood cooling evaluations where properties of the fluid are strong functions of temperature and coupled with iterative processes such as dual-stream heat-exchanger modeling, these instabilities can frequently lead to numerical divergence of the simulation. The novel looped-freezing mean DES method is then applied to a reduced underhood model, including the heat exchanger and fan assembly, bounded by walls representing adjacent vehicle components. The study show that the novel looped-freezing mean DES approach provides stable and converged thermal predictions for the reduced underhood model. This approach is particularly beneficial for simulations involving highly transient flow fields coupled with thermal phenomena, enabling accurate and reportable temperature evaluations in critical regions.
Holay, SarangSankar, HariDixit, PritishSingh, Ramanand
The integration of Electric Vehicles (EVs) as active grid resources represents a pivotal shift towards decarbonization. However, the implementation of effective Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) services faces technical challenges regarding interoperability, predictive management, and battery health preservation. This work presents a comprehensive system design and research methodology developed within the framework of the FLEXV2X project, aimed at addressing interdependencies within a unified bidirectional charging ecosystem. The proposed scientific framework addresses two complementary timescales. At the device level, the study details the modelling and optimization of bidirectional converters, focusing on control algorithms designed to ensure robust dynamic response and efficiency. Building upon this hardware foundation, the paper describes a system-level optimization strategy. By employing open-source cyber-physical modelling, the architecture simulates complex EV-grid interactions. This layer integrates Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms to forecast stochastic variables such as renewable generation and fleet availability, driving a rule-based optimization engine. This dispatching logic will also be constrained by novel battery aging models, calibrated through experimental cycling stress-tests, balancing grid flexibility services with the preservation of the vehicle’s asset value. The effectiveness of this multi-layered design is assessed through a validation roadmap involving real-world deployment of a corporate mobility hub connected to a 10 MW wind farm, and a large-scale urban car-sharing fleet.
Lutzemberger, GiovanniBarater, DavideCeraolo, MassimoFera, CesareLeaver, IanPasini, Gianluca
The ongoing efforts for reduction of the traffic-related greenhouse gas emissions and, at the same time, the mitigation of harmful pollutant emissions from vehicle exhaust emissions are important development tasks for the entire automotive industry worldwide according to demand to provide clean and efficient products. Further tightened fleet average FE standards and ultra-low limits for exhaust emissions require the continuous development of new propulsion system types. Due to the given reluctance of the end customer and corresponding low acceptance of fully electrified vehicles, especially in the commercial vehicle segment, new and innovative topologies are needed to meet regulatory requirements and maintain the high versatility of today’s dominating solutions. For further optimization of operating conditions with enhanced fuel efficiency, the technical strategy is also determined by uplifting the attractiveness of electric driving incl. the avoidance of areas with poor ICE efficiency and as well as the coverage of emission-critical operations by electric propulsion. In this context, the support provided by an electric drive on board the vehicle in a combined drive system is becoming increasingly important. This article discusses accordingly various platform strategies for hybridized Diesel powertrains in different sectors of commercial vehicle applications and delivers a comprehensive comparative analysis of different hybrid drive concepts. Specifically, several hybrid powertrain configurations that extend an electric drive platform (hybridized BEVs), such as series and parallel-series topologies, are compared with traditional parallel hybrid powertrain topologies based on internal combustion engines (ICE). The study focuses mainly on two different cornerstone applications: a large light commercial vehicle, ranging from 3,5 to 6,5 to. and a heavy-duty long-haul truck with 40…44 to. gross vehicle weight. It evaluates the advantages in terms of CO2 emissions and Diesel fuel savings and investigates the effects on emission controls aspects. In addition to technical comparisons, the paper addresses also regulatory demands and end customer merits, assessing the integrational effort and commonalities in components with pure ICE and battery electric topologies. Furthermore, it explores the additional impact of advanced operational strategies for Hybrid Diesel powertrains, incorporating insights from innovative observations from executed hybrid technology demonstrator vehicles.
Koerfer, Thomas
Decarbonization efforts achieved through electrification in nonroad mobile machinery can realize a reduction in fuel consumption of more than 20%, thanks to concepts familiar to light-duty passenger vehicles. This case study compares the results of a hybrid-electric material handler to its conventional counterpart, utilizing machine-specific drive cycles presented in part one of this paper series. The hybrid prototype features an extended-range electric vehicle (EREV) powertrain that demonstrated substantial energy efficiency improvements. Specifically, there was a reduction in equivalent fuel consumption of 75% when operating in electric-only mode, and 33% when maintaining the battery by charging with an on-board generator. Together, the efficiency improvements can be extrapolated over a low-intensity, 8-h shift characterized by significant idle time and highly dynamic engine load for a 47% reduction in net energy consumption. Key technologies that led to this improvement included engine downsizing and decoupling, regenerative braking, and an electrohydraulic pump unit with advanced controls. This study explains details of the powertrain architecture and subsystems that were implemented on a demonstration vehicle, control strategies used to meet project goals, and an analysis of energy consumption from testing on a closed course. Also included in this study is a discourse on comparison metrics that can be used for quantifying the energy consumption differences between hybrid-electric and conventional diesel powertrains in nonroad mobile machinery.
Czarnecki, AlexanderGoodenough, BryantWorm, JeremyRobinette, DarrellLaTendresse, PhilWestman, JohnSubert, DavidHeath, MatthewKiefer, DylanBlack, Andrew
How to ensure off-highway combustion systems operate with sufficient control to meet tightening emissions standards and evolving fuel landscapes without sacrificing reliability. Off-highway equipment is being asked to do more with less. Less margin for emissions, less tolerance for downtime and less room for inefficiency, while operating under some of the most demanding duty cycles in the transport sector. Tier 4 and Tier 5 emissions standards have reshaped engine calibration strategies. Renewable diesel and biodiesel blends are entering worksites and farms at scale. At the same time, construction, mining and agricultural machines are expected to run for 20-25 years, often at sustained high load and far from service infrastructure. In this environment, combustion systems are far from being phased out.
Anderson, Todd
OEMs, integrators and suppliers must continuously process, assess and identify platform vulnerabilities to prioritize and implement updates that protect systems from cyberattacks and data breaches. Security researchers have demonstrated that the control systems in vehicles and machines are open to attack. In 2010, researchers from the University of Washington and the University of California, San Diego demonstrated that by gaining physical access to a vehicle, they could manipulate critical systems like brakes and engines. Just a few years later, security researchers Charlie Miller and Chris Valasek remotely compromised a vehicle over the internet, controlling steering, braking and acceleration, leading to a 1.4 million vehicle recall. In 2024, researchers at Colorado State University successfully demonstrated a wireless drive-by hack by exploiting vulnerabilities in common electronic logging devices (ELDs). In their proof-of-concept test, they achieved remote control over a truck by reflashing the ELD with malicious firmware, which allowed them to slow down a moving truck and show a design for a truck-to-truck worm virus that could theoretically spread through a fleet.
McGuirk, Finn
Precision agriculture, also known as smart farming, was once reserved for early adopters or large-scale operations, but is now an expectation within the farming industry. Across various regions and farm sizes, smart farming techniques are changing the way crops are planted as well as how they are monitored and harvested. However, farmers today are under increasing pressure to reduce labor, decrease chemical inputs, conserve water and operate in tighter windows. Couple this with factors such as narrow seasonal windows, productivity demands and safety considerations, and the need for smarter decisions becomes imperative. Going one step further, global food demands and environmental pressures are further increasing demand for precise, accurate and intelligent farming solutions.
Love, Jennifer
Kenworth's new C580 vocational truck made its debut at CONEXPO 2026. The C580 is the replacement for the long-serving C500 and aims to build on that truck's legacy thanks to new tech, more muscle and improved interior amenities. According to Kenworth, the C580 rides on the C500 platform, but has been endowed with Kenworth's latest cab, which brings modern comfort and technology features. Truck & Off-Highway Engineering was in attendance for Kenworth's introductory press conference for the C580 in Las Vegas.
Wolfe, Matt
ZF foresees hybrid powertrain technology becoming more popular for commercial transport in the coming years, and it's working earnestly to be a major player in that realm. The supplier unveiled the TraXon 2 Hybrid transmission to the North American commercial vehicle market at last year's ACT Expo and is now evaluating the technology in real-world conditions. The next-gen automated manual transmission (AMT) is optimized to improve fuel efficiency for plug-in and full hybrid heavy-duty trucks and coaches, as well as special applications such as medium- to heavy-duty mobile cranes.
Gehm, Ryan
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