Browse Topic: Commercial vehicles

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Achieving ultra-low NOx and meeting full useful life requirement for CARB 2027 NOx and GHG 2027 Phase2 CO2 regulation w/ opposed piston 2-stroke engine and a conventional ATS2025-01-8391To be published on 04/01/2025
Internal combustion engines are expected to continue to play an important role in the future of transportation, particularly in long haul transit and off-road applications. Substantially reducing criteria emissions of heavy-duty commercial vehicle engines while reducing CO2 is the quickest way for a more sustainable transportation. The opposed-piston (OP) engine developed by Achates Power has demonstrated the ability to meet the most stringent 0.02g/hp-hr ultralow NOx and CO2 emissions requirements at the same time using only a conventional, underfloor aftertreatment system, offering reduced cost, complexity and compliance risk compared to other diesel engines. The present paper focuses on the measurement results of Achates Power heavy-duty engine achieving CARB proposed ultralow NOx emission for 2027 and 2031+full useful requirements while also meeting the EPA GHG Phase 2 limits with a conventional aftertreatment system which was aged to 435k, 600k and 800k equivalent miles. The paper
Kale, Vaibhav, Bako, Zoltan
Technical Paper
Model-Predictive Control for Heat Pump-Based Battery Thermal Management in Off-Road Autonomous Electrified Vehicles During Transient Operation2025-01-8184To be published on 04/01/2025
The shift towards hybrid and electric powertrains in off-road vehicles aims to enhance mobility, extend range, and improve energy efficiency. However, heat pump-based thermal management systems in these vehicles continue to consume significant energy, impacting overall range and efficiency. Effective thermal management is essential for maintaining battery performance and safety, particularly in extreme conditions. Although high-fidelity models can capture the complex dynamics of heat pumps, real-time control within model-based optimization frameworks often depends on simplified models, which can degrade system performance. To address this, we propose a novel data-driven grey box control-oriented model (COM) that accurately represents the thermal dynamics of a vapor-compression refrigeration-based heat pump system. This COM is integrated into a model-predictive control (MPC) framework, optimizing thermal management during transient and burst-power operations of the battery pack. We
Sundar, Anirudh, Ghate, Atharva, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Ruan, Yeefeng, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam, Barron, Morgan
Technical Paper
Energy consumption optimization of commercial electric bus in Indian city driving condition using two speed transmission2025-01-8504To be published on 04/01/2025
ABSTRACT Currently automobile industries are shifting towards electric powertrains from conventional internal combustion engines. With increase in use of electric vehicle, more focus is to increase the driving range of vehicle. As of now, most of the OEMs are using single speed transmission in their electric buses. Single speed transmission is effective in road having less traffic condition but during heavy traffic condition (like Mumbai city application), performance of motor gets deteriorated. In heavy traffic condition (city application), operating points of motor goes into less efficiency regions which results in high energy consumption. It will also affect the regeneration. In this study, focus is on commercial vehicle like electric buses. If there is a need to increase driving range, energy consumption must be optimized. Thus, higher energy consumption in heavy traffic condition can be managed by using multiple gear ratio. With use of optimum gear ratio, motor operating points
Saurabh, Saurabh, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya, Bhardwaj, Rohit, Gadve, Dhananjay
Technical Paper
Commercial Vehicle Proximal Load Monitoring through measuring Spring Deflection2025-01-8718To be published on 04/01/2025
In the realm of commercial vehicles, particularly in developing countries where they are primarily used for transporting goods, Overloading presents significant risks, such as vehicle imbalance, severe accidents, and substantial financial losses. This problem is particularly pronounced in developing markets, contributing to frequent incidents of overloading. Such conditions not only lead to structural damage but also heighten the danger to all road users. Efficient load monitoring systems are crucial for maintaining vehicle stability by balancing cargo loads and preventing accidents related to overloading. Ensuring proper load distribution and monitoring is essential for maintaining operational safety and efficiency in commercial vehicles. Current methods for monitoring cargo loads often rely on manual checks or complex sensors, providing limited feedback and reactive solutions to prevent overloading incidents. To address these challenges, this paper introduces a novel approach that
Katta, Eva, Saha, Satya, Maji, Kundan
Technical Paper
Numerical Investigation of Gas Diffusion Layer Properties in PEMFC2025-01-8314To be published on 04/01/2025
This study presents a comprehensive numerical analysis of the characteristics of the gas diffusion layer (GDL) in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). Fuel cells are devices that generate electricity by reacting hydrogen with oxygen. Hydrogen supplied from a high-pressure tank reacts with oxygen within the fuel cell stack, generating electricity that drives a motor. Given the diverse design requirements for fuel cells, including applications in commercial vehicles and stationary systems, efficient material design through numerical models and simulations is indispensable. The GDL, composed of carbon fibers and resin, functions as a cushion under cell compression and facilitates the transport of electrons, heat, gas, and water. Its microstructure significantly influences these properties, making precise design crucial. In this study, we automated the material exploration by varying parameters such as the diameter and quantity of carbon fibers, as well as the amount and
Ota, Yuki, Dobashi, Toshiyuki, Nomura, Kumiko, Hattori, Takuya, Maekawa, Ryosuke
Technical Paper
Simulation and Parameter Optimization of Commercial Vehicle Cab Suspension System2025-01-8268To be published on 04/01/2025
Taking a commercial vehicle cab suspension system as the research focus, a rigid-flexible coupled dynamics model was established. Time-domain vibration acceleration signals were acquired at the connection points between the frame, cab, and suspension. The vibration signals at the frame and suspension connection points were input into the simulation model, where the vibration responses at the cab and suspension connection points were calculated and analyzed using the established cab suspension system model. The accuracy of the model was verified by comparing the simulation results with experimental data. The established cab suspension system model was further used to evaluate human vibration comfort within the cab, following national standards for subjective human perception. A piecewise polynomial function was employed to fit the stiffness-damping characteristics of the integrated damper air spring, resulting in the determination of the coefficients for each segment and the coordinates
Hao, Qi, Zhu, Yuntao, Sun, Wen, Sun, Kai, Sun, Zhiyong, Huang, Yu, Zhen, Ran, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Technical Paper
Terrain Environment Estimating Method for Off-Road Vehicle Anticipated Driving Area Based on Stereo Vision2025-01-8279To be published on 04/01/2025
Off-road vehicles are required to traverse a variety of pavement environments, including asphalt roads, dirt roads, sandy terrains, snowy landscapes, rocky paths, brick roads, and gravel roads, over extended periods while maintaining stable motion. Consequently, the precise identification of pavement types, road unevenness, and other environmental information is crucial for intelligent decision-making and planning, as well as for assessing traversability risks in the autonomous driving functions of off-road vehicles. Compared to traditional perception solutions such as LiDAR and monocular cameras, stereo vision offers advantages like a simple structure, wide field of view, and robust spatial perception. However, its accuracy and computational cost in estimating complex off-road terrain environments still require further optimization. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a terrain environment estimating method for off-road vehicle anticipated driving area based on stereo
Zhao, Jian, Zhang, Xutong, Hou, Jie, Chen, Zhigang, Zheng, Wenbo, Gao, Lun, Zhu, Bing
Technical Paper
Linear Quadratic Regulator based torque profiling during gear shift on multi-speed heavy-duty electrified transmission for optimal actuator durability, shift quality and performance2025-01-8513To be published on 04/01/2025
The extensive adoption of fully electric personal passenger vehicles has spurred the development and advancement of electrification on commercial vehicles. Multispeed transmissions are an attractive option for powertrain electrification due to their ability to optimize performance and cost. This paper describes an optimal control method utilizing a Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) to control the torque during the gear shift on a multispeed electrified transmission to optimize for clutch actuator durability and shift performance. The dynamic state-space model of the system has been obtained using System-Identification. An LQR controller is formulated to minimize driveline oscillations and transmission-input-torque using the aforementioned model by manipulating the electrical torque applied by the traction motor at the transmission input. The LQR controller is implemented in a simulation framework wherein the impact of vehicle parameters on the shift quality metrics is also assessed
KOLI, Rohit, Smith, Nathan
Technical Paper
Analysis of the design space for battery and fuel cell powered electric trucks2025-01-8600To be published on 04/01/2025
A diverse set of solutions will likely be needed to decarbonize the commercial truck sector in US. Battery powered vehicles definitely has a predominant role in this, but there are several areas where fuel cell trucks are more advantageous for the consumer. This study examines several prominent medium and heavy duty applications, designed for different driving range requirements to identify the design space where battery and fuel cell trucks are attractive. The impact of purchase price, fuel cost, vehicle usage are also considered in this analysis. Since future costs cannot be accurately predicted, this study includes parametric sweeps with certain high and low values to examine the uncertainty of the observations. This work examines the top 10 truck classes based on vehicle population, fuel usage and driving distances. It also considers some of the bus applications such as coach, transit and school buses. The vehicle usage information taken from VIUS as well as inputs from the 21CTP
Vijayagopal, Ram, Birky, Alicia
Technical Paper
Overview of Battery-Integrated Modular Multilevel Converter Topologies for Automotive Applications2025-01-8557To be published on 04/01/2025
The rise in global temperatures due to greenhouse gas emissions has led to a transition to alternative energy carriers especially in automotive applications. A key component in this transition is the battery pack, which contains several parallel and/or series-connected cells. The available energy and power of the battery pack are determined not only by the cell type, size, and configuration but also by the battery management system. To improve the control and energy utilization of the pack, battery-integrated modular multilevel converters (BI-MMCs) are presented. Five BI-MMC topologies for three main battery-integrated system configurations, namely, 3-phase, 6-phase low voltage, and 6-phase high voltage systems are evaluated for a 400 kW 40-ton commercial vehicle. The evaluation includes a comparative assessment of the number of submodules, battery, capacitor, and semiconductor losses for all BI-MMC topologies with 1 to 12 cascaded cells per submodule against a conventional 2-level
Balachandran, Arvind, Jonsson, Tomas, Eriksson, Lars
Technical Paper
Activity and Performance of Zero and Near-Zero Emissions Port Equipment for Emissions Reduction in the Maritime Sector2025-01-8539To be published on 04/01/2025
Medium-duty (MD) and heavy-duty (HD) vehicles and off-road equipment make one of the most important contributions to the emissions inventory for both urban pollutants and greenhouse gases. Reducing the emissions contribution from these sources has been a focus of regulations and incentive programs over the past few years. The number of plug-in and electric vehicle/equipment models in the MD, HD, and off-road equipment categories has significantly expanded in recent years. Along with that, a growing number of fleets are deploying or are interested in deploying electric vehicles such as port-related equipment, transit buses, school buses, trucks, and other off-road equipment. With this rapid growth of electric vehicles in the market, reliable operation and performance data on electric MD and HD vehicles/equipment is needed to provide insights on usage and to support the ongoing research into the future deployment. The objective of this study is to collect and analyze activity data from a
Frederickson, Chas, Vu, Alexander, makki, Maedeh, Johnson, Kent, Durbin, Tom, Burnette, Andrew, Huang, Eddy, alvarado, Erica, Rao, Leela
Technical Paper
Revolutionizing Commercial Vehicles: Integrating Software-Defined Vehicle Architecture for Enhanced E&E Systems2025-01-8138To be published on 04/01/2025
Commercial Vehicle (CV) market is growing rapidly with the advancement of Software-Defined Vehicles (SDVs), which provides greater level of flexibility, efficiency and integration of AI & cutting-edge technology. This research provides in-depth analysis of E&E architecture of CVs focusing on SDV based technology, which represents the transition of hardware focused to a more dynamic, software focused methodology. Research begins with the fundamental concepts of E&E architecture in CVs including virtualization, centralized computing, feature based ECU, CAN and modular frameworks which are then upgraded to meet various operational and customer requirements. The capacity of SDV based architecture designs to scale to handle heavy duty commercial vehicles is a primary focus, also to ensure the safety and security, to defend against possible vulnerabilities. Furthermore, the integration of real-time data processing capabilities and advanced E&E architecture is proposed with the features
Saini, Vaibhav, Jain, Ayushi, Meduri, Pramoda, Solutions GmbH, Verolt Technology
Technical Paper
Development of a 6.7L Direct Injection, Lean Burn H2 Spark Ignition Engine for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Commercial Vehicles2025-01-8393To be published on 04/01/2025
This work is part of a production-intent program at Cummins to develop a 6.7L direct injection (DI), lean burn H2 spark ignition (SI) engine for medium- and heavy-duty commercial vehicles that are intended to be complaint with global VII criteria pollutants emissions standards. The engine is featured with a low-pressure DI fuel injection system, a tumble-based combustion system with a pent-roof combustion chamber, two-stage boosting system without EGR, and dual overhead cams (DOHC) with cam phasers. The primary focus of this paper is on the performance system architecture development encompassing combustion system, air-handling system, and valve strategy. Comprehensive 3D-CFD guided design analysis has been conducted to define the tumble ports, injection spray pattern, and injection strategy to optimize charge homogeneity and turbulence kinetic energy (TKE). In addition, the boosting system architecture and the valve strategy have been thoroughly evaluated through 1-D system-level
Liu, Lei
Technical Paper
A Collision Risk Assessment-Based Longitudinal Collision Avoidance Control Strategy for Tractor Semi-Trailers with Slip Ratio Control2025-01-8037To be published on 04/01/2025
With the advancement of intelligent transportation and smart logistics systems, tractor semi-trailers have gradually become one of the primary modes of transport due to their substantial cargo capacity. However, the ongoing increase in the number of tractor semi-trailers has also introduced traffic safety issues. Due to their significant spring mass and strong body strength, accidents involving tractor semi-trailers often result in severe consequences. Active collision avoidance control strategies provide assurance for vehicle safety. However, existing research predominantly focuses on passenger cars and small commercial vehicles. Research specifically addressing tractor semi-trailers, which have longer bodies and more complex dynamic characteristics, is relatively sparse. Therefore, this paper proposes a collision risk assessment-based longitudinal collision avoidance control strategy for tractor semi-trailers with slip ratio control. Firstly, the paper introduces the braking
Yan, Yang, Zheng, Hongyu
Technical Paper
Energy Savings and Range Extension from Aerodynamic Improvements of Emerging Zero-Emission Heavy Vehicle Concepts2025-01-8787To be published on 04/01/2025
An energy-use analysis is presented to examine the potential energy-savings and range-extension benefits of aerodynamic improvements to tractors and trailers used in commercial transportation. The impetus for the study was the observation of aerodynamically-redesigned/optimized tractor shapes of emerging zero-emission tractors that have the potential for significant drag reduction over conventional aerodynamic tractors. Using wind-tunnel test results, a series of aerodynamic performance models were developed representing a range of tractor and trailer combinations. From current-day day-cab and sleeper-cab tractors to aerodynamically-optimized zero-emission cab concepts, paired with standard dry-van trailers or low-drag trailer concepts, the study examines the potential of implementing various fleet configurations for different operational duty cycles. An energy-use analysis was implemented to estimate the energy-rate contributions associated with inertial accelerations, grade forces
McAuliffe, Brian, Ghorbanishohrat, Faegheh
Technical Paper
Electrification Strategies and Power Distribution Method for Commercial Semi-Trailer2025-01-8581To be published on 04/01/2025
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) is the transition from conventional to electric vehicles, with the advantages of great power characteristics and low polluting emissions. A new hybrid power system was investigated by installing a motor on the axle of a conventional semi-trailer. The purpose is to reduce the fluctuation of longitudinal acceleration and improve driving comfort by filling the transmission output torque hole through the motor during the gear shift process. Models for the longitudinal motion of a commercial vehicle, the permanent magnet synchronous motor, and the motor power distribution method are established, and the system model is built using MATLAB/Simulink. The model-in-the-loop simulation control interface is created in ModelBase, and model-in-the-loop simulation under the full-throttle(WOT) and braking operating conditions is performed based on ModelBase. Due to the high-frequency jitter problem in the actual control of the motor, the torque output obtained from
Zhang, Hongyu, Wei, Zhengjun, Zhen, Ran, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Technical Paper
Development of the Power- and Usage-based Simulator for evaluating Off-road Mobile Machinery Energy Consumption2025-01-8595To be published on 04/01/2025
This paper presents the development of a new vehicle simulation software, the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator Tool (referred to as the Power-Based Model), designed to predict fuel consumption and evaluate advanced powertrain technologies for off-road mobile machinery. The Power-Based Model integrates current research on fuel consumption simulation in the off-road vehicle sector and serves as a platform to pilot the development of advanced powertrain technologies such as battery-electric and fuel cell powertrains. The tool is aimed at predicting the necessary battery capacity and hydrogen storage requirements when transitioning to these advanced powertrains, thereby facilitating component sizing and fuel consumption reduction calculations. The Power-Based Model was developed with a strong focus on the unique operational characteristics of off-road machinery, ensuring that it realistically reflects real-world energy consumption and the competitive advantages of various fuel-saving
Kim, Namdoo, Seo, Jigu, Vijayagopal, Ram, Burnham, Andrew, makarczyk, David, Freyermuth, Vincent
Technical Paper
Impact of Hybrid Electric Vehicles on Energy Consumption and Emission Reduction for Agricultural Applications2025-01-8540To be published on 04/01/2025
As the agricultural industry seeks to enhance sustainability and reduce operational costs, the introduction of mild hybrid technology in tractors presents a promising solution. This paper focuses on downsizing internal combustion (IC) engine, coupled with integration of electric motor, to reduce fuel consumption and meet stringent emission regulations while maintaining power requirement for agricultural applications in India. The hybridization aims to deliver instant power boosts during peak loads and capitalizes on energy recovery during part loads and braking. Furthermore, the idle avoidance feature minimizes fuel consumption during periods of inactivity thus significantly improving fuel efficiency. The hybridization also aims to hybridize auxiliary systems for flexible power management, enabling operation of either engine, auxiliaries, or both as needed. A newly developed hybrid supervisory control prototype efficiently manages the electric power and the mechanical power, enabling
Prasad, Lakshmi P., PS, Satyanarayana, Paygude, Tejas, Gangsar, Purushottam, Thakre, Mangesh, Choudhary, Nagesh
Technical Paper
Selection of Energy-Efficient Powertrain Architecture for the Application in Off-Highway Vehicle2025-01-8524To be published on 04/01/2025
Off-highway vehicles, with their unique requirements of durability, high power, and torque density, are typically powered by diesel ignition internal combustion engines (ICEs). This reliance on ICEs significantly contributes to greenhouse gases (GHGs) and emissions. For this reason, there is an urge to develop an energy-efficient powertrain architecture that produces fewer GHGs and emissions while meeting the variable torque levels and variable speeds and performing various duty cycles with high efficiency. In order to select the energy-efficient powertrain architecture for the off-highway vehicle, different existing powertrain architectures (i.e., series hybrid, parallel hybrid, series-parallel hybrid, conventional) for off-highway applications have been studied to highlight their pros and cons. This is done keeping in view the different duty cycles and applications along with Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). Off-highway vehicles operate under different road/surface conditions than on-road
Abououf, Hend, Hanif, Athar, Dickson, Jon, chandramouli, Nitish, Ahmed, Qadeer
Technical Paper
Optimizing Hybrid Powertrains for Light Duty Commercial Vehicles2025-01-8544To be published on 04/01/2025
Battery electric vehicles (BEV) are well-suited for many passenger vehicle applications, but high cost, short range, and long recharging times have limited their growth in commercial vehicle markets. These constraints can be eliminated with plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) which combine many benefits of BEVs with those of conventional vehicles. In this study, research was conducted to determine the optimal hybrid electric powertrain system for a Class 3, light duty commercial vehicle. The key technologies used in this hybrid powertrain include engine downsizing, P3 architecture hybridization, and active thermal management of aftertreatment. A vehicle cost of ownership analysis was conducted to determine the economic viability, a very important consideration for commercial vehicles. Several combinations of E-motor and battery pack sizes were evaluated during the cost analysis and the best possible configuration was determined. The resulting vehicle powertrain demonstrated ~60
Meruva, Prathik, Michlberger, Alexander, Bachu, Pruthvi, Bitsis, Daniel Christopher
Technical Paper
Deceleration Testing on Various Driving Surfaces for Off-Road Vehicle Operation2025-01-8704To be published on 04/01/2025
Recreational Off-Highway Vehicles (ROVs) also referred to as “side-by-side” vehicles are involved in accidents / crashes due to driver error. This can often be attributed to an operator’s inexperience and failure to differentiate vehicle handling characteristics from that of a traditional automobile. Decelerating is a commonly used method of avoiding or mitigating crash damage when effectively employed by an operator. Test data is available for deceleration capabilities of homologated vehicles on road surfaces. However, testing has not been widely performed and published for off-road vehicles on various surfaces. This work examines the dynamic performance of multiple classes of vehicle on various driving surfaces. Exemplars are used to gather practical deceleration performance data, which can be examined and compared to the performance of traditional roadgoing automobiles
Swensen, Grant, Warner, Wyatt, Warner, Mark
Technical Paper
Assessing the Impact of Mirror Technology on Driver Perception and Safety: Traditional vs. Camera-Based Systems2025-01-8664To be published on 04/01/2025
Camera-based mirror systems (CBMS) are being adopted by commercial fleets based on the potential improvements to operational efficiency through improved aerodynamics, resulting in better fuel economy, improved maneuverability, and the potential improvement for overall safety. Until CBMS are widely adopted it will be expected that drivers will be required to adapt to both conventional glass mirrors and CBMS which could have potential impact on the safety and performance of the driver when moving between vehicles with and without CBMS. To understand the potential impact to driver perception and safety, along with other human factors related to CBMS, laboratory testing was performed to understand the impact of CBMS and conventional glass mirrors. Drivers were subjected to various, nominal driving scenarios using a truck equipped with conventional glass mirrors, CBMS, and both glass mirrors and CBMS, to observe the differences in metrics such as head and eye movement, reaction time, and
Siekmann, Adam, Prikhodko, Vitaly, Sujan, Vivek
Technical Paper
Research on Composite Braking Strategy of Pure Electric Commercial Vehicle on Downhill Low-adhesion Road considering Rainfall Intensity2025-01-8813To be published on 04/01/2025
As a distributed wire control brake system, the electro-mechanical brake (EMB) may face challenges due to the need to integrate the actuator in the limited space beside the wheel. During extended downhill braking, especially on wet roads with reduced adhesion, the EMB must operate at high intensity. The significant heat generated by friction can lead to thermal deformation of components, such as the lead screw, compromising braking stability.This paper focuses on pure electric light trucks and proposes a parallel composite braking method. This approach uses an eddy current retarder or motor to provide basic braking torque, while the EMB supplies the dynamic portion of the braking torque, thereby alleviating the braking pressure on the EMB. First, a driver model, tire model, motor model and braking models are developed based on the vehicle's longitudinal dynamics. In addition, the impact of various factors, such as rainfall intensity, road slope, ramp length, road type, and vehicle
Liu, Wang, Zhang, Yu, Xiao, Hongbiao, Shen, Leiming
Technical Paper
Research on Multi-Objective Energy Management Strategies for Fuel Cell Commercial Vehicles2025-01-8180To be published on 04/01/2025
Fuel cells offer several advantages, including extended range, rapid refueling, and clean and efficient, making them well-suited for long-distance transportation in commercial vehicles. A multi-objective real-time optimization energy management strategy is proposed based on the comprehensive consideration of the equivalent hydrogen consumption and energy source lifetime. Power distribution among the energy sources is achieved by minimizing the vehicle's instantaneous comprehensive operational cost. Two coefficients are employed to restrict the fuel cell's start-stop frequency and load variation range. Additionally, two control coefficients are introduced in the objective function to regulate the battery's state of charge. The analysis shows that multi-objective real-time optimization energy management strategy is 10% and 14% less economical than conventional rule-based energy management strategy in both operating conditions and 5% and 7.8% higher than dynamic programming. However, the
You, Jianhui, Gu, Zhuangzhuang, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
Cloud Based Digital Twin Development for High-Voltage Battery Systems in Commercial Vehicles2025-01-8214To be published on 04/01/2025
Over recent years, BorgWarner has intensified its efforts to explore and leverage trending technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) to enhance products and processes. The digital twin technology has potential use cases on system behavior analysis, product optimization and predictive maintenance. As the high-voltage battery is the most valuable component in any electric vehicle understanding the mechanisms of battery aging and failure, along with their dependencies, is crucial for improving performance, battery lifespan, and residual value. A digital twin not only aids in comprehending the impacts of user behavior on the battery's state of health but also facilitates further fault diagnosis and analysis. This paper outlines the development process of a digital twin for a commercial vehicle battery. A cloud-based digital twin demonstrator was developed, which integrates vehicle telemetry data with physics-based battery electric and thermal models, and
Bongards, Anita, Liu, Xiaobing, Beemer, Maria, Gajowski, Daniel, Rama, Neeraj, Shah, Keya, Fallahdizcheh, Amirhossein
Technical Paper
Fleet-Level Decarbonization Analysis of the US Off-Road Sector with VISION: Off-Road2025-01-8594To be published on 04/01/2025
In the United States (US), the off-road sector (i.e., agriculture, construction, etc.) contributes to approximately 10% of the country’s transportation greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, similar to the aviation sector. The off-road sector can be classified into 11 sub-sectors, which include 85 equipment types. The horsepower of these equipment ranges from 1 to 3000 and have very different types of utilization over their lifetime, which makes decarbonization a complex endeavor. To address this, Argonne’s on-road vehicle fleet model, VISION, has been expanded to the off-road sector. The GHG emissions factors for several energy carriers (biofuels, electricity, and hydrogen) have been incorporated from GREET for a sector-wide well-to-wheel life cycle GHG emissions analysis of the present as well as future fleet. Several technology adoption and energy decarbonization scenarios were modeled to better understand the appropriate actions required to approximate net-zero emissions of the off-road
Tripathi, Shashwat, Kolodziej, Christopher, Gohlke, David, Burnham, Andrew, ZHOU, Yan, Longman, DOUGLAS
Technical Paper
Nationally Scalable Hydrogen Fueling Infrastructure Deployment: A Megaregion Analysis and Optimization Approach2025-01-8608To be published on 04/01/2025
Decarbonizing regional and long-haul freight is challenging due to the limitations of battery-electric commercial vehicles and infrastructure constraints. Hydrogen fuel cell medium- and heavy-duty vehicles (MHDVs) offer a viable alternative, aligning with the decarbonization goals of the Department of Energy and commercial entities. Historically, alternative fuels like compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied propane gas (LPG) have faced slow adoption due to barriers like infrastructure availability. To avoid similar issues, planning and deploying zero-emission hydrogen fueling infrastructure effectively is crucial. This research develops deployment plans for affordable, accessible, and sustainable hydrogen refueling stations, supporting stakeholders in the decarbonized commercial vehicle (CV) freight system. It aims to benefit underserved and rural energy-stressed communities by improving air quality, reducing noise pollution, and enhancing energy resiliency. The research also
Sujan, Vivek, Sun, Ruixiao, Jatana, Gurneesh, Fan, Junchuan
Technical Paper
Performance Analysis of Commercial Vehicle Engine Cooling Fan Based on Fluid-Structure Interaction Method2025-01-8641To be published on 04/01/2025
When the cooling fan of the commercial vehicle engine is working, there is a strong fluid-structure interaction (FSI) between the airflow and the blades. If the effect of this interaction is not considered, significant errors may be caused in the prediction of fan performance. To analyze the effect of FSI on the aerodynamic and structural performance of the cooling fan, calculation models with and without considering FSI were established. The pressure and efficiency of the cooling fan were calculated using three methods:the Multiple Reference Frame (MRF) method, the Sliding Mesh method, and the bidirectional FSI method. These results were then compared with test data. Based on the FSI method, the aerodynamic and structural performance of the fan at different flow rates, rotational speeds and temperatures were calculated, and compared with results if FSI is ignored. The effect of flow rate, rotational speed and temperature on the fan performance was analyzed. The comparison and analysis
Yu, Hui, Yin, Zhihong, Ying, Runhai, Wang, Xinling, Duan, Yaolong, Shangguan, Wenbin
Technical Paper
Modeling and Control Strategy of Engine Cooling System for a Light Weight Commercial Vehicle2025-01-8195To be published on 04/01/2025
The engine cooling fan, water pump and thermostat are key controllable components of the engine cooling system. In order to investigate the effects on the engine cooling system under different control strategies, a simulation model for a light weight commercial vehicle's engine cooling system is established. The simulation model takes into account the performance parameters for each component of the engine cooling system and the impact of vehicle operating conditions on the engine cooling system, with the goal of achieving the highest possible fidelity of the simulation model. The engine outlet coolant temperature and the power consumption of the engine cooling fan, water pump and thermostat are calculated at various vehicle speeds and engine loads. Comparing the simulation results with the data read from the Electric Control Unit (ECU) in the engine road tests, the simulation model’s accuracy is validated. Based on the validated model, the engine cooling system is then optimized by
Li, Bing, Li, Min, Ying, Runhai, Wang, Xinling, Duan, Yaolong, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Technical Paper
Dynamics modeling and lateral stability of tank transport vehicles2025-01-8075To be published on 04/01/2025
In this paper,the equivalent elliptic gauge pendulum model of liquid sloshing in tank is established,the pendulum dynamic equation of tank in non-inertial frame of reference is derived,and the dynamics model of tank transporter is constructed by force analysis of the whole vehicle.A liquid tank car model was built in TruckSim to study its dynamic response characteristics.Aiming at the problem that the coupling effect between liquid sloshiness in tank and tank car can easily affect the rolling stability of vehicle,the roll dynamics model of tank heavy vehicle is established based on the parameterized equivalent elliptic gauge single pendulum model,and the influence of different lateral acceleration and suspension system on the roll stability is studied.The results show that the coupling effect between the motion state of the tank car and the liquid slosh lengthens the oscillation period of the liquid slosh in the tank,and the amplitude of the load transfer rate of the tank car increases
Yukang, Guo
Technical Paper
Projection of the Perceived Cost of Ownership for Commercial Vehicles in China by 20402025-01-8590To be published on 04/01/2025
The rapid development of alternative fuel and energy-saving technology in China necessitates a comprehensive understanding of the total cost of ownership (TCO) of commercial vehicles. This study collects data and builds a TCO model based on the evaluation of the future perceived cost of ownership for buses and trucks in China from 2020 to 2040. In addition, this study establishes a detailed database to store relevant data and creates a web-based platform for users to customize the inputs such as vehicle type, fuel type, use purpose, and year to retrieve TCO data with projections under multiple technology evolution scenarios, including optimistic, reference, and pessimistic scenarios. The study emphasizes the role of multi-scenario modeling and dynamic data updates in accurately forecasting future cost trends across different vehicle types. This study quantifies how TCO changes across various vehicle types. By 2040, battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are expected to be the most cost
Tan, Xiaolu, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn), Wu, Shuhong, Chen, Yongjian, Lin, Zhenhong
Technical Paper
Viability Assessment of Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Generation In Support of Nationwide Vehicle Electrification2025-01-8121To be published on 04/01/2025
In 2022, the U.S. transportation sector was the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in the country, with the combination of passenger and commercial vehicles contributing 80% of these emissions. As adoption of passenger electric vehicles continues to climb, sights are being set on the electrification of heavy-duty commercial vehicle (HDCV) fleets. The sustainability of these shifts relies in part on the addition of significant renewable energy generation resources to both bolster the grid in the face of increased demand, and to prevent a shift in the source of GHG emissions to the grid, as opposed to a true net reduction. Additionally, it is necessary to quantify the variations in economic viability across the country for these technologies. Doing so will encourage investment and make the transition to electrified HDCV fleets commercially viable, as well as sustainable. To this end, multiple frameworks are utilized to determine the feasibility of expanding renewable
Miller, Brandon, Sun, Ruixiao, Sujan, Vivek
Technical Paper
Combustion Characterization and Heat Release Rate Modeling a Heavy-Duty Hydrogen-Diesel Dual-Fuel Engine2025-01-8418To be published on 04/01/2025
Introducing hydrogen (H2) as a gaseous fuel into the intake air of diesel engines provides a near-term approach to reduce tailpipe CO2 emissions from heavy-duty commercial vehicles. The premixed hydrogen results in a complex H2-Diesel dual fuel (H2DF) combustion process, where H2 participates in both the non-premixed diesel combustion and premixed H2/air combustion. These interactions influence engine combustion characteristics, including heat release rate (HRR), performance, and emissions, with the extent of the impact dependent on the amount of H2 introduced (H2 energy share ratio - HES) and engine operating conditions. To optimize the HES ratio under different conditions, it is crucial to understand how H2DF combustion differs from diesel combustion and how this limits engine operation and affects emissions. This paper reports on a comprehensive analysis of the in-cylinder pressure (ICP), HRR, and corresponding combustion performance metrics (combustion phasing, duration and
Farzam, Reza, Guan, Mang, Gmoser, Raine, Steiche, Patrick, Kirchen, Patrick, McTaggart-Cowan, Gordon
Technical Paper
Finite Element Fatigue Life Prediction and Test Correlation for Seam Welded Joints in Sheet-Metal Assemblies2025-28-0054To be published on 02/07/2025
Tractors, agricultural machines comprising diverse interconnected assemblies, collaboratively perform specific functions to attain desired outputs. Among these assemblies, the footstep assembly—an affixed structure or platform facilitating convenient access for the operator to the tractor cabin or platform. The components of the footstep assembly are fabricated from sheet metal and are connected using various joining technologies, such as bolts, welds, and others. During field operations, several failures have been noted in the footstep component, specifically at the weld connections. This paper delineates a methodology for simulating and predicting the occurrences of weld joint failures in the sheet-metal components. The inherent characteristics of the welding process lead to welded joints generally exhibiting a fatigue strength lower than that of the individual parts being joined. Additionally, welds are frequently applied at geometric features or points of section changes within a
Kumar, Arun, Pandey, Manoj Kumar, Thirugnanam, Vivekanndan, Mani, Suresh, Redkar, Dinesh
Technical Paper
Innovative Automation Solutions for Agricultural Tractors: Boosting Efficiency and Reducing Fatigue2025-28-0192To be published on 02/07/2025
This paper presents the automation of tasks performed by agricultural tractor operators at headlands, aimed at enhancing comfort and productivity while reducing operator fatigue. The system, developed through Electronic Depth & Draft Control, features automatic one-side braking based on wheel angle, automatic implement lift, and PTO rotation stop during headland turns. Field tests demonstrate up to 9% fuel savings and an 11% productivity increase. The advanced technology significantly boosts efficiency and cost-effectiveness, achieving a 24% increase in operator savings and overall productivity
M, Rojer Denny, Natarajan, Saravanan, Baskar, Augustin
Technical Paper
Autonomous Drone Solution for Human-Wildlife Conflict Management2025-28-0198To be published on 02/07/2025
Human-wildlife conflicts pose significant challenges to both conservation efforts and community well-being. As these conflicts escalate globally, innovative technologies become imperative for effective and humane management strategies. This paper presents an integrated autonomous drone solution designed to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts by leveraging technologies in drone surveillance and artificial intelligence. The proposed system consists of stationary IR cameras that are setup within the conflict prone areas, which utilizes machine learning to identify the presence of wild animals and to send the corresponding location to a drone docking station. An autonomous drone equipped with high resolution IR cameras and sensors is deployed from the docking station to the provided location. The drone camera utilizes object detection technology to scan the specified zone to detect the animal and emit animal repelling ultrasonic sound from a device integrated to the drone to achieve non
Sadanandan, Vaishnav, Sadique, Anwar, George, Angeo Pradeep, Vinod, Vishal, Raveendran, Darshan Unni
Technical Paper
Method Development for Virtual Validation of Tractor Three-Point Linkage for customer practices in Haulage application2025-28-0069To be published on 02/07/2025
This paper discusses the design and analysis of the Three-point linkage of an agricultural tractor for uncommon abusive usage practices during haulage applications. Some operators use the Three-point linkage for additional traction to navigate gradient surfaces, which requires additional wheel torque to overcome road slope when the trailer is attached. These maneuvers induce higher loads on Three-point linkage components, such as the lower link, lift rod, and powertrain components, which may lead to structural failures. A virtual simulation and lab-level test methodology need to be established to simulate the usage pattern upfront and predict potential failures. Multi-body dynamics (MBD) simulation was deployed to simulate the physics and extract realistic loads for Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) analysis. Data acquisition was carried out to record the strain levels during the uncommon haulage usage practices, which will be used for further studies. CAE analysis has been carried out
Kumar, Yuvaraj, Perumal, Solairaj, V, Ashok Kumar, Savsani, Smitkumar, Subbaiyan, Prasanna Balaji, Bhandwalkar, Anand, V V H Krishna Prasad, Tadikamalla
Technical Paper
Airborne Noise Mitigation for Roof-Mounted Air-Conditioning Unit Using Simulation-Based Flow-Induced Noise Detection Approach2025-01-5002To be published on 01/23/2025
In the current world of automobiles, the air-conditioning system plays a crucial role in passenger comfort. Thermal comfort for the passengers, which was earlier a luxury, has now become a basic necessity. This thermal comfort, coupled with ventilation, brings along with it the symbiotic association of flow-induced noise. The subjective prominence of airborne noise from air-conditioning systems increases with higher refinement or masking of structure-borne noise and/or engine noise sources. These systems for commercial vehicles are higher in capacity, complex, and generally placed directly above the passenger seats. Flow-induced noise refinement for such systems is generally difficult and involves multiple physical trials. In the current work presented for a commercial van, the airflow delivery of the air-conditioning system was in line with the requirement. The location of the system, however, resulted in higher noise levels at the passenger ear location. To address this issue, an
Nomani, Mustafa, Kandekar, Ambadas, Latane, Santosh, Manoji, Akash, Tadigadapa, Suresh
Technical Paper
Fast Fill Fueling Installation for Off-Road Self-Propelled Work MachinesJ176_202501 (Current)01/21/2025
This SAE Standard applies to off-road self-propelled work machines as categorized in SAE J1116. Fast fill fueling typically applies to self-propelled machines with a fuel capacity over 380 L, although fast fill fueling can be used on machines with smaller fuel capacity
Machine Technical Steering Committee
Technical Standard
2023–2024 Reviewers02-17-04-002612/23/2024
2023–2024 Reviewers
Sandu, Corina
Journal Article
Experimental Investigation of the Potential of Hydrogen as an Alternative to Brazilian Commercial Diesel Fuel in Current Heavy-Duty Fleet2024-36-006912/20/2024
Mobility in Brazil, dominated by road transportation, is responsible for consuming around a third of the energy matrix and for emitting approximately half of the energy-related emissions in the country. Among the alternatives to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions, the use of low-carbon hydrogen has a strong potential for decarbonization and improvement of engine efficiency. Thus, this study experimentally investigated the partial replacement of commercial diesel (with 12% of fatty acids methyl esters (FAME) biodiesel) by hydrogen in a commercial vehicle equipped with a compression-ignition internal combustion engine. To investigate the effects of this substitution on performance and emission profile, the vehicles was adapted for dual-fuel operation and hydrogen was injected together with air into the MB OM 924 LA engine of a Mercedes-Benz Accelo 1016 vehicle. Tests were carried out on a chassis dynamometer with 0%, 2% and 4% slope and at speeds equal to 50, 60 and 70 km/h to simulate
Assis, Guilherme, Sánchez, Fernando Zegarra, Braga, Sergio Leal, Pradelle, Renata Nohra Chaar, Souza Junior, Jorge, Pradelle, Florian, Ticona, Epifanio Mamani
Technical Paper
Digital Twin-Enabled Fault Detection for Suspension Systems in Autonomous Mining Haulage Vehicles2024-36-017012/20/2024
Autonomous vehicles for mining operations offer increased productivity, reduced total cost of ownership, decreased maintenance costs, improved reliability, and reduced operator exposure to harsh mining environments. A large flow of data exists between the remote operation and the ore haul vehicle, and part of the data becomes information for the maintenance sector which it monitors the operating conditions of various systems. One of the systems deserving attention is the suspension system, responsible for keeping the vehicle running and within a certain vibration condition to keep the asset operational and productive. Thus, this work aims to develop a digital twin-assisted system to evaluate the harmonic response of the vehicle’s body. Two representations were created based on equations of motion that modeled the oscillatory behavior of a mass-damper system. One of the representations indicates a quarter of the ore transport truck’s hydraulic system in a healthy state, called a virtual
Rosa, Leonardo Olimpio, Branco, César Tadeu Nasser Medeiros
Technical Paper
Vehicle Dynamics Using Matlab Applied to a 4x4 Vehicle2024-36-012112/20/2024
Terramechanics is a pivotal field for understanding the interaction between a vehicle’s tires and the terrain. Over time, numerous models have been developed to predict the performance of wheeled vehicles across different terrains. This study aims to employ Bekker’s model, which considers the deformable ground and the rigid tire, to simulate the motion of a 4x4 off road vehicle using the Matlab Vehicle Dynamics Blockset. The methodology of this study involves the use of a MatLab Simulink blockset diagram in conjunction with Bekker’s theory to describe the tire’s interaction with the soil. This approach will enable us to obtain the vehicle’s longitudinal dynamics, including position and velocity. The primary goal of this study is to juxtapose the simulated motion with the model provided by Matlab. This comparison will serve to validate Bekker’s theory. By achieving this, we aim to contribute to the body of knowledge in the field of terramechanics and enhance the predictive accuracy of
Duque, Gabriel Leonardo, Uchôa, Lucas Etchells Riley, Lopes, Elias Dias Rossi, Rodrigues, Gustavo Simão
Technical Paper
Techno-Economic Analysis of the Implementation of a Dual-Fuel ENGINE for Agricultural Applications2024-36-004412/20/2024
The growing demand for decarbonization and reduction of emissions from internal combustion engines used in the agricultural sector is mainly responsible for the utilization of alternative or low-carbon fuels. In this context, in situ biogas production and Dual-fuel technology bring an important opportunity for farmers to use gas with diesel or biodiesel in the agricultural machinery, reducing production costs and carbon emissions. To this end, this work evaluates efficiency, emissions, and economic performance in an internal combustion engine equipped with a Dual-fuel injection for diesel and methane. The tests were carried out on a four-cylinder turbocharged Agrale tractor, model BX6110, with modifications for run on diesel-NGV blends under operating conditions with engine speed from 1500 to 2150 rpm, fuel injection times of 80 to 200, at full load. The results showed that the diesel flow was constant during the tests, therefore, power increases depending on the NGV injected. Maximum
Rincon, Alvaro Ferney Algarra, Alvarez, Carlos Eduardo Castilla, Filho, Aldir Carpes Marques, Oliveira Faria, Rafael, Volpato, Carlos Eduardo Silva, Oliveira Notório Ribeiro, Jéssica
Technical Paper
Application of Servo-Assisted Technology in Commercial Vehicle Steering Systems for Autonomous Mobility in Off-Road Trucks. Case Study: Application on 8x2/8x4 Sugarcane Trucks2024-36-003312/20/2024
The exponential growth of the agribusiness market in Brazil combined with the high receptivity among farmers of new technological solutions has driven the study and implementation of high technology in the field. This work aimed to apply servo-assisted driving technology to enable autonomous mobility in an off-road sugarcane truck responsible for harvesting sugarcane. The technology consists of a conventional hydraulic steering with a motor, ECU and torque and angle sensors responsible for reading input data converted from GPS signals and previously recorded tracking lines. The motor responsible for replacing 100% of the physical force generated by the driver acts in accordance with the required torque demand, and the sensors combined with the ECU correct the course to meet the follow-up line through external communication ports. The accuracy of the system depends exclusively on the accuracy of the GPS signal, in this case reaching 2,5 cm, which is considered extremely high accuracy
Oliveira Santos Neto, Antídio, Lara, Vanderlei, Silva, Everton, Destro, Daniel, Moura, Márcio, Borges, Felipe, Haegele, Timo
Technical Paper
SAE TOMORROW TODAY: Scaling Connected Vehicles with Over-The-Air Updates1349212/18/2024
As the automotive world shifts toward fully software-defined vehicles (SDVs), many OEMs are hesitant to embrace a consumer-driven model for over-the-air (OTA) updates. Enter Sibros, a company offering holistic OTA software that enables automakers to achieve scalable, software-defined mobility. By providing AI-powered insights that deliver continuous product and service enhancements, OEMs can harness Sibros' single no-code platform to monitor, control and optimize SDVs, thus accelerating time-to-market, reducing code defects and enabling hundreds of connected vehicle use cases at global scale. This presents unique value for consumers, OEMs, commercial fleet operators, and even off-road sectors like agriculture and mining. To learn more, we sat down with Hemant Sikaria, CEO & Co-Founder, Sibros, to discuss the impact of his company's groundbreaking technology, how insurance and regulation come into play, and the importance of robust security measures to ensure the responsible growth of
Hineman, Marcie
Podcast
Advanced Design Validation Planning Techniques for Commercial Vehicle E-Axles02-17-04-002412/16/2024
Design validation plays a crucial role in the overall cost and time allocation for product development. This is especially evident in high-value manufacturing sectors like commercial vehicle electric drive systems or e-axles, where the expenses related to sample procurement, testing complexity, and diverse requirements are significant. Validation methodologies are continuously evolving to encompass new technologies, yet they must be rigorously evaluated to identify potential efficiencies and enhance the overall value of validation tests. Simulation tools have made substantial advancements and are now widely utilized in the development phase. The integration of simulation-based or simulation-supported validation processes can streamline testing timelines and sample quantities, all the while upholding quality standards and minimizing risks when compared to traditional methods. This study examines various scenarios where the implementation of advanced techniques has led to a reduction in
Leighton, Michael, Tuschkan, Alwin, Playfoot , Ben
Journal Article
TOC99-06-06-0TOC12/16/2024
TOC
Tobolski, Sue
Journal Article
Research on the Duties of Remote safety Inspector for Autonomous Commercial Vehicles2024-01-704012/13/2024
At present, autonomous commercial vehicles can automatically complete all transport services under limited conditions. Compared with traditional vehicles, autonomous vehicles have the characteristics of high electronic level and multiple control subjects. Remote driving safety inspector is an important guarantee for the safety application of unmanned vehicles at this stage. Whether the intelligent vehicle equipped with the driver or the safety inspector is an obvious feature to reflect the intelligence of the vehicle, a basis for the division of responsibilities, and an important factor to affect the commercial application of intelligent vehicles. Nowadays, the responsibility of remote safety inspector domestic and abroad is not clear. This paper analyzes the traditional vehicle to execute the whole transportation process task list. Combined with the current autonomous vehicle technical level, remote control technical level and other development level, the research put forward three
Wenliang, Li, Huajian, Li, Wei, Zhou
Technical Paper
Product Safety Signs for Ready Mixed Concrete TrucksJ3024_202412 (Current)12/12/2024
This document presents a catalog of safety sign text and artwork that can be used by any ready mixed concrete truck manufacturer to warn of common hazards
Ready-Mix Concrete Truck Safety Committee
Recommended Practice
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