Improving electric vehicles’ overall thermal management strategy can directly or indirectly improve battery efficiency and vehicle range [1]. In this study, the effect of the coolant type used in BTMS (battery thermal management system) units used for heating batteries in cold weather conditions was investigated in electric buses. In this investigation, tests were performed with two types of antifreeze, which have different characteristics. The study evaluated the impact of coolant flow, BTMS circulation pump performance, and battery heating using these two types of antifreeze in the BTMS coolant line. In addition to carrying out tests, 1D computational fluid dynamics models’ simulations were carried out for both types of antifreeze, and the results were validated with experimental findings. In this study, a 12-m EV Citivolt vehicle of Anadolu Isuzu was used for tests. As a result, it was observed that differences in the properties of the antifreeze that is used in BTMS coolant line

Çetir, Özgür, Birgül, Çağrı Emre

Visualization of Atomized Droplet Behavior and Distribution under Two-Layer Multiphase Flow in a Urea SCR Systems

2024-32-0081

04/18/2025

Urea SCR system, installed in diesel engine vehicles such as trucks and agricultural machinery, is widely used as an exhaust gas aftertreatment system that efficiently purifies NOx, an environmentally harmful substance. Furthermore, the Urea SCR systems may be installed in hydrogen/carbon-neutral fuel engines, and biofuel aircraft engines aiming to achieve carbon neutrality. However, an important problem is the degradation of NOx purification performance caused by urea crystallization due to an undesired reaction of urea water solution (UWS) and clogging of the exhaust pipe due to the formation of deposits caused by an unknown number of atomized UWS behaviors, mainly during idling and low-speed operation when the pipe temperature is relatively low. The problem is that the UWS behavior of the atomized UWS is not well understood. To solve these problems, it is necessary to clarify the complex two-phase flow phenomenon of gas and droplets in the exhaust pipe, which is still unknown. We

Ono, Joe, Nohara, Tetsuo, Nara, Shotaro, Kawamoto, Yuki, Fukushima, Naoya, Ochiai, Masayuki

Dynamic Modeling of an off-Road Vehicle with Whoops Behavior

2024-32-0080

04/18/2025

Off-road vehicle demand is on the rise, particularly in North America. In connection with this trend, there is a demand for dynamic modeling to describe the behavior of off-road vehicles when driving terrains surfaces with successive bumps. However, conventional dynamic models has been insufficient in representing the situation where the tire-ground contact and detachment states switch successively during whoops behavior. Therefore, in this study, rigid-body multibody dynamics methodology was employed to model the vehicle and conduct numerical simulations. Numerical simulations were conducted using the constructed vehicle model, demonstrating that the behavior of off-road vehicles in whoops closely resembles the actual phenomenon.

Inoue, Tsuyoshi, Ejiri, Haruto, Heya, Akira, Yoshida, Masahiro

A Methodical Concept Study and Optimization of the Drivetrain for Light Commercial Vehicle Applications

2024-32-0115

04/18/2025

The EU currently has very ambitious plans for the electrification of vehicles, particularly in the field of urban logistics. For example, the so-called “Transport White Paper” [1] aims to achieve essentially CO2-free logistics in major urban centers by 2030, while “Europe on the move” [2] has presented a series of legislative initiatives. The Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda for Transport proposes research priorities and actions to deploy innovative solutions, with a particular focus on the electrification of transport. Numerous advancements in electromobility have led to a growing number of vehicles available in various areas, particularly in urban logistics. New concepts like cargo bikes and micro-vehicles are being developed, but they cannot fully replace traditional light commercial vehicles. While some electrified options exist, they are often modified versions of existing platforms with internal combustion engines swapped for electric drives. The research work in this

Königshofer, Thomas, Tromayer, Jürgen, Schacht, Hans-Jürgen, Wang, Eric

Development of the Mild Hybrid System for Off-Road Machinery

2024-32-0067

04/18/2025

In recent years, the importance of achieving carbon neutrality has been highlighted in response to the escalating severity of climate change. In the leading automobile market, the share of electric vehicles is gradually expanding, especially in passenger car sector. However, it is not same in commercial vehicle sector. In the off-road machinery market, as with electrification in commercial vehicles, the factors such as the need to install charging infrastructure and the requirement for large batteries to expand operating duration are significant challenge to full electrification. As one of the realistic solutions toward carbon neutrality for off-road machines, methods to utilize both internal combustion engines (ICE) and their applied products are being reconsidered. Under the circumstances, we have developed a mild-hybrid (MH) system for small off-road machinery. This system adopts a 48V power supply in order to minimize size of the system offers as a “Drop-in” package solution. This

Koyama, Kazuaki, Kimura, Ryota, Nagamori, Yuko, Horita, Tatsuhiko, Nosaka, Kento

Air Conditioning Service Procedures for Off-Road Work Machines and Agricultural Tractors Using HFC-134a or HFO-1234yf Refrigerant

J3126_202504 (Historical)

04/14/2025

This SAE Recommended Practice is intended to provide technicians with safe and efficient techniques and general equipment recommendations for servicing mobile air conditioning systems in off-road, self-propelled work machines as defined in SAE J1116 and tractors and machinery for agriculture and forestry as defined in ASABE standard ANSI/ASAE S390. Both refrigerants HFC-134a (R-134a) and HFO-1234yf (R-1234yf) are covered. Many service procedures are similar for both refrigerants, but recovery, recycling, charging, and electronic leak detection tools can be unique to each refrigerant.

HFTC6, Operator Accommodation

Operator Precautions

J153_202504 (Current)

04/14/2025

These general operator precautions apply to off-road work machines as defined in SAE J1116. These should not be considered as all-inclusive for all specific uses and unique features of each particular machine. Other more specific operator precautions not mentioned herein should be covered by users of this recommended practice for each particular machine application.

OPTC1, Personnel Protection (General)

SAE Truck & Off-Highway Engineering: April 2025

25TOFHP0404/10/2025

Designs on a diverse powertrain future Perkins details range of development efforts to power future off-highway machines, from clean-sheet diesel to hybrid-electric and hydrogen combustion. Autonomous trucking tech hits high gear While some developers of autonomous technology for commercial trucks have stalled out, there's renewed energy to deliver augmented ADAS and automated driving systems to mass production. Autonomous quarry haulage in high demand Komatsu works with Pronto to upfit a growing fleet of haul trucks operating at Komatsu's Arizona Proving Grounds and customer sites. Editorial Hydrogen is hitting some headwinds Cummins unveils new B7.2 diesel engine Artificial intelligence being schooled for mining applications FPT's 37-kWh battery pack dives into marine market Mitsubishi Fuso repurposes EV batteries for energy storage systems First drive: REE Automotive's electrifying P7 delivery chassis Kalmar launches 3rd-gen electric terminal tractor Product Briefs SPOTLIGHTS

Selection of Energy-Efficient Powertrain Architecture for the Application in Off-Highway Vehicle

2025-01-8524

04/01/2025

Off-highway vehicles, with their unique requirements of durability, high power, and torque density, are typically powered by diesel ignition internal combustion engines (ICEs). This reliance on ICEs significantly contributes to greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. For this reason, there is an urge to develop an energy-efficient powertrain architecture that produces fewer GHGs emissions while meeting the variable torque levels and variable speeds and performing various duty cycles with high efficiency. In order to select the energy-efficient powertrain architecture for the off-highway vehicle, different existing powertrain architectures (i.e., series hybrid, parallel hybrid, series-parallel hybrid, conventional) for off-highway applications have been studied to highlight their pros and cons. This is done considering the different duty cycles and applications along with Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). Off-highway vehicles operate under different road/surface conditions than on-road vehicles

Abououf, Hend, Hanif, Athar, Dickson, Jon, Chandramouli, Nitish, Ahmed, Qadeer

Dynamics Modeling and Lateral Stability of Tank Transport Vehicles

2025-01-8075

04/01/2025

In this paper, the equivalent elliptic gauge pendulum model of liquid sloshing in tank is established, the pendulum dynamic equation of tank in non-inertial frame of reference is derived, and the dynamics model of tank transporter is constructed by force analysis of the whole vehicle. A liquid tank car model was built in TruckSim to study its dynamic response characteristics. Aiming at the problem that the coupling effect between liquid sloshiness in tank and tank car can easily affect the rolling stability of vehicle, the roll dynamics model of tank heavy vehicle is established based on the parameterized equivalent elliptic gauge single pendulum model, and the influence of different lateral acceleration and suspension system on the roll stability is studied. The results show that the coupling effect between the motion state of the tank car and the liquid slosh lengthens the oscillation period of the liquid slosh in the tank, and the amplitude of the load transfer rate of the tank car

Yukang, Guo

Development of the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator for Evaluating Off-Road Mobile Machinery Energy Consumption

2025-01-8595

04/01/2025

This paper presents the development of a new vehicle simulation software, the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator Tool (referred to as the Power-Based Model), designed to predict fuel consumption and evaluate advanced powertrain technologies for off-road mobile machinery. The Power-Based Model integrates current research on fuel consumption simulation in the off-road vehicle sector and serves as a platform for development of advanced powertrain technologies such as battery-electric and fuel cell powertrains. The tool predicts the battery capacity and hydrogen storage required for the transition to these advanced powertrains, allowing users to accurately calculate component sizes and reductions in fuel consumption. The Power-Based Model was developed with a strong focus on the unique operational characteristics of off-road machinery, ensuring that it realistically reflects real-world energy consumption and the competitive advantages of various fuel-saving technologies. This paper describes

Kim, Namdoo, Seo, Jigu, Vijayagopal, Ram, Burnham, Andrew, makarczyk, David, Freyermuth, Vincent

Performance Analysis of Commercial Vehicle Engine Cooling Fan Based on Fluid-Structure Interaction Method

2025-01-8641

04/01/2025

When the cooling fan of the commercial vehicle engine is working, there is a strong fluid-structure interaction (FSI) between the airflow and the blades. If the effect of this interaction is not considered, significant errors may be caused in the prediction of fan performance. To analyze the effect of FSI on the aerodynamic and structural performance of the cooling fan, calculation models with and without considering FSI were established. The pressure and efficiency of the cooling fan were calculated using three methods: the Multiple Reference Frame (MRF) method, the Sliding Mesh (SM) method, and the bidirectional FSI method. These results were then compared with test data. Based on the FSI method, the aerodynamic and structural performance of the fan at different flow rates, rotational speeds and temperatures were calculated, and compared with results if FSI is ignored. The effect of flow rate, rotational speed and temperature on the fan performance was analyzed. The comparison and

Yu, Hui, Yin, Zhihong, Ying, Runhai, Wang, Xinling, Duan, Yaolong, Shangguan, Wenbin

Fleet-Level Energy and Emissions Analysis of the US Off-Road Sector with VISION: Off-Road

2025-01-8594

04/01/2025

In the United States (US), the off-road sector (i.e., agriculture, construction, etc.) contributes to approximately 10% of the country’s transportation greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, similar to the aviation sector. The off-road sector is extremely diverse; as the EPA MOVES model classifies it into 11 sub-sectors, which include 85 different types of equipment. These equipment types have horsepower ranging from 1 to greater than 3000 and have very different utilization, which makes decarbonization a complex endeavor. To address this, Argonne’s on-road vehicle fleet model, VISION, has been expanded to the off-road sector. The GHG emission factors for several energy carriers (biofuels, electricity, and hydrogen) have been incorporated from Argonne’s GREET model for a sector-wide well-to-wheel (WTW) GHG emissions analysis of the present and future fleet. Several technology adoption and energy decarbonization scenarios were modeled to better understand the appropriate actions required to

Tripathi, Shashwat, Kolodziej, Christopher, Gohlke, David, Burnham, Andrew, Zhou, Yan, Longman, Douglas

Combustion Characterization and Heat Release Rate Modeling of a Heavy-Duty Hydrogen-Diesel Dual-Fuel Engine

2025-01-8418

04/01/2025

Introducing hydrogen (H2) into the intake air of diesel engines provides a near-term approach to reducing tailpipe CO2 emissions from heavy-duty commercial vehicles. The premixed hydrogen results in a complex H2-Diesel dual fuel (H2DF) combustion process, where H2 can both participate in the non-premixed diesel combustion and result in a propagating H2/air combustion. These interactions influence engine combustion characteristics, including in-cylinder pressure and heat release rate (HRR), as well as emissions. The nature and extent of the impact depends on the amount of H2 introduced as a function of the total fuel energy (H2 energy share ratio - HES), the trapped air mass, and engine operating conditions. To optimize the HES ratio under different conditions, it is crucial to understand how H2DF combustion differs from diesel combustion and how this limits engine operation and impacts emissions. To investigate these effects, a heavy-duty class 8 truck fitted with an H2DF system

Farzam, Reza, Guan, Mang, Gmoser, Raine, Steiche, Patrick, Kirchen, Patrick, McTaggart-Cowan, Gordon

Projected Perceived Cost of Ownership for Commercial Vehicle Powertrains in China by 2040

2025-01-8590

04/01/2025

The rapid advancement of alternative energy and energy-saving technologies in China underscores the importance of conducting a comprehensive analysis of the total cost of ownership (TCO) for commercial vehicles such as buses and trucks. To address the challenges of quantifying time-sensitive and implicit costs, this study has developed an extensive database and a web-based modeling tool to evaluate the TCO of these vehicles for the period 2020–2040. The tool allows for user-customized inputs and generates TCO estimates across multiple technology evolution scenarios, encompassing nearly 200 vehicle types categorized by class, intended use, and powertrain technology, within diverse technology development pathways. The model integrates critical cost factors, including vehicle purchase costs, financing costs, energy expenditures, and inconvenience costs, providing a detailed assessment of long-term ownership costs. Key findings indicate that under the reference scenario, battery electric

Tan, Xiaolu, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn), Wu, Shuhong, Chen, Yongjian, Lin, Zhenhong

Research on Composite Braking Strategy of Pure Electric Commercial Vehicle on Downhill Low-Adhesion Road Considering Rainfall Intensity

2025-01-8813

04/01/2025

As a distributed wire control brake system, the electro-mechanical brake (EMB) may face challenges due to the need to integrate the actuator in the limited space beside the wheel. During extended downhill braking, especially on wet roads with reduced adhesion, the EMB must operate at high intensity. The significant heat generated by friction can lead to thermal deformation of components, such as the lead screw, compromising braking stability. This paper focuses on pure electric light trucks and proposes a tandem composite braking method. This approach uses an eddy current retarder (ECR) or motor to provide basic braking torque, while the EMB supplies the dynamic portion of the braking torque, thereby alleviating the braking pressure on the EMB. First, a driver model, tire model, motor model, and braking models are developed based on the vehicle's longitudinal dynamics. In addition, the impact of various factors, such as rainfall intensity, road slope, ramp length and vehicle speed, on

Liu, Wang, Zhang, Yu, Xiao, Hongbiao, Shen, Leiming

Revolutionizing Commercial Vehicles: Integrating Software-Defined Vehicle Architecture for Enhanced Electrical and Electronic Systems

2025-01-8138

04/01/2025

Commercial Vehicle (CV) market is growing rapidly with the advancement of Software-Defined Vehicles (SDVs), which provide greater level of flexibility, efficiency and integration of AI & cutting-edge technology. This research provides an in-depth analysis of E&E architecture of CVs, focusing on the integration of SDV-based technology, which represents the transition from hardware-focused to a more dynamic, software-focused methodology. The research begins with the fundamental concepts of E&E architecture in CVs, including virtualization, centralized computing, feature based ECU, CAN and modular frameworks which are then upgraded to meet various operational and customer requirements. The capacity of SDV-based architecture designs to scale to handle heavy duty commercial vehicles is a primary focus, with an emphasis on ensuring the safety and security, to defend against potential vulnerabilities. Furthermore, the integration of real-time data processing capabilities and advanced E&E

Saini, Vaibhav, Jain, Ayushi, Meduri, Pramoda, Solutions GmbH, Verolt Technology

Commercial Vehicle Proximal Load Monitoring through Measuring Spring Deflection

2025-01-8718

04/01/2025

In commercial vehicles, particularly in developing countries where they are heavily used for transporting goods, overloading poses serious risks, including vehicle imbalance, accidents, and financial losses. Overloading is prevalent in these regions, leading to frequent structural damage and endangering road users. To address these issues, efficient load monitoring systems are essential for maintaining vehicle stability, ensuring proper load distribution, and preventing accidents related to overloading. Traditional methods of load monitoring, which rely on manual checks or complex sensors, offer limited feedback and are often reactive rather than proactive. This paper introduces a novel system that detects the linear deflection of leaf springs to monitor cargo loads in commercial vehicles. By measuring axle deflection under different load conditions, the system establishes a threshold load value within the vehicle's controller. When this threshold is exceeded, alerts are promptly

Katta, Eva, Maji, Kundan, Saha, Satya, Tiwari, Sanjay

Model-Predictive Control for Heat Pump-Based Battery Thermal Management in Off-Road Autonomous Electrified Vehicles During Transient Operation

2025-01-8184

04/01/2025

The shift towards hybrid and electric powertrains in off-road vehicles aims to enhance mobility, extend range, and improve energy efficiency. However, heat pump-based battery thermal management systems in these vehicles continue to consume significant energy, impacting overall range and efficiency. Effective thermal management is essential for maintaining battery performance and safety, particularly in extreme conditions. Although high-fidelity models can capture the complex dynamics of heat pumps, real-time control within model-based optimization frameworks often depends on simplified models, which can degrade system performance. To address this, we propose a novel data-driven grey box control-oriented model (COM) that accurately represents the thermal dynamics of a vapor-compression refrigeration-based heat pump system. This COM is integrated into a model-predictive control (MPC) framework, optimizing thermal management during transient and burst-power operations of the battery pack

Sundar, Anirudh, Ghate, Atharva, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Ruan, Yeefeng, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam, Barron, Morgan

Research on Multi-Objective Energy Management Strategies for Fuel Cell Commercial Vehicles

2025-01-8180

04/01/2025

Fuel cells offer several advantages, including extended range, rapid refueling, and clean and efficient, making them well-suited for long-distance transportation in commercial vehicles. A multi-objective real-time optimization energy management strategy is proposed based on the comprehensive consideration of the equivalent hydrogen consumption and energy source lifetime. Power distribution among the energy sources is achieved by minimizing the vehicle's instantaneous comprehensive operational cost. Two coefficients are employed to restrict the fuel cell's start-stop frequency and load variation range. Additionally, two control coefficients are introduced in the objective function to regulate the battery's state of charge. The analysis shows that multi-objective real-time optimization energy management strategy is 10% and 14% less economical than conventional rule-based energy management strategy in both operating conditions and 5% and 7.8% higher than dynamic programming. However, the

You, Jianhui, Gu, Zhuangzhuang, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing

Electrification Strategies and Power Distribution Method for Semi-Trailer Driven Axles

2025-01-8581

04/01/2025

A new hybrid power system was investigated by installing a motor on the axle of a conventional semi-trailer. The purpose is to reduce the fluctuation of longitudinal acceleration and improve driving comfort by filling the transmission output torque hole through the motor during the gear shift process. Models for the longitudinal motion of a commercial vehicle, the permanent magnet synchronous motor, and the motor power distribution method are established, and the system model is built using MATLAB/Simulink. The model-in-the-loop simulation control interface is created in ModelBase, and model-in-the-loop simulation under the full-throttle (WOT) and braking operating conditions is performed based on ModelBase. Due to the high-frequency jitter problem in the actual control of the motor, the torque output obtained from different control algorithms is investigated. Finally, the sliding mode control algorithm with perturbation observation is used to ensure the fast response and smoothness of

Zhang, Hongyu, Wei, Zhengjun, Zhen, Ran, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Examination of the Data Structures of the Bendix® Data Recorder

2025-01-8712

04/01/2025

Bendix® EC-80™ and certain EC-60™ ABS control units contain an event data recorder called the Bendix® Data Recorder (BDR). Raw BDR data is obtained using commercially available software, however, the translation of the raw data into an event report has only been performed by the manufacturer. In this paper, the raw data structures of the commercially available datasets are examined. It is demonstrated that the data follows uniform and repeatable patterns. The raw BDR data is converted into a conventional report and then validated against translation reports performed by the manufacturer. The techniques outlined in this research allow investigators to access and analyze BDR records independently of the manufacturer and in a way previously not possible.

DiSogra, Matthew, Hirsch, Jeffrey, Yeakley, Adam

Development of an Advisory System for Parking a Car with Trailer

2025-01-8035

04/01/2025

Trailer parking is a challenging task due to the unstable nature of the vehicle-trailer system in reverse motion and the unintuitive steering actions required at the vehicle to accomplish the parking maneuver. This paper presents a strategy to tackle this kind of maneuver with an advisory graphic aid to help the human driver with the task of manually backing up the vehicle-trailer system. A kinematic vehicle-trailer model is derived to describe the low-speed motion of the vehicle-trailer system, and its inverse kinematics is established by generating an equivalent virtual trailer axle steering command. The advisory system graphics is generated based on the inverse kinematics and displays the expected trailer orientation given the current vehicle steer angle and configuration (hitch angle). Simulation study and animation are set up to test the efficacy of the approach, where the user can select both vehicle speed and vehicle steering angle freely, which allows the user to stop the

Cao, Xincheng, Chen, Haochong, Aksun Guvenc, Bilin, Guvenc, Levent, Link, Brian, Harber, John, Richmond, Peter, Fan, Shihong, Yim, Dokyung

Hydrogen and Electric Charging Infrastructure for Heavy-Duty Trucks: A Nationally Scalable Megaregion Assessment

2025-01-8608

04/01/2025

Decarbonizing regional and long-haul freight is challenging due to the limitations of battery-electric commercial vehicles and infrastructure constraints. Hydrogen fuel cell medium- and heavy-duty vehicles (MHDVs) offer a viable alternative, aligning with the decarbonization goals of the Department of Energy and commercial entities. Historically, alternative fuels like compressed natural gas and liquefied propane gas have faced slow adoption due to barriers like infrastructure availability. To avoid similar issues, effective planning and deploying zero-emission hydrogen fueling infrastructure is crucial. This research develops deployment plans for affordable, accessible, and sustainable hydrogen refueling stations, supporting stakeholders in the decarbonized commercial vehicle freight system. It aims to benefit underserved and rural energy-stressed communities by improving air quality, reducing noise pollution, and enhancing energy resiliency. This research also provides a blueprint

Sujan, Vivek, Sun, Ruixiao, Jatana, Gurneesh, Fan, Junchuan

Cloud Based Digital Twin Development for High-Voltage Battery Systems in Commercial Vehicles

2025-01-8214

04/01/2025

Over recent years, BorgWarner has intensified its efforts to explore and leverage trending technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) to enhance products and processes. This includes digital twin technology, which has potential use cases for system behavior analysis, product optimization and predictive maintenance. This paper outlines the development process of a digital twin for a commercial vehicle battery, which serves as a demonstrator and learning platform for this technology. In order to assess the feasibility as well as hard- and software requirements, a cloud-based digital twin demonstrator was developed, integrating vehicle telemetry data with physics-based battery electric and thermal models, and an aging prediction algorithm. The key components are an Internet of Things (IoT) gateway, simulation models, data processing and ingestion pipelines, a machine learning algorithm for anomaly detection, and visualizations of telemetry and simulation

Bongards, Anita, Liu, Xiaobing, Beemer, Maria, Gajowski, Daniel, Rama, Neeraj, Shah, Keya, Fallahdizcheh, Amirhossein

Numerical Investigation of Gas Diffusion Layer Properties in PEMFC

2025-01-8314

04/01/2025

This study numerically analyzed the gas diffusion layer (GDL) in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). The GDL, composed of carbon fibers and binder, plays a critical role in facilitating electron, heat, gas, and water transport while cushioning under cell compression. Its microstructure significantly influences these properties, requiring precise design. Using simulations, this study explored GDL designs by varying fiber and binder parameters and calculated gas diffusivity under wet conditions. Unlike previous studies, a novel model treated carbon fibers as beam elements with elastic binder connections, closely replicating structural changes under compression. Key properties analyzed include permeability, electrical conductivity, and gas diffusion efficiency under wet conditions. The optimized designs enhanced these properties while balancing trade-offs between electrical conductivity and mass transport. These findings provide valuable guidelines for advancing PEMFC technology

Ota, Yuki, Dobashi, Toshiyuki, Nomura, Kumiko, Hattori, Takuya, Maekawa, Ryosuke

Terrain Environment Estimating Method for off-Road Vehicle Anticipated Driving Area Based on Stereo Vision

2025-01-8279

04/01/2025

Off-road vehicles are required to traverse a variety of pavement environments, including asphalt roads, dirt roads, sandy terrains, snowy landscapes, rocky paths, brick roads, and gravel roads, over extended periods while maintaining stable motion. Consequently, the precise identification of pavement types, road unevenness, and other environmental information is crucial for intelligent decision-making and planning, as well as for assessing traversability risks in the autonomous driving functions of off-road vehicles. Compared to traditional perception solutions such as LiDAR and monocular cameras, stereo vision offers advantages like a simple structure, wide field of view, and robust spatial perception. However, its accuracy and computational cost in estimating complex off-road terrain environments still require further optimization. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a terrain environment estimating method for off-road vehicle anticipated driving area based on stereo

Zhao, Jian, Zhang, Xutong, Hou, Jie, Chen, Zhigang, Zheng, Wenbo, Gao, Shang, Zhu, Bing, Chen, Zhicheng

A Method for Optimal Clutch Torque Neutralization for Quick Disengagement on Suspended Multispeed Transmissions Using System-Identification and Linear Quadratic Regulation

2025-01-8513

04/01/2025

This paper describes an optimal control method utilizing a Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) to control the torque during the gear shift on a multispeed electrified transmission to optimize for clutch actuator durability and shift performance. The dynamic state-space model of the system has been obtained using System-Identification. An LQR controller is formulated to minimize driveline oscillations and transmission-input-torque using the model by manipulating the electrical torque applied by the traction motor at the transmission input. The LQR controller is implemented in a simulation framework wherein the impact of vehicle parameters on the shift quality metrics is also assessed. Subjective and objective requirements are considered in the tuning process for the LQR controller. The LQR controller is utilized to generate profiled torque table calibrations. These calibrations are then deployed onto a production ready Transmission Control Unit and experimentally validated on a Class-8

Koli, Rohit, Smith, Nathan

Development of a 6.7L Direct Injection, Lean Burn H2 Spark Ignition Engine for Medium- and Heavy-Duty Commercial Vehicles

2025-01-8393

04/01/2025

This work is part of a production-intent program at Cummins to develop a 6.7L direct injection (DI), lean burn H2 spark ignition (SI) engine for medium- and heavy-duty commercial vehicles that are intended to be compliant with global VII criteria pollutants emissions standards. The engine features a low-pressure DI fuel injection system, a tumble-based combustion system with a pent-roof combustion chamber, two-stage boosting system without EGR, and dual overhead cams (DOHC) with cam phasers. The paper focuses primarily on the performance system architecture development encompassing combustion system, air-handling system, and valve strategy. Comprehensive 3D-CFD guided design analysis has been conducted to define the tumble ports, injection spray pattern, and injection strategy to optimize charge homogeneity and turbulence kinetic energy (TKE). In addition, the boosting system architecture and the valve strategy have been thoroughly evaluated through 1-D system-level engine cycle

Liu, Lei, Zhang, Yu, Qin, Xiao, Hui, He, Min, Xu, Leggott, Paul

A Collision Risk Assessment-Based Longitudinal Collision Avoidance Control Strategy for Tractor Semi-Trailers with Slip Ratio Control

2025-01-8037

04/01/2025

With the advancement of intelligent transportation and smart logistics systems, tractor semi-trailers have gradually become one of the primary modes of transport due to their substantial cargo capacity. However, the growing number of tractor semi-trailers has raised significant traffic safety concerns. Due to their significant spring mass and strong body strength, accidents involving tractor semitrailers often result in severe consequences. Active collision avoidance control strategies provide assurance for vehicle safety. However, existing research predominantly focuses on passenger cars and small commercial vehicles. Research specifically addressing tractor semi-trailers, which have longer bodies and more complex dynamic characteristics, is relatively sparse. Therefore, this paper proposes a collision risk assessment-based longitudinal collision avoidance control strategy for tractor semi-trailers with slip ratio control. Firstly, the paper introduces the braking characteristics and

Yan, Yang, Zheng, Hongyu, Zhang, Yuzhou

Optimizing Hybrid Powertrains for Light Duty Commercial Vehicles

2025-01-8544

04/01/2025

Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are well-suited for many passenger vehicle applications, but high cost, short range, and long recharging times have limited their growth in commercial vehicle markets. These constraints can be eliminated with plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) which combine many benefits of BEVs with those of conventional vehicles. In this study, research was conducted to determine the optimal hybrid electric powertrain system for a Class 3, light duty commercial vehicle. The key technologies used in this hybrid powertrain include engine downsizing, P3 architecture hybridization, and active thermal management of aftertreatment. A vehicle cost of ownership analysis was conducted to determine the economic viability, a very important consideration for commercial vehicles. Several combinations of E-motor and battery pack sizes were evaluated during the cost analysis and the best possible configuration was determined. The resulting vehicle powertrain demonstrated ~60

Meruva, Prathik, Michlberger, Alexander, Bachu, Pruthvi, Bitsis, Daniel Christopher

Energy Consumption Optimization of Commercial Electric Bus in Indian City Driving Condition Using Two Speed Transmission

2025-01-8504

04/01/2025

Currently automobile industries are shifting towards electric powertrains from conventional internal combustion engines. With increase in use of electric vehicle, more focus is to increase the driving range of vehicle. Right now, most of the OEMs are using single speed transmission in their electric buses. Single speed transmission is effective in road having average speed around 20 to 25 kmph but during heavy traffic road condition (like Mumbai city application), average speed of vehicle comes down to 10 kmph. In heavy traffic condition (city application), operating points of motor goes into less efficiency regions which results in high energy consumption. It will also affect the regeneration. In this study, focus is on commercial vehicle like electric buses. If we have to increase driving range, we have to optimize the energy consumption. We can address the issue of higher energy consumption in heavy traffic condition by using two speed transmission. With use of two speed

Saurabh, Saurabh, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya, Bhardwaj, Rohit, Gadve, Dhananjay

Analysis of the Design Space for Battery- and Fuel Cell-Powered Medium- and Heavy-Duty Trucks Based on a Simplified Cost of Ownership Evaluation

2025-01-8600

04/01/2025

Diverse solutions will likely be needed to decarbonize the commercial truck sector in the United States. Battery-powered vehicles play a predominant role but in some cases, fuel cell trucks are more advantageous for the consumer. This study examines several medium- and heavy-duty applications designed for different driving range requirements to identify the design space where battery and fuel cell trucks are attractive. Also considered are the impacts of purchase price, fuel cost, and vehicle usage. We examine the top 10 truck classes as well as bus applications based on vehicle population, fuel usage, and driving distances. We assume a 2030 scenario where both batteries and FC systems become less costly and more efficient, as targeted by the U.S. Department of Energy. Even for smaller-class vehicles, where battery electric vehicles are expected to be the most economical among clean vehicle solutions, the results are not straightforward. Based on vehicle design, usage, and external

Vijayagopal, Ram, Birky, Alicia

Activity and Performance of Zero and Near-Zero Emissions Port Equipment for Emissions Reduction in the Maritime Sector

2025-01-8539

04/01/2025

Marine ports are an important source of emissions in many urban areas, and many ports are implementing plans to reduce emissions and greenhouse gases using zero-emission cargo handling equipment. This paper evaluates the performance and activity profiles for various zero-emission (ZE) cargo transport equipment being demonstrated at different ports in California. This included 23 battery-electric (BE) 8,000 lb. (8K) and 36,000 lb. (36K) forklifts, a BE railcar mover, and an electrified rubber-tired gantry crane (eRTG). The study focused on evaluating the performance of the ZE equipment in terms of activity patterns and the potential emissions reductions. Data loggers were used to collect activity data, including hours of use, energy consumption, and charging information over periods from 6 to 21 months. The results showed that the BE forklifts, BE railcar mover, and the eRTG averaged 2-3 hours, 5 hours, and 14 hours of use per day of operation, respectively. The average energy use for

Frederickson, Chas, Vu, Alexander, Makki, Maedeh, Johnson, Kent, Durbin, Thomas, Burnette, Andrew, Huang, Eddy, Alvarado, Erica, Rao, Leela

Simulation and Parameter Optimization of Commercial Vehicle Cab Suspension System

2025-01-8268

04/01/2025

Taking a commercial vehicle cab suspension system as the research focus, a rigid-flexible coupled dynamics model was established based on the nonlinear characteristics of the integrated damper air spring and bushings. Time-domain vibration acceleration signals were acquired at the connection points between the frame, cab, and suspension. The vibration signals at the frame and suspension connection points were input into the simulation model, where the vibration responses at the cab and suspension connection points were calculated and analyzed using the established cab suspension system model. The accuracy of the model was verified by comparing the simulation results with experimental data. The established cab suspension system model was further used to evaluate human vibration comfort within the cab, following national standards for subjective human perception. A piecewise polynomial function was employed to fit the stiffness-damping characteristics of the integrated damper air spring

Hao, Qi, Zhu, Yuntao, Sun, Wen, Sun, Kai, Sun, Zhiyong, Huang, Yu, Zhen, Ran, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Achieving Ultra-Low NO _x and Meeting Full Useful Life Requirement for CARB 2027 NO _x and GHG 2027 Phase 2 CO ₂ Regulation w/Opposed Piston 2-Stroke Engine and a Conventional ATS

2025-01-8391

04/01/2025

Internal combustion engines are expected to continue to play an important on-going role in the future of transportation, particularly in long haul transit and off-road applications. Substantially reducing criteria emissions of heavy-duty (HD) commercial vehicle engines while also reducing fuel consumption is the quickest way to achieve more sustainable transportation. The opposed-piston (OP) engine developed by Achates Power has demonstrated the ability to meet the most stringent ultralow NOx emissions requirements using only a conventional, underfloor aftertreatment system, offering reduced cost, complexity and compliance risk compared to other diesel engines. This paper is focused on the measurement results of Achates Power heavy-duty engine achieving CARB proposed ultralow NOx emission for 2027 and 2031+ full useful life requirements while also meeting the EPA Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Phase 2 limits with a conventional aftertreatment system (ATS), which was aged to 435k, 600k and 800k

Kale, Vaibhav, Bako, Zoltan

Assessing the Impact of Mirror Technology on Driver Perception and Safety: Traditional vs. Camera-Based Systems

2025-01-8664

04/01/2025

Camera-based mirror systems (CBMS) are being adopted by commercial fleets based on the potential improvements to operational efficiency through improved aerodynamics, resulting in better fuel economy, improved maneuverability, and the potential improvement for overall safety. Until CBMS are widely adopted it will be expected that drivers will be required to adapt to both conventional glass mirrors and CBMS which could have potential impact on the safety and performance of the driver when moving between vehicles with and without CBMS. To understand the potential impact to driver perception and safety, along with other human factors related to CBMS, laboratory testing was performed to understand the impact of CBMS and conventional glass mirrors. Drivers were subjected to various, nominal driving scenarios using a truck equipped with conventional glass mirrors, CBMS, and both glass mirrors and CBMS, to observe the differences in metrics such as head and eye movement, reaction time, and

Siekmann, Adam, Prikhodko, Vitaly, Sujan, Vivek

Energy Savings and Range Extension from Aerodynamic Improvements of Emerging Zero-Emission Heavy Vehicle Concepts

2025-01-8787

04/01/2025

An energy-use analysis is presented to examine the potential energy-savings and range-extension benefits of aerodynamic improvements to tractors and trailers used in commercial transportation. The impetus for the study was the observation of aerodynamically-redesigned/optimized tractor shapes of emerging zero-emission commercial vehicles that have the potential for significant drag reduction over conventional aerodynamic tractors. Using wind-tunnel test results, a series of aerodynamic performance models were developed representing a range of tractor and trailer combinations. From modern day-cab and sleeper-cab tractors to aerodynamically-optimized zero-emission cab concepts, paired with standard dry-van trailers or low-drag trailer concepts, the study examines the energy use, and potential savings thereof, from implementing various fleet configurations for different operational duty cycles. An energy-use analysis was implemented to estimate the energy-rate contributions associated

McAuliffe, Brian, Ghorbanishohrat, Faegheh

Deceleration Testing on Various Driving Surfaces for Off-Road Vehicle Operation

2025-01-8704

04/01/2025

Recreational Off-Highway Vehicles (ROVs) also referred to as “side-by-side” vehicles are involved in accidents / crashes due to driver error. This can often be attributed to an operator’s inexperience and failure to differentiate vehicle handling characteristics from that of a traditional automobile. Decelerating testing of ROVs on various surfaces has not been published for these types of vehicles. This work presents test data for use in accident reconstruction and examines the dynamic performance of two exemplar ROVs on various driving surfaces including asphalt, packed dirt, loose gravel and loose, deep sand. Exemplar vehicles, specifically a 4-person “pure-sport” ROV and a single bench utility ROV, are used to gather practical deceleration performance data. Deceleration data comparing tests with fully-locked brakes to tests where the operator manually modulates the brakes to achieve maximum deceleration without brake lockup are also included. The data presented herein is

Swensen, Grant, Warner, Wyatt, Warner, Mark

Viability Assessment of Wind and Solar Renewable Energy Generation in Support of Nationwide Vehicle Electrification

2025-01-8121

04/01/2025

In 2022, the U.S. transportation sector was the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in the country, with the combination of passenger and commercial vehicles contributing 80% of these emissions. As adoption of passenger electric vehicles continues to climb, sights are being set on the electrification of heavy-duty commercial vehicle (HDCV) fleets. The sustainability of these shifts relies in part on the addition of significant renewable energy generation resources to both bolster the grid in the face of increased demand, and to prevent a shift in the source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to the grid, as opposed to a true net reduction. Additionally, it is necessary to quantify the variations in economic viability across the country for these technologies as it pertains to their productive capabilities. Doing so will encourage investment and ensure that the transition to electrified HDCV fleets is commercially viable, as well as sustainable. In an effort to meet these goals

Miller, Brandon, Sun, Ruixiao, Sujan, Vivek

Impact of Hybrid Electric Vehicles on Energy Consumption and Emission Reduction for Agricultural Applications

2025-01-8540

04/01/2025

As the agricultural industry seeks to enhance sustainability and reduce operational costs, the introduction of mild hybrid technology in tractors presents a promising solution. This paper focuses on downsizing internal combustion (IC) engine, coupled with integration of electric motor, to reduce fuel consumption and meet stringent emission regulations while maintaining power requirement for agricultural applications in India. The hybridization aims to deliver instant power boosts during peak loads and capitalizes on energy recovery during part loads and braking. Furthermore, the idle avoidance feature minimizes fuel consumption during periods of inactivity thus improving fuel efficiency. The hybridization also aims to hybridize auxiliary systems for flexible power management, enabling operation of either engine, auxiliaries, or both as needed. A newly developed hybrid supervisory control prototype efficiently manages electric power and mechanical power, enabling intelligent management

Prasad, Lakshmi P., PS, Satyanarayana, Paygude, Tejas, Gangsar, Purushottam, Thakre, Mangesh, Choudhary, Nagesh, Gitapathi, Ajinkya

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