Browse Topic: Electric vehicles

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Inductance Estimation of an Electric Vehicle2025-01-0293To be published on 07/02/2025
Electric vehicles are no longer a rarity on Europe’s streets. But battery electric vehicles (BEVs) still have a long way to go to be the dominant vehicle type on the streets. In the last years, not only has the number of passenger cars risen, but also the number of electric trucks and heavy-duty vehicles. In 2023 electric trucks have share of 1.5% in the market. For the truck industry higher charging powers are even more important. Due to European regulations drivers of vehicles with more than 3.5t weight or buses with more than 10 passengers must rest for 45 minutes after 4.5hours of drive. Therefore, higher charging powers were needed, and the Megawatt Charging System (MCS) standard was developed. The voltage level goes up to 1250V and currents of 3000A are defined. This allows the battery of heavy-duty vehicles to be completely charged within the driving breaks. As with the upcoming MCS standard, the charging power increases, also the failure risk rises. Higher charging currents
Grund, Caroline
Technical Paper
Investigation on Thermal Management of Heavy-Duty Commercial FCEV with Focus on Vehicle System Efficiency2025-01-0265To be published on 07/02/2025
The primary approach to meet the objectives of the EU Heavy Duty CO2 Regulation involves decarbonizing the road transport sector by battery electric vehicles (BEV) or hydrogen-fueled vehicles. Even though the well-to-wheel efficiency of hydrogen-fueled powertrains like fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) and H2-internal combustion engines (H2-ICE) is much lower in comparison to BEV, they are better suited for on-road heavy-duty trucks, long haul transport missions and regions with scarce charging infrastructure. Hence, this paper focuses on heavy-duty FCEVs and their overall energetic efficiency enhancement by intelligently managing energy transfer across coolant circuit boundaries through waste heat recovery, while ensuring that all relevant components remain within required temperature boundaries under both cold and hot ambient conditions. Results were obtained using a 1D-model that comprises all thermal fluid circuits (refrigerant, coolant, air) created through GT-Suite software
Uhde, Sophia, Langhorst, Thorsten, Wuest, Marcel, Naber, Dirk
Technical Paper
Simulation-Based Investigation and its experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus2025-01-0266To be published on 07/02/2025
Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand respectively to increase the mileage of the vehicle [1]. The thermal management of an electric city bus comprises the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as engine and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal management of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real world driving cycles. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of heat transfer are modelled
Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin
Technical Paper
Modular Thermal Management Framework for Electric Drive System Development2025-01-0262To be published on 07/02/2025
The automotive industry is undergoing a major shift from internal combustion engines (ICE) to hybrid (HEV) and battery-electric vehicles (BEV), which has led to significant advancements and increased complexity in drivetrain design and thermal management systems. This complexity reflects the growing need to optimize energy efficiency, extend vehicle range, and ensure system reliability in modern electric vehicles. At the Institute of Automotive Engineering, a specialized synthesis tool for drivetrain optimization is used to identify the best drivetrain configurations based on specific boundaries and requirements. Building up on this toolchain a modular and adaptable thermal management framework has been developed, addressing another critical aspect of vehicle and drive development: efficient thermal circuit layout and its impact on energy consumption and overall system reliability. The thermal framework emphasizes the dynamic interactions between key components, such as electric
Notz, Fabian, Sturm, Axel, Sander, Marcel, Kässens, Christoph, Henze, Roman
Technical Paper
Optimized Cabin Heating Strategy for Battery Electric CEP Vehicles2025-01-0263To be published on 07/02/2025
Electromobility is gaining significance in the CEP (Courier, Express, and Parcel) sector, as parcel service providers increasingly rely on zero-emission vehicles to improve their CO2 balance. A general disadvantage of electric vehicles is the reduced range under cold operating conditions due to the higher energy demand for cabin heating. Another CEP-specific effect which affects the energy demand and thermal cabin comfort is the frequent door opening during the parcel delivery. Additionally, the vehicle cabin cools down during the driver’s absence because the cabin heating is turned off. Despite an acceptable level of thermal comfort must be maintained during the driving phases. This paper proposes an optimization-based strategy for the cabin heating of battery electric CEP vehicles. The objective is to maximize the cabin temperature during the driving phases compared to a baseline heating strategy while maintaining a desired energy consumption. For this purpose, a nonlinear model
Rehm, Dominik, Krost, Jonathan, Meywerk, Martin, Czarnetzki, Walter
Technical Paper
Experimental Investigation of Factors Influencing Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Battery Cells2025-01-0306To be published on 07/02/2025
In the fast-paced automotive development environment, experimental testing is often constrained by time and budget limitations. Consequently, tests are frequently conducted to meet regulatory requirements, industry standards, or internal guidelines. This leads to minimalistic testing approaches such as "One Factor at a Time" (OFAT) or "Trial and Error", which fail to capture parameter interactions and system complexities. This study investigates the critical factors influencing the thermal runaway behavior of lithium-ion battery cells under controlled experimental conditions. A statistical full-factorial experimental design was implemented to evaluate the impact of state of charge (SoC), heating trigger power, and cell capacity. The experiments, conducted using an autoclave setup, allowed for precise control of external conditions and detailed measurement of thermal and mechanical responses. The cells investigated are automotive-grade lithium-ion cells from development projects
Ceylan, Deniz, Kulzer, André Casal, Winterholler, Nina, Weinmann, Johannes, Schiek, Werner
Technical Paper
Design and Analysis of a Battery Thermal Management System for Fast Charging in Extreme Hot Condition2025-01-0322To be published on 07/02/2025
Fast charging of lithium-ion batteries presents significant thermal management challenges, due to the high demanding conditions of high C-rates, particularly at extreme ambient temperatures. This study explores the thermal behavior of a cylindrical lithium-ion cell during fast-charging scenarios designed to achieve a full charge in 15 minutes or less (SOC: 0%–100%), across a wide range of ambient temperatures. The analysis covers a broad spectrum of ambient temperatures, from 303 K to 333 K, addressing real-world operational challenges faced by electric vehicles and energy storage systems. A validated thermal model, calibrated with experimental data on the open circuit voltage (OCV) and internal resistance of the cell across varying conditions, is employed to accurately predict the temperature distribution of the cell at different states of charge (SOC). The model also includes scenarios involving high initial cell temperatures to assess their effect on thermal performance during fast
Jahanpanah, Jalal, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Babaie, Meisam, Konno, Juho, Akbarzadeh, Mohsen
Technical Paper
Improving Speed Trajectory Optimization for Electric Vehicles with Pre-Calculated Energy Maps and Dynamic Profile Discretization2025-01-0318To be published on 07/02/2025
Ongoing research and development in the field of electric vehicles (EVs) have resulted in a continuous expansion of their range. Additionally, advancements in vehicle connectivity have created new opportunities for intelligent driving assistance and energy optimization, particularly through the use of cloud data. However, the integration of eco-driving assistance with numerical optimization of speed trajectories remains challenging due to the high computational demands of these methods. To address this challenge and make such a system feasible for integration into vehicle systems, the computational effort required for an optimized driving trajectory must be minimized. This paper presents a method to accelerate speed trajectory optimization using pre-calculated energy and time consumption maps. For this purpose, a dynamic discretization of the anticipated driving profile is applied. Initial results show a substantial reduction in computation time, varying with different scenarios
Schilling Johnson, Rene, Henke PhD, Markus
Technical Paper
An LLM-Based Multi-Turn Task-Oriented Dialogue System for Machine Learning Algorithm Selection in Data Mining2025-01-0289To be published on 07/02/2025
For the systematic application of machine learning during data mining in product development processes, selecting a suitable algorithm is crucial for success. During an empirical study in the automotive industry, a team applying data mining to develop battery systems for battery electric vehicles was accompanied. Here, it could be observed that data mining tasks are often unique during product development processes and can differ in boundary conditions. Depending on these tasks, suitable machine learning algorithms must be selected. Because of the variety of machine learning paradigms, problems, and algorithms, it is often hard to select a suitable algorithm, especially for inexperienced data miners. This paper presents a large language model (LLM)-based, multi-turn, task-oriented dialogue system to support data miners in selecting machine learning algorithms that are suitable for their specific data mining tasks. This approach, called “Algorithm Selection Assistant” (ASA), enables
Hörtling, Stefan, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert
Technical Paper
External damping of roller bearings and its effect on the acoustics of an e-mobility gearbox2025-01-0323To be published on 07/02/2025
This study analyses the effect of external damping of roller bearings on the acoustic behaviour of gearboxes in electric powertrains. The increasing adoption of electric vehicles has increased the importance of mitigating gearbox noise, as the lack of masking noise from internal combustion engines and the higher operating speeds of electric motors exacerbate the acoustic challenges. Gearbox noise, which is primarily caused by tooth mesh excitation and its transmission through shafts and bearings, requires strategies to minimise its impact on vehicle comfort and performance. External damping is introduced via adapters integrated into the outer bearing ring, which are used to modify the vibrational behaviour of the bearing assembly and reduce both structure-borne and airborne noise emissions. A systematic approach using Design of Experiments (DoE) methodology is used to quantify the effects of this damping. This approach allows the analysis of critical parameters including material
von Schulz, Kai, Linde, Tilmann, Jäger, Steffen
Technical Paper
Optimization of Metallic Substrate by 1D simulations to fulfill High Power Cold Start Conditions2025-01-0308To be published on 07/02/2025
The future of the internal combustion engine is strictly related to his capability to have Life Cycle Emission comparable to the pure Battery Electric Vehicles. To achieve this goal, it will be necessary not only to have carbon free fuels but also to increase the hybridization of the powertrain in order to have lower fuel consumption. On the other hand, it will be necessary to reduce to almost zero any further emissions of pollutants. For this reason, highly sophisticated exhaust aftertreatment must be developed. One particular use case is the so-called High-Power Cold Start. This can occur for the Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles when the transition from pure electric drive to ICE assisted drive happens during high load request, for example an acceleration on the freeway ramp. This use case has been evaluated by CARB and in many other works. Nevertheless, in this particular paper, the Authors would like to investigate which Metallic Substrate Technology fits better during a HPCS. This
Montenegro, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Della Torre, Augusto, Marinoni, Andrea, Pace, Lorenzo, Konieczny, Katrin, Laurell, Mats, Klövmark, Henrik
Technical Paper
Thermal Simulation of CCS Charging Inlet at High Charging Currents with various Optimisation Approaches2025-01-0278To be published on 07/02/2025
Current status: In Europe, the CCS charging standard for electric vehicles is the most widely used charging system. In order to reduce the inconveniences caused by long charging times, the CCS charging standard has been gradually adapted to the need for higher charging capacities. Currently, charging currents of up to 500A are supported at a charging power of up to 500kW. In order to decarbonise road transport, commercial vehicles are also increasingly being electrified. Problem definition: Battery-electric commercial vehicles in particular have large battery capacities with several hundred kilowatt hours, some of which do not have enough energy for an entire working day, which is why they need to be recharged if necessary. High charging power with correspondingly high charging currents is required to recharge the electrical energy storage units of commercial vehicles in an acceptable time. Due to the electrical losses, waste heat is generated, which places a thermal load on the
Krings, Jochen, Reuss, Hans-Christian, Ziegler, Peter, Steinmetz, Paul
Technical Paper
Sound Granular Synthesis Method for Science Fiction Sound Quality of Electric Vehicles2025-01-0253To be published on 06/16/2025
Since the powertrain systems of electric vehicles (EVs) lack the traditional engine sound, their NVH performance differs from that of conventional fuel-powered vehicles, making the use of active sound design (ASD) systems increasingly common to provide compensatory sound. With the increasing demand for ASD systems, sci-fi sounds are emerging as a design direction to enhance the acoustic feedback of powertrain systems and to elevate the futuristic and immersive driving experience of vehicles. A method for generating sci-fi soundscapes using a granular synthesis algorithm is proposed in this paper. First, a sci-fi sound is designed based on the characteristics of sci-fi sounds, which serves as the target sound for the synthesis algorithm. Then, it is proposed that sound grains are generated using the adaptive main frequency method, and granular synthesis is achieved through the overlap-and-add (OLA) method. In addition, a method for optimizing the composite cosine window function based
Liu, Dezhu
Technical Paper
Modern Low Friction Coating Technology for Automotive Tribology2025-01-0247To be published on 06/16/2025
According to Forbes, China, armed with electric vehicles (EVs), could have several companies among the top 10 global brands by sales in 2030. Their global market share is expected to be 33% in 2030. EV's friction is mostly boundary and mixed lubrication, more severe than ICE with hydrodynamic lubrication. Electrical surface failures are clustering, frosting, fluting, cratering, white etching, color change of grease, current marks, gear fluting and microbubbles. Modified friction test condition of ball on disk for EV parts is 1 m/s, 50 N, 1.1 GPa, 80 V, 12.5 kHz (vs. conventional pin on disk, 0.1 m/s, 10 N, 1 km). For the protection of EV's wear and friction, the coatings, DLC, CrN and CrCuN, are compared in the literature. Global coating companies developed with the keywords: hybrid process (PVD/PACVD + FLAD), low-temperature process for polymer/seal coating (ta-C), HIPIMS+CVD for CFRP cutting tool. Fraunhofer IWS has a low friction coating project for ultra-smooth and super
Cha, Sung Chul, Moon, Kyoung Il, Kim, Jongkuk, Park, Chang Ho, Kim, Dong Sik
Technical Paper
Overview of Indian Government Policies, Regulations and Automotive Company Strategies toward Net-zero Emissions2025-01-0184To be published on 06/16/2025
The automotive sector in India is undergoing a transformation, driven by government policies and regulations aimed at achieving net-zero carbon emissions. In alignment with global climate goals, the Indian government has set ambitious targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with a focus on promoting Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs). Initiatives like the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) Scheme, along with tax incentives, subsidies, and charging infrastructure development, are designed to accelerate the adoption of cleaner vehicles. The introduction of stricter emission standards and the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) further underscores the push toward sustainable mobility. In response, Indian automotive companies are shifting strategies to align with these government directives. Major players are significantly increasing investments in EV technology, focusing on enhancing battery performance
Patil, NIKHIL, Saurabh, Saurabh, Gawhade, Ravikant, Bhardwaj, Rohit, Gadve, Dhananjay, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya
Technical Paper
Development of Ling Xi Digital Intelligent Chassis Control System for the IM L6 Pure Electric Vehicle2025-01-0188To be published on 06/16/2025
The IM L6 is the fourth product under the IM brand, featuring both rear-motor two-wheel drive and dual-motor all-wheel drive configurations. This article introduces the Ling Xi Digital Intelligent Chassis system of the IM L6, which includes air springs, CDC (Continuous Damping Control), rear-wheel steering system, braking system, front-wheel steering system, and electric drive system. The study explores how adjusting the damping of the CDC achieves a more comfortable damping effect. Through precise control of the rear-wheel steering system, the vehicle achieves smaller turning radii, crab walk capability, optimized response in moose test conditions, and improved performance on split-friction surfaces. By coordinating the IBS (Intelligent Brake System) and VMC (Vehicle Motion Control), an exceptionally comfortable braking experience is achieved.
Zhou, Yuxing, Li, Wen
Technical Paper
Rules-Embedded End-to-End Energy Management of a Multi-axle Range-Extended Heavy-duty Vehicle2025-01-0193To be published on 06/16/2025
End-to-End (E2E) control that harnessing the power of artificial neural networks (ANNs) with self-learning capability has been recognized as a promising technical pathway for the next generation automotive control. This paper studies E2E control of a 3-axle range-extended heavy-duty vehicle driven by six in-wheel hub motors. Distinguished from conventional electric cars, the studied heavy-duty vehicle has significantly increased degree-of-freedom that challenges the control. To this end, this paper proposed a rules-embedded E2E energy management method by incorporating pre-defined rule-bases with ANNs in a deep learning architecture. Training data sets are prepared by setting up global optimizations on different driving cycles that minimize the short-term fuel consumption and the long-term charge sustaining errors using the dynamic programming algorithm. The rule base representation methods and the Rule-to-ANN ratio are studied for hyper-parameter optimization of the E2E control
Zhong, Danyang, Xiong, Lu, Yu, Zhuoping, Zhou, Quan
Technical Paper
A Pich Shift Synthesis Algorithm for Electric Vehicle Sound Based on Quadratic Interpolation and Continuous Sample Indexing2025-01-0254To be published on 06/16/2025
The electric vehicle driveline generates less vibration and noise compared to a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle, making it hard-er for the driver to perceive the vehicle’s operating status through driveline sounds, thereby diminishing driving engagement and experience. To compensate for the absence of engine sound in EV drivelines, Active Sound Design (ASD) technology has become a crucial method for drivetrain sound enhancement, with sound synthesis algorithms playing a key role in this process. Although pitch-shifting algorithms based on frequency variation principles can synthesize engine sounds, they suffer from spectral leakage and stuttering caused by sound splicing. To ad-dress these issues, a pitch-shifting synthesis algorithm (QCPS) is proposed in this paper, which combines a quadratic interpolation method with a continuous audio sample indexing strategy. First, the frequency variation coefficient of the sound is calculated. Based on this coefficient
Liu, Dezhu
Technical Paper
Comparative study of lifecycle assessment of FCEV and BEV2025-01-0183To be published on 06/16/2025
This study compares the environmental impacts of two different types of electric vehicles: Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) and Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs). There is rapid demand for eco-friendly transportation, so it's important to understand how these vehicles affect the environment. The study uses a method called lifecycle assessment (LCA) to examine the environmental impact of both types of vehicles from start to finish—starting with the materials used to make them, through their production and use, and ending with their disposal. The study focuses on key environmental issues, such as impact on global warming, impact on energy use, impact on resource depletion, and pollution. For FCEVs, it looks at the impact of producing hydrogen fuel and the energy needed for fuel cells. For BEVs, it examines the environmental cost of making batteries and the electricity used while driving the vehicle. It also considers how the energy sources used for charging and hydrogen production can
Saurabh, Saurabh, Patil, NIKHIL, Gadve, Dhananjay, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya
Technical Paper
Noise and Vibration Analysis of Electric Oil Pump with Uneven Pitch Control for Gearbox in HEV and BEV2025-01-0252To be published on 06/16/2025
Acoustic noise and vibration are always main issues to overcome in electric oil pumps for gearboxes in HEV and BEV. This paper introduces a noise reduction control method of electric oil pump in wet-type dual clutch transmissions. This paper proposes an uneven pitch control for electric oil pumps. For the noise reduction of vane pumps, mechanical arrangements of uneven pitch vain angle are widely used. However, the tooth angle of gear-type pumps should be even mechanically. The proposed uneven pitch control provides similar effects of the mechanical uneven pitch arrangement by instantaneous motor torque controls of the electric oil pump which cannot have uneven pitch mechanically. The magnitude of motor torque for each pump tooth is determined by an uneven pitch formula which is widely used for mechanical vane pumps in previous study and patents. A formula for the shape of motor torque is proposed by analyzing pressure fluctuations of pump as a combination of trigonometric and
Choi, Chinchul
Technical Paper
Noise Management in Electric Vehicle Compressors for Superior Cabin Comfort2025-01-0191To be published on 06/16/2025
“This research addresses the issue of noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) in electric buses, which can hinder their widespread adoption despite their environmental benefits. With the absence of traditional engines, NVH control in electric vehicles focuses on auxiliary components like the air compressor. In this study, the air compressor was identified as a major source of vibration, causing harsh contact between its oil sump and mounting bracket. Analyzing the vibrations revealed that the sump and bracket were not moving freely, increasing noise. Modifying the bracket design to allow more movement between the components successfully reduced both noise and vibration. The paper details the experimental process, findings, and structural damping methods to mitigate NVH in electric buses”.
Paroche, Sonu, Patel, Shubhanshi
Technical Paper
Understanding how blending different ratios of renewable fuels with diesel impacts the toxicity of exhaust particulates to human health.2025-01-0207To be published on 06/16/2025
The urgent need to decarbonise transport has increased the utilisation of renewable fuels with current hydrocarbons. Heavy duty vehicle electrification solutions are yet to be realised and therefore the reliance on diesel engines may still be present for decades to come. Currently, the diesel supplied to fuel stations across the UK is a 7% blended biodiesel, whilst in South Korea a 5% blend is utilised. Biodiesel is produced from renewable sources for example; crops, waste residue and oils or biomass. Particulates from diesel combustion are known to be toxic, due to the presence of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) however there is very limited understanding of blending oxygenated fuels on the toxicity of the particulates produced. PAHs are aromatic structures that can be metabolised into chemicals which can disrupt DNA replication and potentially influence cancer mechanisms if inhaled in high quantities. Soyabean methyl-ester (SME) was blended at lower ratios, e.g., 5%, 10%, 15% and
Hailwood, Emma, Hellier, Paul, Ladommatos, Nicos, Leonard, Martin
Technical Paper
Modern approach to adopt low cost EV solution on existing ICE vehicle2025-01-0190To be published on 06/16/2025
Developing countries like India are facing major problems of inflation of oil costs and increasing carbon emission. Electric vehicle is better option to control the carbon emission and oil prices. Electric vehicles have certain advantages to overcome existing issues but at the same time it has got own challenges. Range anxiety and battery cost are the hurdles to adopt EV solution. This paper explains the unique approach to adopt EV solution at very low cost in commercial vehicle segment. Idea is to convert existing internal combustion vehicle into Electric vehicle by optimising the cost of the vehicle so as it is affordable to the end user. It also explores the challenges and difficulties faced in their adoption, such as the high cost of infrastructure, scarcity of charging stations, limited range or range anxiety, and the performance of batteries. This paper gives outline of EV adoption by using existing ICE vehicle. Challenges and opportunities are discussed in details to make this
Deshmukh, Sagar Ramchandra, Doiphode, Nilesh
Technical Paper
A Power Split eCVT Hybrid for Sustainable Urban Mobility2024-32-0029To be published on 04/18/2025
The main drivers for powertrain electrification of two-wheelers, motorcycles and ATVs are increasingly stringent emission and noise limitations as well as the upcoming demand for carbon neutrality. Two-wheeler applications face significantly different constraints, such as packaging and mass targets, limited charging infrastructure in urban areas and demanding cost targets. Battery electric two wheelers are the optimal choice for transient city driving with limited range requirements. Hybridization provides considerable advantages and extended operation limits. Beside efficiency improvement, silent and zero emission modes with solutions allowing fully electric driving, combined boosting enhances performance and transient response. In general, there are two different two-wheeler base categories for hybrid powertrains: motorcycles featuring frame-integrated internal combustion engine (ICE) and transmission units, coupled with secondary drives via chain or belt; and scooters equipped with
Schoeffmann, W., Fuckar, G., Hubmann, C., Gruber, M.
Technical Paper
Numerical Investigation of Electrolyte Feed System Designs at the Stack Level of Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries2024-32-0068To be published on 04/18/2025
The rise of electric vehicles (EVs) highlights the need to transition to a renewable energy society, where power is generated from sustainable sources. This shift is driven by environmental, economic, and energy security concerns. However, renewable energy sources like wind and solar are intermittent, necessitating extensive energy storage systems. Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are promising for large-scale energy storage due to their long cycle life, scalability, and safety. In VRFBs, cells are typically connected in series to increase voltage, with electrolytes introduced through parallel flow channels using a single manifold. This design, while simple and low in pressure drop, often leads to imbalanced flow rates among cells, affecting performance. Balancing flow rates is crucial to minimize uneven overpotential and enhance durability, presenting an optimization challenge between achieving uniform flow and minimizing pressure drop. This study developed numerical models to
Suwanpakdee, Nut, Aiemsathit, Poramet, Charoen-amornkitt, Patcharawat, Suzuki, Takahiro, Tsushima, Shohji
Technical Paper
A Study on Optimal Combinations of Winding and Cooling Methods for Downsizing Power Units in Motorcycles2024-32-0007To be published on 04/18/2025
In commercially available electric motorcycles, there is a notable shift in the cooling method, moving from air cooling to water cooling, and in the winding method, moving from concentrated winding to distributed winding, as the output increases. This shift occurs around 8 to 10 kW. However, there is a paucity of empirical investigations examining these combinations to ascertain their optimality. In order to verify this trend, a verification model has been constructed which allows for the comparison of the capacity and weight of the motor and cooling system according to the vehicle’s required output and thermal performance. A comparison and verification of the combinations of winding methods (concentrated winding or segment conductor distribution winding) and cooling systems (water-cooled or air-cooled) was conducted using the model that had been constructed. In the motor designed for this study, when the maximum output of the vehicle was 35 kW or less (European A2 license), the total
Otaki, Ryota, Tsuchiya, Teruyuki, Sakai, Yu, Yamauchi, Takuya, Shimizu, Tsukasa
Technical Paper
Development of the Mild Hybrid System for Off-Road Machinery2024-32-0067To be published on 04/18/2025
In recent years, the importance of achieving carbon neutrality has been highlighted in response to the escalating severity of climate change. In the leading automobile market, the share of electric vehicles is gradually expanding, especially in passenger car sector. However, it is not same in commercial vehicle sector. In the off-road machinery market, as with electrification in commercial vehicles, the factors such as the need to install charging infrastructure and the requirement for large batteries to expand operating duration are significant challenge to full electrification. As one of the realistic solutions toward carbon neutrality for off-road machines, methods to utilize both internal combustion engines (ICE) and their applied products are being reconsidered. Under the circumstances, we have developed a mild-hybrid (MH) system for small off-road machinery. This system adopts a 48V power supply in order to minimize size of the system offers as a “Drop-in” package solution. This
Koyama, Kazuaki, Kimura, Ryota, Nagamori, Yuko, Horita, Tatsuhiko, Nosaka, Kento
Technical Paper
A Methodical Concept Study and Optimization of the Drivetrain for Light Commercial Vehicle Applications2024-32-0115To be published on 04/18/2025
The EU currently has very ambitious plans for the electrification of vehicles, particularly in the field of urban logistics. For example, the so-called “Transport White Paper” [1] aims to achieve essentially CO2-free logistics in major urban centers by 2030, while “Europe on the move” [2] has presented a series of legislative initiatives. The Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda for Transport proposes research priorities and actions to deploy innovative solutions, with a particular focus on the electrification of transport. Numerous advancements in electromobility have led to a growing number of vehicles available in various areas, particularly in urban logistics. New concepts like cargo bikes and micro-vehicles are being developed, but they cannot fully replace traditional light commercial vehicles. While some electrified options exist, they are often modified versions of existing platforms with internal combustion engines swapped for electric drives. The research work in this
Königshofer, Thomas, Tromayer, Jürgen, Schacht, Hans-Jürgen, Wang, Eric
Technical Paper
Local and Global Entropy Generation of Topographically Optimized Porous Reactors in Reaction-Diffusion Systems Considering Coupling Effects between Heat and Mass Transfer2024-32-0069To be published on 04/18/2025
As the automotive sector shifts towards cleaner and more sustainable technologies, fuel cells and batteries have emerged as promising technologies with revolutionary potential. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles offer faster refueling times, extended driving ranges, and reduced weight and space requirements compared to battery electric vehicles, making them highly appealing for future transportation applications. Despite these advantages, optimizing electrode structures and balancing various transport mechanisms are crucial for improving PEFCs’ performance for widespread commercial viability. Previous research has utilized topology optimization (TO) to identify optimal electrode structures and attempted to establish a connection between entropy generation and topographically optimized structures, aiming to strengthen TO numerical findings with a robust theoretical basis. However, existing studies have often neglected the coupling of transport phenomena. Typically, it is assumed that a single
Tep, Rotanak Visal Sok, Long, Mengly, Alizadeh, Mehrzad, Charoen-amornkitt, Patcharawat, Suzuki, Takahiro, Tsushima, Shohji
Technical Paper
Assessing Lithium-ion Battery Functionality Post-Thermal Management with Water Mist2024-32-0122To be published on 04/18/2025
The danger of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) is intensified when they are used at inappropriate temperatures, leading to self-heating and eventually contributing to thermal runaway. Nevertheless, there is uncertainty through the safety of reusing batteries after they have been exposed to heat damage and water mist from fire extinguishers. To address these concerns, this study aimed to experimentally investigate the impact of temperature on batteries and introduce a thermal management using a water mist. Subjecting a battery to a temperature of 100°C for a duration of 39 minutes can immediately detect inoperability from a sudden drop in voltage. The use of water mist was proposed to rapidly mitigate the heat production inside the battery. The state of health (SOH) and the impedance were employed to confirm the battery’s functionality after exposure to thermal abuse and water spraying. The SOH of fresh cells was measured as a reference line for comparison to tested
Trinuruk, Piyatida, Patthathum, Pathomporn, Jumnongjit, Apiwit
Technical Paper
Experiment Characterization and Simulation Analysis of a Lithium-Ion Battery in Different Ambient Conditions2025-01-5028To be published on 04/15/2025
A great number of performances of an electric vehicle such as driving range, powering performance, and the like are affected by its configured batteries. Having a good grasp of the electrical and thermal behavior of the battery before the detailed design stage is indispensable. This paper introduces an experiment characterization method of a lithium-ion battery with a coolant system from cell level to pack level in different ambient conditions. Corresponding cell and pack simulation models established in AMESim that aimed to capture the electrical and thermal features of the battery were also illustrated, respectively. First, the capacity test and hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) test were conducted in a thermotank to acquire basic data about the battery cell. Next, based on acquired data, first-order equivalent circuit model (1C-ECM) was built for the battery cell and further combined with environmental boundary conditions to check the simulation accuracy. Then, hybrid
Zhou, Shuai, Liu, Huaiju, Yu, Huili, Yan, Xu, Yan, Junjie
Technical Paper
Predictive Battery Thermal Management System Control Strategy and Simulation in Electric Vehicle2025-01-502704/03/2025
With the global issue of fossil fuel scarcity and the greenhouse effect, interest in electric vehicles (EVs) has surged recently. At that stage, because of the constraints of the energy density and battery performance degradation in low-temperature conditions, the mileage of EVs has been criticized. To guarantee battery performance, a battery thermal management system (BTMS) is applied to ensure battery operates in a suitable temperature range. Currently, in the industry, a settled temperature interval is set as criteria of positive thermal management activation, which is robust but leads to energy waste. BTMS has a kilowatt-level power usage under high- and low-temperature environments. Optimizing the BTMS control strategy becomes a potential solution to reduce energy consumption and overcome mileage issues. An appropriate system simulation model provides an effective tool to evaluate different BTMS control strategies. In this study, a predictive BTMS control strategy, which adjusts
Huang, Zhipei, Chen, Jiangbo, Tang, Hai
Technical Paper
SAE TOMORROW TODAY BRIEFS - NEVI and America's EV Charging Future1350904/03/2025
The National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Program (NEVI) is a $5 billion initiative aimed at developing EV charging infrastructure across all 50 states and Puerto Rico. However, recent executive orders have put the program and its funding on hold. To dig into what this all means, Roberto Baldwin, Sustainability Editor, SAE Sustainable Mobility Solutions, recently sat down with Andrew Wishnia, Senior Vice President at Boundary Stone Partners, to discuss what NEVI is all about and what the future holds for this EV charging infrastructure initiative. For more information on the evolution of sustainability, head on over to sustainablecareers.sae.org. There, you can check out our drive of the new 2025 Ioniq 5, the first non-Telsa EV to hit the road with SAE J3400 (a.k.a., NACS). We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss
Hineman, Marcie
Podcast
Electric Vehicle Charging Adapter Safety and OEM-Qualified Device DesignationJ3400/1_202504 (Current)04/03/2025
This document covers the general physical, electrical, functional, and performance requirements for adapters connected to standards conforming conductive power transfer via handheld conductive coupler capable of transferring either DC or single phase power using two current-carrying contacts. The focus is on defining the process to evaluate the suitability of adapters for NACS couplers. This edition only covers adapters used between SAE J3400 and SAE J1772.
Hybrid - EV Committee
Technical Standard
Connectors and Inlets for the North American Charging System (NACS) for Electric VehiclesJ3400/2_202504 (Current)04/03/2025
This document covers the dimensional definition of the SAE J3400 (NACS) electric vehicle coupler, which includes the connector and inlet.
Hybrid - EV Committee
Technical Standard
Use of Methanol in a High-Power Density Generator13-06-03-002104/02/2025
Increasing global pressure to reduce anthropogenic carbon emissions has inspired a transition from conventional petroleum-fueled internal combustion engines to alternative powertrains, including battery electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrids. Hybrids offer a promising solution for emissions reduction by addressing the limitations of pure EVs such as slow recharge and range anxiety. In a previous research endeavor, a prototype high-power density generator was meticulously designed, fabricated, and subjected to testing. This generator incorporated a compact permanent magnet brushless dynamo and a diminutive single-cylinder two-stroke engine with low-technology constructions. This prototype generated 8.5 kW of electrical power while maintaining a lightweight profile at 21 kg. This study investigates the performance and emissions reduction potential by adapting the prototype to operate on methanol fuel. Performance and emissions were experimentally evaluated under varying operating conditions
Gore, Matt, Nonavinakere Vinod, Kaushik, Fang, Tiegang
Journal Article
Battery Thermal Management System for PHEV by using Air Conditioning Heater System2025-01-817204/01/2025
Toyota Motor Corporation pursuing an omnidirectional strategy that includes battery electric vehicle (BEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) to accelerate electrification. One of the technical challenges with our xEV batteries which feature good degradation resistance and long battery life, is that regenerative braking cannot be fully effective due to the decrease in regenerative power in some situations, such as low battery temperature. For the electrified vehicles with an internal combustion engine such as PHEVs, the solution has been running the engine to increase deceleration through engine braking during coasting. PHEVs are expected to extend their cruising range and enhance EV driving experience as "Practical BEVs". While increasing battery capacity and enhancing convenience, the restrictions on EV driving opportunity due to low battery temperature may negatively affect PHEV’s appealing. As an alternative, introducing a battery heater
Hoshino, Yu
Technical Paper
Bio-Based Phase Change Material for Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal Management using Copper Fins: A Numerical Investigation2025-01-817104/01/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining popularity due to their zero tailpipe emissions, superior energy efficiency, and sustainable nature. EVs have various limitations, and crucial one is the occurrence of thermal runaway in the battery pack. During charging or discharging condition of battery pack may result in thermal runaway condition. This promotes the requirement of effective cooling arrangement in and around the battery pack to avoid localized peak temperature. In the present work, thermal management of a 26650 Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cell using natural convection air cooling, composite biobased phase change material (CBPCM) and its combination with copper fins is numerically investigated using multi-scale multi dimension - Newman, Tiedenann, Gu and Kim (MSMD-NTGK) battery model in Ansys Fluent at an ambient temperature of 306 K. Natural convection air cooling was found effective at discharge rates of 1C to 3C, maintaining cell temperature below the safe limit of 318 K for 80
Srivastav, Durgesh, Patil, Nagesh Devidas, Shukla, Pravesh Chandra
Technical Paper
Impact of Preload and Amplitude on the High-Frequency Behaviour of Rubber Bushings in Electric Vehicles: An Experimental Study2025-01-825404/01/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) are particularly susceptible to high-frequency noise, with rubber eigenmodes significantly influencing these noise characteristics. Unlike internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs experience pronounced variations in dynamic preload during torque rise, which are substantially higher. This dynamic preload variation can markedly impact the high-frequency behaviour of preloaded rubber bushings in their installed state. This study investigates the effects of preload and amplitude on the high-frequency dynamic performance of rubber bushings specifically designed for EV applications. These bushings are crucial for vibration isolation and noise reduction, with their role in noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) management being more critical in EVs due to the absence of traditional engine noise. The experimental investigation examines how preload and excitation amplitude variations influence the dynamic stiffness, damping properties, and overall performance of
Hazra, Sandip, Khan, Arkadip Amitava
Technical Paper
Design of Fault-Tolerant Control Strategy for Dual-Winding Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor in Vehicles2025-01-880504/01/2025
Motor drive control is crucial for achieving the performance, reliability, and comfort of electric vehicles. Multi-phase motors, represented by dual-winding permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs), have significant research value in the electric vehicle field due to their high-power drive capabilities and strong fault tolerance. A simple and easily analyzable motor model is essential for achieving high precision in control. This paper employs VSD coordinate transformation (vector space decomposition) based on electromagnetic principles and the positional relationships between windings, treating the multi-phase motor as a whole and mapping various physical quantities to multiple subspaces for simplified analysis. Consequently, a mathematical model for the dual-winding PMSM is established. The vector control system based on VSD coordinate transformation adopts a dual closed-loop structure for speed and current. It focuses on a comparative analysis between traditional two-vector
Gao, ChaoFan, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Technical Paper
Coordinated Control Strategy for Longitudinal, Lateral, and Vertical Motions of Distributed Electric Vehicles Based on Model Predictive Control2025-01-830004/01/2025
Distributed electric vehicles, equipped with independent motors at each wheel, offer significant advantages in flexibility, torque distribution, and precise dynamic control. These features contribute to notable improvements in vehicle maneuverability and stability. To further elevate the overall performance of vehicles, particularly in terms of handling, stability, and comfort, this paper introduces an coordinated control strategies for longitudinal, lateral, and vertical motion of distributed electric vehicles. Firstly, a full-vehicle dynamics model is developed, encompassing interactions between longitudinal, lateral, and vertical forces, providing a robust framework for analyzing and understanding the intricate dynamic behaviors of the vehicle under various operating conditions. Secondly, a vehicle motion controller based on Model Predictive Control is designed. This controller employs a sophisticated multi-objective optimization algorithm to manage and coordinate several critical
Jia, Jinchao, Yue, Yang, Sun, Aobo, Liu, Xiao-ang
Technical Paper
A Comparative Study of Optimization Algorithms for 6DOF Design in Electric Vehicle Powertrain Mounting Systems2025-01-865004/01/2025
Optimizing engine mounting systems is a complex task that requires balancing the isolation of vehicle vibrations with controlling powertrain movement within a limited dynamic envelope. Six Degrees of Freedom (6DOF) optimization is widely used for mounting stiffness and location optimization. This study investigates the application of various optimization algorithms for 6DOF analysis in engine mount design, where the system’s stochastic behaviour and probabilistic characteristics present additional challenges. Selecting an appropriate optimization framework is essential for achieving accurate and efficient NVH results. Recent advancements in research have introduced several 6DOF optimization algorithms to determine the optimal stiffness and location of engine mounts. The study evaluates a range of optimization methods, including Simultaneous Hybrid Exploration that is Robust, Progressive and Adaptive (SHERPA), Quadratic Programming (QP), Genetic Algorithm (GA), Particle Swarm
Hazra, Sandip, Khan, Arkadip
Technical Paper
Analyzing EV Battery Package Responses during Side Pole Impacts with Multiple Speeds and Locations2025-01-873004/01/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) have experienced significant growth, and the battery safety of EVs has drawn increased attention. However, the mechanical responses of battery during crashes have rarely been studied. Hence, the objective of this study was to understand EV battery package mechanics during side-pole crashes at different impact locations and speeds beyond regulated side-pole test with one specific speed and one location. An EV finite element (FE) model with a battery package was used. Side-pole impact simulations were conducted at four impact locations, including the baseline impact location according to side-pole impact regulation, plus three positions by moving the rigid pole 400 mm toward the back of the EV and moving the pole 400 and 800 mm toward the front of the EV. In addition, the impact velocities at 32, 50, and 80 km/h were simulated. Based on simulations, the peak relative displacement, the maximum change in gap between batteries, the maximum change in gap between the
Chen, Jian, Bian, Kewei, Mao, Haojie
Technical Paper
Numerical Model of the Heat-Wait and Seek and Heating Ramp Protocol for the Prediction of Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries2025-01-812704/01/2025
Interest in Battery-Driven Electric Vehicles (EVs) has significantly grown in recent years due to the decline of traditional Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs). However, malfunctions in Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) can lead to catastrophic results such as Thermal Runaway (TR), posing serious safety concerns due to their high energy release and the emission of flammable gases. Understanding this phenomenon is essential for reducing risks and mitigating its effects. In this study, a digital twin of an Accelerated Rate Calorimeter (ARC) under a Heat-Wait-and-Seek (HWS) procedure is developed using a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) framework. The CFD model simulates the heating of the cell during the HWS procedure, pressure build-up within the LIB, gas venting phenomena, and the exothermic processes within the LIB due to the degradation of internal components. The model is validated against experimental results for an NCA 18650 LIB under similar conditions, focusing on LIB temperature
Gil, Antonio, Monsalve-Serrano, Javier, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Guaraco-Figueira, Carlos
Technical Paper
Uncovering Security Flaws in DC Chargers for Electric Vehicles2025-01-811804/01/2025
The added connectivity and transmission of personal and payment information in electric vehicle (EV) charging technology creates larger attack surfaces and incentives for malicious hackers to act. As EV charging stations are a major and direct user interface in the charging infrastructure, ensuring cybersecurity of the personal and private data transmitted to and from chargers is a key component to the overall security. Researchers at Southwest Research Institute® (SwRI®) evaluated the security of direct current fast charging (DCFC) EV supply equipment (EVSE). Identified vulnerabilities included values such as the MAC addresses of both the EV and EVSE, either sent in plaintext or encrypted with a known algorithm. These values allowed for reprogramming of non-volatile memory of power-line communication (PLC) devices as well as the EV’s parameter information block (PIB). Discovering these values allowed the researchers to access the IPv6 layer on the connection between the EV and EVSE
Kozan, Katherine
Technical Paper
Improving Modal Frequencies in Class 5 Truck Fuel Cell Tank Structure through Topology Optimization2025-01-864804/01/2025
In addition to electric vehicles (EVs), hydrogen fuel cell systems are gaining attention as energy-efficient propulsion options. However, designing fuel cell vehicles presents unique challenges, particularly in terms of storage systems for heavy hydrogen tanks. These challenges impact factors such as NVH (noise, vibration, and harshness) and safety performance. This study presents a topology optimization study for Hydrogen Energy Storage System (HESS) tank structure in Class 5 trucks, with a focus on enhancing the modal frequencies. The study considers a specific truck configuration with a HESS structure located behind the crew cab, consisting of two horizontally stacked hydrogen tanks and two tanks attached on both sides of the frame. The optimization process aimed to meet the modal targets of this hydrogen tank structure in the fore-aft (X) and lateral (Y) directions, while considering other load cases such as a simplified representation of GST (global static torsion), simplified
Yoo, Dong Yeon, Chavare, Sudeep, Viswanathan, Sankar, Mouyianis, Adam
Technical Paper
Research on Composite Braking Strategy of Pure Electric Commercial Vehicle on Downhill Low-Adhesion Road Considering Rainfall Intensity2025-01-881304/01/2025
As a distributed wire control brake system, the electro-mechanical brake (EMB) may face challenges due to the need to integrate the actuator in the limited space beside the wheel. During extended downhill braking, especially on wet roads with reduced adhesion, the EMB must operate at high intensity. The significant heat generated by friction can lead to thermal deformation of components, such as the lead screw, compromising braking stability. This paper focuses on pure electric light trucks and proposes a tandem composite braking method. This approach uses an eddy current retarder (ECR) or motor to provide basic braking torque, while the EMB supplies the dynamic portion of the braking torque, thereby alleviating the braking pressure on the EMB. First, a driver model, tire model, motor model, and braking models are developed based on the vehicle's longitudinal dynamics. In addition, the impact of various factors, such as rainfall intensity, road slope, ramp length and vehicle speed, on
Liu, Wang, Zhang, Yu, Xiao, Hongbiao, Shen, Leiming
Technical Paper
Trajectory Tracking Fault-Tolerant Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Considering Steering Actuator Faults2025-01-829904/01/2025
Trajectory tracking control is a key component of vehicle autonomous driving technology. Compared with traditional vehicles, Distributed Driven Electric Vehicle (DDEV) is an ideal vehicle for trajectory tracking control because of its high space utilization, redundant control freedom and fast system response. However, the chassis execution system of DDEV has a relatively large number of sensors, which significantly increases its probability of failure. In this paper, we propose a trajectory tracking fault-tolerant control method for DDEV considering steering actuator faults. Firstly, we establish the dynamic model of the steering actuator and the trajectory tracking model of DDEV. The model is linearized and discretized by using Taylor series expansion and forward Euler method. Next, considering multi-objective constraints such as motion comfort, actuator saturation and road adhesion boundary, the trajectory tracking control strategy of DDEV is designed by using model predictive
Wang, Deping, Li, Lun, Teng, Yuhan, Zhu, Bing, Chen, Zhicheng
Technical Paper
Impact of Battery Aging on the State of Charge-Open Circuit Voltage Relationship and Its Effects on Battery Capacity Estimation2025-01-855804/01/2025
Electrified vehicles rely on batteries to store energy for propulsion. Batteries depend on chemistry that changes over time and with use. This aging has many effects. Historically, efforts to predict and be robust to battery aging have focused on capacity loss and power loss/resistance growth. While a battery’s state of charge-open circuit voltage (SOC-OCV) relationship is typically treated as static, data illustrates that it shifts with battery age. We are not aware of any published methods to account for this effect for on-board modeling or controls. Regulations by the European Union, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the California Air Resource Board have proposed a state of certified energy (SOCE) to provide vehicle owners with a common metric reflecting the vehicle battery age. This metric captures the capacity and power loss of an aged battery. However, SOC-OCV changes with age may make accurately estimating SOCE more challenging. The upcoming regulations require accurate
Vuylsteke, Gabrielle, Wu, Hao, Moore, William, Washington, Donnell
Technical Paper
Efficiency Comparison between Single-Channel and Double-Channel Operation in Dual Three-Phase PMSM2025-01-857004/01/2025
Due to the high-power density, high torque rating, low torque ripples and fault-tolerant capability, the Dual Three-Phase Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (DTP-PMSM) has recently emerged as a feasible alternative for automotive applications. However, it comes with its own challenge of increased losses at low torque due to the use of 6-phase inverter or two three-phase inverters. The DTP-PMSM drive model can be designed to function in two operating modes, double-channel (dual three-phase) mode with both the inverters operating, and single-channel (three-phase) with one of the two inverters shut down. This paper proposed an efficiency analysis between single channel and double channel modes in a DTP-PMSM drive. A simulation model is prepared to calculate efficiency, and the losses associated with different parts of battery fed DTP-PMSM drive system operated in both modes. Detailed loss model is simulated to represent efficiency of a battery-fed DTP-PMSM drive system. Both single
Sun, Fengyang, Pradhan, Subarni, Yang, Jingru, Nahid-Mobarakeh, Babak, Valencia Garcia, Diego Fernando, Mavalankar, Drushan, Allocco, Alessandro
Technical Paper
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