Light-duty vehicles (LDV) are scaling up electrification technologies from battery to dedicated hybrid engines (DHEs). The success from electrification of LDVs can be a starting point to look into a similar trending development of commercial vehicles (CV), which are bigger and heavier with more demanding work cycles. “Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards for Heavy-Duty Vehicles (HDV)—Phase 3” establishes new CO2 emission standards for MY 2032 (Model Year) and later HD vehicles with more stringent CO2 standards phasing in as early as MY 2027 for certain vehicle categories. In this article, the focus is about improving the operational efficiency of MDHD (medium-duty and heavy-duty) vehicles through a selected electrification technology in this study rather than pure BET (battery electric truck). Extended-range electric vehicle (EREVs) systems are studied here to address sustainability regarding charging infrastructure and by using the renewable fuels (hydrogen, ammonia, methanol, and

Wang, Hailong, Ma, Tiancai, Shuai, Shijin, Wang, Zihui, Song, Xubin

Automotive Engineering: August 2025

25AUTP0808/07/2025

Moving targets: How improvements to SiC, GaN power electronics will redefine EVs Smaller devices that can do the same or more efficient work than silicon can to markedly smaller EV powertrain components. Toyota's multi-pathway future on full display The automaker's showcase HQC event highlights engineering efforts to bring PHEV, EV, H2 powertrains to more people. 48V is coming, and not just for EVs While electric powertrains are driving 48V adoption, OEMs are realizing that xEV and ICE vehicles can benefit from a shift away from 12-volt architectures. Editorial Governmental nonsense Supplier Eye Delay and extend and rescope Industry vet: Rapid change required to catch up to Chinese EV makers ZF meets changing EV market with suite of improved components Factory robots see slight drop in growth, but still have momentum SAE J3400/2 update brings quicker NACS charging Audio updates you can't even hear 2026 Toyota bZ: improved, but still not a wheeeeeEV New styling, performance in a better

Self-Controlled Electrically Powered Semitrailer

02-19-01-0002

07/28/2025

In this article, the hybrid drive is discussed of the combination of conventional tractors with electrified trailers, usually referred to as E-trailer. We demonstrate that this approach offers the possibility of achieving fuel savings exceeding 20%. For regional trips, about half of this reduction is achieved without offline charging, i.e., without applying electric energy from the E-trailer battery. For motorway dominant trips, more use is required of the battery energy. A new control strategy is proposed, validated through simulations, in which only three control parameters are required, which can be tuned effectively to achieve maximum fuel reduction under certain trip and loading conditions. This control strategy adjusts the E-trailer torque request, based on the requested power for the tractor diesel engine, being estimated through a smart kingpin sensor. It ensures that the E-trailer supports the tractor propulsion when significant power is required, and recovers energy when the

Pauwelussen, Joop, Kural, Karel, Hetjes, Bas

Optimization of Metallic Substrate by 1D Simulations to Fulfill High Power Cold Start Conditions

2025-01-0308

07/02/2025

The future of the internal combustion engine (ICE) is closely tied to its ability to achieve life cycle emissions comparable to those of pure battery electric vehicles (BEVs). To reach this goal, it is essential not only to utilize carbon-free fuels but also to enhance the hybridization of the powertrain to reduce fuel consumption. Additionally, it is crucial to minimize pollutant emissions to near-zero levels, necessitating the development of highly sophisticated exhaust aftertreatment systems. For Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs), one particular use case is the High-Power Cold Start (HPCS). This scenario occurs when the transition from pure electric drive to ICE-assisted drive happens during a high load request, such as accelerating on a freeway ramp. This use case has been evaluated by CARB and in numerous other studies. However, in this paper, the authors aim to investigate which metallic substrate technology performs best during an HPCS. This condition differs

Montenegro, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Marinoni, Andrea, Della Torre, Augusto, Pace, Lorenzo, Konieczny, Katrin, Laurell, Mats, Klövmark, Henrik

Kinetic Energy Recovery: Assessment on the impact of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor and Battery Dynamic models

2025-01-0303

07/02/2025

This paper examines the influence of a detailed dynamic model of a Surface Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (SPMSM) on the accurate evaluation of kinetic energy recovery during braking in a mild hybrid vehicle. The model, implemented in MATLAB Simulink, is based on the motor’s DQ equivalent circuit, accounting for transient effects, inductance variability, and magnetic saturation. Also, a 2nd Order Thevenin Equivalent model of the battery is used in order to take into account the bus voltage variability. Simulations reveal that the dynamic model predicts significant variations in energy recovery potential, with differences of up to 25% compared to static models under specific braking conditions. These discrepancies are particularly pronounced during high-speed high-torque transitions, where transient electrical behaviors strongly influence energy recovery. The model’s accuracy enhances the reliability of energy simulations, especially in scenarios involving frequent or intense

Lombardi, Simone, Federici, Leonardo, Tribioli, Laura, Bella, Gino

Modular Thermal Management Framework for Electric Drive System Development

2025-01-0262

07/02/2025

The automotive industry is undergoing a major shift from internal combustion engines to hybrid and battery electric vehicles, which has led to significant advancements and increased complexity in drivetrain design and thermal management systems. This complexity reflects the growing need to optimize energy efficiency, extend vehicle range, and ensure system reliability in modern electric vehicles. At the Institute of Automotive Engineering, a specialized synthesis tool for drivetrain optimization is used to identify the best drivetrain configurations based on specific boundaries and requirements. Building up on this toolchain a modular and adaptable thermal management framework has been developed, addressing another critical aspect of vehicle and drive development: efficient thermal circuit layout and its impact on energy consumption and overall system reliability. The thermal framework emphasizes the dynamic interactions between key components, such as electric machines, power

Notz, Fabian, Sturm, Axel, Sander, Marcel, Kässens, Christoph, Henze, Roman

SAE TOMORROW TODAY - Women Breaking Barriers in Aerospace & Beyond

1352107/02/2025

Despite decades of progress, the number of women in engineering remains stubbornly low -- especially in aerospace and mechanical engineering. But that isn't stopping the winner of the Aerospace/Defense category in the inaugural Women in Engineering: Rising Star Awards. Heather Cummings is Senior Engineer, Flight Controls & Autonomy for Sikorsky, a Lockheed Martin company. She leads the development of hybrid electric propulsion controls and vehicle management systems for Sikorsky's next-gen HEX and RBW, including groundbreaking work on fully autonomous cargo aircraft. A licensed pilot, Heather is passionate about improving flight safety through automation and mentoring the next generation of aspiring engineers. In this special episode, Heather and Chitra Sethi, Director of Editorial & Digital Content, SAE Media Group, discuss the mission behind the Rising Star Awards, the importance of visibility for women in STEM, and why inspiring the next generation is just as critical as

Hineman, Marcie

Lifecycle Assessment of Battery Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Internal Combustion Engine-Powered Cars in India

13-06-02-0012

06/28/2025

Battery electric vehicles have gained popularity in the transport sector of late and are considered to emit lower greenhouse gas emissions than their internal combustion engine-powered counterparts. This study conducted a “cradle-to-grave” lifecycle assessment for two sets of battery electric, hybrid electric, and internal combustion engine vehicles sold in India to assess which powertrain emits lower greenhouse gas emissions during their lifetime. The system boundaries of the “cradle-to-grave” analysis consist of vehicle manufacturing, usage, maintenance, recycling of components, and finally, disposal. The “well-to-wheel” analysis includes oil extraction, feedstock cultivation, transportation, refining, fuel production, blending, and supply. This study considered India’s electricity generation mix from thermal, nuclear, solar, wind, and hydropower plants in different regions for 2020–2021. Greenhouse gas emissions from all three categories of vehicles were calculated for a lifespan of

Agarwal, Avinash Kumar, Singh, Rahul Kumar, Biswas, Srijit

Minimum Sound Testing of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles

2025-01-5044

06/27/2025

The acoustic performance of seven vehicles was evaluated according to Canadian Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 141 (CMVSS 141), which governs minimum required sound levels for hybrid and electric vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of 4536 kg (10,000 lb) or less. To better understand the sound profiles of medium-duty electric vehicles (MDEVs) and heavy-duty electric vehicles (HDEVs), the sound emissions of two light-duty electric vehicles (LDEVs), one MDEV, three HDEVs, including an electric transit bus, and one heavy-duty internal combustion engine (HD ICE) vehicle were compared. The sound emissions of the MDEV and HDEVs were quieter than the HD ICE vehicle and comparable to that of the LDEVs equipped with auxiliary speakers. The MDEV with its auxiliary speaker turned off and all three HDEVs without auxiliary speakers met CMVSS 141 requirements in reverse gear and at speeds of 20 km/h and 30 km/h. The MDEV, though not subject to CMVSS 141, failed to meet the minimum sound

Sharma, Vinay, Larocque-Legros, Marc-André, Weston, Cole, Schulte, Andrew, Christenson, Martha, Rooney, Anne

Learning-Based Predictive Controller for Connected and Automated Hybrid Electric Vehicles

14-14-02-0015

06/19/2025

This article aims at presenting a learning-based predictive control strategy for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) in the presence of uncertainty, where the controller structure and energy efficiency of the HEV is simultaneously optimized. The proposed approach includes development of a Bayesian optimization (BO)–based control structure optimization method, followed by an eco-driving–based hierarchical robust energy management strategy (EMS) development for connected and automated HEVs. To apply the learning-based strategy online, we also introduce an approach with approximate cost function for the BO to reduce training and computation time and improve energy in a given trip. The control structure is described by a parameter vector, which is updated, using BO, in an episodic fashion with the performance of the EMS and the computation time. With the current control structure, the hierarchical EMS includes a high-level powertrain energy manager that takes long-term decisions, and a low

HomChaudhuri, Baisravan, Iranzo Juan, Ignacio

TOC

99-07-03-0TOC

06/17/2025

TOC

Tobolski, Sue

Development of After-Treatment Systems and Control Strategy for a Hybrid-Dedicated Homogeneous Lean Burn Engine

2025-01-0217

06/16/2025

The development of lean-burn gasoline engines has continued due to their significant improvements in thermal efficiency. However, challenges associated with NOx emissions have hindered their mainstream adoption. As a result, the development of an effective NOx after-treatment system has become a key focus in lean-burn engine research. Additionally, HC emissions pose another challenge, as they tend to increase under lean combustion conditions while their conversion efficiency simultaneously declines. This study presents a novel after-treatment system incorporating a lean NOx trap(LNT) and a passive SCR(pSCR) system. This configuration enables efficient NOx reduction at a competitive cost while maintaining operational simplicity. Moreover, conventional catalyst technologies, including three-way catalysts (TWCs) and fuel-cut NOx traps (FCNTs), were optimized to maximize conversion performance under lean operating conditions. To further enhance system performance, various control

Oh, Heechang, Lee, Jonghyeok, Sim, Kiseon, Lim, SeungSoo, Park, Jongil, Park, Minkyu, Kang, Hyunjin, Han, Donghee, Lee, Kwiyeon, Song, Jinwoo

Enhanced Equivalent Consumotion Minimization Strategy Based on Bayesian Optimization

2025-01-0194

06/16/2025

The Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) is an effective approach for managing energy flow in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), balancing the use of electric energy and fuel consumption. The strategy’s performance depends heavily on the Equivalent Factor (EF), which governs this trade-off. However, the optimal EF varies under different driving conditions and is influenced by the inherent randomness in factors such as traffic, road gradients, and driving behavior, making it challenging to determine through traditional methods. This paper introduces Bayesian Optimization (BO) as a solution to address the stochastic nature of the EF parameter tuning process. By using a probabilistic model, BO efficiently navigates the complex, uncertain performance landscape to find the optimal EF parameters that minimize fuel consumption and emissions across variable conditions. Simulation results under WLTP cycles show that the proposed method reduces fuel consumption by 0.9% and improves

Zhang, Cetengfei, Zhou, Quan, Jia, Yiqi, Xiong, Lu

Overview of Indian Government Policies, Regulations and Automotive Company Strategies toward Net-zero Emissions

2025-01-0184

06/16/2025

The automotive sector in India is undergoing a transformation, driven by government policies and regulations aimed at achieving net-zero carbon emissions. In alignment with global climate goals, the Indian government has set ambitious targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with a focus on promoting Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles (FCVs). Initiatives like the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) Scheme, along with tax incentives, subsidies, and charging infrastructure development, are designed to accelerate the adoption of cleaner vehicles. The introduction of stricter emission standards and the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) further underscores the push toward sustainable mobility. In response, Indian automotive companies are shifting strategies to align with these government directives. Major players are significantly increasing investments in EV technology, focusing on enhancing battery performance

Patil, Nikhil Nivrutti, Saurabh, Saurabh, Bhardwaj, Rohit, Gawhade, Ravikant, Gadve, Dhananjay, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya

NVH Improvement of Transmission Electric Oil Pump with Uneven Pitch Control

2025-01-0252

06/16/2025

This paper proposes an uneven pitch control for electric oil pumps. For the noise reduction of vane pumps, mechanical arrangements of uneven pitch vain angle are widely used. However, the tooth angle of gear-type pumps should be even mechanically. The proposed uneven pitch control provides similar effects of the mechanical uneven pitch arrangement by instantaneous motor torque controls of the electric oil pump which cannot have uneven pitch mechanically. The magnitude of motor torque for each pump tooth is determined by an uneven pitch formula which is widely used for mechanical vane pumps in previous study and patents. A formula for the shape of motor torque is proposed by analyzing pressure fluctuations of pump as a combination of trigonometric and exponential functions. The calibration factors for the magnitude and shape are adjusted by characteristics of pumps. The experimental results showed that noise reduction and dispersion effects of the proposed method.

Choi, Chinchul, Kim, Jongbeom

A Study on Improving the Methodology for Torque Modeling Using a Virtual Engine Model

2025-01-0204

06/16/2025

This study aims to develop an engine torque prediction model using virtual engine simulation data. Accurate torque prediction is essential for minimizing shift shock and ensuring consistent driving performance, particularly in hybrid vehicles where smooth transitions between electric motors and internal combustion engines are necessary. The Engine Control Unit (ECU) uses a physics-based torque prediction model, requiring ignition timing swing data for precise calibration. The virtual engine model, based on 1D gas dynamics, was calibrated using real engine data obtained from a small number of main operating points. The simulation data obtained from the virtual engine model showed a good correlation with the experimental data. By combining large-scale simulation data with limited experimental data, we effectively calibrated the torque prediction model in ECU and confirmed that the calibration results met the development goals. This study demonstrates the potential for efficient engine

Hur, Donghan, Paeng, Jeonghwan, Kim, Kyusup, Chang, Jinseok, Park, Jongil

Influence of Fuel Surface Tension and Viscosity on Internal Flow Bubble Formation and Atomization in Flash Boiling Sprays

2025-01-0221

06/16/2025

Flash boiling atomization is considered a promising atomization technique for combustion applications in automotive powertrains. It can potentially address the deteriorated atomization issue for alternative fuels (such as methanol) in internal combustion engines. However, it has been observed that flash boiling spray atomization for methanol fuels is not as effective as that for traditional alkane-based fuels. This work aims to explain such phenomena using transparent nozzles to reveal the impact of internal vaporization on external spray breakups. Three different working fluids, including methanol, ethanol, and pentane, are tested with elevated temperatures. The flow patterns and external liquid breakup are shown with the high-speed imaging technique. It is found that the internal phase change of the base working fluid is suppressed when ethanol or methanol is used instead of pentane. Consequently, the external liquid breakup is also hindered due to insufficient vapor phase inside the

Zhang, Yijia, Li, Yilong, Wang, Shangning, Zeng, Tingxi, Xu, Min, Hung, David, Li, Xuesong

Challenges and opportunities for electrifying machines

25TOFHP06_04

06/01/2025

The switch to electrified off-highway vehicles can help reduce reliance on hydraulic components that decrease system efficiency via parasitic losses. The off-highway machine industry is embracing new technologies to optimize operations, specifically regarding electric and hybrid off-highway equipment. The electric off-highway equipment market is poised for growth, with an expected 12.5% compound annual growth rate (CAGR) from 2025-2034, reaching over $17 billion, according to Market Research Future. These off-highway vehicles operate on tough terrain and require unprecedented amounts of power for long duty cycles. Diesel engines have always been the conventional application for this kind of work, but now hybrid and electric vehicles are starting to gain traction thanks to new innovations and more investment. While the implications of replacing traditional combustion engines with hybrid or electric counterparts can be intimidating, learning the challenges and opportunities each option

Liu, Zifan

Automotive Engineering: May 2025

25AUTD0505/08/2025

All (robot) hands on deck BMW leverages advanced manufacturing, AI and machine learning to build the next generation of EVs - and vehicles of all powertrains. Driving down the high cost of overspray in automotive paint processes By designing automated paint systems with superior control behavior, OEMs can improve transfer efficiency and minimize overspray and its heavy costs for automotive companies. Connected: EV battery tech advancements and facility coatings selection New battery chemistries and the rise of automated guided vehicles in EV battery plants will redefine what's expected from floor and wall coatings. Editorial Watch this Supplier Eye Sourcing re-evaluation underway ICE and hybrid-electric propulsion show staying power Intel's Weast says China leaping ahead due to focus on innovation Nira Dynamics' sensor-free tire pressure tech eyes new opportunities Study shows safety top priority of potential vehicle-to-everything consumers The transformative power of large-format

Plug-In Hybrid and Range Extender NVH – Challenges and Solutions

2025-01-0101

05/05/2025

The automotive industry continues to develop new powertrain and vehicle technologies aimed at reducing overall vehicle-level fuel consumption. While the use of electrified propulsion systems is expected to play an increasingly important role in helping OEMs meet fleet CO2 reduction targets, hybridized propulsion solutions will continue to play a vital role in the electrification strategy of vehicle manufacturers. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and range extender vehicles (REx) come with unique NVH challenges due to their different possible operation modes. First, the paper outlines different driveline and vehicle architectures for PHEV and REx. Given the multiple general architectures, as well as operation modes which typically accompany these vehicles, NVH characterizations and noise source-path analysis can be more complicated than conventional vehicles. In the following steps, typical NVH related challenges are highlighted and potential solutions for NVH optimization are

Wellmann, Thomas, Ford, Alex, Pruetz, Jeffrey

Optimization of HEV Vehicle’s Engine Modulated Noise

2025-01-0084

05/05/2025

One 1.5L Miller-cycle turbocharged four cylinder gasoline hybrid engine is installed on a certain hybrid vehicle. When accelerating at low to medium speeds with a small throttle, there is a "da da" knocking noise inside the car, which seriously affects the overall sound quality of the vehicle. By analyzing the vibration and noise data of the engine, it was found that the frequency of the abnormal knocking sound is 200-2000Hz, which presents a half order characteristic in the time domain, that is, one knocking occurs when the engine crankshaft rotates twice. Through Hilbert demodulation analysis of the vibration data in the problem frequency range, it was found that the knocking noise was modulated in the frequency domain, with a modulation frequency of half of the crankshaft rotation frequency. By building a fully flexible multi-body dynamic model of a hybrid powertrain and inputting the engine's cylinder pressure excitation, the combustion excitation is coupled with mechanical

Dan, Kong

Do EVs Snore?

2025-01-0074

05/05/2025

As the adoption of Electric Vehicles (EV) and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) continues to rise, more individuals are encountering these quieter vehicles in their daily lives. While topics such as propulsion sound via Active Sound Design (ASD) and bystander safety through Acoustic Vehicle Alerting Systems (AVAS) have been extensively discussed, charging noise remains relatively unexplored. Most EV/PHEV owners charge their vehicles at home, typically overnight, leading to a lack of awareness about charging noise. However, those who have charged their cars overnight often report a variety of sounds emanating from the vehicle and the electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE). This paper presents data from several production EVs measured during their normal charging cycles. Binaural recordings made inside and outside the vehicles are analyzed using psychoacoustic metrics to identify sounds that may concern EV/PHEV owners or their neighbors.

Marroquin, Marc, Bray, Wade

Research on In-Vehicle Clustered Multi-Channel Active Noise Control System

2025-01-0016

05/05/2025

To address the issue of intermittent engine intervention during the charging and discharging processes of hybrid vehicles, which results in roaring noise within the cabin, this paper proposes a semi-coupled cluster control strategy that offers superior overall performance. This strategy is based on the traditional multi-channel Active Noise Control (ANC) system and integrates the advantages of both centralized and decentralized control approaches. The proposed clustered control strategy reduces computational load by approximately 50% compared to the centralized control strategy, while maintaining comparable noise attenuation performance. Moreover, it demonstrates significantly improved stability over the decentralized control strategy, with outstanding noise reduction results. Using the MATLAB simulation platform, the performance of the proposed in-vehicle clustered control strategy is compared with that of traditional control strategies. Additionally, road test experiments are

Deng, Huiping, Lu, Chihua, Chen, Wan, Liu, Zhien, Chen, Pian, Dou, Sirui, Sun, Menglei

The Accelerated Roughness Noise Optimization of One PHEV Vehicle

2025-01-0087

05/05/2025

To optimize the noise that heard like ‘kalakala’ produced by the plug hybrid electric vehicle when accelerating with a small accelerated pedal opening while in the charging state of series modal. The LMS test device was used to acquire the noise of the driver's outer ear. Through filtering and playback analysis, it was confirmed that the noise is mainly contains the frequency bands of 250-400Hz and450-700Hz. The frequency bands of the noise were used as carriers for Hilbert transform, and their envelopes were obtained for Fourier transform analysis. It was found that the modulation order of the noise is 0.5 times of the engine ignition order, and the modulation frequency is 20-30Hz, which let the customer hears like roughness. Regarding the spectral characteristics of this noise, firstly, at the excitation source, selected a reasonable moment of inertia and frequency of the Crank torsional damper, to decrease the torsional excitation of the engine. Secondly, investigated the structural

Shouhui, Huang, Zhongxun, Hu, Zhao, Yun, Shanyin, Ren, Ruifeng, Dong, Teng, Charlie, Changshui, Zhou, Xu, Ling

Methodology for Radiated Noise Refinement of Electrified Drivetrain Systems

2025-01-0098

05/05/2025

Electric drive units (EDU) of battery electric vehicles and electric drivetrain components of hybrid vehicles require significant development effort and planning to ensure that a refined NVH sound quality is achieved. New tools and methods are required to understand the NVH performance throughout the development process and to ensure that NVH risks can be quickly identified and mitigated within the correct EDU subsystems. This paper discusses the development of a methodology (EDSL – Electric Drive Sound Level) aimed at addressing this need. It also outlines how the EDSL process can be used to address radiated noise issues and understand the NVH performance of the various subsystems within an electrified drivetrain component. The first use of the EDSL methodology is to characterize component-level radiated noise test results and compare the different mechanical and electrical noise sources to targets. The results from this are used to guide EDU development in the appropriate areas

Pruetz, Jeffrey E., Steffens, Christoph, Fu, Tongfang, Ford, Alex

Evaluating Vibration Test Profiles for Battery Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

2025-01-0009

05/05/2025

As the automotive industry transitions to electrification, understanding the differences in ambient operating vibration environments between conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion systems, battery electric vehicles (BEVs), and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) becomes increasingly important. Many automotive vibration testing standards provide frequency and amplitude test levels based on historical ICE vehicle data. Some standards note the potential inaccuracies of using this data source to test BEVs/HEVs and recommend using field-recorded data, if possible, while others make no note. Preliminary comparisons of BEV, HEV, and ICE vehicle ambient operating vibration environments show variations due to battery cell pack weight and engine vibration, among other factors. As accurate testing is tantamount to vehicle safety and longevity, the automotive testing industry must confirm the suitability of current test standards for BEVs and HEVs or create new ones. This paper

Achatz, Tom, Stoll, Cherie

Integrating for Safety – A Proposed Approach to the Integration of Propulsion Battery Systems in Hybrid Electric Aviation

2025-01-0148

05/02/2025

The authors have witnessed a notable surge in the number of designs and in the guidance material for electric and hybrid aircraft. FAA and EASA have continued to evaluate the safety of Propulsion Battery Systems (PBS), with a focus on thermal runaway containment testing. As a result, a harmonization white paper [7] was issued to provide a certification path for Thermal Runaway (TR) Hazards, followed by an EASA certification memorandum on the acceptable approaches for the certification of Electric/Hybrid Propulsion Systems (EHPS). Recently, an FAA Advisory Circular (draft) was issued for the “powered-lift” aircraft that feature these propulsion battery systems. Despite the advances made by electric/hybrid aircraft manufacturers and the aviation authorities, there is still a missing piece of the puzzle. Mainly, engineering work still needs to be done to properly integrate the EHPS architecture to achieve safety objectives. The burden is still on systems engineering to propose their own

Hanna, Michael, Walker, Cherizar

Designing and Controlling a Hybrid Fuel Cell System for Propelling a Turboprop Aircraft

2025-01-0151

05/02/2025

In the context of aviation sector decarbonization, fuel cell hybrid electric aircrafts are a promising alternative to conventional fuels, presenting opportunities for more sustainable and efficient flight. Hence, the present work is focused on an alternative powertrain architecture, wherein a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system cooperates with a lithium-ion battery to fulfil the electrical power demand of a turboprop-based aircraft. Particularly, a mathematical tool is proposed to evaluate both the components size and performance, while a degradation aware rule-based control strategy guarantees an effective power split between the hybridizing components. Such an energy management approach introduces an idling level and a rate limiter to mitigate degradation associated with start-up/shut-down and transient phases, respectively. Moreover, to have a reliable estimation of the vehicle’s fuel economy, while also guaranteeing the correct components dimensioning, the fuel cell system

De Donato, Angelo, Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Musto, Carmine

Model-Based Design and Energy Management of an Aeronautical Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell System

2025-01-0150

05/02/2025

The growing demand for air transport requires efficient and sustainable power systems to meet the pressing need for decarbonizing the sector. A hybrid unit, consisting of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system and a lithium-ion battery, is a suitable option due to the advantages of reduced gravimetric and volumetric impacts, along with the flexibility of energy management strategies. This work addresses, using a model-based approach, the issue of integrating these electrochemical devices into the aircraft’s electrical architecture considering both design and energy management aspects. A literature derived DC-DC converter bi-dimensional power map is exploited to investigate scenarios differentiated by the fuel cell system power rating and number of stacks working in parallel such that the DC bus line voltage requirements can be respected. These maps relate the converter’s maximum deliverable power to the input and desired output voltage. The combined design and energy management

Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Napolitano, Ciro

Virtual Calibration Approach to the Development of Control Systems and Strategies for Hybrid L-Category Vehicles

2024-32-0066

04/18/2025

Hybrid powertrain for motorcycles has not been widely adopted to date but has recently shown significant increased interest and it is believed to have great potential for fuel economy containment in real driving conditions. Moreover, this technology is suitable for the expected new legislations, reduced emissions and enables riding in Zero Emissions Zones, so towards a more carbon neutral society while still guaranteeing “motorcycle passion” for the product [1, 2]. Several simulation tools and methods are available for the concept phase of the hybrid system design, allowing definition of the hybrid components and the basic hybrid strategies, but they are not able to properly represent the real on-road behaviour of the hybrid vehicle and its specific control system, making the fine tuning and validation work very difficult. Motorcycle riders are used to expect instant significant torque delivery on their demand, that is not properly represented in legislative cycles (e.g. WMTC); rider

Antoniutti, Christian, Sweet, David, Hounsham, Sandra

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