Browse Topic: Hybrid electric vehicles

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A Study on the Engine Vibration Control of Parallel Hybrid Vehicle based on the On-line Estimation of Engine Torque Fluctuations2026-01-0002To be published on 04/07/2026
For a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) with a crankshaft-integrated e-motor, the e-motor can be utilized to compensate for typical combustion engine vibrations. This paper presents a feedforward engine vibration control methodology based on efficient real-time estimation of engine torque fluctuation, primarily derived from in-cylinder pressure profiles obtained through steady-state dynamometer tests at various operating points. The measured pressure profiles are decomposed into motoring pressure and combustion pressure components, where the motoring pressure component is further decomposed into idle speed pressure and throttle-associated motoring pressure components. These pressure components are converted into corresponding fluctuating torque elements. The resulting torque profiles are tabulated, then scaled and shifted according to the torque demand and ignition angle under real driving conditions, thereby enabling estimation of the pressure torque and subsequently total torque
Park, Keychun
BEV incremental CO2 emissions in a ranked order electric grid2026-01-0424To be published on 04/07/2026
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) have been promoted and required by many governments towards the need to reduce transportations CO2 emissions. BEV are not “Zero Emissions Vehicles” because they run on grid electricity, but could be ‘effectively ZEV’ if the incremental CO2 is ‘very small’. To answer this question at the national level, three metrics are needed and estimated: (1) ICEV fuel consumption, approximated by the total US gasoline consumption divided by the total fleet miles driven, 25 mpg or 350 g CO2/mi. For strong HEV it is about one third less, 240 g CO2/mi. (2) BEV energy consumption, using data from systematic on-road testing of a wide range of vehicles, estimated at 40 kWh/100 mi for a US sales mix. (3) Electric grid marginal CO2, with ranked order sourcing: zero-CO2 sources are prioritized and supplemented by fossil sources. IEA hourly data show that the US 48 contiguous states are nearly self-contained, with zero-CO2 sources providing about a third of total demand. The
Phlips, Patrick
Real-Time Observations of the Effect of Fuel Dilution in an Engine Transient Friction Rig. Along with Real-Time Observations of Fuel Entering and Leaving Internal Combustion Engine Oil, over both Standard Engine, ICE and Hybrid, HEV Dynamic Drive Cycles.2026-01-0351To be published on 04/07/2026
Hybrid electric vehicles with an increasing level of electrification, are becoming a major part of the global energy transition. To achieve lower engine tailpipe exhaust emissions and improve total fuel consumption, typically the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) control system efficiently and frequently switches between the internal combustion engine and electric motor drive, with multiple stops and restarts of the internal combustion engine. A consequential result of this switching is typically slower, or even incomplete engine warm up times, depending on the engine speed, load pattern and run time of the vehicle drive cycle. Along with the speed and load transient control, the engine stop and start processes are also challenging to control, with respect to cold start fuel and combustion by-products entering the oil. Consequently, contamination enters the engine oil but may not completely leave. These effects are highly transient over the drive cycle with contaminants, in particular fuel
Butcher, Richard, Bradley, Nathan, Thedering, Dennis
A Novel Development Method for a Control Model of TWC in Hybrid Electric Vehicles Based on Mechanism Simplification and Temperature Update2026-01-0371To be published on 04/07/2026
Under increasingly stringent emission regulations, hybrid electric vehicles face heightened requirements for tailpipe emission control. Their complex operational profiles and frequent transitions between power modes pose significant challenges to experimental efforts in emission measurement and aftertreatment control, leading to substantially increased economic and temporal costs that severely constrain emission optimization. To address these challenges, this study employs the development and calibration of a high-accuracy virtual model to conduct simulation experiments that accurately replicate real-world driving conditions, significantly reducing development costs while maintaining predictive accuracy. Focusing on hybrid electric vehicles, we developed an aftertreatment model integrating catalytic reaction mechanisms and energy conservation equations, incorporating coupled temperature and concentration calculations. This model enables real-time monitoring of dynamic oxygen storage
Lian, Xuetong, Wang, Zhiao, Liu, Weiqiang, Chen, Tao
Propulsion System Design Considerations for HEV versus EV Applications2026-01-0641To be published on 04/07/2026
The design and development of EVs and HEVs has become a growing issue recently due to concerns about pollution and dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels. Accordingly, General Motors (GM) has an evolving vehicle electrification plan over the past several decades and into the future to deliver low-cost and efficient EVs and HEVs. Propulsion system requirements for the applications of EV and HEVs are quite different and therefore, the design principles and directions are also distinct between these cases. From micro-hybrid and full plug-in hybrid applications to full EV applications, design requirements, strategies and outcomes can widely vary. Continuous and peak duty are substantially different depending on the application of the vehicle. Motor operational duty is significantly higher for EV compared to the electric motor of a hybrid electric vehicle. Motor torque, power and efficiency requirements are also higher for EV motors, which greatly influences the choice of motor type and
Momen, Faizul, Jensen, William, Das, Shuvajit, Chowdhury, Mazharul, Alam, Khorshed, Anwar, Mohammad, Reinhart, Timothy
Study on performance parameters of retarder in mountain condition of hybrid electric vehicle2026-01-0617To be published on 04/07/2026
In mountain driving scenarios, the continuous braking demands of vehicles pose significant challenges to the performance and reliability of braking systems. Traditional fuel-powered vehicles primarily rely on friction brakes for deceleration, which face issues such as high thermal fade risks and severe brake wear. While pure electric vehicles can utilize motor energy recovery to provide braking force and recover energy, their braking capacity is limited by the maximum regenerative torque of the motor. Moreover, when the battery State of Charge (SOC) is high, the energy recovery function may be restricted or disabled to protect the battery, leading to a sharp reduction or complete loss of braking torque—a safety hazard. Range-extended hybrid vehicles combine the advantages of both engine and electric drive systems. During long downhill operations, their motors can also serve as priority decelerators for efficient energy recovery. However, similar to pure electric vehicles, their motor
duan, xianqi, Tan, Gangfeng, Li, LiuYuanHeng, Tian, Tian, Yang, Yong
Identifying Patterns of Real-World Charging Frequency for a Sample of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles in North America2026-01-0429To be published on 04/07/2026
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) have the capability to effectively utilize electricity from the grid as an energy source for powering an appreciable portion of the total vehicle miles travelled (VMT), thereby reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, since the Carbon Intensity (CI) of electricity is often less than that of liquid fuels in many parts of the world. Several real-world usage factors can affect the fraction of VMT electrified, with the frequency of charging being one of the most influential factors. Studies in recent years have attempted to characterize the real-world performance of PHEVs based on long-term average fuel consumption and/or other data flags in the readout from vehicle On-Board Diagnostics (OBD), but such approaches are unable to infer accurate estimates for the occurrence of charging events. This paper adopts an approach that relies on analysis of highly granular (trip by trip) information obtained from vehicles equipped with a data communication
Hamza, Karim, Laberteaux, Kenneth
Meeting the Challenges of PHEVs/REEVs Lubrication: Insights from Comprehensive On-Road Fleet Tests2026-01-0354To be published on 04/07/2026
Driven by increasingly stringent emissions regulations, rapid advancements in electrification technologies, and rising consumer demand for fuel-efficient and environmentally sustainable mobility, Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) and Range-Extended Electric Vehicles (REEVs) have seen substantial growth in global automotive market. These hybrid architectures integrate electric propulsion with internal combustion engines (ICEs), offering extended driving range and operational flexibility. However, the evolution of hybrid powertrain systems introduces distinct operating characteristics—such as frequent engine start-stop events, reduced average engine loads, and extended oil drain intervals—that diverge significantly from conventional ICE vehicle usage profiles. These changes present new challenges for engine lubricants, which must maintain performance under intermittent engine operation, increased exposure to water and fuel, and fluctuating thermal and environmental conditions
Zhang, Ruifeng, Andrew, Rhiann, Hu, Gang, Lim, Pei Yi, Lu, Hongjie, Moizan, Simon
Development of the Honda S+ Shift Utilizing e:HEV System2026-01-0418To be published on 04/07/2026
Honda is promoting mobility electrification to realize a carbon-neutral society by 2050. Hybrid vehicles will remain advantageous over electric vehicles in terms of manufacturing cost and driving range until renewable energy usage increases, charging infrastructure is sufficiently developed, and battery costs are reduced. In response to this situation, Honda has developed a new control system, “Honda S+ Shift”, which further enhances the “emotional value of driving pleasure” inherent to the e:HEV system and creates new value for hybrid vehicles. Honda S+ Shift synchronizes the engine and vehicle speed and selects a virtual gear position according to the driver's operation such as acceleration, cornering, and deceleration. Subsequently, the system achieves the required system output in cooperation with a dedicated energy management system. It also works with each vehicle system, such as drive force control, sound control, and meter cluster, to stimulate all five senses of the driver
Murata, Naoya, Narimoto, Ryosuke, Saito, Masatoshi, Ishida, Daichi, GUNJI, HIROKI, UKAI, YOHEI, Kurachi, Shinobu, SHIKI, KAZUKI, Nagakura, Akari, Maeda, Sadaharu, Mitogawa, Terumasa
Engine Park Angle Control via Electric Machine Under Varying Deceleration Constraints2026-01-0445To be published on 04/07/2026
Accurate control of the engine park angle during Autostop in hybrid vehicles is critical for enabling rapid and smooth Autostarts, reducing start-up vibrations, and enhancing overall driving comfort. However, in real-world scenarios, the available torque for engine positioning is often limited by competing driver torque demands, battery discharge constraints, and the state of charge (SoC). Under these conditions, conventional position-speed control strategies frequently fail to achieve the desired precision. This paper introduces an adaptive control strategy for the electric machine (EM) that drives the internal combustion engine, ensuring precise alignment of the crankshaft at a predefined angle to optimize restart conditions. Upon receiving an engine shutdown request, the proposed controller computes an adaptive deceleration profile that respects the EM’s torque and deceleration limits while guiding the crankshaft toward the target park position. The core of the approach lies in
Purohit, Punit, ACHIR, Ali, Bhakare, Allwyn
Study of Approaches for Enhanced Traction Control Response for Hybrid Powertrain Architectures2026-01-0415To be published on 04/07/2026
Traction Control functionality requires fast and accurate response by powertrain system for wheel slip control. Close loop control effort of wheel slip shall be greatly reduced with more accurate feedforward torque. This paper explores the method of achieving requested traction control torque with better accuracy for torque converter-based hybrid electric powertrain architectures using improved dynamic modeling of torque converter. This method uses input inertia compensation involving feedforward and closed loop control modeling of torque converter and includes conversion of traction control intervention request through appropriate domains. Commanded torques by hybrid controller at wheel with and without these approaches are compared in Model in the loop simulation environment to identify optimum approach.
Karogal, Indrasen, Ober, Mitchell, Banuso, Abdulquadri, Sharma, Ashay
Enhanced Catalyst Heating Control Strategy within Hybrid Electric Powertrain Architectures2026-01-0414To be published on 04/07/2026
Kudupley, Harshal, Pooyafar, Payam, Karogal, Indrasen, Patel, Nadirsh
Multi-Body Dynamics Control Integration Tool Application in Hybrid Vehicle System Identification2026-01-0417To be published on 04/07/2026
The multi-body dynamics (MBD) model and the MATLAB Simulink model can be integrated to create a control-integration model. Using a high-fidelity MBD model to represent the vehicle as the plant, this integrated model can be used to analyze vehicle system physics and develop control strategies. For hybrid vehicles, this process is more complex because the powertrain and other vehicle systems are often built as separate MBD models. This paper describes a method for integrating a powertrain model developed in AMESIM, a vehicle model developed in SIMPACK, and a control model developed in MATLAB Simulink. The resulting integrated model was then used to perform frequency sweep analysis to identify driveline system properties. In particular, the driveline frequency and the amplitude of the transfer function between motor speed and motor torque are critical parameters. By applying active damping control to the driveline system, the peak amplitude and driveline vibrations can be reduced. The
Xing, Xing, Mathew, Vino
Research on Energy Consumption Optimization Control Strategy for Hybrid Electric Passenger Vehicles2026-01-0450To be published on 04/07/2026
The energy management strategy of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is critical to achieving overall vehicle efficiency. Current global optimization methods involve significant computational complexity. Conventional or adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) also present challenges in robustness and calibration efficiency, as they typically depend on real-time driving condition recognition and online parameter adjustment. To address these issues, this study proposes an engineering optimization framework based on a system efficiency lookup table approach. The method uses offline iterative simulation to determine a globally representative equivalent factor. It pre-computes the optimal system efficiency, drive modes, and energy allocation across the entire operating range. These results are stored in a lookup table that the vehicle control unit (VCU) can access in real time. This approach eliminates the uncertainties associated with online optimization. It also provides
Lin, Haoqiang, Wang, Jinhang, Chen, Lihua, Li, Huan
The Effects of Ethanol on Combustion in Super Lean Burn Engine2026-01-0303To be published on 04/07/2026
To mitigate global warming, many countries are pursuing carbon neutrality. Reducing CO₂ emissions from vehicles requires the adoption of electrification technologies in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), as well as improving overall system efficiency by improving the thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines (ICEs). One approach to improving the thermal efficiency of ICEs is lean-burn combustion. Additionally, biofuels and synthetic fuels are expected to contribute to CO₂ reduction, even for existing vehicles, and various studies are underway to promote their adoption. Ethanol, a bio-derived fuel, is widely used in varying contents worldwide, and its further utilization is anticipated. Therefore, it is essential to clarify combustion characteristics at different ethanol contents; however, research under lean-burn conditions remains limited. In this study, a super-lean-burn engine was used to evaluate the effects of ethanol contents on
Sugata, Kenji, Matsubara, Naoyoshi, Yamada, Ryota, Kitano, Koji
A Novel Power-Split Hybrid Electric Architecture for Off-Road Tracked Vehicles: Design and Performance Evaluation.2026-01-0258To be published on 04/07/2026
Tracked off-road vehicles operate at low speeds with high tractive effort and frequent skid-steer maneuvers, conditions that push torque and power demand to extremes and exacerbate powertrain efficiency losses. Electrification can improve energy conversion and mobility for such duty cycles. This paper introduces a novel power-split hybrid electric architecture for a tracked vehicle and benchmarks it against three designs: a conventional mechanical driveline, a series hybrid, and a P2 parallel hybrid. To enable fair, architecture-agnostic comparisons, a supervisory controller based on Stochastic Dynamic Programming (SDP) schedules engine operation and power flow across all layouts under representative off-road scenarios, including skid-steer events, with varying terrain and power-demand profiles. Results show higher energy conversion efficiency (lower fuel use) for the proposed power-split architecture, followed by the parallel, then series, and lastly conventional configuration across
Ghate, Atharva, Sundar, Anirudh, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam, Barron, Morgan, Castanier, Matthew P.
Methods of Highly Repeatable Lubricant Testing for Electric Vehicles: Universal Motor Control and Statistical Test-Variation Analysis2026-01-0421To be published on 04/07/2026
This paper describes a systematic approach to evaluate lubricants for hybrid and electric vehicles (xEVs) that can detect impacts on efficiency as low as 0.1 percentage points. Two testing methods were developed to evaluate lubricants' efficiency effects: (1) on a complete vehicle (using the manufacturer's hardware and motor control) and (2) on a standalone drive unit (using custom power electronics and control). A Monte Carlo simulation was used to analyze the resulting data to determine the detection limits of the vehicle test method. To evaluate the effectiveness of the test stands and the data-analysis method, a Tesla Model 3 electric drive unit and a Chevrolet Bolt battery electric vehicle (BEV) were characterized for system efficiency. For the Bolt mounted on a hub driven chassis dynamometer, this method is capable of detecting a change in the drive unit's electromechanical efficiency between baseline and candidate fluids of <0.4 percentage point (pp) with 95% confidence at most
Luo, Yilun, Gross, Michael, Kostan, Travis
Establishing a Standard S-Factor: Improving Accuracy and Flexibility in SOC Corrections for HEV Testing2026-01-0422To be published on 04/07/2026
Hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV) fuel economy test procedures require that the net energy change (NEC) of the battery remain small enough to ensure accurate fuel usage results. SAE J1711-2010 required the NEC stay within 1% of fuel energy consumption, assuming that residual changes in state of charge (SOC) would have negligible impact. In practice, however, the asymmetry between fuel and electricity conversion efficiencies means that a 1% SOC imbalance can translate into a fuel consumption error approaching 3%. A standard S-Factor—a dimensionless ratio of marginal fuel change to marginal NEC change—was introduced in J1711-2023 to improve SOC corrections. The method improves accuracy by correcting all results for NEC changes and expands the NEC-to-fuel ratio (NECFR) window, enabling HEVs to use electric propulsion more aggressively and achieve higher fuel economy in testing and real-world usage. Using a standardized value (instead of requiring additional testing to determine the vehicle
Duoba, Michael
In-Use Life Digital Twin and Swappable Use Case for Battery Durability2026-01-0397To be published on 04/07/2026
In-Use Life Digital Twin and Swappable Use Case for Battery Durability By: Patricia Laskowsky, Josue Albarran, Justin Bunnell, and Andrew Zettel Abstract The UN GTR 22 is required as part of the Environmental Protection Agency’s legislative rulemaking for multi-pollutants emission standards for model years 2027 and later light-duty and medium duty vehicles. The EPA claims it has the right to govern requirements on ZEVs and BEVs. ZEVs, in their viewpoint, are “emission related” because it enables the vehicle to produce zero emissions. With the adoption by the EPA under its Tier 4 regulations of the UN GTR 22, comes several new tracking DIDs, Data Identifiers. These DIDs are tied battery durability and energy tracking They track conditions and usages of electric vehicles that may accelerate the loss of electric range and/or loss of efficiency of the propulsion energy storage and delivery. More specifically, tying these trackers to EPA emission related discussion, the loss of electric
Laskowsky, Patricia, Bunnell, Justin, Zettel, Andrew, Albarran, Josue
Comparison of Ammonia Emission Characteristics Between Different Gasoline Vehicles Equipped with Three-Way Catalysts2026-01-0374To be published on 04/07/2026
In recent years, the tightening of vehicle emission regulations has led to a decreasing trend in regulated pollutants such as NOₓ and CO. However, the emission of ammonia (NH₃), which is unintentionally generated during the purification process in three-way catalyst of gasoline vehicles, has become a growing concern. NH₃ emissions from vehicles can serve as a precursor to PM2.5 and have been reported to cause local roadside pollution. Therefore, there is a growing need for on-road testing to identify conditions under which NH₃ is likely to be emitted. Furthermore, since engine control strategies vary among vehicle types, it is desirable to consider differences in emission behavior across different models. In this study, on-road NH₃ emissions were measured for multiple vehicle models with different powertrains, and the effects of engine behaviors and engine operating duration across vehicles on NH₃ emissions were investigated. To analyze differences in NH₃ emission behavior among
Ashizawa, Keigo, Fukunaga, Chisato, Gao, Tianyi, Sato, Susumu
Electrified Propulsion System Balancing for Light Duty Full Size Truck and Sport Utility Vehicles: A 2026 North American Market Perspective2026-01-0412To be published on 04/07/2026
Achieving the stringent EPA CAFE 2032 standards for light-duty full-size trucks and SUVs in North American poses significant challenges. While Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) offer a clear path to zero tailpipe emissions, their widespread adoption in this segment faces hurdles including range anxiety, payload/towing capabilities, and traditional truck/SUV use cases. This paper investigates a balanced approach, focusing on optimizing propulsion system design with appropriate hardware content, can effectively meet future fuel economy and emissions standards. This investigation examines advanced BEVs and hybrid electric vehicle architectures, including full hybrids (HEVs), and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) tailored for full-size trucks and SUVs. Considerations include the optimal sizing of internal combustion engines, electric motors, and battery packs to deliver robust performance while maximizing energy efficiency. This paper analyzes the integration of technologies such as electrified
Babcock, Dillon, Robinette, Darrell
Research on Reliability Test Methods for Electric Drive Axle Differentials2026-01-0007To be published on 04/07/2026
With the rapid socio-economic development, global issues such as the energy crisis and environmental pollution have become increasingly severe. Electric vehicles have garnered growing attention due to their environmental friendliness, simple structure, and high energy efficiency. Electric drive technology is regarded as the most ideal universal driving solution for pure electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and fuel cell vehicles. The electric drive axle, as a new type of integrated mechatronic transmission system, is being increasingly adopted owing to its advantages such as high drive efficiency, flexible spatial arrangement, and facilitation of digital and automated chassis control. This study focuses on reliability testing methods for the differential in electric drive axles, mainly including the extraction of reliability test conditions and feasibility analysis of the test scheme. The main research contents are as follows: First, based on specific parameters of an electric
Zheng, Hongyu, Li, Ziyu, Wang, Dajiang, tian, kai
Real-Time Hardware-in-the-Loop Validation of Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Powertrain Systems2026-01-0409To be published on 04/07/2026
This paper presents applied methodologies and results from real-time Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing of electrified powertrain systems, based on experience gained during advanced development programs in the electric vehicle (EV) sector. It outlines how HIL accelerated control software validation, enhanced fault coverage, and improved development cycles for critical powertrain components such as Vehicle Control Units (VCU), Inverters (INV), Chargers, DC-DC Converters (DCDC), and Electric Motors (EM). As electrified propulsion systems grow in complexity to meet performance, efficiency, and safety demands, robust and scalable validation techniques are essential. Modern EV powertrains integrate multiple ECUs managing distinct subsystems, requiring thorough testing of both individual components and their interactions. To address this, a real-time HIL test bench was developed to simulate a broad range of driving conditions, powertrain operating scenarios, and fault cases. The test bench
Sathiyamoorthy, Pradeepraja
The Impact of Mid-level Ethanol Blends on Reliability, Performance and Emissions in Gasoline engine2026-01-0302To be published on 04/07/2026
To reduce CO₂ emissions from automobiles, it is essential to enhance system efficiency through the electrification of vehicles equipped with internal combustion engines (ICEs), such as hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), as well as through improvements in ICE thermal efficiency. Furthermore, biofuels and synthetic fuels are gaining attention as promising options for reducing CO₂ emissions, including from existing vehicles. Among these alternative fuels, ethanol - a bio-derived fuel - is already utilized in varying concentrations across many countries, and its further application is anticipated. While expanding the fleet of flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs) capable of operating on high ethanol blends is one approach, increasing the ethanol content in conventional gasoline fuels, which are more widely used, is considered to have a greater impact on CO₂ reduction. A key issue is the impact and adaptability of existing vehicles when ethanol concentrations
Matsubara, Naoyoshi, Sugata, Kenji, Koyama, Takashi, Ochi, Yuta, Aoki, Mizuki, Hashima, Takashi, Kodama, Kohei, Tomoda, Keiju, Kojima, Masakiyo
Collapse Strength and Crush Space Analysis in Lateral Side Pole Impact of an Electric Vehicle2026-01-0472To be published on 04/07/2026
High Voltage Battery (HVB) protection in lateral pole impact is very important due to severe nature of the impact. Unlike frontal impacts, vehicles have limited range of space and capacity to absorb kinetic energy in lateral side impacts. Nowadays, computer aided engineering (CAE) using finite element analysis (FEA) is utilized routinely to simulate high-speed crash events of varied type, including side pole impact. These CAE applications focus on the analysis and design of HVB when the vehicle structure is well developed. CAE methods are time consuming and are not suited during the pre-program stage when the structure is only in a concept stage and not even a reasonable CAD is available/developed in any sense to use these methods. There is no analytical tool available to understand how to define the characteristics of the structure that surrounds and protects the HVB. The primary motive of this publication is to help with this aspect of vehicle planning/development. Needless to state
Alavandi, Bhimaraddi, Midoun, Djamal, Frank, Randy
Development of Plug-In Hybrid Motorbike and Analysis towards Sustainable Urban Mobility2026-28-0111To be published on 02/12/2026
The transportation system is one major catalyst to urban ecological imbalance. In developing countries, two-wheelers are considered a major mode of urban personal transportation because of their compactness, easy maneuver in heavy traffic and good fuel efficiency. In India, middle and lower middle-class people prefer to choose two wheelers, and these vehicles are dominantly fuelled by gasoline. Although, the energy consumption by a two-wheeler is comparatively less than that of a four-wheeler, they use about 60% of the nation’s petroleum for on-road vehicles and the impact on urban air quality and climatic change is significantly high. This high proportion of gasoline utilization and emission contribution by two wheelers in cities demand greater attention to improve urban air quality and near-term energy sustainability. Electrification of two-wheelers through the application of a plug-in hybrid idea is a promising solution. A plug-in hybrid motorbike was developed by putting forth a
Kannan, Prashanth, Shaik, Amjad, Talluri, Srinivasa Rao
Simulation Research on Torque Vectoring, Braking, Chassis Control Strategies for Electric & Hybrid Vehicles using System Simulation2026-26-04231/16/2026
Electric Vehicles and Plug-in Hybrids alleviate the energy crisis but pose a unique challenge for vehicle dynamics. Though significant developments in motor control strategy and energy density management are evolving, we face significant challenges in torque management, with several ADAS features being an integral part of the EVs/xHEVs. It demands high-fidelity physical and control model exchanges between electric chassis, ride-handling, tire modelling, steering assist, powertrain, and validation using a 0D–1D platform. This paper explicates a unified strategy for improving overall vehicle performance by intelligently distributing and coordinating drive torque to enhance traction, stability, and drivability across diverse operating conditions through co-simulation. The co-simulation platform includes physical models in AMESIM, and control strategies integrated in MATLAB/Simulink. The platform features comprehensive representations of digital vehicles that require detailed modelling of
Eruva, Patrickxavier, Sarapalli Ramachandran, Raghuveeran, Chougule, Sourabh, Natanamani-Pillai, Siva Subramanian, Scheider, Clement, Leclerc, Cedric, Natarajasundaram, Balasubramanian
Thermal Management Control Strategy for Primary & Secondary Drive Cooling Hybrid Electric Tractor2026-26-00691/16/2026
Global emission norms are getting very strict due to combat the harmful pollutants from internal combustion engine. Hence internal combustion engine (ICE)-based agricultural tractors need to introduce complex after-treatment systems and fuel optimization to provide same or higher value to farmers as cost of these systems drive the overall cost of the product. Engineers around the world are building Electric vehicles to combat the problem and has range issues due to design constraints & Hybrid tractors have emerged as a promising intermittent solution. It helps in combining the advantages of respective ICE and electrification solutions while reducing overall vehicle emissions and enhances operational flexibility. This paper presents a modular thermal modes system developed for a hybrid electric tractor platform where a downsized diesel engine operates at optimal efficiency DC generator used to charge the battery & DC converter is used to charge the auxiliary battery. Battery which is
K, Sunil, D, Mari, Natarajan, Saravanan, Kumawat, Deepak, rojamanikandan, Arumugham, K, Mala, V, Sridharan, Muniappan, Balakrishnan, Makana, Mohan
Multiphysics Analysis of Heat Sink Designs for Efficient Thermal Performance in Power Electronics Systems2026-26-04461/16/2026
The thermal management capability of power electronic (PE) systems has a critical impact on the performance and efficiency of electric, fuel cell, or hybrid vehicles. Bus bars, high resistance sensor devices, semiconductor switches, power capacitors are the primary components, which make a major contribution in total heat generation in electrical drive unit. As PE packaging sizes are projected to become smaller, the challenge of managing increased heat dissipation becomes more critical. This paper numerically compares six different cooling strategies to determine the best possible thermal management scenario. A coupled physics co-simulation framework is used to analyze a 35W motor inverter integrated with water cooled heat sink. A multi-physics finite element model, integrating fluid, electrical, and thermal fields, is employed to analyze heat generation within the PE system and the associated cooling mechanisms. The power losses from the inverter system are dynamically computed in 1-D
Singh, Praveen Kumar, Natarajan, Nesamani, Murali, Sariki
Development and Validation of a 1D Model for Evaluating Transmission Efficiency in Vehicles2026-26-00661/16/2026
This study develops a one-dimensional (1D) model to enhance transmission efficiency by evaluating power losses within a transmission system. The model simulates power flow and identifies losses at various stages such as gear mesh, bearing, churning, and windage losses. Using ISO/TR 14179, which provides a method for calculating the thermal transmittable power of gear drives with an analytical heat balance model, the 1D model ensures accurate thermal capacity evaluation under standard conditions. A key advantage of this 1D model is its efficiency in saving time compared to more complex 3D modelling, making it particularly useful during the conceptual stage of transmission system development. This allows engineers to quickly assess and optimize transmission efficiency before committing to more detailed and time-consuming 3D simulations. To validate the model, experimental tests were conducted at various motor speeds (RPM) and torque values, using high-precision sensors and dynamometers
Bandi, Nagendra Reddy, Kolla, Kalyan, P, Selvandran, Pulugundla, Krishna Chaitanya, M A, Naveen Kumar
HIL Simulation of Power Electronics Switching Circuit for Automotive Software Application2026-26-05161/16/2026
Power electronics switching applications are essential for energy management and conversion in automotive electric vehicles (EVs). This paper focuses on DC-DC converters, particularly the integration of 48V DC-DC converters in modern automotive systems. These converters are crucial for efficient power delivery to auxiliary systems such as infotainment, lighting, safety electronics, and thermal management units. In mild hybrid electric vehicles (MHEVs), 48V systems support advanced features like regenerative braking, electric turbocharging, and start-stop functionality. To ensure the reliability, safety, and performance of these converters, Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing has emerged as a powerful validation technique. HIL enables real-time simulation of the converter’s electrical environment and load conditions, allowing comprehensive testing of the control system without high-level voltage, significantly reducing development time, cost, and risk. The methodology involves utilizing
Yadav, Vikaskumar, Wakure, Vinod
Prediction of REESS Factor for SOC Correction in Hybrid Vehicles2026-26-04711/16/2026
The regulatory mechanisms to measure emissions from automobiles have evolved drastically over the years. Certification of CO2 emissions is one of them. It is not only critical for environmental protection but can also invite heavy fines to OEMs, if not complied with. In homologation test of a Hybrid Vehicle, it is necessary to correct the measured CO2 to account for deviations in measurement from failed Start-Stop phase and difference between start and end State of Charge (SOC) of battery. The correction methodology is also applicable for vehicle simulation in Software-in-Loop environment and for analyzing vehicle test data for CO2 emissions with programmed digital tools. The focus of this paper is on the correction of CO2 derived from SOC delta in the WLTP homologation drive cycle. The battery energy delta due to difference in SOC between start and end of drive cycle should be converted to corresponding CO2 expended from Internal Combustion Engine. The resulting correction factor is
Gopinath, Shravanthi Poorigali, Khatod, Krishna
Validation of 0D-1D Co-Simulation Strategies in Cold Conditions for ‘Full EV Digital Vehicle’2026-26-04481/16/2026
Electric Vehicles (EV) are embedded with increased software algorithms coupled with several physical systems. It demands the efficacy of components which are linked together to build a system. The digital models reviewed in this paper are at system-level and full vehicle-level, comprising many components and control design, analysis, and optimization. Systems pertaining to each functionality such as, A/C (Air Conditioning) loop, E-Powertrain (Electric Powertrain), HEVC (Hybrid Electric Vehicle Controller), Cooling system, Battery Management System (BMS), Vehicle control system etc. together make an ‘Integrated Digital Vehicle.’ Fidelity of Intersystem co-simulation [AMESIM + SIMULINK] is key to validating thermal and energy strategies. This paper elucidates the correlation of Digital Vehicle compared to Test for Thermal Strategy in different driving scenarios and Energy management. Validation of Digital vehicle with 52kWh, 40kWh High Voltage Battery for Intercity Travel of Customer
Sarapalli Ramachandran, Raghuveeran, Srinivasan, Rangarajan, Saravanan, Vivek, Dutta, Souham, Pichon, Martin, Leclerc, Cedric, Guemene, Alexis-Scott
Scalable and Modular Data-Driven Hybrid Chassis Dynamometer Framework for EV Powertrain Evaluation2026-26-03631/16/2026
In its conventional form, dynamometers typically provide a fixed architecture for measuring torque, speed, and power, with their scope primarily centered on these parameters and only limited emphasis on capturing aggregated real-time performance factors such as battery load and energy flow across the diverse range of emerging electric vehicle (EV) powertrain architectures. The objective of this work is to develop a valid, appropriate, scalable modular test framework that combines a real-time virtual twin of a compact physical dynamometer with world leading real-time mechanical and energy parameters/attributes useful for its virtual validation, as well as the evaluation of other unknown parameters that respectively span iterations of hybrid and electric vehicle configurations, ultimately allowing the assessment of multiple chassis without having to modify the physical testing facility's test bench. This integration enables a blended approach, using a live data source for now, providing
Kumar, Akhilesh, V, Yashvati
Preventing Thermal Run-Away using Shape Memory Alloy2026-26-00091/16/2026
The present disclosure is about combating Thermal runaway in Electric, Plug-in Hybrids and mild hybrid vehicles. This paper comprises of high-Voltage Battery pack containing Battery cells electrically coupled with Shape Memory Alloy along with Busbars. These connectors (Shape Memory Alloy) are programmed to operate in two states: First to electrically connect the cells with the busbars, second to disconnect the individual cells from electric connection beyond the threshold temperature. This mechanism enables the Battery cells to rapidly prevent the Battery from the Thermal runaway event which is caused from the cell level ensuring the Battery safety mechanically. Additionally, the Battery pack includes the cell monitoring system and Battery Monitoring System to enhance the above invention with regards to the safety of the vehicle. This configuration is implementable and retrofittable into existing battery systems, offering a robust solution to the challenges posed by prolonged vehicle
Reginald, Rini, Rout, Saswat, VENKATESH, Muthukrishnan, Chauhan, Ashish Jitendra, Selvaraj, Elayanila
E-Drive System Selection Criterion for Hybrid Electric Heavy Commercial Vehicles Segments2026-26-04671/16/2026
The automotive industry has been expediting progress toward electrification since climate change driven by global warming represents a significant environmental challenge with far-reaching implications. While electric vehicles offer considerable potential for mitigating CO₂ emissions, their elevated upfront costs pose a notable challenge to large-scale market penetration. Hybrid electric vehicles can serve as an effective intermediary solution, bridging the gap between conventional internal combustion engine vehicles and fully electric vehicles, owing to their comparatively lower initial costs. Hybrid electric vehicle component selection is a complex process that must fulfill multiple requirements: fuel economy, performance, drivability, packaging, total cost of ownership and comfort. Additionally, the selection of hybrid configuration also plays a vital role in determining the cost of the hybrid electric vehicle. Hence, it is a great challenge to select the right powertrain
Shendge, Raman, Jadhav, Vaibhav, Wani, Kalpesh, Warule, Prasad
Hybrid Topology Selection & Optimization of a Compact SUV to Meet Future CO 2 Norms – an Indian Case Study2026-26-00771/16/2026
Rising environmental concerns and stringent emissions norms are pushing automakers to adopt more sustainable technologies. There is no single perfect solution for any market and there are solutions ranging from biofuels, green hydrogen to electric vehicles. For Indian market, especially in the passenger car segment, hybrid vehicles are favoured when it comes to manufacturers as well as with consumer because of multiple reasons such as reliability, performance, fuel efficiency and lower long-term cost of ownership. For automakers planning to upgrade their fleets in the context of upcoming CAFE III (91.7 g CO2 / km) & CAFE IV (70 g CO2/km) norms, hybridization emerges as the next natural step for passenger cars. Lately, various state governments have also promoted hybrid vehicle sales by offering certain targeted tax breaks which were previously reserved for EVs exclusively. Current study focuses on various parallel hybrid topologies for an Indian compact SUV, which is the highest
Warkhede, Pawan, Keizer, Ruben, Sandhu, Rouble, Emran, Ashraf
Integrated Cooling/HVAC System Design and Control Strategy for Light Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle14-15-01-00021/14/2026
In the recent years, the use of conventional passenger vehicles has been increasingly discouraged, from European-level policies to local municipal regulations, due to the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and urban pollution. In response to these challenges, the PRIN2020 project HySUM (Hybrid SUstainable Mobility platform) explores innovative hybrid powertrain solutions for light and heavy quadricycles to achieve near-zero pollutant emissions, focusing on internal combustion engine hybrid electric vehicles and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles. Taking all these aspects into consideration, this article proposes an integrated solution for cooling/HVAC circuits, to improve energy efficiency and occupants’ comfort, while focusing on proper battery operation, with a recuperator heat exchanger used to recover the available heat at the powertrain output, in order to reduce the HVAC heater energy consumption. The complexity of the circuit requires a specific control logic to be
Lombardi, Simone, Putano Bisti, Chiara, Federici, Leonardo, Pistritto, Antonino, Chiappini, Daniele, Tribioli, Laura
On Optima Selection Strategies of Adversarial Swarm Learning for Energy Management of PHEVs2025-01-732012/31/2025
Developing robust optimization and learning methods is necessary for intelligent vehicles since an increasing number of critical control functions will be handled by artificial intelligence. This paper proposes an adversary swarm learning (ASL) system and an optima selection strategy for robust energy management of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). The proposed ASL system comprises an attacking swarm and a defending swarm, which compete against each other iteratively to derive the most robust equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) for PHEV energy management. During the attacking rounds, the ECMS settings are fixed by the defender. Meanwhile, the attacker generates worst-case driving conditions by training a model in order to Maximize the equivalent energy consumption. During the defending rounds, the ECMS settings are optimized by the defender based on the driving scenarios generated by the attacker. The settings of robust ECMS are derived by introducing the
Zhong, Danyang, Yu, Zhuoping, Xiong, Lu, Zhou, Quan
Electrification: Vol. 3EPRCOMPV04202512/29/2025
Muelaner, Jody Emlyn, Adas, Camilo Abduch, Xu, Min, Zhang, Yijia
A Comparative Lifecycle Assessment Framework for Automotive Battery Storage Systems13-07-01-000112/19/2025
The transportation sector faces heightened scrutiny to implement sustainable technologies due to market trends, escalating climate change and dwindling fossil fuel reserves. Given the decarbonization efforts underway in the sector, there are now rising concerns over the sustainability challenges in electric vehicle (EV) adoption. This study leverages ISO 14040 Lifecycle Assessment methodology to evaluate EVs, internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) spanning cradle-to-grave lifecycle phases. To accomplish this an enhanced triadic sustainability metric (TSM) is introduced that integrates greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), energy consumption, and resource depletion. Results indicate EVs emit approximately 29% fewer GHG emissions than ICEVs but about 4% more than HEVs on the current the US grid, with breakeven sustainability achieved within a moderate mileage range compared to ICEVs. Renewable energy integration on the grid significantly enhances EV
Koech, Mercy Chelangat, Fahimi, Babak, Balsara, Poras T., Miller, John
Braking systems for electrified vehicles in national market2025-36-007712/18/2025
The demand for electrified vehicles has been increasing over the last few years, near to 180 thousand units were sold only in 2024, which represented around 7% of total sales of this type of vehicle in Brazil. By the year 2030, it is expected that at least 40% of sales volume will be electrified vehicles, considering mild hybrids. These results show that vehicle manufacturers are moving towards electrification and reducing carbon emission rates. Different levels of electrification are applied in their portfolio: from mild hybrid or rechargeable vehicles to fully electric vehicles. When analyzing the number of components in each automotive system, it is possible to notice a huge reduction. Electric vehicles have 90% fewer moving parts in the engine than combustion vehicles. In brake systems, the reduction can be up to 20% in hybrid and electric vehicles, which can use the same solutions. This paper aims to present the changes in the sets of braking components from combustion vehicles to
Romão, Bruno, Batagini, Emerson, Horschutz, Everton
Optimizing Automotive Software Development for Hybrids through the V-Model Integrated with Functional Design and In-the-Loop Validation (SiL/HiL)2025-36-024912/18/2025
This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of advanced methods for optimizing software development in hybrid vehicles, focusing on the V-Model methodology integrated with Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE), functional design techniques and In-the-Loop validation processes, and the incorporation of agile methodologies such as SAFe (Scaled Agile Framework). The increasing complexity of embedded systems in hybrid vehicles, driven by electrification and the introduction of autonomous and connected systems, demands systematic and rigorous approaches to ensure reliability, safety, and energy efficiency. Over the next sections, we will explore the fundamental principles of the V-Model, its adaptations to the context of hybrid vehicles, the implementation of functional design processes supported by MBSE, the application of Software-in-the-Loop (SiL) and Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) methodologies for system validation, and finally the integration of agile SAFe principles to manage
Gomes, Cleber Willian, Natal, Icarus Lima
Control Strategies for a Hybrid Electric-Combustion Powertrain Applied to a Test Bench2025-36-024612/18/2025
This paper presents the design and implementation of a test bench intended for the development and validation of control strategies applied to a hybrid-electric powertrain. The setup combines a 48 V SEG BRM electric machine with a small-displacement internal combustion engine (ICE), the HONDA GX160, operating in a parallel hybrid configuration. The platform was developed to improve energy efficiency in comparison to a conventional ICE-only system. Modifications were carried out on an existing test bench at Instituto Mauá de Tecnologia, including the fabrication of a new enclosure for the battery pack and its battery management system (BMS), as well as the integration of a Vector VN8911 real-time controller. A custom control strategy was implemented and experimentally evaluated using a predefined drive cycle under two conditions: (I) ICE-only operation and (II) hybrid-electric operation with the proposed strategy. Results showed a fuel consumption reduction of approximately 13% with the
Polizio, Yuri, Zabeu, Clayton, Pasquale, Gian, Pinheiro, Giovana, Vieira, Renato
Development of a Hardware-In-the-Loop (HIL) Platform for Evaluating and Implementing Heated Injection Technology in GDI Engines2025-36-004812/18/2025
Reducing pollutant emissions remains a major challenge for the automotive industry, driven by increasingly stringent environmental regulations. While solutions such as electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have been developed, internal combustion engines (ICEs) continue to dominate many markets, requiring additional emission control strategies. Traditional technologies like catalytic converters and advanced injection systems primarily optimize performance once the engine reaches its operating temperature. However, during the cold start phase, when engine temperatures are below optimal, combustion efficiency drops, resulting in increased emissions of non-methane organic gases (NMOG) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). This phase is further compromised by factors such as fuel droplet size and suboptimal catalyst performance. In response, this work presents the development of a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) platform to study the impact of heated injection technology on cold
Triviño, Juan David Parra, Teixeira, Evandro Leonardo Silva, De Lisboa, Fábio Cordeiro, Aguilar, Raul Fernando Sánchez, Oliveira, Alessandro Borges De Sousa
Real-time Analysis of Battery Degradation in a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles during Vehicle-to-Grid Operation2025-01-507912/9/2025
This paper examines the effect of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) integration on battery aging and the economic viability of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Due to their energy storage potential, V2G technologies are considered an environmentally friendly means to increase the stability of power grids. Persistent V2G operations tend to reduce battery lifetime and, consequently, will increase its replacement cost, which is a source of uncertainty for EV owners. This work investigates battery degradation under two scenarios: first, under normal vehicle operation using the US06 drive cycle, and second, under V2G operation with a 10-kW and 15-kW bidirectional charger. In the case of V2G operation, the charger discharges the battery by 20 kWh and then recharges it back to 90% state of charge (SoC) at a constant 1C-rate. Real-time simulations are performed in order to validate these results: a grid, a bidirectional charger, and the vehicle battery are modeled in a real-time simulator
Timilsina, Laxman, Moghassemi, Ali, Buraimoh, Elutunji, Arsalan, Ali, Rahman, S.M. Imrat, Muriithi, Grace, Ozkan, Gokhan, Papari, Behnaz, Edrington, Christopher S.
2026 Toyota RAV4 Review: All hybrid, all the time25AUTP12_2012/1/2025
Toyota's big claim for its new sixth-generation 2026 RAV4 is that the SUV is now“ 100% electrified.” That's true, as Obi-wan once said, from a certain point of view. As it recently did with the Camry, the automaker has eliminated an ICE-only powertrain from the list of options, giving drivers the choice between a gas-electric hybrid or a plug-in hybrid (PHEV). The hybrids use Toyota's fifth-generation hybrid system, which uses a 2.5-L 4-cylinder aluminum Atkinson cycle engine that produces 163 lb-ft and up to 226 hp (169 kW) in FWD configuration, 236 hp (176 kW) in AWD. Seven trim levels - LE, XLE Premium (which Toyota expects to be the volume trim), Limited, SE, XSE and Woodland - can be had with the hybrid powertrain, while the driving-focused GR Sport version can only be had as a PHEV. The plug-in option is available on the SE, XSE and Woodland. These new RAV4s use Toyota's sixth-generation PHEV system, which produces 324 hp (242 kW) and up to 172 lb-ft So, yes, the entire line-up
Blanco, Sebastian
Horse Powertrain's Future Hybrid System can hybridize EVs25AUTP12_0512/1/2025
Horse Powertrain revealed more information about its all-in-one hybrid powertrain, the Future Hybrid System, at IAA Mobility 2025 in Munich in September. The new details involve a 1.5-L, four-cylinder unit with integrated engine, motor, and transmission that was designed to replace an EV's front electric drive module to convert that EV into a hybrid, PHEV, or range-extended EV. Horse Powertrain revealed two variants of the Future Hybrid System (FHS) in Munich. The first, called Performance, is 740 mm (29 in) wide and uses two motors in a P1 + P3 configuration, with one each on the engine output and transmission output shafts. The second, the Ultra-Compact, is 650 mm (26 in) wide and is designed to sit between the engine and transmission. The 1.5-L engine, a dedicated hybrid transmission, and a full suite of power electronics for hybrid use are used in both versions. The company said an even smaller version - by 70 mm (3 in) - with three cylinders is being investigated.
Blanco, Sebastian
DeepDrive's MG 250 generator brings dual-rotor power to PHEVs25AUTP12_0412/1/2025
DeepDrive's dual-rotor mission began around four years ago, and the company feels like its time has finally come. At IAA Mobility 2025, the Munich-based start-up introduced a new version of its dual-rotor, radial-flux motor for use as a compact generator for range extenders. The MG 250 provides 120 kW continuous power and can be coupled directly to a crankshaft, eliminating the need for a gearbox. DeepDrive's dual-rotor technology uses inner and outer rotors surrounding a stator in a U-shape. Felix Poernbacher, DeepDrive co-founder and co-CEO, told SAE Media that the technology results in higher energy density and a more compact design. The MG 250 was engineered for 96.9% peak efficiency and “an outstanding efficiency map across the continuous operating window,” the company said. The MG 250 also has an integrated SiC inverter and can be configured for oil or water-glycol cooling.
Blanco, Sebastian
Road Test Emulation: A Data-Driven Calibration Approach2025-01-052111/25/2025
The resource-intensive process of road testing constitutes an essential part of the development of powertrain software. A significant proportion of explorative tests and adjustments for use in service are conducted during the vehicle test phase. However, the observed trends of decreasing development cycles and increasing system complexity generate a field of conflicts. In order to address this issue, this paper proposes road test emulation as a data-driven approach for continuously adapting powertrain software to the evolving overall system. A dedicated data strategy is designed to enhance customer-oriented software development. Therefore, test scenarios equivalent to in-service conditions are determined based on customer data. These test scenarios enable an emulation of road testing and the analysis of the system in a real-world operational context from the early stages of the product development process. System-specific data from the vehicle under development itself is utilised to
Martini, Tim, Kempf, André, Winke, Florian, Auerbach, Michael, Kulzer, André Casal
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