Browse Topic: Two or three wheeled vehicles

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Ultralightweight Emission Measurement Systems for Motorcycles: Accuracy and Practicality in RDE Testing2025-32-001111/03/2025
Real Driving Emission (RDE) testing for motorcycles presents unique challenges due to the motorcycle’s lightweight construction, limited mounting space, and sensitivity to added mass and aerodynamic drag. Full-functional automotive Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS), while highly accurate, are often impractical for two-wheelers as their weight and size can alter driving resistances, fuel consumption, and emission profiles, but also complicate installation and probably effect the drivability of the vehicle. To address these limitations, lightweight alternatives such as Mini-PEMS and ultralightweight alternatives such as Sensor-based Emission Measurement Systems (SEMS) offer compact, low-power solutions tailored for small vehicles. SEMS are typically equipped with lower cost sensors and low-tech gas conditioning systems compared to PEMS. Due to this these systems may not meet regulatory homologation requirements. Nevertheless, they provide justifiable accuracy for many real
Schurl, Sebastian, Lienerth, Peter, Japs, Leonid, Schroeder, Matthias, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Development of Electronic Control in Strong Hybrid Motorcycle2025-32-009111/03/2025
In response to the growing demand for environmental performance, the mobility industry is actively developing electrification, and in particular, the use of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) in commuting motorcycles is advancing. However, in the case of vehicles for leisure, which require high riding performance, there are problems such as cruising range and charging time, and there are currently few mass-produced models. Therefore, we proposed a Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) type Motorcycle (MC) to achieve both environmental performance and high riding performance by means other than BEV. The proposed vehicle is equipped with a strong type hybrid system in which an engine and a drive motor are connected in parallel via a hydraulic electronically controlled clutch. It is possible to drive only by motor (EV driving) or by hybrid driving powered by both the engine and the motor (HEV driving). In order to improve environmental performance, it is necessary to develop a function for switching
Obayashi, Kosuke, Terai, Shohei, Jino, Kenichi, Kawai, Daisuke
Investigation of Driving Characteristics for Road Alignments with High Traffic Accident Rates on Hilly and Mountainous Roads Using a Motorcycle Simulator2025-32-003511/03/2025
Single motorcycle accidents are common in Nagano Prefecture where is mountainous areas in Japan. In a previous study, analysis of traffic accident statistics data suggested that the fatality and serious injury rates for uphill right curves and downhill left curves are high, however the true causes of these accidents remain unclear. In this study, a motorcycle simulator was used to evaluate the driving characteristics due to these road alignments. Evaluation courses based on combinations of uphill/downhill slopes and left/right curves were created, and experiments were conducted. The subjects of the study were expert riders and novice riders. The results showed that right curves are even more difficult to see near the entrance of the curve when accompanied by an uphill slope, making it easier to delay recognition and judgment of the curve. Expert riders recognized curves faster than novice riders. Additionally, expert riders take a large lean of the vehicle body, actively attempted to
Kuniyuki, Hiroshi, Katayama, Yuta, Kitagawa, Taisei, Numao, Yusuke
RDE Testing of Small Motorcycle in Indian Road Conditions and Study the Impact of Instrumentation on Emission and Fuel Economy2025-32-007511/03/2025
This paper presents measurement results of emissions and fuel economy on real-world driving of two-wheelers in India using a state-of-the-art FTIR PEMS technology. The study aimed to characterize the emissions profiles of a small motorcycle under typical Indian driving conditions, including congested urban traffic and highway driving. This is the continuation of the study conducted previously on bigger motorcycle using gas analyzer [1], with necessary adaptations to suit the specific conditions of Indian roads and traffic. Key parameters such as NOx, CO, CO2 and Fuel consumption were measured during real-world driving cycles and comparison is done with standard WMTC emission testing cycle. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the actual on-road emissions of two-wheelers in India, which can be used to develop more accurate emission models and guide the development of cleaner and more efficient two-wheeler technologies. Key Considerations: Specifics of Indian Driving
Agrawal, Rahul, Jaswal, Rahul, Yadav, Sachin
Development of Anti-SideSlip Control for Motorcycles Using IMU2025-32-003711/03/2025
In motorcycle racing and other competitions, there is a technique to intentionally slide the rear wheel to make turns more quickly. While this technique is effective for high-speed riding, it is difficult to execute and carries risks such as falling. Therefore, an anti-sideslip control system that suppresses unintended or excessive sideslip is needed to ensure safe, natural, and smooth turning. In anti-sideslip control, the slip angle is usually used as a control parameter. However, for motorcycles, it is necessary to know the absolute direction of the vehicle's movement. To determine this, GPS or optical sensors are required, but using such sensors for driving is costly and may not provide accurate measurements due to contamination or other environmental factors, making it impractical. Therefore, an anti-sideslip control system was developed by calculating another parameter that indicates the characteristics of the slip angle, without measuring the slip angle itself, thus eliminating
Nakano, Kyosuke, Kawai, Kazunori, Takeuchi, Michinori
Study of the Relationship between the “Lean-Over” Characteristics of Motorcycles and Vehicle Specifications, Report 12025-32-003411/03/2025
This study investigates the dynamic characteristics of the steering handlebar, termed "lean-over characteristics," by combining unmanned bicycle experiments with frequency response analysis. The focus is on the frequency response function from external lateral force to roll angle and steering angle, with particular attention to the relationship between these outputs. Subjective evaluations conducted by test riders revealed noticeable differences in steering feel between the two bicycle configurations. These differences were quantitatively explained by the gain and phase characteristics of the FRF between roll angular angle and steering angle, especially at approximately 7 Hz. The origin of this dynamic behavior was identified as zeros in the transfer function of roll angle. At this frequency, the external moment input and the inertial response of the vehicle body cancel each other out, resulting in suppressed roll motion and an enhanced steering response. Numerical simulations
Sakai, Hideki, Nakagawa, Yoshihiro, Tezuka, Yoshitaka, Yamashita, Hiroki, Miyagishi, Shunichi
Obstacle Avoidance Capability of a Personal Mobility Vehicle (PMV) with an Inward Tilting Mechanism under Braking Conditions2025-32-003311/03/2025
This study delves into the dynamics of three-wheeled Personal Mobility Vehicles (PMVs) equipped with an active tilting mechanism. In three-wheeled vehicles with a single front wheel, the risk of tipping over during sudden braking and sharp turning is often highlighted. To address this issue, the authors have focused their research on three-wheeled PMVs with two front wheels and one rear wheel, equipped with an active tilting mechanism. Previous studies using dynamic simulation tools have demonstrated that such PMVs possess higher obstacle avoidance capabilities compared to motorcycles and even passenger cars. However, these simulations were based on the assumption of avoidance maneuvers without braking, and no studies have yet examined the behavior of three-wheeled PMVs with an active tilting mechanism under the more complex conditions of braking during turning. Therefore, prior to conducting dynamic simulations under braking and turning conditions, this study aims to clarify the
Haraguchi, Tetsunori, Kaneko, Tetsuya
Assessment of Electrification Potential for Hand-Held Powertools and Two-Wheelers2025-32-009411/03/2025
The reduction of the CO2 footprint of transport vehicles is a major challenge to minimize the harmful impact of technology on the environment. Beside passenger cars and light and heavy-duty vehicles, this affects also the two-wheeler category and the non-road mobile machinery (NRMM). One promising path for the de-carbonization is the transition from fossil-fuel powered ICE powertrains to electric powertrains. Several examples of electrified powertrains showcase possibilities for small hand-held power-tools or small mopeds and scooters. As the powertrain categories two-wheeler and NRMM are very diversified and consist of various sub-categories and sub-classes with many different applications, the feasibility of electrification for the whole category cannot be judged by few examples. In this publication, a methodology for assessing the electrification potential of hand-held power tools and two-wheelers is shown. The method uses 4 different factors, which determine the feasibility for
Schmidt, Stephan, Schacht, Hans-Juergen, Weller, Konstantin, Absenger, Johann Friedrich
Knock Sensors for Two Wheelers Applications2025-32-007911/03/2025
This paper describes the design and characteristics of the knock sensor. The sensor is already used as a commodity product for automotive applications and used by all automotive OEMs for spark ignited combustion engines. With the arrival of the electronic fuel injection on the two wheelers, further optimization of the combustion can be obtained. Although there are many publications on the engine knock strategy, little is known publicly about the sensor itself. The knock sensor is an accelerometer based on a piezoelectric component; it provides an analog signal of the engine vibration. The Electronic Control Unit will filter the signal according to a specific strategy and defines the presence and intensity of the engine knock. The ECU will act accordingly on the ignition timing. The inner structure as well as the mechanical and electrical interface are described in this article.
van Est, Jeroen, Prieu, Corentin
Traction Voltage Level in Two-Wheeler: Considerations on E-Motor Performance2025-32-009311/03/2025
The electric power of most electric two-wheelers on the market ranges between 2 and 12 kW. For this power range, the traction voltage level is mostly between 48V and 96V. There appears to be no strong correlation between electric power and traction voltage, suggesting that the current voltage choice is rather arbitrary. This paper briefly describes the e-motor model used in this study and introduces variations of four design parameters: DC voltage, maximum phase current, e-motor active length, and the number of turns in the e-motor winding. The consequences of these variations on peak performance, continuous performance, and efficiency maps are presented. Specific cases of parameter combinations are also studied. Two e-motors designed for 48V and 96V systems will be compared, showing that size, cost, and performance (power and losses) are equivalent. Additionally, the paper discusses how increasing the maximum phase current rating of the inverter can improve e-motor power in a 48V
Albert, Laurent
Real Driving Emission (RDE) Assessment for Motorcycles Using a Random Cycle Generator (RCG)2025-32-007111/03/2025
To conserve the atmospheric environment, regulations on vehicle exhaust gas emissions have become increasingly stringent. For Light Duty Vehicles (LDVs), Real Driving Emission (RDE) assessments based on Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS) have been introduced. However, the application of PEMS measurements to motorcycles presents several challenges, including reduced measurement accuracy owing to the small engine displacement and number of cylinders and increased motorcycle weight owing to PEMS installation. Therefore, an alternative evaluation method that does not rely on the PEMS is required. In this study, we developed a Random Cycle Generator (RCG) to provide an evaluation method that can be used in a laboratory environment. The RCG enables the evaluation of driving cycles by combining different motorcycle speed patterns. It can generate arbitrary driving cycles that consider the average and upper limits of regional driving characteristics, thereby enabling accurate
Matsuoka, Masahiro, Hirai, Hiroshi, Ito, Takayuki
Computational Analysis for Vehicle Suitability for EV Retro Fitment: An Approach for Faster Transition to Electric Mobility2025-28-040010/30/2025
The shift from internal combustion engine technology to electric vehicles (EV) based mobility system has to be made quickly to achieve the government goal of having 30% electric based mobility by 2030. Also, some studies suggest that a good number of two wheelers having better health, are discarded because of completion of registration time. To cater these issues, retrofitting of these vehicles to electric based systems is one of the solutions. Also, at present, the decision on the suitability of the vehicle for retrofitting is made based on a vehicle inspection-based methodology which can lead to human error. In the present work, a computation program is devised using programming languages that can help in making a decision on the suitability of the vehicle for retrofitting to EV-based technology. The program uses key parameters that play a significant role in taking decision on suitability to retrofit. The program was then made available to the users, who needs their two-wheeler
Vashist, Devendra, Jain, Mohit, Jain, Jatin
Development of Electric Vehicle Motor Test Rig for Performance Analysis2025-28-038010/30/2025
Electric two-wheeler testing before they are introduced in the market is one of the essential features needed by the certification agencies. Different types of test bench are available for measuring the torque and power from the electric two-wheeler that includes eddy current based motor test bench and mechanical based loading benches. In the present work an electric motor bench is designed and developed that takes care all features of electric two wheelers. The power supply to the motor is done through convertors and controller while mechanical loading is applied through belt. The other features that are kept in the rig includes lighting system and speed controller for the motor. The design is developed for variable outer diameter of electric two-wheeler testing. Tests were conducted on the developed rig. Test results were compared with electric motor specifications and were found to be in good agreement
Vashist, Devendra, Verma, Kartik, Chamok, Fahim, Tewatia, Bharat, Rajput, Neeraj
Numerical Simulation and Optimization of Engine Cooling System Based on One-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Coupling Analysis Method03-18-07-004010/29/2025
The design of motorcycle engine cooling systems is often hampered by a trade-off between computational efficiency and simulation accuracy, making optimized design iterative and costly. A streamlined, coupled 1D–3D methodology, validated across diverse engine configurations, is needed to address this challenge. This study develops and validates an iterative simulation framework to efficiently optimize cooling systems for various motorcycle engines. The 1D system model defines the performance targets, while 3D CFD analysis enables detailed component optimization (water jackets, radiator airflow); an iterative process ensures the target fulfillment. The 1D–3D coupling analysis methodology is applied to single-, two-, and four-cylinder engines. Results show that the coolant flow velocity within the water jackets are sufficient to ensure effective heat removal of engines and confirms the rational layout design of water jackets. The radiator inlet coolant temperature for the original design
Tan, Libin, Yuan, Yuejin
Experimental Evaluation of Behavior Perception and Prediction Methods in Automated Port Logistics Operations2025-99-006010/17/2025
With the rapid development of autonomous driving technologies, intelligent ports, particularly autonomous logistics, have become the focus of industry attention. Ensuring safe and efficient operations require port management systems to perceive and predict the behaviors of people and vehicles. In the filed of behavior perception, research efforts have primarily focused on the detection and tracking of vehicles, pedestrians, and obstacles under various sensor configurations. Common approaches include vision-based, LiDAR-based, and multi-sensor fusion methods. In terms of behavior prediction, existing approaches can be broadly categorized into four paradigms: model-driven, data-driven, environment-assisted, and anomaly prediction methods. Model-driven approaches rely on physical and motion models, while data-driven approaches utilize deep learning techniques. Environment-assisted approaches integrate prior knowledge such as maps, while anomaly prediction focus on identifying unexpected
Lu, Zhiyong, Wang, Xiyuan, Liu, Shiqu, Yang, Zheng, Li, Hao, He, Xiaofei
A Dictionary of Terms for the Dynamics and Handling of Single Track Vehicles (Motorcycles, Scooters, Mopeds, and Bicycles)J1451_202508 (Current)08/15/2025
Terminology within this document is limited to the dynamics and handling characteristics of single track, two-wheeled vehicles.
Motorcycle Technical Steering Committee
Effects on Motorcycle Response Data Using Wheel Force Transducers2025-01-009405/05/2025
Wheel Force Transducers (WFT) are precise and accurate measurement devices that seamlessly integrate into any vehicle. They can be applied in numerous vehicle applications for both on-road and in laboratory settings. The instrumentation requires replacing an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) wheel with a custom WFT system which is specific to the wheel hub design. An ideal design will minimally impact a vehicle's dynamics, but the vehicle system is inherently modified from the mass of the measurement device. Research and technical documentation have been published which provide conclusions explaining reduction in the unsprung mass reduces dynamic wheel load. However, there doesn’t appear to be clear compensation techniques for how a modified unsprung mass can be related to the original system, thus allowing the WFT signals to be more accurate to the OEM wheel forces. An experimental study was performed on a prototype motorcycle to better understand these differences. An
Frisco, Jacob, Larsen, William, Rhudy, Scott, Oosting, Nicholas, Laurent, Matthew
Vibration Refinement of Two Wheeler Sub Chassis and Aesthetic Parts Due to Engine Unbalanced Excitation Forces2025-01-011305/05/2025
Two wheeler is important and essential transportation mode in many of the countries across the globe. Designing a motorcycle with better riding comfort and minimal vibration are thus a major challenge for engineers now a day. Engine and road excitations are two source of vibration acting on motor bike or scooter both. These vibrations are transmitted to the chassis, sub chassis, aesthetic parts and then to the rider and pillion. Unwanted vibrations will create discomfort to the rider/pillion and produce noise. Hence, these need to be minimized. This study is focus on diagnosis and control of output vibration response of sub chassis/aesthetic parts due to engine unbalanced excitation force. There are numerous parameter of motor bike/scooter that governs the vibration response of sub chassis/aesthetic parts. Engine unbalanced inertia force characteristics and their transmission to rider and pillion has been studied and reported here. Environmental benefit demands for a complete noise
Khare, Saharash
A Two-Step Approach for Tire Lateral Force Observation for Motorcycles2024-32-004304/18/2025
This study presents a two-step method for estimating motorcycle tire lateral forces, which are critical to the safety of driver assistance systems. In the pre-filtering stage, a partial attitude of the motorcycle is estimated using a Kalman filter and a kinematic model. In the observation stage, the side slip angle and subsequently the tire lateral forces are provided by a sliding mode observer. It extends previous research by incorporating both out-of-plane and in-plane dynamics. The paper also proposes an approach for selecting the Kalman filter parameters. An approach to identify the stochastic sensor errors of the inertial measurement unit is presented. The identified parameters are used as a basis for the selection of the covariances. The overall study provides a practical implementation strategy and demonstrates its applicability in real-world scenarios. The experiments show the results of the lateral force estimation and its relation to the friction ellipse. The effectiveness of
Winkler, Alexander, Grabmair, Gernot, Reger, Johann
RDE Methodology Development for Motorcycle Emissions Assessment2024-32-007304/18/2025
The transfer of conditions and regulations for RDE testing from passenger cars to motorcycles is a non-trivial undertaking. Motorcycles exhibit significant differences in construction and usage compared to cars, necessitating a distinct set of requirements for equipment and methodology. Currently available PEMS are hindered by their relatively large size and weight due to the embedded measurement technology and external power supply. The weight of, at least 50kg, poses a substantial additional load, leading to a deviation and, on average, higher load collective of the engine during RDE measurement rides. Beyond these structural parameters, the actual propulsion system and subsequent exhaust system introduce another challenge when employing PEMS on motorcycles. An unfavorable combination of the ratio of engine displacement to the volume of the exhaust system and long or unequal ignition intervals leads to pulsations, which has a considerable impact on the differential pressure-based
Schurl, Sebastian, Keller, Stefan, Lankau, Mathias, Hafenmayer, Christian, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Analysis of Lane Departure Caused by Inadequate Motorcycle Driving Maneuvers Due to Road Alignment2024-32-003404/18/2025
There are many riders who drive motorcycles on winding mountain roads and caused single motorcycle traffic accidents on curved roads by lane departure. Driving a motorcycle requires subtle balancing and maneuvering. In this study, in order to clarify the influence of lane departure caused by inadequate driving maneuvers against road alignment, the authors analyzed the required curve initial operation and driving maneuvers in curves depending on the traveling speed using a kinematics simulation for motorcycle dynamics. In addition, it was analyzed how inadequate driving maneuvers for curved roads can easily cause lane departure. As a result, it shows that the steering maneuvers and the lean of motorcycle body during the curves are highly affected by the vehicle speed, and the required maneuvers increases rapidly with increasing speed. The inadequate maneuver in the curves, especially for the lean of motorcycle body and steering torque, even by 10%, may cause failure to follow the
Kuniyuki, Hiroshi, Takechi, So
Evaluation of Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS) Accuracy by Simultaneous Measurement of PEMS and Laboratory-Based Analyzers *2024-32-011304/18/2025
With growing concern to protect the atmosphere, the stringency of vehicle emission regulations is increasing annually [1,2]. Notably, evaluations of real driving emissions (RDEs) using portable emission measurement systems (PEMS) have been mandated for light duty vehicles (LDVs) in regions, such as the EU, China, India, and Japan [3,4]. Additionally, RDEs have attracted attention in motorcycles and was investigated in the effect study of the environmental step Euro 5 [5]. However, some inherent problems remain with RDE measurements using the PEMS on motorcycles. Due to the smaller engine displacement and fewer cylinders associated with motorcycles, resulting in lower exhaust gas flow rates, the measurement accuracy of the PEMS may be lower than that of the LDVs. Furthermore, exhaust emissions can be affected by the additional weight of the PEMS when mounted on motorcycles. This study investigated the accuracy of the PEMS in measuring motorcycle emissions by simultaneously measuring
Matsuoka, Masahiro, Hirai, Hiroshi, Ito, Takayuki
A Power Split eCVT Hybrid for Sustainable Urban Mobility2024-32-002904/18/2025
The main drivers for powertrain electrification of two-wheelers, motorcycles and ATVs are increasingly stringent emission and noise limitations as well as the upcoming demand for carbon neutrality. Two-wheeler applications face significantly different constraints, such as packaging and mass targets, limited charging infrastructure in urban areas and demanding cost targets. Battery electric two wheelers are the optimal choice for transient city driving with limited range requirements. Hybridization provides considerable advantages and extended operation limits. Beside efficiency improvement, silent and zero emission modes with solutions allowing fully electric driving, combined boosting enhances performance and transient response. In general, there are two different two-wheeler base categories for hybrid powertrains: motorcycles featuring frame-integrated internal combustion engine (ICE) and transmission units, coupled with secondary drives via chain or belt; and scooters equipped with
Schoeffmann, W., Fuckar, G., Hubmann, C., Gruber, M.
A Study on Optimal Combinations of Winding and Cooling Methods for Downsizing Power Units in Motorcycles2024-32-000704/18/2025
In commercially available electric motorcycles, there is a notable shift in the cooling method, moving from air cooling to water cooling, and in the winding method, moving from concentrated winding to distributed winding, as the output increases. This shift occurs around 8 to 10 kW. However, there is a paucity of empirical investigations examining these combinations to ascertain their optimality. In order to verify this trend, a verification model has been constructed which allows for the comparison of the capacity and weight of the motor and cooling system according to the vehicle’s required output and thermal performance. A comparison and verification of the combinations of winding methods (concentrated winding or segment conductor distribution winding) and cooling systems (water-cooled or air-cooled) was conducted using the model that had been constructed. In the motor designed for this study, when the maximum output of the vehicle was 35 kW or less (European A2 license), the total
Otaki, Ryota, Tsuchiya, Teruyuki, Sakai, Yu, Yamauchi, Takuya, Shimizu, Tsukasa
Research on the Combustion Characteristics of Port Injection Hydrogen Engines for Motorcycles2024-32-009404/18/2025
To prevent global warming, reducing CO2 emissions is the most important issue, and for this reason, efforts are needed to realize a carbon neutral society. Since hydrogen can be stored and transported, and does not emit carbon dioxide when burned, it has attracted particular attention as a fuel for internal combustion engines in recent years and has been studied in various industrial fields[1]. However, many of these studies have been conducted on commercial and passenger vehicle engines, and there has not yet been sufficient validation on small motorcycle engines. Therefore, in this study, a single cylinder gasoline engine for two-wheeled vehicles was converted into a hydrogen engine with port injection, and the abnormal combustion, which is a problem of hydrogen combustion, was verified. In this report, the parameters affecting the abnormal combustion are summarized based on the experimental results, and the reason why the parameters are a factor of the abnormal combustion generation
Suzuki, Haruaki, Inui, Taichi, Okado, Takanori, Tamura, Shohei, Kagawa, Yuta, Ninomiya, Yoshinari
Human Model on Multi-Body Dynamics Simulation of Motorcycle2024-32-000504/18/2025
The possibilities and challenges of adding a rider model to the motorcycle dynamics simulation were investigated for the future planning of a full virtual test. The human model was added to a multi-body dynamics model that reproduces the equations of motion of a motorcycle, called the 10 degrees of freedom (10-DoF) model. The human model is composed from multiple masses and joints, and the steering angle can be controlled by determining the angle of the arms and shoulder. To study the effect of this model, three distinct simulations were carried out: ‘the eigenvalue analysis’, ‘the steady-state circular test simulation’ and ‘the slalom running simulation’. In the eigenvalue analysis, the eigenvalues of the wobble mode shifted to a stable side in the root locus when both hands were fixed on the handlebars. As a result of the slalom running simulation, the response of the handlebar control through the human model produced a more convex trajectory than a direct control of the steering
Ueki, Motohito, Takayama, Akihiro, Yabe, Noboru
Study on Motorcycle Rider Model Using Reinforcement Learning - Learning Examples Including Following Target Velocity and Basic Research on Rider Proficiency2024-32-002804/18/2025
In this study, an initial approach using deep reinforcement learning to replicate the complex behaviors of motorcycle riders was presented. Three learning examples were demonstrated: following a target velocity, maintaining stability at low speeds, and following a target trajectory. These examples serve as a starting point for further research. Additionally, the proficiency of the constructed models was examined using rider proficiency evaluation methods developed in previous studies. Initial results indicated that the models have the potential to mimic real rider behaviors; however, challenges such as differences between the model’s output and what humans can produce were also identified for future work.
Mitsuhashi, Yasuhiro, Momiyama, Yoshitaka, Yabe, Noboru
Estimation Method of Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Motorcycle applicable from Individual Unit to Sales Volume2024-32-004104/18/2025
To achieve carbon neutrality, manufacturers need to estimate Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions generated throughout the life cycle of motorcycles, namely the Carbon Footprint of Product (CFP). We developed a method that allows calculation of the per-unit CFP and the total CFP of sales volume of motorcycles with a common formula, and also enables the estimation of their future values. First, we made it possible to calculate the per-unit CFP of each individual model by setting factors that we quantified the characteristics of motorcycles such as material composition and replacement parts and incorporating them into the calculation formula. Next, we enabled the calculation of the total CFP of sales volume from the present to the future by standardizing the specs of individual models and calculating the CFP by product category and multiplying the sales volume. Furthermore, we made it possible to simulate future CFP according to scenarios of expansion of environmental protection actions such
Mori, Yuichi, Kawatsu, Hirotaka, Yamaguchi, Takumi, Tanaka, Kazuhiko, Aoki, Toshiki, Niimura, Ryuta
Development of CO 2 Emission Reduction Technology for Sport Motorcycles2024-32-009604/18/2025
With growing global concern about climate change, the challenge is to achieve carbon neutrality (CN) in motorcycles (MCs) as well, and various approaches are needed to achieve CN. For powertrains using internal combustion engines (ICEs), CN can be achieved by adopting CN fuels such as e-fuel and biofuel, but considering cost and supply, it is important to develop CO2 reduction technologies for ICEs. Compared with 4-wheel vehicles, MCs are required to be powerful, lightweight, compact and capable of travelling long distances, the CO2 reduction technologies that can be adopted tend to be a trade-off between dynamic performance and CO2 reduction, and a challenge is to achieve a high level of both requirements. We decided to focus on middle-class sports MCs, which require particularly high dynamic performance, and to develop CO2 reduction technologies. As a technology development target, CO2 emissions were set at 65 g/km in the worldwide-harmonized motorcycle test cycle (WMTC) class 3-2
Makita, Naoki, Torigoshi, Masaki, Takahashi, Toshihiko, Takase, Hiroki
Novel Statistical Modelling-Based Approach for Exhaust Mass Flow Calculation in Motorcycles2024-32-007204/18/2025
The exhaust mass flow measurement for motorcycles poses a unique challenge due to presence of pulsations arising from an unfavorable combination of the engine displacement-to-exhaust system volume ratio and the long or even unequal ignition intervals. This pulsation phenomenon significantly impacts the accuracy of the differential pressure-based measurement method commonly employed in on-board measurement systems for passenger cars. This paper introduces an alternative approach calculating exhaust mass flow in motorcycles, focusing on statistical modelling based on engine parameters. The problem at hand is rooted in the adverse effects of pulsations on the differential pressure-based measurement method used in the EFM. The unfavorable combination of engine characteristics specific to motorcycles necessitates a novel approach. Our proposed alternative involves utilizing readily available OBD parameters, namely engine speed and calculated engine load as there is mostly no data for intake
Schurl, Sebastian, Sturm, Stefan, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Virtual Calibration Approach to the Development of Control Systems and Strategies for Hybrid L-Category Vehicles2024-32-006604/18/2025
Hybrid powertrain for motorcycles has not been widely adopted to date but has recently shown significant increased interest and it is believed to have great potential for fuel economy containment in real driving conditions. Moreover, this technology is suitable for the expected new legislations, reduced emissions and enables riding in Zero Emissions Zones, so towards a more carbon neutral society while still guaranteeing “motorcycle passion” for the product [1, 2]. Several simulation tools and methods are available for the concept phase of the hybrid system design, allowing definition of the hybrid components and the basic hybrid strategies, but they are not able to properly represent the real on-road behaviour of the hybrid vehicle and its specific control system, making the fine tuning and validation work very difficult. Motorcycle riders are used to expect instant significant torque delivery on their demand, that is not properly represented in legislative cycles (e.g. WMTC); rider
Antoniutti, Christian, Sweet, David, Hounsham, Sandra
Trends in the Automated and AutomaticTransmission Systems for Two Wheeled Vehicles2024-32-006104/18/2025
The two-wheeler industry features a diverse range of transmission systems catering to varied riding preferences and market demands. Manual transmissions offer direct gear control, favored by enthusiasts for its precision and customizable performance. Automatic transmissions simplify riding, especially in urban settings, eliminating manual gear shifts and reducing rider fatigue. Understanding the dynamics of transmission systems in the two-wheeler space is crucial for manufacturers, engineers, policymakers, and riders alike. It informs product development, regulatory compliance efforts, and market positioning initiatives in an increasingly competitive and innovation-driven industry landscape. DCT (Dual Clutch Transmission) and manual transmissions represent extremes in rider engagement, automation, and cost. While DCT offers seamless gear changes and convenience at a higher price point, manual transmissions provide direct control and a tactile experience with lower initial costs. Riders
Kundu, Prantik
Traction Voltage Level in Two-Wheelers: Considerations on Safety and Performance2024-32-006204/18/2025
Most electric 2-wheelers on the market today seek to replace combustion engine vehicles from 50cc to 150cc which equates to an electric motor power between 2 and 12 kW. The traction voltage level of these vehicles is mostly between 44V and 96V. However, the actual choice of voltage on a specific vehicle seems to be arbitrary and higher voltage does not necessarily correlate with higher motor power. This paper seeks to highlight considerations and tradeoffs which feed the choice of traction voltage levels. Important criteria are electrical safety standards and their impact on vehicle electrical architecture, the performance and availability of key electronics parts such as capacitors, MOSFETs, and gate drivers, while also highlighting functional safety aspects. This paper shows by a comprehensive analysis of the motor drive that for the vehicle class mentioned above the traction voltage level can be kept below 60V without any performance impact, while also ensuring electrical and
Schmitt, Stefan
Fatigue Analysis of Motorcycle Rear Swing Arm on Different Road Surfaces2024-32-004604/18/2025
The rear swing arm, a crucial motorcycle component, connects the frame and wheel, absorbing the vehicle’s load and various road impacts. Over time, these forces can damage the swing arm, highlighting the need for robust design to ensure safety. Identifying potential vulnerabilities through simulation reduces the risk of failure during the design phase. This study performs a detailed fatigue analysis of the swing arm across different road conditions. Data for this research were collected from real-vehicle experiments and simulation analyses, ensuring accuracy by comparing against actual performance. Following CNS 15819-5 standards, road surfaces such as poorly maintained, bumpy, and uneven roads were tested. Using Motion View, a comprehensive multi-body dynamic model was created for thorough fatigue analysis. The results identified the most stress-prone areas on the swing arm, with maximum stress recorded at 109.6N on poorly maintained roads, 218.3N on bumpy surfaces, and 104.8N on
Chiou, Yi-Hau, Hwang, Hsiu-Ying, Huang, Liang-Yu
Analysis of the Effect of Combination Frame Flexibility on Weave Modes2024-32-004904/18/2025
The weave mode of a motorcycle is known to be affected by the flexibility of the vehicle frame. The weave mode has been shown to be more unstable in the 10-DOF model than in the 4-DOF model. However, it is not clear why the weave mode would be unstable, given the six different frame flexibilities. In this study, the authors analyzed the stability of the weave mode in a 4-DOF model when the same was integrated with two types of frame flexibilities. In the vehicle specifications used in the analysis, the combination of the bending flexibility of the front forks and the torsional flexibility of the main frame destabilizes the weave mode. The analysis results show that the phase delay of the front tire lateral force is caused by the phase delay of the steering angle. The combined bending flexibility of the front forks and the torsional flexibility of the main frame results in a large phase lag in the steering angle.
Haraoka, Reiya, Katayama, Tsuyoshi, Yoshino, Takahiko
Development of Higher Clarity Injection Molded Windscreen for Motorcycles2024-32-004004/18/2025
The windscreen is one of the key elements to enhance passenger comfort of touring motorcycle. The clarity through the windscreen should not discomfort the rider. The discomfort we discuss here mainly refers to three factors: the “distortion,” the “blur,” and the “transparency.” Introduced in this paper is the technical measures to achieve sufficient clarity by the injection molding method. Firstly, with respect to the “distortion,” we determined the main cause was local unevenness of plate thickness. As the uneven thickness were related to the accuracy of the die, we clarified the tolerable zone and carried out higher precision machining of the die to satisfy the requirements. Regarding the “blur,” we analyzed the refractive power of the windscreen and found the main cause of blur is the microscopic roughness on the surface. As the microscopic roughness were attributable to the die surface, we clarified the tolerable zone and established the polishing conditions satisfactory for the
Yamada, Atsushi, Endo, Sakae
Motorcycle ClassificationsJ213_202504 (Current)04/14/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice provides uniform definitions and classifications for motorcycles and motorized three-wheel cycles.
Motorcycle Technical Steering Committee
Drop Test Correlation in Front & Rear Landing Scenario for Two-Wheeler (Motorcycle) using Multibody Simulation2025-01-863804/01/2025
Two wheelers motorcycles are used for many purposes e.g. commuting from one place to another, long highway rides, racing and off-roading. Motorcycles which are used in off-road conditions require higher suspension strokes to absorb large oscillations due to terrain conditions. These motorcycles undergo jumps of varying heights and different vehicle orientations. In some of the dynamic situations front wheel may land on the ground before the rear and in other cases it may be vice versa. To make sure that the vehicle is durable enough to withstand loads in such operating conditions, vehicle drop test was developed in test lab where vehicle is dropped from predefined heights in both front & rear wheel landing conditions. Same test case is simulated in multibody dynamics to capture loads at important connections of the frame. This paper presents the correlation exercise carried out to validate MBD model and simulation process with test data captured during lab test. Accelerations at
Jain, Arvind Kumar, Nirala, Deepak
Enhancement in Cabin Comfort and Overall Energy Utilization of an Electric Reverse Trike Car by Optimizing the System Layout2025-01-815004/01/2025
The rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), driven by stricter emissions norms, is transforming both urban and rural mobility. However, significant challenges remain, particularly concerning the charging infrastructure and battery technology. The limited availability of charging stations and the reliance on current high-energy-density cells restrict the overall effectiveness of the e-mobility ecosystem. These constraints lead to shorter vehicle ranges and longer charging times, contributing to range anxiety—one of the most critical barriers to widespread EV adoption. Adding to these challenges, auxiliary systems, especially air-conditioning (AC) systems, significantly impact energy consumption. Among all auxiliary systems, the AC system is the most energy-intensive, often exacerbating range anxiety by reducing the distance an EV can travel on a single charge. Hence, it is essential to focus on enhancing the efficiency of AC systems. This involves redefining and optimizing system
Sen, Somnath, Jadhav, Yash, Singh, Karamjeet, Sorte, Swapnil, Anwar, Md Tahir
Dynamic Testing and Analysis of Autocycle Vehicles for Accident Reconstruction2025-01-868704/01/2025
The Autocycle is a style of vehicle that most often utilizes a reverse-tricycle design with two front wheels and a single rear wheel. Modern autocycles in the United States are often utilized in a recreational role. This work presents physical measurements of two modern autocycles for use in accident reconstruction and pursues a deeper understanding of the unique attributes and handling associated with these vehicles. Vehicles were used to measure physical properties and subjected to cornering tests presented herein, and the data is compared to that for a conventional automobile. Observations on tire scuff marks are made from cornering tests unique to these vehicles. Strengths and challenges with this type of vehicle design are presented for various use cases as compared to conventional automobiles. Data and knowledge from this study are published to aid accident reconstruction efforts.
Warner, Wyatt, Swensen, Grant, Warner, Mark
Modal Analysis Approach for Analysis and Design of Vehicle Transient Behavior2025-01-879404/01/2025
In order to manage the serious global environmental problems, the automobile industry is rapidly shifting to electric vehicles (EVs) which have a heavier weight and a more rearward weight distribution. To secure the handling and stability of such vehicles, understanding of the fundamental principles of vehicle dynamics is inevitable for designing their performance. Although vehicle dynamics primarily concerns planar motion, the accompanying roll motion also influences this planar motion as well as the driver's subjective evaluation. This roll motion has long been discussed through various parameter studies, and so on. However, there is very few research that treats vehicle sprung mass behavior as “vibration modes”, and this perspective has long been an unexplored area of vehicle dynamics. In this report, we propose a method to analytically extract the vibration modes of the sprung mass by applying modal analysis techniques to the governing equations of vehicle handling and stability
Kusaka, Kaoru, Yuhara, Takahiro
Comparative Kinematic Performance Testing to SAE J3230 on a Dynamometer and Test Track2025-01-879204/01/2025
SAE J3230 provides Kinematic Performance Metrics for Powered Standing Scooters. These performance metrics include many tests which require specific conditions including flat pavement with a near zero slope, drivers of specific height and weights, and data acquisition equipment. In order to determine the efficacy of replicating SAE J3230 tests in a laboratory setting, a device called the Micromobility Device Thermo-Electric Dynamometer was used alongside outdoor tests to provide a comparison of scooter performance in these two testing applications. Based on the testing outcomes, it can be determined whether SAE J3230 and similar standards for other micromobility devices can be replicated in a lab-based setting, saving time, operator hazard, and providing more thorough data outputs.
Bartholomew, Meredith, Andreatta, Dale, Zagorski, Scott, Heydinger, Gary
Correlation of Subjective Assessments and Objective Metrics for on-Center Feeling2025-01-828704/01/2025
Steering feeling plays a critical role in the driving experience and is one of the most significant topics during a new vehicle development process. To reach a consensus for the customers’ satisfaction in both the subjective and objective characteristics in a particular market segment, there have been several studies to investigate the correlations between subjective and objective evaluations of on-center steering feeling. However, it is still not clear how to determine the steering characteristic based on the correlations. In this paper, a series of new correlations between subjective and objective evaluations are built, which focus on steering stiffness, on-center feel, torque symmetry, torque ripple etc. Firstly, a set of objective metrics which are followed by professional test drivers or tuning experts have been extracted from 12 vehicles’ on-center handling test based on ISO 13674-1 2023, these vehicles covering different motorcycle type, various brands and diverse tuning styles
Jin, Ankang, Luo, Kaijie, Yang, Jianyuan, Zheng, Yue
Study of Vibrations in a Motorcycle Chassis2025-01-501403/17/2025
The study of vibrations in the structures of vehicles are very important to ensure its quality and integrity; thus, the study of the dynamic behavior of a motorcycle chassis is highly significant for their improvement. For that study, the modal analysis allows us to obtain the dynamic properties of the structure, such as its inertia and stiffness. Likewise, the damping is also an important parameter, which could be obtained by the frequency response function (FRF) of an impact load. In a motorcycle the engine, producing a broad frequency range, is the main source of excitation. A harmonic analysis with a shaker producing a frequency sweep allows one to better understand the vibratory transfer function between the engine and all the parts of the motorcycle. The experimental modal analysis (EMA) was used to characterize the dynamic behavior of the chassis. For that, a software was developed to use in a commercial board for the acquisition and processing of the accelerometer’s signals to
Paiva, Antonio Pedro, Vaz, Mario, Lopes, Hernâni
Analysis of Speeding and Crashes on Bridges in Mugling to Narayanghat Highway Segment in Nepal09-13-01-000203/03/2025
Driving speed affects road safety, impacting crash severity and the likelihood of involvement in accidents on highway bridges. However, their impacts remain unclear due to inconsistent topography and consideration of crash types. This study aimed to identify the status of accidents and factors associated with accidents occurring on bridges along the Mugling to Narayanghat highway segment in Nepal. The study area involves the selected highway segment stretching from Aptari junction (CH: 2+42) to Mugling junction (CH: 35+677). Spanning 33.25 km, the road traverses through both hilly and Terai regions. The study employs descriptive and correlation statistics to analyze crash data from 2018 to 2023, aiming to achieve its research objectives. The study reveals overspeeding as the primary cause of crashes, notably head-on and rear-end collisions. Two-wheelers frequently exceed the speed limit of 40 km/h limit (29–88 km/h), and four-wheelers do similarly (18–81 km/h), leading to overspeeding
Giri, Om Prakash, Shahi, Padma Bahadur, Kunwar, Deepak Bahadur
Structural Analysis of Two-Wheeler Handlebars under Varied Loads2025-28-005302/07/2025
This study presents a comprehensive structural analysis of a two-wheeler handlebar subjected to various loading conditions, aiming to evaluate its strength, durability, and safety. During operation, two-wheelers encounter multiple forces, making the handlebar a critical component for rider control and safety. The analysis begins by investigating the different types of loads experienced during typical riding scenarios, including static loads when the bike is stationary, and dynamic loads arising from rider movements, braking, and handling. The primary objective is to understand how these loads impact the handlebar's structural integrity. To achieve this, critical load cases are identified and categorized. Braking loads, which apply force primarily in the forward direction due to deceleration, are examined. Manhandling loads are analyzed to understand the multidirectional forces acting on the handlebar during transportation and parking. Additionally, vertical loads are assessed
Prajapati, Akash, Rathore, Avijit Singh, Bhaskara Rao, Lokavarapu
Crash Performance Study on High-Speed Electric Two-Wheeler Battery Enclosure2025-28-020302/07/2025
The usage of Electric Vehicles (EVs) and the annual production rate have increased significantly over the years. This is due to the development of rechargeable electrical energy storage system (battery pack), which is the main power source for EVs. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) pack is predominantly used across all major vehicle categories such as 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers and light commercial vehicle. LIB is one of the high energy-dense sources of volume. However, LIBs have a challenge to pose a risk of short circuits and battery pack explosions, when exposed to damage scenarios. In the present study, the controlled crash analysis is performed for various velocities ranging from 50 kmph to 72 kmph against an obstruction directly and at an offset from the wheel, so as to mimic the real-world crash of high-speed two-wheelers. The behavior of the battery enclosure is examined through evaluating the structural integrity of the battery enclosure used in a realistic two-wheeler after crash at
Venkatesan Sr, Aiyappan, Nelson, N Rino, Hariharan Nair, Adarsh
Performance Analysis of Conventional Two Wheeler versus Plug in Hybrid Electric Two Wheeler for Light Goods Transportation2025-28-019902/07/2025
The study investigates the performance of conventional two-wheelers versus Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) two-wheelers in the context of light goods transportation. With growing environmental concerns and the push towards sustainable transportation solutions, the study focuses on understanding the effects of using electric or hybrid electric vehicles for small-capacity load carrying applications, in terms of parameters such as mileage, pollution, and range. A simulation model was created in MATLAB, where the various vehicle parameters can be changed and their effect on vehicle performance such as SOC, motor power, motor speed, vs input velocity can be studied. Similar tests were conducted in the real world and the results obtained were compared with simulation results. Results indicate that PHEV two-wheelers significantly reduce emissions and fuel consumption, while maintaining comparable performance in terms of speed and load capacity. However, the initial investment and
Kumar, V. Sudhir, R, Balamurugan, Pasupuleti, Thejasree, Natarajan, Manikandan
Cloud-Based Monitoring of Lithium-Ion Battery Management Systems for Health Estimation in Manufacturing Industries2025-28-020002/07/2025
The increasing reliance on lithium-ion batteries in manufacturing necessitates advanced monitoring techniques to ensure their longevity and reliability. Cloud technology offers a solution by enabling real-time data collection, analysis, and accessibility, facilitating thorough monitoring and predictive maintenance. Digital twin technology, creating a virtual replica of the physical battery system, provides a platform for simulating real-world conditions and predicting potential issues before they arise. By integrating sensor data and historical usage patterns, the digital twin model can accurately predict battery degradation, aiding in timely maintenance strategies. This proactive approach enhances battery operational efficiency and extends lifespan, leading to cost savings and improved safety. The paper explores using cloud-based monitoring systems to enhance the health estimation and management of lithium-ion batteries. A comprehensive feasibility study on adopting battery digital
Zeeshan, Mohammad, Akre, Vineet
Design and Development of Range Extended-Hybrid Power Train for Two-Wheeler2025-28-019402/07/2025
Environmental awareness is being fostered in every sector, with particular emphasis on the automotive industry. Conventional internal combustion engines are responsible for greenhouse gas emissions and health issues. Researchers are looking for alternative technologies to reduce carbon footprint and for a green environment. In this study, electric drivetrain is designed for 20% range extension and retrofitted in conventional two-wheeler. An effective control technique has been developed, thoroughly tested, and effectively implemented on the two-wheeler. The hybrid drivetrain architecture is assessed for complexities such as the required space for the battery and the location for fitting the electric motor. During low-speed conditions, the electric motor reduced the emissions and minimized fuel consumption. Consequently, the overall utilization of internal combustion engines at low-speed conditions has decreased, leading to a decrease in the vehicle's fuel consumption and exhaust gases.
Banad, Chandrashekhar B, Devunuri, Suresh, Nair, Jayashri Narayanan, Hadagali, Balappa, Prasad, Gvl
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