Browse Topic: Two or three wheeled vehicles

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Fifteen Instrumented Motorcycle Crash Tests into a Barrier and Stiffness Comparison of Standard and Upside-Down Forks2026-01-50597/10/2026
Fifteen instrumented crash tests were performed using a 2005 Yamaha R6 motorcycle. Seven tests were performed with upside-down (USD) forks and eight tests were performed with standard forks. The 2005 Yamaha R6 provided a platform where both types of front forks could be interchanged. For all tests, the motorcycle was delivered into a concrete block at speeds varying between 5 and 23 mph. Seven tests were conducted at low speeds to determine the onset of permanent deformation. Eight tests were conducted at higher speeds to observe the wheelbase reduction of the motorcycle and its relationship to impact speed. This paper summarizes the data from these tests related to wheelbase reduction, impact dynamics, and post-impact movement, allowing comparison between two different suspension systems and historical datasets.
Lucernoni, Anthony, Boyd, Dusty, Wahba, Ronny, Taeuber, Andre, Stoner, Jacob, Law, Trevor
The Influence of Spatial and Aspatial Factors on the Safety Driving Behavior of Motorcycle Couriers in the Gig-Economy Era: A Case Study of East Jakarta, Indonesia09-14-02-00057/3/2026
This study aims to analyze the impact of spatial and aspatial factors on the safety driving behavior of motorcycle couriers in East Jakarta within the context of the gig economy. Both factors are integrated to clarify how spatial conditions and individual characteristics jointly shape couriers’ safety driving behavior. The Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) method was employed to examine the relationship between spatial and aspatial factors on safety driving behavior. Data were collected through questionnaires from 253 motorcycle couriers operating in three subdistricts in East Jakarta, namely Cakung, Pasar Rebo, and Pulo Gadung. The results show that safety driving behavior is significantly influenced by aspatial factors, particularly socioeconomic characteristics and personality traits. In contrast, spatial factors such as road conditions and daily activity patterns do not directly influence safety driving behavior, but exert indirect effects through the couriers’ personality traits.
Wahyuddin, Yasser, Sitorus, Paldibo Alfriramson, Putri, Kharunia, Maharani, Garnierita
Impact Test Simulation for Aluminum Casted Wheel Including Tire Properties2026-01-50396/10/2026
Alloy wheels are essential safety components in two-wheeled vehicles. This study details the finite element analysis (FEA) used to simulate and evaluate the wheel and tire performance under the double mass impact load specified by the AIS-073 (Part-1) standard. The impact is carried out by dropping a striking mass along with a main mass onto the alloy wheel–tire assembly, as per the standard. The alloy wheel is modeled using a three-dimensional finite element model with elastic-plastic material behavior, and the tire is modeled with its internal elements (e.g., carcass, belt, etc.). The prediction of wheel impact failure is based on the total plastic work of the ductile fracture mechanism. The validity of results is confirmed by comparing the predicted permanent lateral rim deformation against the measured lateral deformation from a corresponding physical test.
Minz, Jai Shankar, Singh, Sanjay Kumar, Nirala, Deepak Kumar
Driven: Honda Fastport eQuad Prototype26AUTP06_126/1/2026
There's a well-known video from San Francisco in 1906 that comes up repeatedly in mobility discussions here in the 21st Century. If you haven't seen A Trip Down Market Street, it depicts the absolute bonkers variety of transportation methods used on Market Street back then: cable cars, horsecars, streetcars, pedestrians, automobiles and more. Past is prologue in a world that is adding scooters, delivery robots and other last-minute delivery vehicles to our streets. At the 2026 New York International Auto Show in April, Honda displayed its latest option in the form of the Fastport eQuad Prototype. The eQuad was originally unveiled at Eurobike 2025 and technically comes from Fastport, a micromobility venture from the Honda New Business Innovation Lab that was established to work on projects with global logistics companies. Jamie Davies, chief of operations for Fastport, called the group a kind of startup within Honda. “Three years ago,” Davies told SAE Media in New York, “a small group of Honda associates [came] together and [said], Okay, how can we create a new value for the company, a new business vertical? And so we've run the project in an agile way, working with customers all along the way to understand what their needs are, what the requirements are, and to bring to market something that fits.”
Blanco, Sebastian
Face Seal Gland Design, Static, O-Ring and Other Seals for Aerospace Hydraulic and Pneumatic ApplicationsAS6235C (Current)5/27/2026
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) specifies standardized gland design criteria and dimensions for static face seals for internal pressure and external pressure applications for aerospace hydraulic and pneumatic applications using the same dash size range as AS4716 and AS5857 where applicable. NOTE: Some small diameter sizes are excluded because they are not practical.
A-6C2 Seals Committee
Top Speed Test Procedure for Electric MotorcyclesJ3007_202605 (Current)5/27/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice incorporates a track-based test procedure that produces a representative value for vehicle top speed when operating on a level paved road with a fully charged battery.
Motorcycle Technical Steering Committee
Testing of Rigid Two- and Three-Wheeled Vehicle Pitch-Over Threshold Models2026-01-05384/7/2026
The phenomenon of bicycle pitch-over is simple in concept, yet determining threshold criteria for pitch-over has yet to be well established, particularly with respect to determining whether or not a bicycle’s front wheel will roll over a particular obstacle or not. Two prior SAE papers have laid out two different analytical approaches to predict this threshold – the Moment-Inversion and Brach Pitch-Over Threshold models - and this paper proposes a modification to the Moment-Inversion model to account for tire deflection. Testing began by measuring the center of gravity locations and moments of inertia for a bicycle with weights and training wheels and for a test rider on a bicycle and tricycle. These physical measurements were used to calculate the predicted pitch-over height for each system for each model. The test systems were then ridden over a series of progressively taller square edge obstacles until they transitioned from rolling over to stopping or pitching over. From this testing, it was demonstrated that the sole bicycle with training wheels stopped rolling over the square edge within one centimeter of the threshold predicted by the original Moment-Inversion model, which was below the height predicted by the other two. However, the rider on the bicycle and tricycle was able to ride repeatedly over obstacles taller than the height calculated by any of the analytical methods. The Brach Maximum Pitch-Over Threshold model (which assumes no upwards impulse from ground contact at the front wheel) consistently predicted the highest pitch-over height, and thus was closest to predicting the critical height for the bicycle and rider system; however, this testing has demonstrated how the dynamics of a bicycle-rider system differ from that of a fully rigid system and that more advanced models or simulations will be required to more accurately predict pitch-over thresholds.
Sweet, David Michael, O'Brien, Nathan, Bretting, Gerald
Pre-Crash Scenario Analysis and Generation for Integrated Safety System Virtual Testing with Real Accident Data2026-01-00624/7/2026
Integrated active and passive safety protection systems have made substantial contributions to reducing traffic accidents and mitigating human injuries. However, assessing such systems through vehicle collision tests is limited, as this approach cannot cover the wide range of accident scenarios. To address this gap, identifying and generating representative pre-crash scenarios from real-world accidents provides key boundary conditions for the setup of virtual test scenarios. In this study, we used the Future Mobile Traffic Accident Scenario Study (FASS) dataset to reconstruct 112 two-wheeler accidents. For each case, we extracted pre-crash dynamic information, static attributes, and environmental context. An autoencoder was employed to encode high-dimensional features of scenarios, and K-means clustering was applied to categorize the accidents into eight representative pre-crash scenarios. For each scenario, we examined the motion states of participants and further compared the behaviors and injuries between motorcycle and bicycle accidents. The results show that motorcycles have a higher average pre-crash speed than bicycles (22.4 vs 16.2 km/h), resulting in a greater proportion of Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale (MAIS) 4+ cases (35.6% vs 18.9%). Furthermore, a Gaussian Mixture Model was applied to fit the scenario features. This model was then used to randomly generate the initial conditions of pre-crash scenarios, including the positions, speeds, and yaw angles of vehicles and two-wheelers. The proposed scenario generation method was first applied to pre-crash scenario construction for integrated safety systems tests, and it can create diverse, statistically grounded scenarios that reflect real-world accident distributions. These scenarios can broaden the test scope of integrated safety systems and support their implementation.
Wang, Guojie, Gao, Xin, Liu, Siyuan, Liu, Jiaxin, Li, Quan, Shi, Liangliang, Nie, Bingbing
Modal Analysis Approach on Vehicle Transient Behavior Considering Roll and Pitch Dynamics2026-01-02104/7/2026
When a vehicle performs planar motion, the tire side force induces a jacking-up effect determined by the suspension roll center height governed by suspension geometry. These jacking forces also excite pitching motion. In this study, the pitching degree of freedom, along with roll degree of freedom, was incorporated in the bicycle model of the vehicle motion, hence it becomes four-degree-of-freedom model, and a new analytical method that applies modal analysis method to the model decomposes the motion of the sprung mass of the vehicle into mutually independent vibration modes. Since the superposition of these vibration modes can reproduce vehicle motion, these vibration modes are the fundamental factors governing sprung-mass behavior. Therefore, understanding how these vibration modes respond to design parameters provides a theoretical foundation to design desired vehicle dynamics from the early stage of car development. This report presents, by conducting modal analysis of the four-degree-of-freedom model, that the pitching dominant mode and the mode associated with planar motion and roll, which constitute a three-degree-of-freedom system, are mutually independent dynamically. Furthermore, the suspension design method that controls the pitch-dominant mode can ameliorate the initial turn-in response of the sprung mass in the desirable direction. The insight presented in this report can offer a systematic understanding of the essential characteristics of sprung mass dynamics and can provide new theoretical framework for vehicle dynamics performance design.
Kusaka, Kaoru, Yuhara, Takahiro, Koakutsu, Shingo
Experimental Investigations on Appendages of a Racing Motorcycle2026-01-50112/20/2026
In this experimental work, a detailed analysis of the wind tunnel measurements on scaled motorbike models equipped with different front wings was performed considering four wing configurations operating at different Reynolds numbers and roll angles. Global forces acting on the models were measured by a high-resolution dynamometric balance, while velocity fields in the wake were measured by means of the Particle Image Velocimetry technique. Throughout the paper, overall models’ performances are investigated, demonstrating similar behavior for drag coefficients and various trends for lift coefficients. The without- and single-wing configurations were shown to have positive sign, and conversely, the double- and closed-wing cases—with negative sign—generated downforce due to the presence of significant upward velocities, which in turn modified the wake shape. Furthermore, the improvements in closed-wing configuration compared to without- and single-wing ones were noticeable, while slight enhancements were observed for the double-wing case. It is evidenced how PIV technique can be used to advance the wing design by capturing the wake velocity and circulation. The proposed simple geometrical configurations are feasible at low costs and with easy manufacturing.
Moscato, Giorgio, Romano, Giovanni Paolo
An Analysis of the Energy Requirement for a Synthesized City Drive Cycle for Electric Two-wheelers2026-01-50102/12/2026
Range estimation for electric vehicles based on standard drive cycles generally underestimates energy consumption and fails to accurately represent the actual driving characteristics. This paper aims to develop a representative driving cycle for electric two-wheelers that emulate the real-world driving scenario in Lucknow, India. The micro-trip-based random selection scheme is used to form the drive cycle. The onboard Global Positioning System (GPS) module is used to log vehicle speed data for every second, and nine assessment parameters were used to analyze the candidate drive cycles. The total duration of the developed drive cycle is 1800 s, and the length is 17.45 km. Traffic attributes of the developed drive cycle are compared with the India drive cycle (IDC), Delhi motorcycle drive cycle (DMDC), and Edinburgh motorcycle drive cycle (EMDC). A comparison of the estimated energy requirement of the developed drive cycle with IDC indicates that the estimated actual energy requirement (Wh/km) is 46.9% higher than estimated with IDC. Comparative analysis reveals the significant differences that emphasize the need for developing city-specific cycles.
Vashist, Devendra, Pandey, Bhaskar, Malik, Varun
Computational Study on Dynamic Handling Performance of a Retro Fitted Electric Two-Wheeler Using 125cc Powered ICE Reference2026-28-00472/12/2026
With the development in motor technology and battery technologies, the scope for a low-cost EV has been increasing in India. There remains an after-mark potential for conversion of an ICE powered two-wheeler to an EV power train. Such a move reduces the carbon footprint from the vehicle drastically and is still being explored. This study investigates the effect of replacing the ICE with an electric motor in a 125cc motorcycle, with a particular focus on vehicle handling performance using Slalom test. The two wheelers were modelled using calculated mass properties and estimated / calculated moments of inertia using CAD for both ICE and electric powertrains. The electric propulsion system took into consideration the role of a battery pack in the mass and MI calculation. The framework with degrees of freedom is well established in BIKESIMTM simulation environment. A slalom test with automatic gear shift and throttle to maintain speed of the vehicle was set-up to estimate the handling performance. The speeds of the vehicle were computed for 60kmph condition. The output parameters of interest were the steering angle, steering torque, yaw rate, lateral acceleration and lean angle. Within the assumptions of this work, the results from the simulations indicated that handling performance of the retrofitted EV power train was comparable to that of an ICE vehicle and rider may not feel it to be drastically different.
Sankarasubramanian, Hariharan, M, Shaghasra, V, Ramprathap
Development of Advanced Rider Assistance System (ARAS) for Electric Motorcycles: A Level-1 Collision Avoidance and Emergency Braking Prototype Using Ultrasonic Sensors2026-28-01182/12/2026
This paper presents the design, development, and validation of an Advanced Rider Assistance System (ARAS) tailored for electric motorcycles, with a specific focus on a Level-1 collision-avoidance and emergency-braking prototype employing ultrasonic sensing. The study is motivated by the disproportionately high accident exposure of two-wheeler riders and the slow adoption of ARAS technologies relative to the well-established Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) in passenger vehicles. The proposed system utilizes front and rear ultrasonic sensors operating at 40 kHz, offering a measurement range of 2 cm to 4 m with ±1% accuracy, and maintaining reliable performance at motorcycle lean angles of up to 30°. Sensor data are processed using an STM32-series microcontroller running a real-time collision-risk estimation algorithm based on obstacle distance and relative velocity. A configurable safety threshold (typically 3 m) initiates a hierarchical warning strategy comprising visual indicators, acoustic alerts, and haptic cues. If the rider fails to respond within 300 ms, the system autonomously actuates emergency braking through a solenoid-based mechanism capable of modulating deceleration up to 0.6 g to maintain vehicle stability and avoid wheel lock. The ARAS prototype was developed through a structured workflow that included simulation of accident scenarios in IPG Motorcycle Maker, systematic component evaluation, and iterative hardware prototyping. Both simulation and on-road evaluations conducted at operating speeds of 10–40 km/h and various lean angles demonstrated consistent obstacle detection, prompt warning activation, and reliable emergency-braking performance. The system achieved a 92% reduction in simulated rear-end collisions and an average end-to-end response time of 180 ms. The modular system architecture further enables integration of additional sensing modalities and communication interfaces, providing a viable pathway toward higher levels of rider assistance. Overall, the study confirms the technical feasibility and safety benefits of a low-cost ultrasonic-based ARAS for electric motorcycles and establishes a strong foundation for broader deployment and future advancements in two-wheeler safety systems..
Deepan Kumar, Sadhasivam, Karu, Ragupathy, Karthick, K N, R, Vishnu Ramesh Kumar, Kumar, V, Manojkumar, R, M, Karthick, M, Rishab
Development of Plug-In Hybrid Motorbike and Analysis towards Sustainable Urban Mobility2026-28-01112/12/2026
The transportation system is one major catalyst to urban ecological imbalance. In developing countries, two-wheelers are considered a major mode of urban personal transportation because of their compactness, easy maneuver in heavy traffic and good fuel efficiency. In India, middle and lower middle-class people prefer to choose two wheelers, and these vehicles are dominantly fuelled by gasoline. Although, the energy consumption by a two-wheeler is comparatively less than that of a four-wheeler, they use about 60% of the nation’s petroleum for on-road vehicles and the impact on urban air quality and climatic change is significantly high. This high proportion of gasoline utilization and emission contribution by two wheelers in cities demand greater attention to improve urban air quality and near-term energy sustainability. Electrification of two-wheelers through the application of a plug-in hybrid idea is a promising solution. A plug-in hybrid motorbike was developed by putting forth a novel drive technique, which demonstrated the advantages of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and using less fuel. The experimental investigation reveals noticeable petroleum fuel savings and greenhouse emission reduction. Through the installation of a hub motor in the rear wheel, the dynamic behaviour of the prototype was examined and observed marginal changes in ride parameters. A cost-benefit analysis was also performed to estimate the payback period for the additional cost incurred.
Kannan, Prashanth, Shaik, Amjad, Talluri, Srinivasa Rao
Effects of Battery Integration in Modal Behaviour of Electric Two Wheeler Frame2026-26-03101/16/2026
This research investigates the dynamic characteristics of an electric two-wheeler chassis through a combined experimental and numerical approach, and understands the contribution of battery towards overall behaviour of the frame in a structural manner. The study commences with the development of a detailed CAD model, which serves as the basis for Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to predict the chassis's natural frequencies and mode shapes. These numerical simulations offer initial insights into the structural vibration behavior crucial for ensuring vehicle stability and rider comfort. To validate the FEA predictions, experimental modal analysis is performed on a physical prototype of the electric two-wheeler chassis using impact hammer excitation. Multiple response measurements are acquired via accelerometers, and the resulting data is processed to extract experimental modal parameters. The correlation between the simulated and experimental mode shapes is quantitatively assessed using the Modal Assurance Criterion (MAC). This matrix provides a measure of the consistency and similarity between the mode vectors obtained from both methods. Discrepancies identified through MAC analysis necessitate an iterative model updating process which are used to further update the FEA model. This integrated approach of CAD modeling, FEA simulation, experimental testing, and MAC-based correlation allows for the development of a validated numerical model. The refined FEA model can then be utilized for advanced analyses such as fatigue life prediction, structural optimization, and NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) studies. This work underscores the significance of experimental validation in enhancing the accuracy and reliability of simulation models for complex structural systems in the automotive industry.
Das Sharma, Aritrya, Iyer, Siddharth, Prasad, Sathish, Anandh, Sudheep
A Systematic Debugging Methodology for Identifying Electric Vehicle Level EMC Issues2026-26-05251/16/2026
Electric vehicles present unique challenges in electromagnetic compatibility testing due to compact packaging, high-frequency switching systems. This paper presents a systematic debugging methodology for identifying radiated emission and radiated immunity issues in these EV platforms. A comprehensive approach is outlined, covering radiated emission measurement; Bulk Current Injection based immunity simulation, and near-field probing techniques. For RI evaluation, BCI testing in the 20 to 400 MHz range is used to simulate radiated threats on the vehicle's power and signal harnesses and handy transmitter near field injections for higher frequency simulation. For RE diagnosis, conducted emission measurements on vehicle harnesses are performed using current probes to capture high-frequency currents. Additionally, near-field electric probes are used at the component to identify dominant noise sources such as DC-DC converters, Motor control unit, and improperly grounded shielding. Case studies on various EV vehicles highlight common failure modes. This practical diagnostic workflow provides an efficient toolkit for EMC engineers to accelerate compliance readiness, reduce test iterations, and enhance vehicle-level EMC performance for electric vehicles.
M, Gokul, Patel, Jinay, Mulay, Abhijit B
Totem-Pole PFC and LLC Resonant Converter based 6.6kW On-Board Charger for LEV Applications2026-26-01601/16/2026
As light electric vehicles (LEVs) gain popularity, the development of efficient and compact on-board chargers (OBCs) has become a critical area of focus in power electronics. Conventional AC-DC topologies often face challenges, including high inrush currents during startup, which can stress components and affect system reliability. Furthermore, DC-DC converters often have a limited soft-switching range under light load conditions, leading to increased switching losses and reduced efficiency. This paper proposes a novel 6.6 kW on-board charger architecture comprising a bridgeless totem-pole power factor correction (PFC) stage and an isolated LLC resonant DC-DC converter. The main contribution lies in the specific focus on enhancing startup behavior and switching performance. In PFC converters, limiting inrush current during startup is crucial, especially with fast-switching wide-bandgap devices like SiC or GaN. Conventional soft-start techniques fall short in of ensuring smooth voltage transitions. Moreover, maintaining stable operation across a universal input voltage range and achieving a high-power factor under light load conditions remain persistent challenges. Although resonant converters are widely used for their natural soft-switching ability, achieving zero voltage switching (ZVS) over a wide range of loads, especially at light load conditions, is still a technical challenge. Existing solutions rely on complex control strategies or hardware modifications, which increase cost and design complexity. The proposed architecture was modeled and simulated using MATLAB/Simscape to assess dynamic and steady-state behavior under a range of operating conditions. Results demonstrated high input power factor, line/load regulation, and switch-node waveforms to confirm ZVS operation. Additionally, the proposed charger exhibits low harmonic distortion, ensuring compliance with IEC 61000-3-2 power quality standards. These findings confirm the topology’s effectiveness for high-performance LEV charging and set a strong foundation for future experimental validation and hardware development.
Patil, Amruta, Bagade, Aniket
To Study and Compare Communication Protocol for Fast Charging in Electric Two-Wheeler with Respect to CCS 2.0: An Indian Perspective2026-26-01981/16/2026
This comprehensive research presents an in-depth analysis of communication protocols essential for implementing fast charging systems in India's rapidly expanding electric two-wheeler and three-wheeler market. As India witnesses unprecedented growth in electric mobility, with two-wheelers representing over 95% of current EV sales, the establishment of standardized, secure, and efficient charging protocols becomes paramount for widespread adoption. This study examines the current landscape of AC charging methodologies, evaluates the technical and economic feasibility of DC fast charging implementation, and provides detailed comparative analysis of existing international standards including IS 17017-25, IS 17017-31, ChaoJi, and CCS 2.0. The research concludes with strategic recommendations for developing cyber-secure, cost-effective charging infrastructure specifically tailored to meet India's unique market requirements and operational constraints.
Uthaman, Sreekumar, Mulay, Abhijit B
Feasibility and Performance of Post-Quantum Cryptography on Embedded Systems for Two-Wheeler Security2026-26-06221/16/2026
The proliferation of connectivity features (V2X, OTA updates, diagnostics) in modern two-wheelers significantly expands the attack surface, demanding robust security measures. However, the anticipated arrival of quantum computers threatens to break widely deployed publickey cryptography (RSA, ECC), rendering current security protocols obsolete. This paper addresses the critical need for quantum-resistant security in the automotive domain, specifically focusing on the unique challenges of two-wheeler embedded systems. This work presents an original analytical and experimental evaluation of implementing selected Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) algorithms, primarily focusing on NIST PQC standardization candidates (e.g., lattice-based KEMs/signatures like Kyber/Dilithium), on microcontroller platforms representative of those used in two-wheeler Electronic Control Units (ECUs) - typically ARM Cortex-M series devices characterized by limited computational power, memory (RAM/ROM), and strict real-time requirements. Our experimental study involved porting and optimizing PQC reference implementations for these constrained environments. We rigorously benchmarked key performance indicators, including key generation time, encapsulation/decapsulation speeds, signing/verification times, and memory footprint (stack usage, code size). The results demonstrate the feasibility of deploying specific PQC schemes, achieving practical execution times (e.g., key operations completing within tens to hundreds of milliseconds) and manageable memory overhead (fitting within typical MCU constraints) for securing functions like secure boot, firmware updates, and authenticated communication. Performance trade-offs between different PQC algorithms regarding speed, key/signature sizes, and memory consumption are analyzed. The significance of this contribution lies in providing the first quantitative performance data and feasibility analysis for PQC adoption within the specific context of two-wheeler embedded systems. These findings offer crucial insights for OEMs and suppliers planning the transition to quantum-safe security architectures, ensuring the long-term security and trustworthiness of connected two-wheelers against future cryptographic threats.
Mishra, Abhigyan
Air-Cooled Fuel Cell for Low Power Mobility Application2026-26-02551/16/2026
Fuel cell technology is gaining prominence as a clean, efficient, and scalable power solution for electric mobility, addressing key limitations of conventional battery systems such as long charging times, limited range, and declining performance in high-utilization applications. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) offer high energy density, rapid refueling, and robust operation under varying load conditions, making them particularly suitable for light electric vehicles such as two-wheelers, e-rickshaws & range extenders. Within the broader category of PEMFCs, air-cooled fuel cells present unique advantages for mobility applications. Their simplified architecture eliminates the need for complex liquid cooling systems, leading to lower system weight, reduced component count, and easier integration. This translates into a compact, lightweight, and cost-effective power unit—ideal for vehicles where space, weight, and maintenance constraints are critical. The market for air-cooled fuel cells is expanding globally, driven by demand for lightweight and portable mobility solutions. Specific application segments include electric two-wheelers (300–500 W), which are rapidly gaining ground in Asian markets; e-rickshaws (2–3 kW), a promising Indian market segment seeking alternatives to fossil fuel and lead-acid battery systems. Additionally, the system is well-suited for use as a range extender in electric mobility platforms, offering extended operational duration without compromising on vehicle packaging or efficiency. This work presents an indigenously developed air-cooled PEMFC system designed specifically for low power mobility applications. Indigenous Pt/C catalyst for fuel cell application which meets DoE durability target (30k AST cycles) has been developed. The stack comprises of an innovative flow field configuration for uniform reactant distribution, and advanced thermal management strategy that ensures efficient heat dissipation. The indigenously developed fuel cell stack tailored for Indian weather conditions (5°-45°C, 30-100% RH) achieves critical performance targets including high power density (400-500 W/L), small footprint & mass (600-700 W/kg) at par with leading commercial fuel cell solution providers. This development signifies a critical step toward self-reliant, sustainable, and high-performance power solutions for next-generation electric & green mobility in India and beyond
Singh, Sauhard, Chaudhari, Chinmay, Sundarraman, Meenakshi, Sonkar, Kapil, Bera, Tapan, Badhe, Rajesh, Srivastva, Umish, Sharma, Alok
Multi-Band Frequency Approach to Correlate Proving Ground and Road Simulator for an Electric Two-Wheeler2026-26-05561/16/2026
Real-world usage subjects two-wheelers to complex and varying dynamic loads, necessitating early-stage durability validation to ensure robust product development. Conducting a full life-cycle durability testing on proving grounds is time-consuming, extremely difficult for the riders involved, and costly, which is why accelerated testing using rigs such as the road simulator system have become a preferred approach. The use of road simulators necessitates, accurately measured inputs and precise simulation to ensure proper actuation of the rig, thereby enabling realistic representation of road undulations. This paper covers two important aspects essential for achieving an accurate and clear representation of road simulation in a 4-DOF road simulator, encompassing both longitudinal and vertical simulations at the front and rear of the vehicle. The first aspect involves the development of an instrumentation strategy for the two-wheeler, with careful identification of directionally sensitive locations on the sprung mass and the unsprung mass, to enable precise simulation of all four degrees of freedom within the road simulator. Secondly, a different simulation method is adapted based on the frequency response of the control inputs, enabling more efficient utilization of the measured parameters and ensuring accurate simulation. This selection has been guided by results from the spectral data analysis of the response channels and the initial road simulator model output. Testing was conducted across different proving ground test track, speeds, and loading conditions.
Ganju, Shubham, V, Vijayamirtharaj, Prasad, Sathish, R S, Mahenthran
Comparative Study of EV Transmission Performance Used in Various Vehicle Segments2026-26-05841/16/2026
The transition to electric mobility has accelerated the evolution of drivetrain technologies, particularly in the design and performance of electric vehicle (EV) transmissions. Unlike traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs utilize simpler yet diverse transmission systems cater to specific performance, efficiency, and application requirements. The growing adoption of electric vehicles across diverse transportation sectors has intensified the need for optimized electric transmission systems as per vehicle requirements. This research presents a comparative study of electric transmission performance across various vehicle segments, including Passenger Cars, Small commercial Vehicle, Commercial three-wheelers and All-terrain vehicles. The study evaluates different transmission configurations namely single-speed and multi-speed, based on key performance metrics such as Drag loss and Efficiency. Through a combination of literature review, and performance benchmarking, the analysis highlights how different segments prioritize specific transmission characteristics. The efficiency & drag losses were measured in the powertrain testbed where the test units were placed between two Transient Dynamometers at Output and one lower inertia prime mover at Input. The main aim of the test was to validate overall efficiency as a function of input speed and torque The study concludes that no single transmission architecture universally outperforms others across all segments; instead, optimal performance is highly dependent on use-case scenarios and design goals. These insights aim to support EV manufacturers and powertrain engineers in selecting or developing transmission systems that align with specific performance, cost, and efficiency targets. The paper also identifies areas for future research, including control strategy optimization and the impact of emerging materials and manufacturing technologies on transmission performance.
Jain, Sankalp, P, Ekhesh
Technology Trends and Market Adoption of Electric Motors in NEVs2026-26-01611/16/2026
In recent years, the global automotive sector has undergone transformation at an unprecedented pace, driven by environmental concerns, rapid technological advancements, government incentives, and evolving consumer expectations. The rapid uptake of electric motors as the main propulsion system in New Energy Vehicles (NEVs) has been a key factor in this change. This study examines the technological development of electric motors in four different vehicle segments: passenger cars, heavy-duty commercial vehicles, three-wheelers, and two-wheelers. It identifies the leading electric motor technologies utilized in each of these segments, along with their prevalence across key globally regulated markets. The study offers a thorough analysis of current e-motor technologies and their market distribution by referencing historical data and existing scholarly literature. A regional analysis is conducted to examine variations in manufacturer preferences and deployment strategies, supported by visual representations of application-specific performance requirements, manufacturing economics, regulatory constraints, and market maturity. The study also investigates evolving trends in motor technology adoption, considering the distinct characteristics of each vehicle segment and associated regional dynamics. The core analysis focuses on Direct Current Motors (DCMs), Induction Motors (IMs), and various families of Permanent Magnet Motors (PMMs), evaluating their architectural designs, operational parameters, and integration within specific electric vehicle powertrain configurations. Furthermore, the paper identifies emerging markets and regions poised to lead in the adoption of e-motor technologies, especially as global supply chains become more integrated and resilient. The insights presented offer value to researchers and policymakers seeking to better understand the factors influencing electric motor adoption, while also serving as a contemporary reference for industry stakeholders navigating the ongoing transition toward electric mobility.
Singh, Ashish, Ray, Rakesh Kumar
Battery Thermal Management Approach for Two-Wheeler Electric Vehicles – An Indian Case Study2026-26-01511/16/2026
India's electric 2-wheeler (E2W) market has witnessed fast growth, driven by lucrative government policies. The two-wheeler segment dominates the Indian automotive market, accounting for the largest share of total sales. Consequently, the manufacturers of 2-wheelers are developing new electric vehicles (EV) tailored for the Indian market. However, the Indian EV market has witnessed multiple fire accidents in recent years, raising safety concerns among consumers and industry stakeholders. These incidents highlight key weakness in battery thermal management systems (BTMS), particularly during charging. Most existing E2W BTMS relies on passive (natural) air cooling, which has been associated with fire incidents due to its inefficiency in heat dissipation, particularly during charging in India's high-temperature environment. Therefore, it is imperative to build thermally viable and economical BTMS for the growing E2W vehicles with fast charging capability. FEV is actively developing the thermally efficient and cost-effective BTMS solutions tailored for Indian E2Ws operating in extreme climatic conditions. The present study evaluates a novel approach of integrating heat carrier plates into the E2W with 3.6 kWh battery pack, which is analyzed under natural and forced air cooling system. The airtight battery pack is located under the floorboard region. The multiple internal heat carrier plates models are developed and integrated with aligned and staggered cell arrangement to evaluate heat dissipation and temperature uniformity with the battery pack. The study further proposes a concept of duct and fan placement for the application during forced air cooling. The simulations are performed at a high ambient temperature of 45 °C, representing a worst-case scenario in India, using charging rates of 0.2 C for natural cooling and 0.35 C for forced cooling. The results show that the aligned cell model with 4-heat carrier plates achieve superior temperature distribution across cells, with a lower average module temperature of 49.6 °C, minimal temperature gradient of 1.3°C and reduced maximum cell temperature of 50 °C, under natural cooling. In forced air-cooling mode, the split air duct model provides better cooling over the battery cover surfaces with maximum temperature of 55 °C with ΔT of 4°C. The study also presents comprehensive details of modelling approaches and outlines the scope of further research for developing thermally efficient BTMS for E2Ws.
Raut, Ankit, Hiremath, Vinodkumar S, Emran, Ashraf, Garg, Shivam, Berry, Sushil
Developments in 2-Wheeler Electric Vehicle Architecture2026-26-01991/16/2026
Electric vehicles are becoming more popular due to the low-cost investment for individual daily usage, such as traveling to nearby places, offices, and schools. There are environmental benefits that make them green and produce less pollution compared to traditional vehicles. Two-wheeler electric vehicles (EVs) have more electronic components compared to two-wheeler internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. The major components in two-wheeler EVs are the motor and battery. The traction motor is driven by the battery, Battery is a primary energy source in 2Wheeler electric vehicle. An electric vehicle comprises different major electronic components such as the battery management system (BMS), motor control unit (MCU), human-machine interface (HMI), and, in some cases, a vehicle control unit (VCU) as well. Considering a 48V architecture or less than 60V provides advantages of low system cost as it requires less effort for safety measures. Furthermore, this paper explores diverse architectural options for contemporary two-wheeler electric vehicles, offering a range of designs that cater to both simple and complex models. This paper elaborates on different types of electric vehicle architecture based on the vehicle battery (primary, auxiliary) and types of batteries such as fixed, removable, swappable batteries, DC-DC converters (active/passive), charging interfaces, types of motor integrated into the vehicle, types of position sensors on the motor, and functional safety levels to consider in EVs.
Karunakar, Praveen, K R, Amogh
CS Structure: New Metallic Catalyst Substrate Generation for 2- and 3-Wheeler Applications2026-26-02201/16/2026
Affordable, efficient and durable catalytic converters for the two and three-wheeler industry in developing countries are required to reduce vehicle emissions and to maintain them at a low level; and therefore, to participate in a cleaner and healthier environment. Especially, metallic catalyst substrates developed by Emitec Technologies GmbH with structured foils like the Longitudinal Structure (LS), or LS-Design® are fully compatible to this effort with more than 70% share of produced 2/3 Wheelers metallic catalyst substrates for the Indian market in 2024. One decade after the market introduction of this LS structure, Emitec Technologies GmbH will introduce now a new generation of foil structure: the Crossversal Structure (CS) or CS-Design®, that improves further the affordability, the efficiency of metallic catalytic converters, keeping the durability at same level as previous substrate generation. The paper will briefly review the development of metallic substrates for 2/3 wheelers applications, especially the development of structured foil substrates, describe the new foil structure CS, compare its performances to those of previously developed metallic substrates with structured LS foils. For this later purpose, experimental emission measurements under WMTC driving cycle on roller bench will be carried out on one Indian BS6 - OBD2 four stroke motorcycle. The results will be discussed and the benefits of CS for current and future motorcycle applications will be drawn.
Jayat, Francois, Seifert, Sven, Bhalla, Ashish, Ganapathy, Narayana Prakash
Real-Time Helmet Detection and Closed-Loop Enforcement System for Two Wheelers2026-26-06501/16/2026
Asian countries capture a significant share of global two-wheeler usage, with India consistently ranking among the top three countries. 2 wheelers are a significant portion of road traffic and contribute heavily to the national burden of road fatalities. Despite regulatory mandates, helmet non-compliance remains widespread due to limited enforcement reach and behavioural inertia. The current strategies for enforcement, such as traffic policing or external camera-based surveillance, are reactive, infrastructure-dependent, are ineffective at scale. To address these limitations, we propose system that will detect if the user is wearing the helmet. The system is designed and packaged to be integrated into the 2-wheeler directly and then execute functions in real-time for helmet noncompliance. The software algorithm is an AI-powered, vision-based system that leverages deep learning techniques for helmet detection. This model is enforced with a custombuilt dataset accommodating cultural and regional variations. Further model is trained and optimized so that it also perform accurately under conditions, including variable lighting, occlusions, and diverse headgear styles commonly seen in the Indian context. The overall system is further optimized for low-power, real-time inference suitable for embedded platforms on two-wheelers. Once the helmet is not detected, the system generates a two-stage response: an audible alert warns the rider, and if non-compliance persists, the vehicle can trigger a controlled deceleration mode through a closedloop actuation strategy, bringing it to a safe stop. The evaluation results indicate a detection accuracy of 97% under varied real-world conditions, establishing the feasibility of intelligent, vehicle-integrated enforcement for two-wheelers in the Indian context.
Kandimalla, Om Mahalakshmi, Shah, Ravindra, Karle, Ujjwala
Pre-Crash Characteristics of Motorized Two-Wheeler Crashes on Indian Roads2026-26-00341/16/2026
India has emerged as the world’s largest market for motorized two-wheelers (M2Ws) in 2024, reflecting their deep integration into the country’s transportation fabric. However, M2Ws are also a highly vulnerable road user category as according to the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH), the fatality share of M2W riders rose alarmingly from 27% in 2011 to 44% in 2022, underlining the urgency of understanding the circumstances that lead to such crashes. This study aims to investigate the pre-crash behavior and crash-phase characteristics of M2Ws using data from the Road Accident Sampling System – India (RASSI), the country’s only in-depth crash investigation database. The analysis covers 3,632 M2Ws involved in 3,307 crash samples from 2011 to 2022, representing approximately 5 million M2Ws nationally. Key variables examined include crash configuration, collision partner, road type, pre-event movement, travel speed, and human contributing factors. The study finds that straight-line travel, overtaking, and negotiating curves are among the most common pre-event movements preceding fatal crashes. Head-on and object-related collisions as well as crashes involving heavy vehicles show higher fatality rates. Human behaviors such as abrupt turns, over-speeding, unsafe overtaking, and riding under the influence of alcohol are major contributors to crash causation. The findings emphasize the need for targeted enforcement, rider training, and improved road infrastructure to reduce the burden of two-wheeler-related fatalities in India.
Govardhan, Rohan, Padmanaban, Jeya, Jethwa, Vaishnav
Riding characteristics Analysis and Comparison of Shared Two-Wheeled Vehicles2025-99-041312/10/2025
This paper explores riding characteristics of Shared Two-Wheeled Vehicles (STWV, including Shared Bicycles (SB) and Shared Electric Bicycles (SEB)) by using order data of nine cities. We first compute the mean values of three key elements of riding characteristics and make a comparison between different cities. It shows that STWV primarily serve short trips. Then, we use Python to fit the distribution of STWV riding distance and the distribution of SEB riding speed. We find that (1) Exponential distribution fits SB riding distance and Rayleigh distribution fits SEB riding distance. The regularity of the distribution for SB is more universal than that of SEB. (2) Modified standard logistic distribution in this paper fits SEB riding speed. The findings above indicate that SEB is not governed by the rules that govern human dynamics, thus expanding the scope of two-wheeled transportation service and introducing greater uncertainty.
Liu, Lu, Wei, Liying, Luo, Sida
Overcoming Challenges in Motorcycle Exhaust Flow Measurement: A Study on Measurement Accuracy and Systematic Effects of an Annubar-Based Approach2025-32-001611/3/2025
Accurate exhaust mass flow measurement is critical for Real Driving Emission (RDE) testing; however, it is particularly challenging for motorcycles due to variations in chemical composition, strong pulsations and even reverse flow effects at low engine speeds. Traditional differential pressure-based flow meters often struggle under these conditions, particularly in low-speed and low-load operation. This study evaluates the feasibility and accuracy of an Annubar-based exhaust flow meter (EFM) designed to address these challenges by means of assessing eight motorcycles with single-, two-, and four-cylinder engine configurations. The EFM performance is evaluated via correlation analysis with laboratory-grade reference instruments and engine control unit (ECU) data. Additionally, systematic effects such as pulsation behavior, spectrogram analysis, and the influence of engine load and speed are investigated. The results demonstrate a strong correlation between EFM and reference measurements, indicating the EFM potential as a viable exhaust mass flow measurement solution. However, systematic deviations were observed, particularly at low engine speeds and loads, where pulsation effects caused oscillatory measurement behavior. These deviations stem from the interaction between engine-induced pulsations and the EFM response characteristics. To mitigate these effects, advanced filtering techniques and engine-aware compensation strategies, leveraging engine RPM and load data, are proposed to enhance measurement stability and accuracy. These improvements could make EFMs a more reliable tool for motorcycle RDE assessments, enhancing real-world emission testing methodologies.
Schurl, Sebastian, Hafenmayer, Christian, Lankau, Mathias, Brenn, Günter, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Real Driving Emission (RDE) Assessment for Motorcycles Using a Random Cycle Generator (RCG)2025-32-007111/3/2025
To conserve the atmospheric environment, regulations on vehicle exhaust gas emissions have become increasingly stringent. For Light Duty Vehicles (LDVs), Real Driving Emission (RDE) assessments based on Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS) have been introduced. However, the application of PEMS measurements to motorcycles presents several challenges, including reduced measurement accuracy owing to the small engine displacement and number of cylinders and increased motorcycle weight owing to PEMS installation. Therefore, an alternative evaluation method that does not rely on the PEMS is required. In this study, we developed a Random Cycle Generator (RCG) to provide an evaluation method that can be used in a laboratory environment. The RCG enables the evaluation of driving cycles by combining different motorcycle speed patterns. It can generate arbitrary driving cycles that consider the average and upper limits of regional driving characteristics, thereby enabling accurate emission measurements to be performed in a laboratory. Thus, the RCG-based method is considered a viable alternative to the PEMS-based RDE assessment.
Matsuoka, Masahiro, Hirai, Hiroshi, Ito, Takayuki
Assessment of Electrification Potential for Hand-Held Powertools and Two-Wheelers2025-32-009411/3/2025
The reduction of the CO2 footprint of transport vehicles is a major challenge to minimize the harmful impact of technology on the environment. Beside passenger cars and light and heavy-duty vehicles, this affects also the two-wheeler category and the non-road mobile machinery (NRMM). One promising path for the de-carbonization is the transition from fossil-fuel powered ICE powertrains to electric powertrains. Several examples of electrified powertrains showcase possibilities for small hand-held power-tools or small mopeds and scooters. As the powertrain categories two-wheeler and NRMM are very diversified and consist of various sub-categories and sub-classes with many different applications, the feasibility of electrification for the whole category cannot be judged by few examples. In this publication, a methodology for assessing the electrification potential of hand-held power tools and two-wheelers is shown. The method uses 4 different factors, which determine the feasibility for electrification in terms of electrification potential in a range from very low to very high, where very low means the addressed sub-type of hand-held power tools or two-wheeler can be electrified in only very little application cases and very high means an electrification is feasible in almost all to all application cases. The factors are grid connection, battery, charging, and a factor for special application demands like low temperature operation. All factors are evaluated for various sub-categories and multiplied for the overall electrification potential. Two technology scenarios, each for the years 2024, 2030 and 2050 are considered, a conservative one with modest technology progress and a progressive on with higher technology progress. The electrification potential is evaluated on a pure technological base without consideration of actual consumer behavior, legislative regulations, or company strategies. The methodology is explained in detail including the necessary input data and the assessment is performed for several examples. Results show that there is a big variety of the electrification potential even within the same sub-class like chain-saw due to different power demand of different applications. Therefore, for the assessment of the electrification potential the possible applications of one and the same tool or vehicle class must be considered.
Schmidt, Stephan, Schacht, Hans-Juergen, Weller, Konstantin, Absenger, Johann Friedrich
Obstacle Avoidance Capability of a Personal Mobility Vehicle (PMV) with an Inward Tilting Mechanism under Braking Conditions2025-32-003311/3/2025
This study delves into the dynamics of three-wheeled Personal Mobility Vehicles (PMVs) equipped with an active tilting mechanism. In three-wheeled vehicles with a single front wheel, the risk of tipping over during sudden braking and sharp turning is often highlighted. To address this issue, the authors have focused their research on three-wheeled PMVs with two front wheels and one rear wheel, equipped with an active tilting mechanism. Previous studies using dynamic simulation tools have demonstrated that such PMVs possess higher obstacle avoidance capabilities compared to motorcycles and even passenger cars. However, these simulations were based on the assumption of avoidance maneuvers without braking, and no studies have yet examined the behavior of three-wheeled PMVs with an active tilting mechanism under the more complex conditions of braking during turning. Therefore, prior to conducting dynamic simulations under braking and turning conditions, this study aims to clarify the mechanical equilibrium conditions under these circumstances. It identifies the limits of braking deceleration and turning lateral acceleration based on tipping conditions and examines the changes in tire vertical loads during braking and turning, which influence the upper limits of tire force generation. Future dynamic analyses will rely on evaluations using dynamic simulation models. These analyses will take into account not only dynamic factors such as vehicle inertia but also the significant influence of actively controlled tilting behavior, as previously demonstrated by studies using dynamic simulation tools. In this study, the validity of the mechanical equilibrium analysis is confirmed through simplified dynamic simulations. Based on this validation, the study identifies key points to focus on in future detailed dynamic behavior analyses.
Haraguchi, Tetsunori, Kaneko, Tetsuya
Study of the Relationship between the “Lean-Over” Characteristics of Motorcycles and Vehicle Specifications, Report 12025-32-003411/3/2025
This study investigates the dynamic characteristics of the steering handlebar, termed "lean-over characteristics," by combining unmanned bicycle experiments with frequency response analysis. The focus is on the frequency response function from external lateral force to roll angle and steering angle, with particular attention to the relationship between these outputs. Subjective evaluations conducted by test riders revealed noticeable differences in steering feel between the two bicycle configurations. These differences were quantitatively explained by the gain and phase characteristics of the FRF between roll angular angle and steering angle, especially at approximately 7 Hz. The origin of this dynamic behavior was identified as zeros in the transfer function of roll angle. At this frequency, the external moment input and the inertial response of the vehicle body cancel each other out, resulting in suppressed roll motion and an enhanced steering response. Numerical simulations confirmed that changes in the product of inertia directly affect the location of these zeros. Furthermore, the same mechanism was observed in motorcycle models based on Sharp’s equations, indicating that the zeros are a fundamental control parameter in handling design not only for bicycles but also for motorcycles. These findings suggest that the design of lean-over characteristics requires control of physical parameters such as the location of zeros and inertia coupling, in order to achieve a steering response that aligns with rider perception.
Sakai, Hideki, Nakagawa, Yoshihiro, Tezuka, Yoshitaka, Yamashita, Hiroki, Miyagishi, Shunichi
Development of Anti-SideSlip Control for Motorcycles Using IMU2025-32-003711/3/2025
In motorcycle racing and other competitions, there is a technique to intentionally slide the rear wheel to make turns more quickly. While this technique is effective for high-speed riding, it is difficult to execute and carries risks such as falling. Therefore, an anti-sideslip control system that suppresses unintended or excessive sideslip is needed to ensure safe, natural, and smooth turning. In anti-sideslip control, the slip angle is usually used as a control parameter. However, for motorcycles, it is necessary to know the absolute direction of the vehicle's movement. To determine this, GPS or optical sensors are required, but using such sensors for driving is costly and may not provide accurate measurements due to contamination or other environmental factors, making it impractical. Therefore, an anti-sideslip control system was developed by calculating another parameter that indicates the characteristics of the slip angle, without measuring the slip angle itself, thus eliminating the need for impractical sensors. To detect sideslip, lean angles calculated using two different methods are used. The first lean angle calculates the true value even when side slip occurs, while the second lean angle shows a higher value than the true value when side slip occurs. The difference between these is defined as the slide amount, which can be detected as a parameter representing side slip. When a sideslip is detected, the drive force reduction control suppresses the sideslip to bring the slide amount closer to the target slide amount. To suppress sideslip, drive force reduction through ignition retardation is used. As an experiment, the slide amount obtained by the current method was compared with the values from a GPS device capable of calculating the slip angle. It was confirmed that the differential value of the slip angle obtained from the GPS and the slide amount had a very similar waveform. Furthermore, a test was conducted to verify whether the anti-sideslip control effectively suppressed sideslip during actual driving, and it was confirmed that applying this control allowed for more stable cornering. The effectiveness and validity of the anti-sideslip control were confirmed through the above experiment.
Nakano, Kyosuke, Kawai, Kazunori, Takeuchi, Michinori
Investigation of Driving Characteristics for Road Alignments with High Traffic Accident Rates on Hilly and Mountainous Roads Using a Motorcycle Simulator2025-32-003511/3/2025
Single motorcycle accidents are common in Nagano Prefecture where is mountainous areas in Japan. In a previous study, analysis of traffic accident statistics data suggested that the fatality and serious injury rates for uphill right curves and downhill left curves are high, however the true causes of these accidents remain unclear. In this study, a motorcycle simulator was used to evaluate the driving characteristics due to these road alignments. Evaluation courses based on combinations of uphill/downhill slopes and left/right curves were created, and experiments were conducted. The subjects of the study were expert riders and novice riders. The results showed that right curves are even more difficult to see near the entrance of the curve when accompanied by an uphill slope, making it easier to delay recognition and judgment of the curve. Expert riders recognized curves faster than novice riders. Additionally, expert riders take a large lean of the vehicle body, actively attempted to ride on the inside corner, while that of novice riders was less. On the other hand, for downhill left curves, there was a tendency for delayed judgment of sharp curves, and riders were more likely to increase their speed. Also, the expert riders recognized curve curvature earlier and had a greater lean angle of the vehicle body than the novice riders, but there was no significant difference. From these results, the road alignment combination of uphill/downhill slopes and left/right curve has a significant impact on the risk of motorcycle accidents.
Kuniyuki, Hiroshi, Katayama, Yuta, Kitagawa, Taisei, Numao, Yusuke
Development of Electronic Control in Strong Hybrid Motorcycle2025-32-009111/3/2025
In response to the growing demand for environmental performance, the mobility industry is actively developing electrification, and in particular, the use of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) in commuting motorcycles is advancing. However, in the case of vehicles for leisure, which require high riding performance, there are problems such as cruising range and charging time, and there are currently few mass-produced models. Therefore, we proposed a Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) type Motorcycle (MC) to achieve both environmental performance and high riding performance by means other than BEV. The proposed vehicle is equipped with a strong type hybrid system in which an engine and a drive motor are connected in parallel via a hydraulic electronically controlled clutch. It is possible to drive only by motor (EV driving) or by hybrid driving powered by both the engine and the motor (HEV driving). In order to improve environmental performance, it is necessary to develop a function for switching between EV and HEV driving and an automatic transmission function. In motorcycles, which are lighter than passenger cars, it has been an important issue to achieve the required functions without causing discomfort to the rider. In order to solve this problem, we worked on torque distribution control between the engine and motor according to the rider operation and the remaining battery capacity and developed coordinated control of the electronically controlled hydraulic clutch and electronically controlled transmission unit. We achieved low fuel consumption comparable to that of the 250cc class while maintaining the riding feeling. This paper describes the configuration of the strong hybrid system to achieve both environmental performance and high riding performance, and then discusses the electronic control technology, the technical issues, and the solutions.
Obayashi, Kosuke, Terai, Shohei, Jino, Kenichi, Kawai, Daisuke
Ultralightweight Emission Measurement Systems for Motorcycles: Accuracy and Practicality in RDE Testing2025-32-001111/3/2025
Real Driving Emission (RDE) testing for motorcycles presents unique challenges due to the motorcycle’s lightweight construction, limited mounting space, and sensitivity to added mass and aerodynamic drag. Full-functional automotive Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS), while highly accurate, are often impractical for two-wheelers as their weight and size can alter driving resistances, fuel consumption, and emission profiles, but also complicate installation and probably effect the drivability of the vehicle. To address these limitations, lightweight alternatives such as Mini-PEMS and ultralightweight alternatives such as Sensor-based Emission Measurement Systems (SEMS) offer compact, low-power solutions tailored for small vehicles. SEMS are typically equipped with lower cost sensors and low-tech gas conditioning systems compared to PEMS. Due to this these systems may not meet regulatory homologation requirements. Nevertheless, they provide justifiable accuracy for many real-world applications. This paper explores the working principles and sensor technologies used in Mini-PEMS and SEMS, highlighting key trade-offs between size reduction, energy efficiency, and measurement precision. Mini-PEMS reduce complexity by employing analyzers with a minimalized conditioning system. SEMS, moreover, leverages smart sensor integration to deliver real-time emission assessments with minimal impact on vehicle dynamics. To assess their reliability, Mini-PEMS and SEMS are evaluated against laboratory-, homologation-grade equipment under controlled conditions. Accuracy analyses reveal specific limitations, but also demonstrate that these systems provide sufficiently robust data for many practical applications. By balancing accuracy with real-world feasibility, Mini-PEMS and SEMS offer a viable path for emission testing in scenarios where full-scale PEMS are impractical. Their adoption could expand the scope of RDE assessment, particularly for low-powered two-wheelers, ultimately supporting more accessible and widespread emission monitoring.
Schurl, Sebastian, Lienerth, Peter, Japs, Leonid, Schroeder, Matthias, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Traction Voltage Level in Two-Wheeler: Considerations on E-Motor Performance2025-32-009311/3/2025
The electric power of most electric two-wheelers on the market ranges between 2 and 12 kW. For this power range, the traction voltage level is mostly between 48V and 96V. There appears to be no strong correlation between electric power and traction voltage, suggesting that the current voltage choice is rather arbitrary. This paper briefly describes the e-motor model used in this study and introduces variations of four design parameters: DC voltage, maximum phase current, e-motor active length, and the number of turns in the e-motor winding. The consequences of these variations on peak performance, continuous performance, and efficiency maps are presented. Specific cases of parameter combinations are also studied. Two e-motors designed for 48V and 96V systems will be compared, showing that size, cost, and performance (power and losses) are equivalent. Additionally, the paper discusses how increasing the maximum phase current rating of the inverter can improve e-motor power in a 48V system. Downsizing the e-motor by using more phase current is also explored, with its impact on continuous performance and efficiency. The paper concludes that for most electric two-wheelers below 12 kW, a traction voltage higher than 48V does not offer significant advantages.
Albert, Laurent
Knock Sensors for Two Wheelers Applications2025-32-007911/3/2025
This paper describes the design and characteristics of the knock sensor. The sensor is already used as a commodity product for automotive applications and used by all automotive OEMs for spark ignited combustion engines. With the arrival of the electronic fuel injection on the two wheelers, further optimization of the combustion can be obtained. Although there are many publications on the engine knock strategy, little is known publicly about the sensor itself. The knock sensor is an accelerometer based on a piezoelectric component; it provides an analog signal of the engine vibration. The Electronic Control Unit will filter the signal according to a specific strategy and defines the presence and intensity of the engine knock. The ECU will act accordingly on the ignition timing. The inner structure as well as the mechanical and electrical interface are described in this article.
van Est, Jeroen, Prieu, Corentin
RDE Testing of Small Motorcycle in Indian Road Conditions and Study the Impact of Instrumentation on Emission and Fuel Economy2025-32-007511/3/2025
This paper presents measurement results of emissions and fuel economy on real-world driving of two-wheelers in India using a state-of-the-art FTIR PEMS technology. The study aimed to characterize the emissions profiles of a small motorcycle under typical Indian driving conditions, including congested urban traffic and highway driving. This is the continuation of the study conducted previously on bigger motorcycle using gas analyzer [1], with necessary adaptations to suit the specific conditions of Indian roads and traffic. Key parameters such as NOx, CO, CO2 and Fuel consumption were measured during real-world driving cycles and comparison is done with standard WMTC emission testing cycle. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the actual on-road emissions of two-wheelers in India, which can be used to develop more accurate emission models and guide the development of cleaner and more efficient two-wheeler technologies. Key Considerations: Specifics of Indian Driving Conditions: Emphasize the unique challenges posed by Indian traffic, such as stop-and-go traffic, frequent idling, and high ambient temperatures. Data Analysis and Interpretation: Discuss how the data was analyzed and the statistical methods used to assess the significance of the findings. Comparison with Laboratory Tests: Compare the real-world emission results with those obtained from laboratory tests to assess the accuracy of current regulatory testing procedures. Policy Implications: Discuss the implications of the findings for future emission regulations and the development of cleaner two-wheeler technologies in India. This abstract provides a concise overview of the research and highlights the key findings and their significance. The study is also conducted and compiled to show the effect of measurement devices on the actual emissions and fuel economy of the vehicle tested in standard WMTC emission testing cycle inside the lab conditions.
Agrawal, Rahul, Jaswal, Rahul, Yadav, Sachin
Development of Electric Vehicle Motor Test Rig for Performance Analysis2025-28-038010/30/2025
Electric two-wheeler testing before they are introduced in the market is one of the essential features needed by the certification agencies. Different types of test bench are available for measuring the torque and power from the electric two-wheeler that includes eddy current based motor test bench and mechanical based loading benches. In the present work an electric motor bench is designed and developed that takes care all features of electric two wheelers. The power supply to the motor is done through convertors and controller while mechanical loading is applied through belt. The other features that are kept in the rig includes lighting system and speed controller for the motor. The design is developed for variable outer diameter of electric two-wheeler testing. Tests were conducted on the developed rig. Test results were compared with electric motor specifications and were found to be in good agreement
Vashist, Devendra, Verma, Kartik, Chamok, Fahim, Tewatia, Bharat, Rajput, Neeraj
Computational Analysis for Vehicle Suitability for EV Retro Fitment: An Approach for Faster Transition to Electric Mobility2025-28-040010/30/2025
The shift from internal combustion engine technology to electric vehicles (EV) based mobility system has to be made quickly to achieve the government goal of having 30% electric based mobility by 2030. Also, some studies suggest that a good number of two wheelers having better health, are discarded because of completion of registration time. To cater these issues, retrofitting of these vehicles to electric based systems is one of the solutions. Also, at present, the decision on the suitability of the vehicle for retrofitting is made based on a vehicle inspection-based methodology which can lead to human error. In the present work, a computation program is devised using programming languages that can help in making a decision on the suitability of the vehicle for retrofitting to EV-based technology. The program uses key parameters that play a significant role in taking decision on suitability to retrofit. The program was then made available to the users, who needs their two-wheeler retrofitted. The decision based on the computational model was then compared with the vehicle inspection-based methodology. Findings suggest that computational-based model prediction matches 84 %, with the inspection-based methodology. The devised program can be made available on an online platform to customers for knowing the suitability of their vehicle for retrofitting to EVs thus helping the government in shifting to electric mobility.
Vashist, Devendra, Jain, Mohit, Jain, Jatin
Numerical Simulation and Optimization of Engine Cooling System Based on One-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Coupling Analysis Method03-18-07-004010/29/2025
The design of motorcycle engine cooling systems is often hampered by a trade-off between computational efficiency and simulation accuracy, making optimized design iterative and costly. A streamlined, coupled 1D–3D methodology, validated across diverse engine configurations, is needed to address this challenge. This study develops and validates an iterative simulation framework to efficiently optimize cooling systems for various motorcycle engines. The 1D system model defines the performance targets, while 3D CFD analysis enables detailed component optimization (water jackets, radiator airflow); an iterative process ensures the target fulfillment. The 1D–3D coupling analysis methodology is applied to single-, two-, and four-cylinder engines. Results show that the coolant flow velocity within the water jackets are sufficient to ensure effective heat removal of engines and confirms the rational layout design of water jackets. The radiator inlet coolant temperature for the original design of those three engines cooling are 109°C, 107°C, 103°C, respectively. Optimizations (fan shroud redesign, impeller width increase, airflow outlet redesign, air guiding device, radiator shield, wind shielding area reduction, cover removal) are made to increase the radiator airflow velocity by 34.92%, 12%, 7.5%, respectively, and successfully reduces the radiator inlet temperatures below the 100°C target (from 109°C to 99°C, 107°C to 100°C, and 103.8°C to 99.2°C, respectively), with results validated experimentally. The deviation between simulation and experiments is below 7%, confirming the overall reliability and accuracy of the simulation model. The study provides a validated, scalable framework for optimizing motorcycle engine cooling systems, balancing accuracy with efficiency. Its applicability to the cases presented suggests potential for broader use in hybrid and electric powertrain thermal management.
Tan, Libin, Yuan, Yuejin
Experimental Evaluation of Behavior Perception and Prediction Methods in Automated Port Logistics Operations2025-99-006010/17/2025
With the rapid development of autonomous driving technologies, intelligent ports, particularly autonomous logistics, have become the focus of industry attention. Ensuring safe and efficient operations require port management systems to perceive and predict the behaviors of people and vehicles. In the filed of behavior perception, research efforts have primarily focused on the detection and tracking of vehicles, pedestrians, and obstacles under various sensor configurations. Common approaches include vision-based, LiDAR-based, and multi-sensor fusion methods. In terms of behavior prediction, existing approaches can be broadly categorized into four paradigms: model-driven, data-driven, environment-assisted, and anomaly prediction methods. Model-driven approaches rely on physical and motion models, while data-driven approaches utilize deep learning techniques. Environment-assisted approaches integrate prior knowledge such as maps, while anomaly prediction focus on identifying unexpected behaviors to improve safety. Our study shows that Probabilistic 3D significantly outperforms traditional methods in both detection and tracking accuracy for unmanned port logistics scenarios. By integrating 2D and 3D data, our method improves the detection of small obstacles such as pedestrians, bicycles, and motorcycles, addressing key limitations of pure 3D-based approaches. This enhancement makes autonomous logistics systems more reliable and robust in complex environments. Future work will focus on refining multi-sensor fusion techniques and developing adaptive learning models to further enhance system adaptability in smart port operations.
Lu, Zhiyong, Wang, Xiyuan, Liu, Shiqu, Yang, Zheng, Li, Hao, He, Xiaofei
A Dictionary of Terms for the Dynamics and Handling of Single Track Vehicles (Motorcycles, Scooters, Mopeds, and Bicycles)J1451_202508 (Current)8/15/2025
Terminology within this document is limited to the dynamics and handling characteristics of single track, two-wheeled vehicles.
Motorcycle Technical Steering Committee
Vibration Refinement of Two Wheeler Sub Chassis and Aesthetic Parts Due to Engine Unbalanced Excitation Forces2025-01-01135/5/2025
Two wheeler is important and essential transportation mode in many of the countries across the globe. Designing a motorcycle with better riding comfort and minimal vibration are thus a major challenge for engineers now a day. Engine and road excitations are two source of vibration acting on motor bike or scooter both. These vibrations are transmitted to the chassis, sub chassis, aesthetic parts and then to the rider and pillion. Unwanted vibrations will create discomfort to the rider/pillion and produce noise. Hence, these need to be minimized. This study is focus on diagnosis and control of output vibration response of sub chassis/aesthetic parts due to engine unbalanced excitation force. There are numerous parameter of motor bike/scooter that governs the vibration response of sub chassis/aesthetic parts. Engine unbalanced inertia force characteristics and their transmission to rider and pillion has been studied and reported here. Environmental benefit demands for a complete noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) refinement for lesser pollution especially that of an engine, chassis, sub chassis and aesthetic parts. The objective of current study is to develop an analytical approach to predict output vibration response of sub chassis/ aesthetic parts in isolation of engine and chassis as they are mostly common from mass production model. Semi implicit procedure based on simulation and testing has been developed. Developed procedure is well supported mathematically and validated through physical testing measurement.
Khare, Saharash
Effects on Motorcycle Response Data Using Wheel Force Transducers2025-01-00945/5/2025
Wheel Force Transducers (WFT) are precise and accurate measurement devices that seamlessly integrate into any vehicle. They can be applied in numerous vehicle applications for both on-road and in laboratory settings. The instrumentation requires replacing an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) wheel with a custom WFT system which is specific to the wheel hub design. An ideal design will minimally impact a vehicle's dynamics, but the vehicle system is inherently modified from the mass of the measurement device. Research and technical documentation have been published which provide conclusions explaining reduction in the unsprung mass reduces dynamic wheel load. However, there doesn’t appear to be clear compensation techniques for how a modified unsprung mass can be related to the original system, thus allowing the WFT signals to be more accurate to the OEM wheel forces. An experimental study was performed on a prototype motorcycle to better understand these differences. An instrumented “impact bump” acting as a force transducer was designed particularly for this testing to assist in characterizing the dynamic responses of a vehicle with variable unsprung mass setups. The motorcycle was equipped with WFTs to measure reaction forces, tri-axial accelerometers for vibration, linear variable differential transducers (LVDTs) for fork and shock travel, and a GPS to reference vehicle speed. The test variables included modifying the unsprung mass of the motorcycle’s front wheel by using OEM wheels, WFT systems, rim masses, hub masses, varying the speed of impact, and changing the motorcycle suspension setup. In this paper, there is consideration to the time domain and frequency domain for these changes in the system dynamic responses. There is discussion of correlation between measurement sensors and the relationship to the mass added from using WFT systems.
Frisco, Jacob, Larsen, William, Rhudy, Scott, Oosting, Nicholas, Laurent, Matthew
A Two-Step Approach for Tire Lateral Force Observation for Motorcycles2024-32-00434/18/2025
This study presents a two-step method for estimating motorcycle tire lateral forces, which are critical to the safety of driver assistance systems. In the pre-filtering stage, a partial attitude of the motorcycle is estimated using a Kalman filter and a kinematic model. In the observation stage, the side slip angle and subsequently the tire lateral forces are provided by a sliding mode observer. It extends previous research by incorporating both out-of-plane and in-plane dynamics. The paper also proposes an approach for selecting the Kalman filter parameters. An approach to identify the stochastic sensor errors of the inertial measurement unit is presented. The identified parameters are used as a basis for the selection of the covariances. The overall study provides a practical implementation strategy and demonstrates its applicability in real-world scenarios. The experiments show the results of the lateral force estimation and its relation to the friction ellipse. The effectiveness of the proposed observer concept is evaluated using simulation data and measured data.
Winkler, Alexander, Grabmair, Gernot, Reger, Johann
RDE Methodology Development for Motorcycle Emissions Assessment2024-32-00734/18/2025
The transfer of conditions and regulations for RDE testing from passenger cars to motorcycles is a non-trivial undertaking. Motorcycles exhibit significant differences in construction and usage compared to cars, necessitating a distinct set of requirements for equipment and methodology. Currently available PEMS are hindered by their relatively large size and weight due to the embedded measurement technology and external power supply. The weight of, at least 50kg, poses a substantial additional load, leading to a deviation and, on average, higher load collective of the engine during RDE measurement rides. Beyond these structural parameters, the actual propulsion system and subsequent exhaust system introduce another challenge when employing PEMS on motorcycles. An unfavorable combination of the ratio of engine displacement to the volume of the exhaust system and long or unequal ignition intervals leads to pulsations, which has a considerable impact on the differential pressure-based measurement method in the EFM. To tackle these challenges, this paper presents the verification of a lightweight off-the-shelf PEMS and an EFM tailored for motorcycles. The verification process of the PEMS is conducted on a state-of-the-art two-wheeler chassis dyno, addressing different L-category subclasses (A1 - A3). This verification ensures the reliability and accuracy of the developed methodology across a range of motorcycle types and engine configurations. Furthermore, the paper provides a detailed RDE measurement example, showcasing the practical application of the developed methodology in real-world scenarios. The mounting platform for motorcycles is described, considering the diverse design configurations and exhaust layouts encountered in various motorcycle categories. Additionally, the integration of complementary devices, such as OBD loggers, enhances the capabilities of the PEMS for comprehensive emissions monitoring during RDE tests. The RDE example illustrates the use of the lightweight PEMS in capturing emissions data from a motorcycle under diverse operating conditions, validating its utility for regulatory compliance and environmental impact assessment. In conclusion, this paper contributes to the advancement of RDE methodology for motorcycles by addressing the unique challenges posed by their diverse engine configurations and usage patterns. The development of the methodology including the verification process establishes a robust framework for real-drive emissions testing of LVs.
Schurl, Sebastian, Keller, Stefan, Lankau, Mathias, Hafenmayer, Christian, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
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