Browse Topic: Life cycle analysis

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Life Cycle Assessment of Automotive Cables and GHG Emission Reduction Scenario in Indian Context2026-26-0240To be published on 01/16/2026
Globally, the emissions share of transport is 15%, out of which more than 2/3rd emissions are contributed by road transport as per 2014 report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The need of mitigation measures in transport sector has been realised however the study of life cycle emission needs to be done with the tailpipe emissions so that some holistic solution can be worked upon. Strikingly, in the life cycle studies of a passenger car, it was found that the share of raw materials related to copper is around 50% of the total amount of raw material used and the share of copper in the curb weight of vehicle is just 1%. Also, for an Internal Combustion Engine vehicle (ICE), mostly the copper is used in the wiring harness. In this paper, the life cycle assessment of wiring harness is done to understand the environmental impacts throughout the life cycle stages. The comparative study of aluminium alloy and copper has also been done to know the change in environmental
Kumar, Naman, Bawase, Moqtik, Thipse, Sukrut
Circularity and LCA: Enhancing Sustainability in the Indian Electric Vehicle Sector2026-26-0239To be published on 01/16/2026
The global shift to electric vehicles (EVs) is vital for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but their sustainability hinges on effective battery lifecycle management. This review examines the interplay between Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and circular economy (CE) principles in EVs, with a focus on both international trends and India-specific challenges. We analyze CE strategies such as extending battery lifespan, second-life applications, and recycling integrated with LCA to evaluate environmental impacts from raw material extraction to disposal. Key areas include battery chemistry, LCA methodologies, policy frameworks, and industrial practices, informed by a synthesis of over 50 peer-reviewed articles, technical papers, and sustainability reports. Challenges include inconsistent LCA baselines, low material recovery in informal recycling, and regulatory gaps, particularly in India. Despite these, innovations like solid-state batteries and advanced recycling techniques offer promise
Haregaonkar, Rushikesh Sambhaji, Kumar, Om, Sankar M, Gopi, Kumar, Rajiv
Evaluating the Environmental Footprint of Electric Vehicles: A Life Cycle Assessment Approach for Sustainable Mobility in India2026-26-0235To be published on 01/16/2026
Road transport contributes 12% of India's energy-related CO2 emissions and is a major source of urban air pollution. These emissions have tripled since 1990, driven by rapid urbanization and the growing demand for private vehicles. Without a shift away from fossil fuels, these trends will intensify climate and air quality challenges. Among sustainable alternatives, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a promising solution. However, a comprehensive understanding of their environmental performance, particularly in the Indian context, is essential for informed decision-making. This study employs a Cradle-to-Grave Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to evaluate the environmental impacts of typical passenger vehicle with a ICE engine compared to its EV powertrain. Key life cycle stages-manufacturing, transportation, distribution, maintenance, and end-of-life-are analysed using real-world data wherever feasible. To capture the evolving energy landscape, the study incorporates India's projected
Sonawane, Nayan, Sathaye, Asmita, Gode, Abhishek, Deshpande, Ashish, Shinde, Harshavardhan, Kothe, Anjali
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - SAE J3341: Driving Sustainability Through Smarter Life Cycle Assessments1354010/24/2025
From pinpointing greenhouse gas (GHG) hot spots to modeling decarbonization scenarios, life cycle assessments (LCAs) can be a powerful tool for sustainability. However, a lack of standardized methodologies across the automotive industry makes progress difficult. That's where the SAE J3341 Task Force comes in. It's a cross-industry initiative uniting automakers, government, and academia to establish a more flexible yet transparent framework on carbon footprint reporting methodologies for passenger vehicles through smarter LCAs. To learn more, we sat down with Laurel Nelson, Chair of the SAE J3341 Task Force, and Staff Engineer of Sustainability Science at Rivian Automotive. She discusses how the task force is implementing a "disclosure addendum" approach that encourages OEMs to clearly communicate their assumptions and data for more accurate and meaningful carbon reporting. If you are interested in taking part in the SAE J3341 Task Force, please reach out to Laurel directly at
Patterson, Lori
Foggy Windows: Predicting and Avoiding the Fleet’s Most Frustrating Failure2025-01-048909/16/2025
Delamination of transparent armor (TA) is one of the costliest and most frustrating failures facing the tactical vehicle community. When purchased, all TA appears equally pristine and has identical protective abilities, but some parts delaminate after only a few years while other parts last over a decade. Recent high delamination rates have resulted in large costs – a Warstopper study showed that transparent armor accounted for 20% of the maintenance cost for the HMMWV. One major advance in the last few years has been the Army-led development of an ‘Accelerated Life Test’ which consistently causes field relevant delamination in transparent armor parts. We present the development of a method to correlate test results with field life, thus allowing for life prediction and life cycle cost analysis. We demonstrate how the life prediction tool can be used to drive purchasing strategies, field use decisions, and vehicle design.
Merrill, Marriner H., Magner, Matthew J., Key, Christopher T., Humphrey, Barry A.
A Life Cycle Assessment of Potential Pathways to Increase Sustainable Aviation Fuel Yields through CO 2 Upgrading Co-located with Corn Ethanol Production13-06-03-002309/04/2025
Alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) upcycling of ethanol to sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is an attractive emerging pathway for SAF production, especially in the US Midwest with large-scale corn ethanol production. Only 39% of the corn carbon is converted to ethanol, 20% is emitted as CO2. Capturing the CO2 to produce additional ethanol or SAF directly can increase the carbon yield. To guide technology selection, this work used life cycle assessment for several CO2-to-SAF production pathways. Additionally, improvements for corn ethanol production were explored by replacing natural gas burners with heat pumps for corn drying, which reduced the carbon intensity of corn ethanol by nearly 16%. But subsequent upgrading of the ethanol to SAF is only 4.5–20% better than conventional aviation fuel. By contrast, CO2-based alternative routes to SAF fared better, reducing carbon intensities between 83% and 90%. Gas fermentation of CO2 to ethanol with subsequent ATJ upcycling to SAF was contrasted to Fischer
McCord, Stephen, Talsma, Sam, Bouchard, Jessey, Zavaleta, Victor Gordillo, He, Xin, Sick, Volker
Life-Cycle Assessment of a Composite vs. a Metallic Bipolar Plate for Fuel Cell Applications: More Sustainable while Maintaining Same Performance Standards?2025-01-029807/02/2025
Faced with one of the greatest challenges of humanity – climate change – the European Union has set out a strategy to achieve climate neutrality by 2050 as part of the European Green Deal. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), which among other aspects identifies climate change effects, is an important tool to assess the environmental characteristic of sustainable technologies or products to fulfill this ambitious target. In this context, research is presented that examines the ecological sustainability impacts of a metallic vs a composite bipolar plate made of innovative graphite-compound based foils for fuel cell applications. A bipolar plate is a central component of the fuel cell stack to ensure efficiency and durability. For this purpose, a LCA is performed for both bipolar plate materials. This assessment follows the methodology of DIN EN ISO 14040/44 and the EU Product Environmental Footprint framework. Focusing on cradle-to-gate system boundary conditions, the research emphasizes the
van Sloun, Andreas, Schroeder, Benedikt, Kexel, Jannik, Schmitz, Maximilian, Balazs, Andreas, Walters, Marius, Koßler, Silas, Pischinger, Stefan, Joemann, Michael
Lifecycle Assessment of Battery Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Internal Combustion Engine-Powered Cars in India13-06-02-001206/28/2025
Battery electric vehicles have gained popularity in the transport sector of late and are considered to emit lower greenhouse gas emissions than their internal combustion engine-powered counterparts. This study conducted a “cradle-to-grave” lifecycle assessment for two sets of battery electric, hybrid electric, and internal combustion engine vehicles sold in India to assess which powertrain emits lower greenhouse gas emissions during their lifetime. The system boundaries of the “cradle-to-grave” analysis consist of vehicle manufacturing, usage, maintenance, recycling of components, and finally, disposal. The “well-to-wheel” analysis includes oil extraction, feedstock cultivation, transportation, refining, fuel production, blending, and supply. This study considered India’s electricity generation mix from thermal, nuclear, solar, wind, and hydropower plants in different regions for 2020–2021. Greenhouse gas emissions from all three categories of vehicles were calculated for a lifespan of
Agarwal, Avinash Kumar, Singh, Rahul Kumar, Biswas, Srijit
Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen Generation through Steam Methane Reforming: A Focus on Co-Product Allocation between Steam and Electricity2025-01-018106/16/2025
This research presents a numerical analysis of the environmental impacts associated with using hot steam as a co-product in hydrogen production through Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) of renewable gas sources. As hydrogen production technology advances rapidly, reducing emissions and addressing environmental concerns, particularly greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, have become essential. This study examines the SMR process with a focus on the environmental effects of utilizing hot steam as a co-product for electricity generation or facility heating. The analysis evaluates renewable feedstocks, including landfill gas, animal waste, food waste, and wastewater sludge, to determine their viability for sustainable hydrogen production. Key pollutants, such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, along with GHGs, are assessed to identify the most environmentally advantageous feedstock options. This work aims to provide insights to promote sustainable hydrogen production practices.
Rosyadi, Ahmad Adib, Lim, Ocktaeck
Low-Cost Mobile Hydrogen Refuelling Stations: A Cost-Effective Solution for India's Sustainable Transportation2025-01-018706/16/2025
Low-Cost Mobile Hydrogen Refuelling Stations: A Cost-Effective Solution for India's Sustainable Transportation” The likely depletion of fossil fuel reserves in the next fifty years and growing environmental concerns caused by petroleum fuel-based vehicles highlight the urgent need for sustainable alternatives. India, a developing country, requires a significant amount of energy to sustain its growth, most of which is imported. Hydrogen is one of the cleanest fuels and offers sustainable pathways to a low-carbon future. The government of India has already launched a Green Hydrogen mission and has set up a very ambitious target for 2030. However, the absence of adequate refueling infrastructure is a significant blockade to India's widespread adoption of hydrogen-powered vehicles. The mobile hydrogen refueling station (MHRS) is a flexible system that enables lower initial capital costs than fixed hydrogen refueling stations and allows for the gradual build-up of hydrogen mobility fleets
Mathur, Animesh, Nayak, Ajay, Kumar, Naveen
Sustainable Design of Automotive Batteries2025-01-000105/08/2025
A consequence of the automotive industry's shift to electrification is that a significantly higher percentage of a vehicle's lifecycle CO2 emissions occur during the production phase. As a result, vehicle manufacturers and suppliers must shift the focus of product development from the 'in-use phase only' to optimizing the complete product lifecycle. The proper design of a battery has the highest impact to all other phases following in the life cycle. It influences the selection of materials, the manufacturing, in-use and end of life, respectively the recycling and recycling yield for a circular economy. Using real-life examples, the paper will explain what the main parameters are necessary for designing a sustainable battery. What are the low hanging fruits to be considered? In addition, it will elaborate on the relation as well as the impacts to other KPIs like safety, costs and lifetime of the battery. Finally, it will round up in an outlook on how batteries will evolve in the future
Braun, Andreas, Rothbart, Martin
Next-Gen Italian Urban Mobility: Emissions LCA and TCO Prospective for Innovative Transportation Solutions2025-01-859304/01/2025
Reducing vehicle numbers and enhancing public transport can significantly cut emissions in the transport sector. Hydrogen-fueled and battery electric buses show the potential for decarbonization, but a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is essential to evaluate carbon emissions from energy production and manufacturing. In addition, even associated pollutant emissions, together with components’ wear, must be taken into account to evaluate the overall environmental impact. Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) analysis complements this by assessing long-term expenses, enabling stakeholders to balance environmental and economic considerations. This study examines carbon and pollutant emissions alongside TCO for innovative urban mobility powertrains (compared with diesel), focusing on Italian current and future hydrogen and electricity mix scenarios, even considering 100 % green hydrogen (100GH), the goal being to support sustainable decision-making and to promote eco-friendly transport solutions. The
Brancaleoni, Pier Paolo, Damiani Ferretti, Andrea Nicolò, Corti, Enrico, Ravaglioli, Vittorio, Moro, Davide
Objective System Level Sustainability Evaluation of Competing Materials for Demanding Automotive Applications2025-01-860704/01/2025
The authors will present findings from their cradle-to-cradle Product Carbon Footprint (PCF) study which captures an objective and comprehensive system level evaluation of the greenhouse gas (GHG) footprint of four different material types used in the same automotive application: Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UPR) SMC, steel, aluminum and glass fiber reinforced polypropylene (PP-GF). This study includes the simulation driven design of four mid-sized pickup boxes which were designed according to automotive requirements and relevant design guidelines for each material. OEM experts were consulted to validate the relevant specifications and boundary conditions. The technical paper includes details on the geometric design, simulation, production processes, life cycle and environmental impact assessment all in compliance with ISO standards (14040/14044) for the Cradle-to-Cradle PCF. This paper provides guidance and insights to help engineers develop effective strategies for material selection
Halsband, Adam, Leinemann, Tomke, Beer, Markus, Haiss, Eric
Containerization Enhanced Systems Integration for Robotics Code Development and deployment2025-01-834504/01/2025
Over the decades, robotics deployments have been driven by the rapid in-parallel research advances in sensing, actuation, simulation, algorithmic control, communication, and high-performance computing among others. Collectively, their integration within a cyber-physical-systems framework has supercharged the increasingly complex realization of the real-time ‘sense-think-act’ robotics paradigm. Successful functioning of modern-day robots relies on seamless integration of increasingly complex systems (coming together at the component-, subsystem-, system- and system-of-system levels) as well as their systematic treatment throughout the life-cycle (from cradle to grave). As a consequence, ‘dependency management’ between the physical/algorithmic inter-dependencies of the multiple system elements is crucial for enabling synergistic (or managing adversarial) outcomes. Furthermore, the steep learning curve for customizing the technology for platform specific deployment discourages domain
Varpe, Harshal Babsaheb, Coleman, John, Salvi, Ameya, Smereka, Jonathon, Brudnak, Mark, Gorsich, David, Krovi, Venkat N
European Initiatives Addressing High Efficiency and Low-Cost Electric Motors for Circularity and Low use of Rare Resources2025-01-880604/01/2025
The automotive industry is amidst an unprecedented multi-faceted transition striving for more sustainable passenger mobility and freight transportation. The rise of e-mobility is coming along with energy efficiency improvements, greenhouse gas and non-exhaust emission reductions, driving/propulsion technology innovations, and a hardware-software-ratio shift in vehicle development for road-based electric vehicles. Current R&D activities are focusing on electric motor topologies and designs, sustainability, manufacturing, prototyping, and testing. This is leading to a new generation of electric motors, which is considering recyclability, reduction of (rare earth) resource usage, cost criticality, and a full product life-cycle assessment, to gain broader market penetration. This paper outlines the latest advances of multiple EU-funded research projects under the Horizon Europe framework and showcases their complementarities to address the European priorities as identified in the 2Zero
Armengaud, Eric, Ratz, Florian, Muñiz, Ángela, Poza, Javier, Garramiola, Fernando, Almandoz, Gaizka, Pippuri-Mäkeläinen, Jenni, Clenet, Stéphane, Messagie, Maarten, D’amore, Lea, Lavigne Philippot, Maeva, Rillo, Oriol, Montesinos, Daniel, Vansompel, Hendrik, De Keyser, Arne, Romano, Claudio, Montanaro, Umberto, Tavernini, Davide, Gruber, Patrick, Ran, Liaoyuan, Amati, Nicola, Vagg, Christopher, Herzog, Matic, Weinzerl, Martin, Keränen, Janne, Montonen, Juho
Selection of Energy-Efficient Powertrain Architecture for the Application in Off-Highway Vehicle2025-01-852404/01/2025
Off-highway vehicles, with their unique requirements of durability, high power, and torque density, are typically powered by diesel ignition internal combustion engines (ICEs). This reliance on ICEs significantly contributes to greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. For this reason, there is an urge to develop an energy-efficient powertrain architecture that produces fewer GHGs emissions while meeting the variable torque levels and variable speeds and performing various duty cycles with high efficiency. In order to select the energy-efficient powertrain architecture for the off-highway vehicle, different existing powertrain architectures (i.e., series hybrid, parallel hybrid, series-parallel hybrid, conventional) for off-highway applications have been studied to highlight their pros and cons. This is done considering the different duty cycles and applications along with Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). Off-highway vehicles operate under different road/surface conditions than on-road vehicles
Abououf, Hend, Hanif, Athar, Dickson, Jon, Chandramouli, Nitish, Ahmed, Qadeer
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Fuel Cell Heavy-Duty Vehicles in China: A Cradle-to-Gate Analysis13-06-03-001802/04/2025
Considered as one of the most promising technology pathways for the transport sector to realize the target of “carbon neutral,” fuel cell vehicles have been seriously discussed in terms of its potential for alleviating environmental burden. Focused on cradle-to-gate (CtG) stage, this article evaluates the environmental impacts of fuel cell heavy-duty vehicles of three size classes and three driving ranges to find the critical components and manufacturing processes in the energy context of China. The findings show that the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the investigated fuel cell heavy-duty vehicle range from 47 ton CO2-eq to 162 ton CO2-eq, with the fuel cell system and hydrogen storage system collectively contributing to 37%–56% of the total. Notably, as the driving range increases, the proportion of GHG emissions stemming from fuel cell-related components also rises. Within the fuel cell system, the catalyst layer and bipolar plate are identified as the components with the most
Mu, Zhexuan, Deng, YunFeng, Bai, Fanlong, Zhao, Fuquan, Liu, Zongwei, Hao, Han, Liu, Ming
Calculation and Analysis of Carbon Emissions for Fuel Vehicles and Electric Vehicles2025-01-709601/31/2025
With the increase in vehicle population, the environmental problems caused by excessive carbon emissions from vehicles are becoming increasingly serious. Currently, China is actively promoting the development of electric vehicles to reduce carbon emissions. However, the electricity used by electric vehicles is a secondary energy source, and thermal power generation still dominates China's current power structure, so electric vehicles will indirectly contribute to carbon emissions during use. Calculating and analysing the carbon emissions of fuel vehicles and electric vehicles will give a better idea of the environmental advantages of electric vehicles. In this paper, the World Light Vehicle Test Cycle (WLTC) are selected, and the energy consumption is calculated by the energy consumption formula of fuel and electric vehicles under different conditions, and the carbon emission is obtained by the carbon emission coefficients of gasoline and electric energy. Through MATLAB calculation
Xie, Haonan, Lin, Guangyu
Life Cycle Assessment of PEMFC System for Fuel Cell Vehicles Based on the GREET Model2025-01-708601/31/2025
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are seen as an ideal solution to the issues of energy security and environmental pollution. There is a great need for a comprehensive understanding of the ecological impacts associated with fuel cells throughout their entire life cycle, from fuel extraction through manufacturing, operation, and ultimately to the disposal stage. This paper reviews the progress of research on measuring the emissions of hydrogen fuel cells and focuses on the carbon footprint throughout the fuel cell’s life cycle. The study defines the boundary conditions of the fuel cell system using the PLAC (Process-based life cycle assessment) method, analyzes the proportion of each material in the system, and divides its life cycle into six stages: raw material preparation, manufacturing and assembly, transportation and logistics, utilization, maintenance and repair, and scrap and recycling. This study uses the GREET analysis software to introduce a carbon footprint analysis model for a
Zhang, Ruojing, Zhu, Haomin, Zhou, Xiangyang, Pan, Xiangmin
ERRATUM: Efficiency and Emissions of Electric and Hydrogen Light- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles13-05-02-0015.101/16/2025
ERRATUM
Wade, Wallace R.
On the Potential of Upcycling Plastic Wastes to Carbon-Capturing Materials Using Supercritical Fluid-Assisted Injection Molding Process13-05-03-002101/09/2025
With the extensive production and widespread use of plastics, the issue of environmental pollution caused by plastic waste has become increasingly prominent. Consequently, researchers have been focusing on developing efficient methodologies for upcycling waste plastics and converting them into value-added materials. This hybrid review–conceptual article first provides an overview of strategies for upcycling waste plastic into carbon-capturing materials. It presents carbonization and activation as key steps in converting plastic waste into adsorbent materials and explores strategies for converting common waste plastics. Building upon this foundation, the article introduces and conceptualizes a novel upcycling approach with two manufacturing routes to convert plastic waste into carbon-capturing materials using supercritical fluid (ScF)-assisted injection molding process. It continues by investigating the potential of developing lightweight components made of such carbon-capturing
Pirani, Mahdi, Meiabadi, Mohammad Saleh, Moradi, Mahmoud, Enriquez, Lissette Garcia, Sreenivasan, Sreeprasad T., Farahani, Saeed
Letter from the Guest Editors13-05-03-001612/31/2024
Letter from the Guest Editors
Farahani, Saeed, Vargas-Silva, Gustavo, Kazan, Hakan, Moradi, Mahmoud, Medina, Carlos
Fusion Splicing for Optical FibersAIR6162 (Current)10/07/2024
This document provides an orientation to fusion splicing technology for optical fibers and fiber optic cable. It is intended for managers, designers, installers, and repair and maintenance personnel who need to understand the process of fusion splicing. This technology is widely used in telecommunications and industrial applications, and is finding acceptance in aerospace applications.
AS-3 Fiber Optics and Applied Photonics Committee
Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Dual Fuel Hydrogen/Diesel Combustion at Varying Engine Speed on a Single Cylinder Engine2024-24-004409/18/2024
In this study, dual fuel combustion process has been investigated numerically and experimentally in a single cylinder research engine. Two engine speeds have been investigated (1500 and 2000 rpm) at fixed BMEP of 5 bar for both engine speeds. For each engine speed two operating points have tested with and without EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation). The hydrogen has been injected in the intake manifold in front of the tumble intake port inlet and a small amount of diesel fuel has been introduced directly in the cylinder through two injections strategy: one pilot injection occurring Before Top Dead Center (BTDC) and one main occurring around the Top Dead Center (TDC). The dual-fuel combustion model in GT-SUITE has been used first to calibrate the combustion model by using the Three Pressure Analysis (TPA) model. This step allows the calibration of the combustion model to predict in-cylinder combustion processes. Simulations have been performed at varying mass distribution of injected diesel
Maroteaux, Fadila, SEBAI, Salim, Mancaruso, Ezio, Rossetti, Salvatore, Schembri, Patrick, Radja, Katia, Barichella, Arnault
Life Cycle Analysis of a PEM Fuel Cell System for Long-Haul Heavy-Duty Trucks2024-24-002009/18/2024
The European Union plans to reach net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2050. In 2020, the transport sector significantly contributed to global energy-related GHG emissions, with heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) responsible for a substantial portion of road transport emissions in the EU and a notable percentage of the EU’s total GHG emissions. Zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs), including fuel cell (FC) vehicles, are crucial for decarbonizing the transport sector to achieve climate neutrality. This paper aims at quantifying the environmental impacts of a 200kW proton exchange membrane FC system for long-haul HDVs with a 40-ton mass and 750 km driving range. The life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was applied, and a life cycle model of the FC system was developed with a cradle-to-grave boundary. To ensure reproducibility and scalability, results are reported on a kW basis. A sensitivity analysis was performed on key parameters, including hydrogen production route, FC system production
Gentilucci, Gaia, Accardo, Antonella, Spessa, Ezio
Sustainable Propulsion in a Post-Fossil Energy World: Life-Cycle Assessment of Renewable Fuel and Electrified Propulsion Concepts2024-01-301307/02/2024
In response to the challenge of climate change, the European Union has developed a strategy to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. Extensive research has been conducted on the CO2 life cycle analysis of propulsion systems. However, achieving net-zero CO2 emissions requires adjusting key performance indicators for the development of these. Therefore, we investigated the ecological sustainability impacts of various propulsion concepts integrated in a C-segment sports utility vehicle assuming a 100% renewable energy scenario. The propulsion concepts studied include a hydrogen-fueled 48V mild hybrid, a hydrogen-fueled 48V hybrid, a methanol-fueled 400V hybrid, a methanol-to-gasoline-fueled 400V plug-in hybrid, an 800V battery electric vehicle (BEV), and a hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV). To achieve a comprehensive and objective comparison of various propulsion concepts that meet the same pre-defined customer requirements for system design, we conducted an integrated and
Kexel, Jannik, Pischinger, Stefan, Balazs, Andreas, Schroeder, Benedikt, Wegner, Hagen
Efficiency and Emissions of Electric and Hydrogen Light- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles13-05-02-001506/12/2024
Life cycle analyses suggest that electric vehicles are more efficient than gasoline internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Although the latest available data reveal that electric vehicle (EV) life cycle operational efficiency is only 17% (3 percentage points) higher than a gasoline ICEV, overall life cycle efficiencies including manufacturing for EVs are 2 percentage points lower than for ICEVs. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of EVs are only 4% lower than ICEVs, but criteria emissions of NOx and PM are approaching or exceeding two times those of gasoline ICEVs. Significant reductions in electric grid emissions are required to realize EV’s anticipated emission benefits. In contrast, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have over 70% higher efficiency and 28% lower GHG emissions than today’s EVs. For heavy-duty trucks using today’s gray hydrogen, produced by steam–methane reforming, overall life cycle efficiencies of ICEs and fuel cells are 63% higher than electric powertrains using
Wade, Wallace R.
Towards the Design-Driven Carbon Footprint Reduction of Composite Aerospace and Automotive Components: An Overview2024-37-003206/12/2024
Composite materials, pioneered by aerospace engineering due to their lightness, strength, and durability properties, are increasingly adopted in the high-performance automotive sector. Besides the acknowledged composite components’ performance, enabled lightweighting is becoming even more crucial for energy efficiency, and therefore emissions along vehicle use phase from a decarbonization perspective. However, their use entails energy-intensive and polluting processes involved in the production of raw materials, manufacturing processes, and particularly their end-of-life disposal. Carbon footprint is the established indicator to assess the environmental impact of climate-changing factors on products or services. Research on different carbon footprint sources reduction is increasing, and even the European Composites Industry Association is demanding the development of specific Design for Sustainability approaches. This paper analyzes the early strategies for providing low-carbon
Dalpadulo, Enrico, Russo, Mario, Gherardini, Francesco, Leali, Francesco
Life Cycle Assessment of a State-of-the-Art Diesel powered Engine and Preliminary Evaluation of its Conversion into a Novel Hydrogen powered Engine2024-01-244204/09/2024
This paper is part of a broader research project aiming at studying, designing, and prototyping a hydrogen-powered internal combustion engine to achieve fast market implementation, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and sustainable costs. The ability to provide a fast market implementation is linked to the fact that the technological solution would exploit the existing production chain of internal combustion engines. Regarding the technological point of view, the hydrogen engine will be a monofuel engine re-designed based on a diesel-powered engine. The redesign involves specific modifications to critical subsystems, including combustion systems, injection, ignition, exhaust gas recirculation, and exhaust gas aftertreatment. Notably, adaptations include the customization of the cylinder head for controlled ignition, optimization of camshaft profiles, and evaluation of the intake system. The implementation incorporates additive manufacturing for the production of new intake manifolds and
Malagrinò, Gianfranco, Accardo, Antonella, Costantino, Trentalessandro, Pensato, Michele, Spessa, Ezio
Lightweight Design Enabled by Innovative CAE Based Development Method Using Topology Optimization2024-01-245404/09/2024
Carbon neutrality has become a significant target. One essential parameter regarding energy consumption and emissions is the mass of vehicles. Lightweight design improves the result of vehicle life cycle assessment (LCA), increases efficiency, and can be a step towards sustainability and CO2 neutrality. Weight reduction through structural optimization is a challenging task. Typical design development procedures have to be overcome. Instead of just a facelift or the creation of a derivative of the predecessor design, completely alternative design creation methods have to be applied. Automated structural optimization is one tool for exploring completely new design approaches. Different methods are available and weight reduction is the focus of topology optimization. This paper describes a fatigue life homogenization method that enables the weight reduction of vehicle parts. The applied CAE process combines fatigue life prediction and topology optimization. An adapted design for a
Kato, Yoshiya, Ishikawa, Satoru, Puchner, Klaus, Schossleitner, Martin, Gaier, Christian
An LCA Evaluation for Passenger Cars based on the Comparison of Scenarios and Vehicles with Different Technologies2024-01-282904/09/2024
The LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) methodology is nowadays considered fundamental for the estimation and analysis of the economic and social impacts coming from the CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) footprint. It is a methodology for evaluating the “environmental footprint” of the product, “from cradle to grave” and it is carried out by quantifying the impacts deriving from both the use of resources and emissions into the environment. The aim of this study is to contribute to environmental assessment in the context of the sustainability of vehicular transport in urban areas. For this reason, through a comparative analysis of the LCA it is possible to evaluate the CO2 emissions deriving from cars during real use and relating to the entire life of the vehicles. Three comparisons were made considering pairs made up of an electric vehicle and an internal combustion vehicle of the same segment and category: small city cars, mid-size and SUV. In the development of the work, various articles have been
Meccariello, Giovanni, Della Ragione, Livia
Comprehensive Cradle to Grave Life Cycle Analysis of On-Road Vehicles in the United States Based on GREET2024-01-283004/09/2024
To properly compare and contrast the environmental performance of one vehicle technology against another, it is necessary to consider their production, operation, and end-of-life fates. Since 1995, Argonne’s GREET® life cycle analysis model (Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Technologies) has been annually updated to model and refine the latest developments in fuels and materials production, as well as vehicle operational and composition characteristics. Updated cradle-to-grave life cycle analysis results from the model’s latest release are described for a wide variety of fuel and powertrain options for U.S. light-duty and medium/heavy-duty vehicles. Light-duty vehicles include a passenger car, sports utility vehicle (SUV), and pick-up truck, while medium/heavy-duty vehicles include a Class 6 pickup-and-delivery truck, Class 8 day-cab (regional) truck, and Class 8 sleeper-cab (long-haul) truck. Powertrain coverage includes internal combustion (spark ignition and
Kelly, Jarod C., Kim, Taemin, Kolodziej, Christopher P., Iyer, Rakesh K., Tripathi, Shashwat, Elgowainy, Amgad, Wang, Michael
Cradle to Grave Comparison on Emission Produced by EV and ICE Powertrains2024-01-240204/09/2024
Since the popularization of the Electric Vehicle (EV) there has been a large movement of consumers, governments, and the automotive industry due to its environmentally friendly characteristics. Unlike an IC engine, the batteries use multitudes of rare earth minerals and complex manufacturing processes which in some cases have been shown to produce as many emissions as an ICE vehicle over its entire lifespan. Another unnoticed important environmental concern has been the final recycling and disposal of the power train after its use. Unlike an ICE engine, which can be melted down or re-used, recycling batteries are much more difficult. In most cases the recycling process and the byproducts produced can be very harmful to the environment. This paper aims to be a complete cradle-to-grave analysis of all emissions produced in the life of an EV battery. This includes the mining of material required, refining of the material to a form suitable for manufacturing, manufacturing important
Abraham, Albert J., AbdulNour, Bashar
Benefit from In-service Life Optimized for Minimum CO2 – Comparison of ICEVs, PHEVs, BEVs and FCEVs2024-01-244304/09/2024
The 2023 FISITA White Paper (for which the author was a contributor) on managing in-service emissions and transportation options, to reduce CO2 (CO2-e or carbon footprint) from the existing vehicle fleet, proposed 6 levers which could be activated to complement the rapid transition to vehicles using only renewable energy sources. Another management opportunity reported here is optimizing the vehicle’s life in-service to minimize the life-cycle CO2 impact of a range of present and upcoming vehicles. This study of the US vehicle fleet has quite different travel and composition characteristics to European (EU27) vehicles. In addition, the embodied CO2 is based on ANL’s GREET data rather than EU27 SimaPro methodology. It is demonstrated that in-service, whole-of-life mileage has a significant influence on the optimum life cycle CO2 for BEVs and H2 fuelled FCEVs, as well as ICEs and PHEVs. Thus, the object is to show how much present, typical in-service life-mileage differs from the
Watson, Harry C.
Corrosion Prediction Model for Electrical Components in Automobiles2024-26-030701/16/2024
Salt Spray Test is being used since 1930’s to accelerate the corrosion testing of materials and to understand the longevity of applied coating. The sample in this kind of test is exposed to a salt mist in a controlled environment and its corrosion resistance is evaluated by measuring the corrosion rate. The Wet-Dry cycle in Salt Spray Test has the ability to simulate the drying and wetting which occurs in real driving scenario, leading to formation of a film of corrosion products which is useful in analyzing the kinetics of electrochemical reaction. Despite the advancement in severity of these tests to understand the atmospheric corrosion phenomena, they still consume time and resources. Secondly, sometimes these kind of tests do not consider into account the effect of Temperature, Humidity and other chemicals in play. Thus, numerical simulation plays a pivotal role in digitalizing the corrosion analysis to a certain extent. It also helps to provide a timesaving, effective, accurate
Shukrey, Sarthak, Yenugu, Srinivasa, Shah, Srishty, Bernardi, Roman
Thermal Management of on-Board Electrical Vehicle Charger through AlN Coating2024-26-019401/16/2024
Vehicle electrification is game changer for automotive sector because of major energy and environmental implications driven by high vehicle efficiency. However, EVs are facing challenges on life cycle assessment (LCA), charging, and driving range compared to conventional fossil-fueled vehicles. One of the key features that impacts the efficiency of an EV is its battery charging system which is done using an On-Board Charger (OBC). OBCs, are primarily used to convert DC-power from high-voltage battery pack to AC-power. They contain different power-electronic devices such as MOSFETs, diodes, magnetics etc. These devices generate a lot of heat and require an efficient thermal management strategy. Through CAE Thermal analysis it was identified that amongst these components, transformers and diodes are major source of heat. Temperature observed at these component locations were in the range of 90-105 °C, compared to other components (45-75°C). This results into formation of hot spots on
Bali, Shirish, Bhatt, Srishti, Bhavsar, Vaibhav, Rao, Bhaskar
“Impact of Design Principles on End-of-Life and Recycling”2024-26-016301/16/2024
Automotive industry is a major contributor to global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and waste generation. Not only do vehicles produce emissions during usage, but they also generate emissions during production phase and end of life disposal. There is an urgent need to address sustainability and circularity issues in this sector. This paper explores how circularity and CO2 reduction principles can be applied to design and production of automotive parts, with the aim of reducing the environmental impact of these components throughout their life cycle. Also, this paper highlights the impact of design principles on End-of-Life Management of vehicles. As Design decisions of Component impacts up to 80% of emissions [1], it is important to focus on this phase for major contribution in reduction of emissions. Various factors such as material selection, quantity and weight of materials used in parts, design for durability, aerodynamic characteristics, design strategies, design for recycling
Ali, Rifat Fahmida, Harel, Samarth, Shaikh, Taha, Chakraborty, Pinka
An Experimental Approach Towards Sustainable Solution for Material Recycling of ELV Plastic Bumpers and EV Batteries2024-26-016401/16/2024
A general automotive car is majorly composed of high strength steel (6%), other steel (50%), Iron (15%), Plastics (7%), Aluminum (4%) and others (Rubber, Glass, Textile) about 18%. End-of-life vehicles (ELVs) are a significant source of waste and pollution in the automotive industry. Recycling ELVs, particularly their plastic components, Li-ion batteries, catalytic converters, and critical technology components such as alternators, semi-conductor chips, and high tensile strength steel can reduce their environmental impact and conserve valuable raw materials. The paper conducts a SWOT analysis and a life cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate the long-term viability and potential of ELV recycling, environmental impact, and carbon footprint. This paper examines the current state and challenges of ELV recycling in India and proposes a sustainable recycling solution for waste bumpers that includes paint removal, modification, reprocessing & recovery of precious metals from xEV Li-ion batteries
Baviskar, Ajay, Khera, Pankaj, Telgote, Ashish, Dhuria, Himanshu, Sharma, Amit
How to Accomplish a More Sustainable Internal Combustion Engine Using Life Cycle Analysis: A Demo2023-01-165710/31/2023
The Sustainable Development Goals were adopted by all United Nation Member States in 2015 to ensure a sustainable planet and improved living conditions for everyone, everywhere. The light duty vehicle (LDV) fleet has exceeded one billion, with most vehicles being powered by internal combustion engines. Transportation is responsible for 60% of global fossil oil consumption. Air pollution is a large problem in cities often attributed to road transport. Vehicles comprise of over 70 material categories, indicating the complexity of sustainable material management. A hypothesis was established, that a sustainable engine (SE) could significantly reduce the environmental impact of transportation and, be realized by combining available technologies. A life cycle analysis was conducted on a 145 kW 2-litre Miller-cycle gasoline 48V-mild-hybrid engine with EU6d exhaust aftertreatment system (EATS), assessing seven mid-point categories. The environmental impacts were used to establish sustainable
Dudley, Joshua Paul, Laurell, Mats, Thuve, Christoffer, Klövmark, Henrik
Life-cycle Analysis of Methanol Production from Coke Oven Gas in China2023-01-164610/31/2023
The growing demand for transportation fuels and the global emphasis on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have led to increased interest in analyzing transport GHG emissions from the life-cycle perspective. Methanol, a potentially carbon-neutral fuel synthesized from CO2 and H2, has emerged as a promising candidate. This paper conducts a comprehensive life-cycle analysis (LCA) of the GHG emissions associated with the methanol production process, utilizing data inventory from China in 2019. To simulate the synthesis and distillation process of methanol, Aspen Plus is employed, using parameters obtained from actual plants. GHG emissions are then calculated using the GREET model, incorporating updated industry statistics and research findings. The CO2 necessary for methanol production is captured from factory flue gas. Two different sources of H2 are considered: one from Coke Oven Gas (COG) and the hydrogen-rich gas byproduct resulting from COG methanation (Case 1), and the other via
Fu, Yang, Wang, Buyu, Shuai, Shijin
New Challenges Towards Electrification Sustainability: Environmental Impact Assessment Comparison Between ICE and Hybrid-Electric Orchard Tractor2023-32-012609/29/2023
Paris Climate Agreement defined the strategy to contrast the current climate change trend. Therefore, a complete and deep review of the entire lifespan of a product is necessary. Recently, in the agri-tech field, also tractors manufacturers have begun to explore the adoption of full-electric or hybrid-electric powertrains to contrast pollutants emissions and to misrepresent tractor functionalities, due to diesel engines stricter regulations in terms of pollutants emissions. The aim of this work is to evaluate the carbon intensity of an ICE and hybrid-electric orchard tractor trough Life Cycle Assessment technique. The assessment has been conducted considering production, use and disposal phases of the tractor. Lastly, the results obtained are illustrated according to gate-to-gate and cradle-to-gate approach.
Martelli, Salvatore, Mocera, Francesco, Somà, Aurelio
Greases for powertrains: thickener effect, electric conductivity, and life cycle assessment2023-32-014609/29/2023
The paper shows how grease thickener polarity affects performance of the typical powertrain components: gears and rolling element bearings. Greases based on a non-polar polypropylene thickener reduce friction losses (more than 20%) in high-speed deep groove ball bearings and provide a longer service life (more than 2 times) in highly loaded bevel gears, compared to the greases based on polar lithium thickeners. The electrification and sustainability trends have led to additional requirements to be addresses during grease design process: tunable electric conductivity and reduced environment footprint. The grease design challenges caused by the novel requirements and potential solutions are discussed.
Glavatskih, Sergei, Leckner, Johan
Evaluation of Battery Power Losses During the LCA Use Phase of Electric Vehicles: An Experimental Analysis of Different Li-Ion Battery Chemistries2023-24-015508/28/2023
Vehicle electrification is one of the most important emerging trends in the transportation sector and a necessary step towards the reduction of polluting substances and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, electric vehicles still present some environmental criticalities, such as indirect emissions related to the electricity used for charging the traction battery, which depends on the considered national electricity generation mix. The leading approach for quantifying the potential environmental impacts is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), a standardized methodology that takes into account the whole life cycle of a product, including production, use phase, and end-of-life. Among them, the use phase is the most controversial and heterogenic part of the battery LCA, being environmental impacts depending on different national electricity generation mixes and several factors difficult to estimate, such as charge-discharge power losses that provide significant contributions to the overall
Silvestri, Luca, De Santis, Michele, Falcucci, Giacomo, Serao, Paola, Bella, Gino
Sustainability of Future Shipping Fuels: Well-to-Wake Environmental and Techno-Economic Analysis of Ammonia and Methanol2023-24-009308/28/2023
The transportation industry has been scrutinized for its contribution towards the global greenhouse gas emissions over the years. While the automotive sector has been regulated by strict emission legislation globally, the emissions from marine transportation have been largely neglected. However, during the past decade, the international maritime organization focused on ways to lower the emission intensity of the marine sector by introducing several legislations. This sets limits on the emissions of different oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur, which are emitted in large amounts from heavy fuel oil (HFO) combustion (the primary fuel for the marine sector). A 40% and 70% reduction per transport work compared to the levels of 2008 is set as target for CO2 emission for 2030 and 2050, respectively. To meet these targets, commonly, methanol, as a low-carbon fuel, and ammonia, as a zero-carbon fuel, are considered. But for the well-being of the marine ecosystem, nitrogen and sulphur
Tripathi, Shashwat, Gorbatenko, Inna, Garcia, Antonio, Sarathy, Mani
Sustainability of Advanced ICEs Based HEVs for Passenger Cars Fuelled with Alternative Fuels: A LCA Study in Comparison with BEV Technology2023-24-009408/28/2023
A possible environmental assessment of sustainable vehicular transport is based on a comparative analysis through the LCA Life Cycle Analysis methodology of the entire vehicle’s life cycle. For this purpose, it could contribute to the choices of political decision-makers and investors in the sector of large infrastructure and industrial works. Therefore, the LCA activity is of fundamental importance for the estimation and analysis of the economic and social impacts through the comparative analysis of technological solutions in scenarios of “accelerated technological evolution” and/or “sustainable mobility”. The study could be designed for different vehicle segments to evaluate their efficiency and overall environmental sustainability also related to current social and political scenarios. Couples with electric and internal combustion vehicles of the same market segment and category may be compared. Furthermore, the comparative analysis is carried out during a PON Extreme research
Della Ragione, Livia, Meccariello, Giovanni, Beatrice, Carlo, Ricco, Raffaele
LCA and LCC of a Li-ion Battery Pack for Automotive Application2023-24-017008/28/2023
Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries have emerged as the dominant technology for electric mobility due to their performance, stability, and long cycle life. Nevertheless, there are emerging environmental and economic issues from Li-ion batteries related to depleting critical resources and their potential shortage. This paper focuses on developing the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) of a generic Li-ion battery pack with a Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) cathode chemistry, being the most used, and a capacity of 95 kWh as an average between different carmakers. The LCA and LCC include all the relevant phases of the life cycle of the product. The costs related to the LCC assessment have been taken as secondary data. Lastly, the same system boundary has been chosen both for the LCA and LCC. The results of the LCA and LCC show that the carbon footprint is 119.7 kgCO2eq/kWh while the economic impact is 147.3 €/kWh if Europe is assumed as the production, use and recycling
Di Vittorio, Natalia, Accardo, Antonella, Spessa, Ezio, Viscido, Lucio, Tam, Edwin
Light-Duty Vehicles Electrification: Carbon Dioxide Reduction Impact Potential and Considerations of Its Effect on Electricity Generation System2023-01-505408/22/2023
In the context of the race toward minimum road transportation carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, the needs for tools comparing various powertrain options are of the highest importance. Various authors have demonstrated the necessity to take into account the full life cycle assessment (LCA), a simplified tank-to-wheel calculation being unsatisfactory in providing guidance regarding the optimized technological choices depending of variables manufacturing and operating conditions. There are several examples to be found in the literature but they have been found to be very specific to most of their assumptions (e.g., vehicle models, electricity carbon intensity for usage or production, etc.). This paper focuses first on possibly to establish a more general model and relative graphic tool to compare carbon foot print of various powertrains with incremental electrification levels of light-duty vehicles (spark ignition engine, full hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and battery electric vehicle), enabling
Hébert, Guillaume
Methods for the Holistic Evaluation of the Fuel Influence on Gasoline Engine Combustion2023-01-121006/26/2023
The proportion of new registrations with battery-electric and hybrid powertrains is rising steadily. This shows the strong trend in the automotive industry away from conventional powertrains with internal combustion engines. The aim is to reduce the transport sector's contribution to CO2 emissions. However, it should be noted that this only applies when renewable energy is used. Studies show the relevance of the system boundaries under consideration, which makes the application of Life Cycle Assessment indispensable. According to these studies, the various types of powertrains differ only slightly in their greenhouse gas impact. Rather, the energy supply chain plays a significant role. Moreover, a ban on combustion engines would lead to an additional increase in cumulative CO2 emissions. An important aspect on the way to sustainable mobility solutions is addressing the existing fleet. The approximately 1.25 billion vehicles predominantly powered by internal combustion engines can make
Villforth, Jonas, Vacca, Antonino, Bargende, Michael, Kulzer, Andre
Challenges and Directions of Using Ammonia as an Alternative Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines2023-01-032404/11/2023
In recent decades, the importance of emerging alternative fuels has increased significantly as a solution to the problems of global warming and air pollution from energy production. In this context, ammonia (NH3) is seen as a potential option and energy vector that may be able to overcome the technical challenges associated with the use of other carbon-free fuels such as hydrogen (H2) in internal combustion engines (ICE). In this research, a numerical methodology for evaluating the impact of using ammonia as a fuel for spark-ignition ICEs has been developed. A combination of a single-cylinder and multi-cylinder numerical experiments has been performed to identify the main challenges and determine correct engine configuration. In addition, the performance of the engine has been evaluated through standard homologation driving cycles, contrasting it with other alternative propulsion configurations. Finally, a simplified life cycle assessment (LCA) has been carried out to compare the
Novella, Ricardo, Pastor, Jose, Gomez-Soriano, Josep, Bayona, Javier Sánchez
Lifecycle Carbon Footprint Calculation of Hand-Held Tool Propulsion Concepts2023-01-055304/11/2023
Following the recent trend in the automotive industry, hybrid and pure electric powertrain systems are more and more preferred over conventional combustion powertrain systems due to their significant potential to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. Although electric powertrains do not produce direct emissions during their operational time, the indirect emissions over their whole life cycle have to be taken into consideration. In this direction, the carbon footprint due to the electrification of the hand-held power tool industry needs to be examined in the preliminary design phase. In this paper, after defining the carbon footprint calculation framework, assumptions and simplifications used for the calculations, a direct comparison of the total carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq) emissions of three equivalent power and range powertrain systems - a combustion-driven, a hybrid-driven, and a cordless electric-driven - is presented. The relative comparison of their life cycle CO2eq emissions
Vogiatzis, Dimitrios, Merschak, Simon, Schacht, Hans-Juergen, Schmidt, Stephan, Arenz, Martin
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