Considered as one of the most promising technology pathways for the transport sector to realize the target of “carbon neutral,” fuel cell vehicles have been seriously discussed in terms of its potential for alleviating environmental burden. Focused on cradle-to-gate (CtG) stage, this article evaluates the environmental impacts of fuel cell heavy-duty vehicles of three size classes and three driving ranges to find the critical components and manufacturing processes in the energy context of China. The findings show that the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the investigated fuel cell heavy-duty vehicle range from 47 ton CO2-eq to 162 ton CO2-eq, with the fuel cell system and hydrogen storage system collectively contributing to 37%–56% of the total. Notably, as the driving range increases, the proportion of GHG emissions stemming from fuel cell-related components also rises. Within the fuel cell system, the catalyst layer and bipolar plate are identified as the components with the most

Mu, Zhexuan, Deng, YunFeng, Bai, Fanlong, Zhao, Fuquan, Liu, Zongwei, Hao, Han, Liu, Ming

Life Cycle Assessment of PEMFC System for Fuel Cell Vehicles Based on the GREET Model

2025-01-7086

01/31/2025

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are seen as an ideal solution to the issues of energy security and environmental pollution. There is a great need for a comprehensive understanding of the ecological impacts associated with fuel cells throughout their entire life cycle, from fuel extraction through manufacturing, operation, and ultimately to the disposal stage. This paper reviews the progress of research on measuring the emissions of hydrogen fuel cells and focuses on the carbon footprint throughout the fuel cell’s life cycle. The study defines the boundary conditions of the fuel cell system using the PLAC (Process-based life cycle assessment) method, analyzes the proportion of each material in the system, and divides its life cycle into six stages: raw material preparation, manufacturing and assembly, transportation and logistics, utilization, maintenance and repair, and scrap and recycling. This study uses the GREET analysis software to introduce a carbon footprint analysis model for a

Zhang, Ruojing, Zhu, Haomin, Zhou, Xiangyang, Pan, Xiangmin

Calculation and Analysis of Carbon Emissions for Fuel Vehicles and Electric Vehicles

2025-01-7096

01/31/2025

With the increase in vehicle population, the environmental problems caused by excessive carbon emissions from vehicles are becoming increasingly serious. Currently, China is actively promoting the development of electric vehicles to reduce carbon emissions. However, the electricity used by electric vehicles is a secondary energy source, and thermal power generation still dominates China's current power structure, so electric vehicles will indirectly contribute to carbon emissions during use. Calculating and analysing the carbon emissions of fuel vehicles and electric vehicles will give a better idea of the environmental advantages of electric vehicles. In this paper, the World Light Vehicle Test Cycle (WLTC) are selected, and the energy consumption is calculated by the energy consumption formula of fuel and electric vehicles under different conditions, and the carbon emission is obtained by the carbon emission coefficients of gasoline and electric energy. Through MATLAB calculation

Xie, Haonan, Lin, Guangyu

ERRATUM: Efficiency and Emissions of Electric and Hydrogen Light- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles

13-05-02-0015.1

01/16/2025

ERRATUM

Wade, Wallace R.

On the Potential of Upcycling Plastic Wastes to Carbon-Capturing Materials Using Supercritical Fluid-Assisted Injection Molding Process

13-05-03-0021

01/09/2025

With the extensive production and widespread use of plastics, the issue of environmental pollution caused by plastic waste has become increasingly prominent. Consequently, researchers have been focusing on developing efficient methodologies for upcycling waste plastics and converting them into value-added materials. This hybrid review–conceptual article first provides an overview of strategies for upcycling waste plastic into carbon-capturing materials. It presents carbonization and activation as key steps in converting plastic waste into adsorbent materials and explores strategies for converting common waste plastics. Building upon this foundation, the article introduces and conceptualizes a novel upcycling approach with two manufacturing routes to convert plastic waste into carbon-capturing materials using supercritical fluid (ScF)-assisted injection molding process. It continues by investigating the potential of developing lightweight components made of such carbon-capturing

Pirani, Mahdi, Meiabadi, Mohammad Saleh, Moradi, Mahmoud, Enriquez, Lissette Garcia, Sreenivasan, Sreeprasad T., Farahani, Saeed

Letter from the Guest Editors

13-05-03-0016

12/31/2024

Letter from the Guest Editors

Farahani, Saeed, Vargas-Silva, Gustavo, Kazan, Hakan, Moradi, Mahmoud, Medina, Carlos

Fusion Splicing for Optical Fibers

AIR6162 (Current)

10/07/2024

This document provides an orientation to fusion splicing technology for optical fibers and fiber optic cable. It is intended for managers, designers, installers, and repair and maintenance personnel who need to understand the process of fusion splicing. This technology is widely used in telecommunications and industrial applications, and is finding acceptance in aerospace applications.

AS-3 Fiber Optics and Applied Photonics Committee

Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Dual Fuel Hydrogen/Diesel Combustion at Varying Engine Speed on a Single Cylinder Engine

2024-24-0044

09/18/2024

In this study, dual fuel combustion process has been investigated numerically and experimentally in a single cylinder research engine. Two engine speeds have been investigated (1500 and 2000 rpm) at fixed BMEP of 5 bar for both engine speeds. For each engine speed two operating points have tested with and without EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation). The hydrogen has been injected in the intake manifold in front of the tumble intake port inlet and a small amount of diesel fuel has been introduced directly in the cylinder through two injections strategy: one pilot injection occurring Before Top Dead Center (BTDC) and one main occurring around the Top Dead Center (TDC). The dual-fuel combustion model in GT-SUITE has been used first to calibrate the combustion model by using the Three Pressure Analysis (TPA) model. This step allows the calibration of the combustion model to predict in-cylinder combustion processes. Simulations have been performed at varying mass distribution of injected diesel

Maroteaux, Fadila, SEBAI, Salim, Mancaruso, Ezio, Rossetti, Salvatore, Schembri, Patrick, Radja, Katia, Barichella, Arnault

Life Cycle Analysis of a PEM Fuel Cell System for Long-Haul Heavy-Duty Trucks

2024-24-0020

09/18/2024

The European Union plans to reach net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2050. In 2020, the transport sector significantly contributed to global energy-related GHG emissions, with heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) responsible for a substantial portion of road transport emissions in the EU and a notable percentage of the EU’s total GHG emissions. Zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs), including fuel cell (FC) vehicles, are crucial for decarbonizing the transport sector to achieve climate neutrality. This paper aims at quantifying the environmental impacts of a 200kW proton exchange membrane FC system for long-haul HDVs with a 40-ton mass and 750 km driving range. The life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was applied, and a life cycle model of the FC system was developed with a cradle-to-grave boundary. To ensure reproducibility and scalability, results are reported on a kW basis. A sensitivity analysis was performed on key parameters, including hydrogen production route, FC system production

Gentilucci, Gaia, Accardo, Antonella, Spessa, Ezio

Sustainable Propulsion in a Post-Fossil Energy World: Life-Cycle Assessment of Renewable Fuel and Electrified Propulsion Concepts

2024-01-3013

07/02/2024

In response to the challenge of climate change, the European Union has developed a strategy to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. Extensive research has been conducted on the CO2 life cycle analysis of propulsion systems. However, achieving net-zero CO2 emissions requires adjusting key performance indicators for the development of these. Therefore, we investigated the ecological sustainability impacts of various propulsion concepts integrated in a C-segment sports utility vehicle assuming a 100% renewable energy scenario. The propulsion concepts studied include a hydrogen-fueled 48V mild hybrid, a hydrogen-fueled 48V hybrid, a methanol-fueled 400V hybrid, a methanol-to-gasoline-fueled 400V plug-in hybrid, an 800V battery electric vehicle (BEV), and a hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV). To achieve a comprehensive and objective comparison of various propulsion concepts that meet the same pre-defined customer requirements for system design, we conducted an integrated and

Kexel, Jannik, Pischinger, Stefan, Balazs, Andreas, Schroeder, Benedikt, Wegner, Hagen

Towards the Design-Driven Carbon Footprint Reduction of Composite Aerospace and Automotive Components: An Overview

2024-37-0032

06/12/2024

Composite materials, pioneered by aerospace engineering due to their lightness, strength, and durability properties, are increasingly adopted in the high-performance automotive sector. Besides the acknowledged composite components’ performance, enabled lightweighting is becoming even more crucial for energy efficiency, and therefore emissions along vehicle use phase from a decarbonization perspective. However, their use entails energy-intensive and polluting processes involved in the production of raw materials, manufacturing processes, and particularly their end-of-life disposal. Carbon footprint is the established indicator to assess the environmental impact of climate-changing factors on products or services. Research on different carbon footprint sources reduction is increasing, and even the European Composites Industry Association is demanding the development of specific Design for Sustainability approaches. This paper analyzes the early strategies for providing low-carbon

Dalpadulo, Enrico, Russo, Mario, Gherardini, Francesco, Leali, Francesco

Efficiency and Emissions of Electric and Hydrogen Light- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles

13-05-02-0015

06/12/2024

Life cycle analyses suggest that electric vehicles are more efficient than gasoline internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Although the latest available data reveal that electric vehicle (EV) life cycle operational efficiency is only 17% (3 percentage points) higher than a gasoline ICEV, overall life cycle efficiencies including manufacturing for EVs are 2 percentage points lower than for ICEVs. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of EVs are only 4% lower than ICEVs, but criteria emissions of NOx and PM are approaching or exceeding two times those of gasoline ICEVs. Significant reductions in electric grid emissions are required to realize EV’s anticipated emission benefits. In contrast, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have over 70% higher efficiency and 28% lower GHG emissions than today’s EVs. For heavy-duty trucks using today’s gray hydrogen, produced by steam–methane reforming, overall life cycle efficiencies of ICEs and fuel cells are 63% higher than electric powertrains using

Wade, Wallace R.

Lightweight Design Enabled by Innovative CAE Based Development Method Using Topology Optimization

2024-01-2454

04/09/2024

Carbon neutrality has become a significant target. One essential parameter regarding energy consumption and emissions is the mass of vehicles. Lightweight design improves the result of vehicle life cycle assessment (LCA), increases efficiency, and can be a step towards sustainability and CO2 neutrality. Weight reduction through structural optimization is a challenging task. Typical design development procedures have to be overcome. Instead of just a facelift or the creation of a derivative of the predecessor design, completely alternative design creation methods have to be applied. Automated structural optimization is one tool for exploring completely new design approaches. Different methods are available and weight reduction is the focus of topology optimization. This paper describes a fatigue life homogenization method that enables the weight reduction of vehicle parts. The applied CAE process combines fatigue life prediction and topology optimization. An adapted design for a

Kato, Yoshiya, Ishikawa, Satoru, Puchner, Klaus, Schossleitner, Martin, Gaier, Christian

Comprehensive Cradle to Grave Life Cycle Analysis of On-Road Vehicles in the United States Based on GREET

2024-01-2830

04/09/2024

To properly compare and contrast the environmental performance of one vehicle technology against another, it is necessary to consider their production, operation, and end-of-life fates. Since 1995, Argonne’s GREET® life cycle analysis model (Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Technologies) has been annually updated to model and refine the latest developments in fuels and materials production, as well as vehicle operational and composition characteristics. Updated cradle-to-grave life cycle analysis results from the model’s latest release are described for a wide variety of fuel and powertrain options for U.S. light-duty and medium/heavy-duty vehicles. Light-duty vehicles include a passenger car, sports utility vehicle (SUV), and pick-up truck, while medium/heavy-duty vehicles include a Class 6 pickup-and-delivery truck, Class 8 day-cab (regional) truck, and Class 8 sleeper-cab (long-haul) truck. Powertrain coverage includes internal combustion (spark ignition and

Kelly, Jarod C., Kim, Taemin, Kolodziej, Christopher P., Iyer, Rakesh K., Tripathi, Shashwat, Elgowainy, Amgad, Wang, Michael

Life Cycle Assessment of a State-of-the-Art Diesel powered Engine and Preliminary Evaluation of its Conversion into a Novel Hydrogen powered Engine

2024-01-2442

04/09/2024

This paper is part of a broader research project aiming at studying, designing, and prototyping a hydrogen-powered internal combustion engine to achieve fast market implementation, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and sustainable costs. The ability to provide a fast market implementation is linked to the fact that the technological solution would exploit the existing production chain of internal combustion engines. Regarding the technological point of view, the hydrogen engine will be a monofuel engine re-designed based on a diesel-powered engine. The redesign involves specific modifications to critical subsystems, including combustion systems, injection, ignition, exhaust gas recirculation, and exhaust gas aftertreatment. Notably, adaptations include the customization of the cylinder head for controlled ignition, optimization of camshaft profiles, and evaluation of the intake system. The implementation incorporates additive manufacturing for the production of new intake manifolds and

Malagrinò, Gianfranco, Accardo, Antonella, Costantino, Trentalessandro, Pensato, Michele, Spessa, Ezio

Cradle to Grave Comparison on Emission Produced by EV and ICE Powertrains

2024-01-2402

04/09/2024

Since the popularization of the Electric Vehicle (EV) there has been a large movement of consumers, governments, and the automotive industry due to its environmentally friendly characteristics. Unlike an IC engine, the batteries use multitudes of rare earth minerals and complex manufacturing processes which in some cases have been shown to produce as many emissions as an ICE vehicle over its entire lifespan. Another unnoticed important environmental concern has been the final recycling and disposal of the power train after its use. Unlike an ICE engine, which can be melted down or re-used, recycling batteries are much more difficult. In most cases the recycling process and the byproducts produced can be very harmful to the environment. This paper aims to be a complete cradle-to-grave analysis of all emissions produced in the life of an EV battery. This includes the mining of material required, refining of the material to a form suitable for manufacturing, manufacturing important

Abraham, Albert J., AbdulNour, Bashar

An LCA Evaluation for Passenger Cars based on the Comparison of Scenarios and Vehicles with Different Technologies

2024-01-2829

04/09/2024

The LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) methodology is nowadays considered fundamental for the estimation and analysis of the economic and social impacts coming from the CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) footprint. It is a methodology for evaluating the “environmental footprint” of the product, “from cradle to grave” and it is carried out by quantifying the impacts deriving from both the use of resources and emissions into the environment. The aim of this study is to contribute to environmental assessment in the context of the sustainability of vehicular transport in urban areas. For this reason, through a comparative analysis of the LCA it is possible to evaluate the CO2 emissions deriving from cars during real use and relating to the entire life of the vehicles. Three comparisons were made considering pairs made up of an electric vehicle and an internal combustion vehicle of the same segment and category: small city cars, mid-size and SUV. In the development of the work, various articles have been

Meccariello, Giovanni, Della Ragione, Livia

Benefit from In-service Life Optimized for Minimum CO2 – Comparison of ICEVs, PHEVs, BEVs and FCEVs

2024-01-2443

04/09/2024

The 2023 FISITA White Paper (for which the author was a contributor) on managing in-service emissions and transportation options, to reduce CO2 (CO2-e or carbon footprint) from the existing vehicle fleet, proposed 6 levers which could be activated to complement the rapid transition to vehicles using only renewable energy sources. Another management opportunity reported here is optimizing the vehicle’s life in-service to minimize the life-cycle CO2 impact of a range of present and upcoming vehicles. This study of the US vehicle fleet has quite different travel and composition characteristics to European (EU27) vehicles. In addition, the embodied CO2 is based on ANL’s GREET data rather than EU27 SimaPro methodology. It is demonstrated that in-service, whole-of-life mileage has a significant influence on the optimum life cycle CO2 for BEVs and H2 fuelled FCEVs, as well as ICEs and PHEVs. Thus, the object is to show how much present, typical in-service life-mileage differs from the

Watson, Harry C.

Corrosion Prediction Model for Electrical Components in Automobiles

2024-26-0307

01/16/2024

Salt Spray Test is being used since 1930’s to accelerate the corrosion testing of materials and to understand the longevity of applied coating. The sample in this kind of test is exposed to a salt mist in a controlled environment and its corrosion resistance is evaluated by measuring the corrosion rate. The Wet-Dry cycle in Salt Spray Test has the ability to simulate the drying and wetting which occurs in real driving scenario, leading to formation of a film of corrosion products which is useful in analyzing the kinetics of electrochemical reaction. Despite the advancement in severity of these tests to understand the atmospheric corrosion phenomena, they still consume time and resources. Secondly, sometimes these kind of tests do not consider into account the effect of Temperature, Humidity and other chemicals in play. Thus, numerical simulation plays a pivotal role in digitalizing the corrosion analysis to a certain extent. It also helps to provide a timesaving, effective, accurate

Shukrey, Sarthak, Yenugu, Srinivasa, Shah, Srishty, Bernardi, Roman

Thermal Management of on-Board Electrical Vehicle Charger through AlN Coating

2024-26-0194

01/16/2024

Vehicle electrification is game changer for automotive sector because of major energy and environmental implications driven by high vehicle efficiency. However, EVs are facing challenges on life cycle assessment (LCA), charging, and driving range compared to conventional fossil-fueled vehicles. One of the key features that impacts the efficiency of an EV is its battery charging system which is done using an On-Board Charger (OBC). OBCs, are primarily used to convert DC-power from high-voltage battery pack to AC-power. They contain different power-electronic devices such as MOSFETs, diodes, magnetics etc. These devices generate a lot of heat and require an efficient thermal management strategy. Through CAE Thermal analysis it was identified that amongst these components, transformers and diodes are major source of heat. Temperature observed at these component locations were in the range of 90-105 °C, compared to other components (45-75°C). This results into formation of hot spots on

Bali, Shirish, Bhatt, Srishti, Bhavsar, Vaibhav, Rao, Bhaskar

An Experimental Approach Towards Sustainable Solution for Material Recycling of ELV Plastic Bumpers and EV Batteries

2024-26-0164

01/16/2024

A general automotive car is majorly composed of high strength steel (6%), other steel (50%), Iron (15%), Plastics (7%), Aluminum (4%) and others (Rubber, Glass, Textile) about 18%. End-of-life vehicles (ELVs) are a significant source of waste and pollution in the automotive industry. Recycling ELVs, particularly their plastic components, Li-ion batteries, catalytic converters, and critical technology components such as alternators, semi-conductor chips, and high tensile strength steel can reduce their environmental impact and conserve valuable raw materials. The paper conducts a SWOT analysis and a life cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate the long-term viability and potential of ELV recycling, environmental impact, and carbon footprint. This paper examines the current state and challenges of ELV recycling in India and proposes a sustainable recycling solution for waste bumpers that includes paint removal, modification, reprocessing & recovery of precious metals from xEV Li-ion batteries

Baviskar, Ajay, Khera, Pankaj, Telgote, Ashish, Dhuria, Himanshu, Sharma, Amit

“Impact of Design Principles on End-of-Life and Recycling”

2024-26-0163

01/16/2024

Automotive industry is a major contributor to global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and waste generation. Not only do vehicles produce emissions during usage, but they also generate emissions during production phase and end of life disposal. There is an urgent need to address sustainability and circularity issues in this sector. This paper explores how circularity and CO2 reduction principles can be applied to design and production of automotive parts, with the aim of reducing the environmental impact of these components throughout their life cycle. Also, this paper highlights the impact of design principles on End-of-Life Management of vehicles. As Design decisions of Component impacts up to 80% of emissions [1], it is important to focus on this phase for major contribution in reduction of emissions. Various factors such as material selection, quantity and weight of materials used in parts, design for durability, aerodynamic characteristics, design strategies, design for recycling

Ali, Rifat Fahmida, Harel, Samarth, Shaikh, Taha, Chakraborty, Pinka

Life-cycle Analysis of Methanol Production from Coke Oven Gas in China

2023-01-1646

10/31/2023

The growing demand for transportation fuels and the global emphasis on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have led to increased interest in analyzing transport GHG emissions from the life-cycle perspective. Methanol, a potentially carbon-neutral fuel synthesized from CO2 and H2, has emerged as a promising candidate. This paper conducts a comprehensive life-cycle analysis (LCA) of the GHG emissions associated with the methanol production process, utilizing data inventory from China in 2019. To simulate the synthesis and distillation process of methanol, Aspen Plus is employed, using parameters obtained from actual plants. GHG emissions are then calculated using the GREET model, incorporating updated industry statistics and research findings. The CO2 necessary for methanol production is captured from factory flue gas. Two different sources of H2 are considered: one from Coke Oven Gas (COG) and the hydrogen-rich gas byproduct resulting from COG methanation (Case 1), and the other via

Fu, Yang, Wang, Buyu, Shuai, Shijin

How to Accomplish a More Sustainable Internal Combustion Engine Using Life Cycle Analysis: A Demo

2023-01-1657

10/31/2023

The Sustainable Development Goals were adopted by all United Nation Member States in 2015 to ensure a sustainable planet and improved living conditions for everyone, everywhere. The light duty vehicle (LDV) fleet has exceeded one billion, with most vehicles being powered by internal combustion engines. Transportation is responsible for 60% of global fossil oil consumption. Air pollution is a large problem in cities often attributed to road transport. Vehicles comprise of over 70 material categories, indicating the complexity of sustainable material management. A hypothesis was established, that a sustainable engine (SE) could significantly reduce the environmental impact of transportation and, be realized by combining available technologies. A life cycle analysis was conducted on a 145 kW 2-litre Miller-cycle gasoline 48V-mild-hybrid engine with EU6d exhaust aftertreatment system (EATS), assessing seven mid-point categories. The environmental impacts were used to establish sustainable

Dudley, Joshua Paul, Laurell, Mats, Thuve, Christoffer, Klövmark, Henrik

New Challenges Towards Electrification Sustainability: Environmental Impact Assessment Comparison Between ICE and Hybrid-Electric Orchard Tractor

2023-32-0126

09/29/2023

Paris Climate Agreement defined the strategy to contrast the current climate change trend. Therefore, a complete and deep review of the entire lifespan of a product is necessary. Recently, in the agri-tech field, also tractors manufacturers have begun to explore the adoption of full-electric or hybrid-electric powertrains to contrast pollutants emissions and to misrepresent tractor functionalities, due to diesel engines stricter regulations in terms of pollutants emissions. The aim of this work is to evaluate the carbon intensity of an ICE and hybrid-electric orchard tractor trough Life Cycle Assessment technique. The assessment has been conducted considering production, use and disposal phases of the tractor. Lastly, the results obtained are illustrated according to gate-to-gate and cradle-to-gate approach.

Martelli, Salvatore, Mocera, Francesco, Somà, Aurelio

Greases for powertrains: thickener effect, electric conductivity, and life cycle assessment

2023-32-0146

09/29/2023

The paper shows how grease thickener polarity affects performance of the typical powertrain components: gears and rolling element bearings. Greases based on a non-polar polypropylene thickener reduce friction losses (more than 20%) in high-speed deep groove ball bearings and provide a longer service life (more than 2 times) in highly loaded bevel gears, compared to the greases based on polar lithium thickeners. The electrification and sustainability trends have led to additional requirements to be addresses during grease design process: tunable electric conductivity and reduced environment footprint. The grease design challenges caused by the novel requirements and potential solutions are discussed.

Glavatskih, Sergei, Leckner, Johan

Sustainability of Advanced ICEs Based HEVs for Passenger Cars Fuelled with Alternative Fuels: A LCA Study in Comparison with BEV Technology

2023-24-0094

08/28/2023

A possible environmental assessment of sustainable vehicular transport is based on a comparative analysis through the LCA Life Cycle Analysis methodology of the entire vehicle’s life cycle. For this purpose, it could contribute to the choices of political decision-makers and investors in the sector of large infrastructure and industrial works. Therefore, the LCA activity is of fundamental importance for the estimation and analysis of the economic and social impacts through the comparative analysis of technological solutions in scenarios of “accelerated technological evolution” and/or “sustainable mobility”. The study could be designed for different vehicle segments to evaluate their efficiency and overall environmental sustainability also related to current social and political scenarios. Couples with electric and internal combustion vehicles of the same market segment and category may be compared. Furthermore, the comparative analysis is carried out during a PON Extreme research

Della Ragione, Livia, Meccariello, Giovanni, Beatrice, Carlo, Ricco, Raffaele

Evaluation of Battery Power Losses During the LCA Use Phase of Electric Vehicles: An Experimental Analysis of Different Li-Ion Battery Chemistries

2023-24-0155

08/28/2023

Vehicle electrification is one of the most important emerging trends in the transportation sector and a necessary step towards the reduction of polluting substances and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, electric vehicles still present some environmental criticalities, such as indirect emissions related to the electricity used for charging the traction battery, which depends on the considered national electricity generation mix. The leading approach for quantifying the potential environmental impacts is the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), a standardized methodology that takes into account the whole life cycle of a product, including production, use phase, and end-of-life. Among them, the use phase is the most controversial and heterogenic part of the battery LCA, being environmental impacts depending on different national electricity generation mixes and several factors difficult to estimate, such as charge-discharge power losses that provide significant contributions to the overall

Silvestri, Luca, De Santis, Michele, Falcucci, Giacomo, Serao, Paola, Bella, Gino

LCA and LCC of a Li-ion Battery Pack for Automotive Application

2023-24-0170

08/28/2023

Lithium Ion (Li-ion) batteries have emerged as the dominant technology for electric mobility due to their performance, stability, and long cycle life. Nevertheless, there are emerging environmental and economic issues from Li-ion batteries related to depleting critical resources and their potential shortage. This paper focuses on developing the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) of a generic Li-ion battery pack with a Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) cathode chemistry, being the most used, and a capacity of 95 kWh as an average between different carmakers. The LCA and LCC include all the relevant phases of the life cycle of the product. The costs related to the LCC assessment have been taken as secondary data. Lastly, the same system boundary has been chosen both for the LCA and LCC. The results of the LCA and LCC show that the carbon footprint is 119.7 kgCO2eq/kWh while the economic impact is 147.3 €/kWh if Europe is assumed as the production, use and recycling

Di Vittorio, Natalia, Accardo, Antonella, Spessa, Ezio, Viscido, Lucio, Tam, Edwin

Sustainability of Future Shipping Fuels: Well-to-Wake Environmental and Techno-Economic Analysis of Ammonia and Methanol

2023-24-0093

08/28/2023

The transportation industry has been scrutinized for its contribution towards the global greenhouse gas emissions over the years. While the automotive sector has been regulated by strict emission legislation globally, the emissions from marine transportation have been largely neglected. However, during the past decade, the international maritime organization focused on ways to lower the emission intensity of the marine sector by introducing several legislations. This sets limits on the emissions of different oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur, which are emitted in large amounts from heavy fuel oil (HFO) combustion (the primary fuel for the marine sector). A 40% and 70% reduction per transport work compared to the levels of 2008 is set as target for CO2 emission for 2030 and 2050, respectively. To meet these targets, commonly, methanol, as a low-carbon fuel, and ammonia, as a zero-carbon fuel, are considered. But for the well-being of the marine ecosystem, nitrogen and sulphur

Tripathi, Shashwat, Gorbatenko, Inna, Garcia, Antonio, Sarathy, Mani

Light-Duty Vehicles Electrification: Carbon Dioxide Reduction Impact Potential and Considerations of Its Effect on Electricity Generation System

2023-01-5054

08/22/2023

In the context of the race toward minimum road transportation carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, the needs for tools comparing various powertrain options are of the highest importance. Various authors have demonstrated the necessity to take into account the full life cycle assessment (LCA), a simplified tank-to-wheel calculation being unsatisfactory in providing guidance regarding the optimized technological choices depending of variables manufacturing and operating conditions. There are several examples to be found in the literature but they have been found to be very specific to most of their assumptions (e.g., vehicle models, electricity carbon intensity for usage or production, etc.). This paper focuses first on possibly to establish a more general model and relative graphic tool to compare carbon foot print of various powertrains with incremental electrification levels of light-duty vehicles (spark ignition engine, full hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and battery electric vehicle), enabling

Hébert, Guillaume

Methods for the Holistic Evaluation of the Fuel Influence on Gasoline Engine Combustion

2023-01-1210

06/26/2023

The proportion of new registrations with battery-electric and hybrid powertrains is rising steadily. This shows the strong trend in the automotive industry away from conventional powertrains with internal combustion engines. The aim is to reduce the transport sector's contribution to CO2 emissions. However, it should be noted that this only applies when renewable energy is used. Studies show the relevance of the system boundaries under consideration, which makes the application of Life Cycle Assessment indispensable. According to these studies, the various types of powertrains differ only slightly in their greenhouse gas impact. Rather, the energy supply chain plays a significant role. Moreover, a ban on combustion engines would lead to an additional increase in cumulative CO2 emissions. An important aspect on the way to sustainable mobility solutions is addressing the existing fleet. The approximately 1.25 billion vehicles predominantly powered by internal combustion engines can make

Villforth, Jonas, Vacca, Antonino, Bargende, Michael, Kulzer, Andre

Challenges and Directions of Using Ammonia as an Alternative Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines

2023-01-0324

04/11/2023

In recent decades, the importance of emerging alternative fuels has increased significantly as a solution to the problems of global warming and air pollution from energy production. In this context, ammonia (NH3) is seen as a potential option and energy vector that may be able to overcome the technical challenges associated with the use of other carbon-free fuels such as hydrogen (H2) in internal combustion engines (ICE). In this research, a numerical methodology for evaluating the impact of using ammonia as a fuel for spark-ignition ICEs has been developed. A combination of a single-cylinder and multi-cylinder numerical experiments has been performed to identify the main challenges and determine correct engine configuration. In addition, the performance of the engine has been evaluated through standard homologation driving cycles, contrasting it with other alternative propulsion configurations. Finally, a simplified life cycle assessment (LCA) has been carried out to compare the

Novella, Ricardo, Pastor, Jose, Gomez-Soriano, Josep, Bayona, Javier Sánchez

Freevalve: A Comparative GWP Life Cycle Assessment of E-fuel Fully Variable Valvetrain-equipped Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Battery Electric Vehicles

2023-01-0555

04/11/2023

Throughout its history, the internal combustion engine has been continuously scrutinized to achieve strict legislative emission targets. With the dawn of renewable fuels fast approaching, most Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) equipped hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) face difficulty in adjusting their precise control strategies to new fuels. This is partly due to constrained limitations associated with camshaft-induced design-point air induction limitations. Freevalve is a fully variable valvetrain technology enabling independent control of valve lifts, durations, and timings. Additionally, the added degrees-of-freedom enable the capability to shut-off individual engine valves, optimizing combustion performance and stability through specific speed ranges. By design, it minimizes the existing breathing-related constraints that are currently hindering the extraction of the higher efficiency potential of ICEs. To explore the potential environmental benefits from improved fuel consumption

Elmagdoub, Abdelrahman W. M., Simaitis, Joris, Halmearo, Mattias, Carlson, Urban, Turner, James, Brace, Chris, Akehurst, Sam, Zhang, Nic

Lifecycle Carbon Footprint Calculation of Hand-Held Tool Propulsion Concepts

2023-01-0553

04/11/2023

Following the recent trend in the automotive industry, hybrid and pure electric powertrain systems are more and more preferred over conventional combustion powertrain systems due to their significant potential to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. Although electric powertrains do not produce direct emissions during their operational time, the indirect emissions over their whole life cycle have to be taken into consideration. In this direction, the carbon footprint due to the electrification of the hand-held power tool industry needs to be examined in the preliminary design phase. In this paper, after defining the carbon footprint calculation framework, assumptions and simplifications used for the calculations, a direct comparison of the total carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2eq) emissions of three equivalent power and range powertrain systems - a combustion-driven, a hybrid-driven, and a cordless electric-driven - is presented. The relative comparison of their life cycle CO2eq emissions

Vogiatzis, Dimitrios, Merschak, Simon, Schacht, Hans-Juergen, Schmidt, Stephan, Arenz, Martin

Impact of Different LCI Modelling Scenarios on the LCA Results, A Case Study for the Automotive Sector

2023-01-0884

04/11/2023

Since vehicles are comprised of thousands of components, it is essential to reduce the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) modelling workload. This study aims to compare different LCI modeling workload-reducing scenarios to provide a trade-off between the workload efforts and result accuracy. To achieve the optimal balance between computational effort and data specification requirements, the driver seat is used as a case study, instead of the entire vehicle. When all the components of a conventional light-duty commercial vehicle are sorted by mass descending order, seats are among the first five. In addition, unlike the other components, seats are comprised of metals as well as a wide range of plastics and textiles, making them a representative test case for a general problem formulation. In this way, methodology and outcomes can be reasonably extended to the entire vehicle. Regarding the methodology, this study investigates the use of the International Material Data System (IMDS), thus primary

Accardo, Antonella, Dotelli, Giovanni, Spessa, Ezio

Built-In-Test for Fiber Optic Links

2023-01-1019

03/07/2023

This work covers the historical development of Built-In-Test (BIT) for fiber optic interconnect links for aerospace applications using Optical Time Domain Reflectometry (OTDR) equipped transceivers. The original failure modes found that installed fiber optic links must be disconnected before diagnosis could begin, often resulting in “no fault found” (NFF) designation. In fact, the observed root cause was that most (85%) of the fiber optic link defects were produced by contamination of the connector end faces. In March of 2006, a fiber optics workshop was held with roughly sixty experts from system and component manufacturers to discuss the difficulties of fiber optic test in aerospace platforms. During this meeting it was hypothesized that Optical Time Domain Reflectometry (OTDR) was feasible using an optical transceiver transmit pulse as a stimulus. The time delay and amplitude of received reflections would correlate with the position and severity of link defects, respectively. The

Mazurowski, John

Designing and Innovating for Circularity: An Engineering Life Cycle Approach for Complex and Certified Products

2023-01-0988

03/07/2023

The concept of the circular economy provides a framework for a more efficient closed-loop economy. Much literature has been published focusing on circular business models and assessing environmental impact throughout the life cycle. A move towards more circular business models, where the focus transitions to the delivery of a capability rather than the delivery of a product, presents new challenges to manufacturers of complex or certified engineered products. The aviation industry has established several engineering disciplines, life cycle design, and certification approaches that (while not designed with the circular economy in mind) underpin the principles of the circular economy. This paper provides a new conceptual framework for the circular economy that integrates the engineering principles that drive circularity around the life cycle for designing, producing, and operating complex and certified engineering systems. It also identifies the engineering and operational principles

Meldrum, Rebecca

Test Procedure for Internal Heat Exchangers of Mobile Air-Conditioning Systems with R-134a or R-1234yf Refrigerant

J3094_202302 (Current)

02/14/2023

The purpose of this SAE Standard is to define a common set of thermodynamic test conditions to evaluate internal heat exchangers for use with R-134a and R-1234yf refrigerants in mobile air-conditioning systems. This SAE Standard can be used to test actual vehicle IHX designs or standardized IHX samples, which can be used for comparison based on a common length and shape.

Interior Climate Control Vehicle OEM Committee

Return on Investment Analysis for Improved Energy Efficiency in Passenger Cars

2023-01-5005

01/23/2023

Energy efficiency investment is commonly thought to be poor for business. The analysis presented here uses current cost data to demonstrate that there is plenty of room to improve the energy efficiency of cars from the current 25.7 miles per gallon (mpg) or 20%. Investing in the optimum yields an excellent return of over 22% on the owner’s investment in the improved efficiency. A model for the initial cost of a car was developed to accurately predict (within 10% for the majority of over 90% of the data for gasoline and hybrid cars) the initial cost as a function of power output and fuel efficiency. Minimizing total life cycle costs produces an optimum fuel efficiency ranging from 62 mpg to 82 mpg (48% to 64%) as gasoline prices vary from $5 to $10 per gallon, respectively. The higher efficiencies result in fuel savings with corresponding reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, investing in energy efficiency is not only a good business decision, but it also makes for a more

Zietlow, David C.

Sustainability Study of Additive Manufacturing Enabled Part Consolidation

2022-28-0551

12/23/2022

Additive manufacturing of aluminium alloy has paved way for the recent advancement in the automobile and aerospace industry due to its light weightlessness and good physical and mechanical features.Even though the additive process has an upper hand in terms of complexity and monotonous nature of the process its sustainability of it over traditional manufacturing is still a question when the whole cycle of the process is considered.This study mainly focuses on the quantitative life cycle analysis conducted on AlSi10Mg with cast AlSi10Mg as a baseline. Life cycle assessment measures environmental impacts, to determine where most impacts arise: machine and supporting hardware; aluminium powder material used, or electricity used to print

Raja, KUMAR, Naiju, CD, M, Senthil Kumar

Ground Support Equipment Hydraulic Systems, Design and Installation, Recommended Practices for

ARP4943A (Current)

12/16/2022

This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) covers the design and installation requirements for hydraulic systems (up to 8000 psig [56 MPa]) for ground support equipment (GSE). This ARP is derived from AS5440, which provides hydraulic system requirements for aircraft. The recommendations herein are primarily intended for GSE that exchange hydraulic fluid with the aircraft, such as hydraulic service carts, rather than GSE with non-interfacing hydraulic systems. The GSE may be mobile, portable, or stationary.

AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee

Storage of Elastomer Seals and Seal Assemblies Which Include an Elastomer Element Prior to Hardware Assembly

AS5316 (Current)

11/18/2022

This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) specifies the general requirements for data recording procedures, packaging, and storing of elastomeric seals and seal assemblies which include an elastomeric element prior to the seal being assembled into hardware components. NOTE: The requirement for packaging is an integral part of the controlled storage procedure and provides a means of positive product identity from the time of manufacture to the time of assembly into a component.

A-6C2 Seals Committee

Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Analysis of Origami-Based Sheet Metal for Automobile Parts

SAE-PP-0030911/12/2022

The sustainability of sheet metal parts often has multiple facets depending on the phase under consideration. The work presented in this paper focuses on cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of the Origami-based Sheet Metal (OSM) folding process. OSM is an emerging fabrication technique that utilizes the principle of folding sheet metal parts by creating Material Discontinuities (MD) along the bend line. MD enables sheet metal folding (i.e., bending) with minimal force requirements and machinery. The anticipated reduction in force and machinery will result in a reduction in the required manufacturing energy. In addition, the OSM has less dependency on dies and shape-dedicated equipment. Hence, the cost associated with sheet metal parts development is reduced. This study attempts to establish the environmental impacts of the OSM for sheet metal parts by utilizing cradle-to-gate life cycle analysis. Environmental impacts of OSM are highlighted by comparing the OSM with the

Qattawi, Ala, Albat, Muhammad Ali, Algamal, Anwar, Ramineni, Lakshmi , Ali, Majed, Almotari, Abdalmageed, Alafaghani, Ala’aldin, Sun, Jian-Qiao

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