Browse Topic: Brake components

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Characterisation of Brake Wear PM2.5 and PN10 Emissions Across Pad/Disc Technologies, Vehicle Types and Braking Behaviours, Under Real World Conditions2026-24-0022To be published on 09/21/2026
This paper summarises targeted brake emissions investigations undertaken as part of the Department for Transport’s Non Exhaust Emissions programme. The work was carried out to improve understanding of particulate mass and particle number emissions from friction braking and to assess the influence of component selection, vehicle technology, operating conditions, and control measures on those emissions. Starting from a pre-developed brake enclosure and sampling system methodology, these were further refined to improve airflow management, reduce leakage, and minimise sampling artefacts. The updated system was integrated with a suite of particulate measurement instruments, including MPEC (hot and cold), APC10, DMS500, and eFilter, enabling simultaneous measurement of volatile and non volatile PN10 plus PM2.5. A matrix of nine brake pad formulations and two disc types was tested on a common C segment vehicle platform across chassis dyno and on road cycles, together with controlled braking
Andersson, Jon
Component Dynamics of a Motorcycle Brake Caliper: Analysis and Experimental Validation of Seal-Groove Mechanics and Controlled Rollback Design.2026-01-0823To be published on 09/14/2026
Pad - Rotor separation is critical to effective braking performance, pedal feel and NVH. In floating brake calipers, this separation is primarily governed by the seal and groove mechanics. Current studies primarily focus on the mechanics through empirical methods on single seal-groove systems for car calipers. However, a significant literature gap exists for motorcycle seal grooves and any system that utilizes a two seal-groove system with a primary pressure seal and a secondary dust seal. Since 75% of automobiles registered in India are motorcycles and Anti-lock braking becoming mandatory from 2026, designing a caliper with precise seal-groove mechanics becomes critical. This study proposes a theoretical framework by modeling the seals as a shear-beam and predicting the rollback using stick-slip hysteresis and resistive forces of the piston. Experimental validation was performed on three production motorcycle calipers, with the measured rollback and the piston push following the
Vaitheeswaran, Gyaneshwar, N, Manoj, M, Mahesh, Yogesh, Deepak, Rai, Ashutosh
Machine Learning Prediction of Wear of NAO Brake Pad Using Scaled-Down FMVSS 135 Testing2026-01-0808To be published on 09/14/2026
Brake pad lifespan significantly influences environmental pollution and public health due to non-exhaust particulate emissions. Global vehicle production reached approximately 7 billion units in 2025, with brake systems generating an estimated 50,000 to 100,000 metric tons of wear debris annually, underscoring the need for improved durability and material optimization. This study investigates the capability of a Fully Connected Neural Network (FCNN) to predict brake pad wear and support formulation optimization. Controlled experiments were performed using a simplified FMVSS 135 protocol on a Universal Mechanical Tester (UMT) to simulate realistic braking conditions. Wear loss was measured under varying normal loads, sliding velocities, and interface temperatures. An FCNN was selected for its ability to capture nonlinear interactions between operating conditions and tribological responses. Despite a limited but high-quality dataset, the application of data standardization
Katakam, Abhishek, Eslamiat, Hossein, Kancharla, Sai Krishna, Filip, Peter
Optimization of Hydraulic Disc Brake Caliper Parameters to Achieve Near Zero Residual Drag in Two-Wheeler Brake Systems2026-01-0820To be published on 09/14/2026
Residual drag in hydraulic disc brake systems is an inherent phenomenon caused by elastic deformation of piston seals, geometric tolerances, and frictional interaction between piston, seal, and brake pads. Even minimal unintended pad-to-disc contact after brake release can generate residual torque, leading to increased rolling resistance, temperature rise, accelerated pad wear, and reduced vehicle efficiency. With growing emphasis on performance optimization and energy efficiency in two-wheeler applications, minimizing brake drag without affecting braking response has become an important design objective. This paper presents the design, analysis, and experimental validation of a zero-drag floating brake caliper concept developed to reduce residual brake torque through optimization of piston seal characteristics and groove geometry. The study focuses on understanding piston rollback behavior as the primary mechanism governing pad clearance after pressure release. Analytical evaluation
Badade, Ashish Laxman
Thermomechanical Fatigue Life Prediction of Lamellar Graphite Cast Iron Brake Disks Using Advanced Material Models and Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics2026-01-0816To be published on 09/14/2026
A comprehensive thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) life prediction methodology is developed for cast iron brake disks. The approach employs transient temperature fields as thermal loads in a nonlinear structural finite-element analysis (FEA). To obtain reliable stress and strain histories for cast iron, a time- and temperature-dependent plasticity model is required that captures viscous effects, nonlinear kinematic hardening, and tension–compression asymmetry. For this purpose, a unified elasto-viscoplastic Chaboche constitutive model coupled with damage is developed and implemented as a user material subroutine (UMAT) in the general-purpose FEA software Abaqus by Dassault Systèmes. In addition, a mechanism-based short-crack TMF model is extended to three-dimensional stress states under transient non-proportional loading conditions for TMF life prediction. The material parameters of the constitutive and the damage models are identified for lamellar graphite cast iron using isothermal and
Lee, Heewook, Garcia, Arnoldo, Liu, Yi, Hazime, Radwan, Boughanmi, Heni, Kassir, Abdallah
Comparison of the Surfaces and Coefficients of Friction of Truck Brake Pads Tested on a Flywheel Test Bench and a Scaled Tester – A Case Study2026-01-0826To be published on 09/14/2026
Mechanical brakes have been used and studied in many areas of mechanical engineering and automotive technology for decades. However, the processes in the contact zone have not yet been described with sufficient accuracy. One reason for this is the inability to observe the contact zone during contact. Studies in which one contact partner is replaced by an optically transparent material influence the processes in the contact area. Researchers are therefore forced to examine the surfaces of the contact partners after the actual contact has taken place. Various measuring systems, such as microscopes or laser sensors for surface structure measurement, are used to measure the surfaces of the brake pads. Due to shorter measuring times, mainly only smaller samples from measurements using pin-on-disc tribometers are examined for this purpose. However, various studies show that the friction and wear values of pin-on-disc tribometers cannot be transferred to real brake systems. For this reason
Rosenthal, Tobias Richard, Wiest, Daniel Christian, Meyer, Henning Jürgen
Advanced Brake Force Distribution on trailers with Bendix Electronic Brake Controller2026-01-0797To be published on 09/14/2026
Commercial vehicle fleets frequently operate with tractors that connect to different trailers and dollies, resulting in combinations with varying brake pad wear across wheel‑ends. Traditional brake force distribution strategies whether proportioned, electronic, or load‑adaptive do not account for these pad life differences. This can lead to uneven brake utilization, irregular maintenance intervals, and increased total cost of ownership (TCO), especially in mixed‑fleet and multi‑trailer operations. This work introduces an advanced brake force distribution function, a mechatronic brake control concept that incorporates brake pad health information into supervisory brake force allocation. In the proposed architecture, the tractor is equipped with a Brake Control ECU, which collects brake pad life status from each trailer or dolly through Pad Wear Sensing ECUs over the Tractor‑Trailer CAN (TT‑CAN) network. The Pad Wear Sensing ECUs report pad wear information only and do not host braking
Ganesha, Vinodkumar
Further Investigation of Brake Squeal: Effect of (Inboard/Outboard) Pads Property Differential2026-01-0799To be published on 09/14/2026
It was reported earlier that the wear differential between the inboard pad and the outboard pad leads to brake squeal generation. The (I/O) pads wear differential can occur due to hardware issues such as brake pad drag and/or two different wear rates of the (I/O) pads, which is caused by two different properties of the pads although the pad formula may be the same. The current investigation focuses on the pad property issues. It is found that pad compressibility differential and pad hardness differential are closely related to brake squeal generation. The property differentials are caused by pad porosity variations. The implications of hardness differential on friction/vibration will be discussed.
Liu, Richard, Wu, Shane, Wu, Godot, Li, Aihong, Zou, Tianlang
Time-Series Friction Torque Prediction for Drum Brake Systems via Mixed-Effects Random Forest Framework2026-01-0809To be published on 09/14/2026
The application of drum brake systems is expanding due to increasing cost competitiveness requirements in EV and purpose-built vehicle markets, as well as the introduction of EURO-7 particulate emission regulations. In spite of this trend, drum brake friction behavior is not yet fully understood because it is governed by complex and strongly coupled complicating mechanisms, including temperature history, braking conditions, and interactions between drum brake components. To address this gap, this study presents a method for developing a time-series friction torque prediction model using the Mixed-effects Random Forest (MERF) machine learning framework. Time-series data collected from sensors during drum brake dynamometer tests were analyzed to identify the key variables that govern the friction torque. Significant inputs were selected through Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA), considering test-to-test variability and potential mixed effects, and were then used to train and tune the MERF
Yoon, Jungro, Cho, Sunghyun, Kim, Wonjoon
Influence of Caliper Piston Wall Thickness and Hard Anodizing on Thermal Transfer and Seal Rollback Stability in Hydraulic Disc Brakes2026-01-0822To be published on 09/14/2026
Thermal stability and sealing reliability are critical performance parameters in hydraulic disc brake systems, especially under high-energy braking conditions where elevated temperatures directly influence brake fluid behavior and elastomer seal durability. Lightweight design trends increasingly encourage reduction in caliper piston wall thickness to optimize mass and response characteristics; however, such modifications alter the thermal conduction path and transient heat distribution within the piston–seal interface. This study investigates the combined effect of 50% reduction in aluminum caliper piston wall thickness and increase in hard anodizing thickness from 20 µm to 50 µm on heat transfer characteristics and piston seal rollback consistency. A comparative analytical and experimental approach is adopted to evaluate thermal resistance changes due to variation in anodic oxide layer thickness and piston geometry. One-dimensional thermal modeling is correlated with controlled
Badade, Ashish Laxman
Cast-In Brake Disc – An affordable lightweight design for passenger car brake discs2026-01-0821To be published on 09/14/2026
To meet evolving automotive demands, Fritz Winter is developing new lightweight brake discs. While alternatives to traditional cast iron discs exist, aluminum compound versions are too costly, and mechanically joined steel hat discs present complex assembly and tolerancing challenges. Fritz Winter’s engineering objective was to create a reliable method for joining a steel hat with a cast iron friction ring directly during the production process. This composite design significantly reduces vehicle weight, without compromising durability, comfort, or NVH performance. The methodology involves inserting a finished, stamped steel hat (2.5 to 3 mm thick) into the casting mold and then casting the friction ring directly onto it. This process eliminates the need for subsequent machining of the hat. During development, several key challenges were overcome. A patent-pending sealing process was created to prevent liquid iron from spilling onto the steel hat. To ensure a strong bond and prevent
von Reth, Thomas
Study on the Friction Characteristics of Disc Brakes with Ceramic Surfaces for High Performance Vehicle2026-01-0827To be published on 09/14/2026
In this study, various methods were reviewed to simultaneously satisfy the high-temperature braking performance required for high-performance vehicles and the brake dust criteria by environmental regulations. Among them, the characteristics of two types of Brake disc with ceramic composite surfaces were evaluated to prevent disc wear even under the condition of using metallic friction materials with excellent fade performance. As a result of the evaluation, carbon ceramic disc without metal-to-metal contact during braking showed superior characteristics compared to hard metal cladding disc.
Kim, Yoon Cheol, yeongwoo, cho, KIM, YOUNGMIN
Precise Simulation and Test Closed-Loop Verification of Drag Torque for Brake Caliper of In-Wheel Electric Motor2026-01-0813To be published on 09/14/2026
Aiming at the industrial pain points of high control difficulty of drag torque, low precision of traditional simulation and lack of authoritative test closed-loop verification for the special brake caliper of in-wheel electric motor, taking the YF3501S73 front brake caliper and YF3502S73 rear brake caliper as the research objects, a high-precision finite element simulation method coupling the nonlinearity of piston seal material with bilateral parallel return springs was proposed, and the simulation boundary conditions were calibrated by finely matching the bench test working conditions. To ensure the authority and engineering practicability of the research results, the drag torque bench test was carried out in strict accordance with QC/T 592-2013 Performance Requirements and Bench Test Methods for Hydraulic Brake Caliper Assemblies, and in alignment with the international brake drag test specifications of SAE J2923 and JASO C448, thus realizing a complete closed loop of simulation
Liu, Yuqi
Finite Element–Based Wear Analysis of Brake Pads2026-01-0817To be published on 09/14/2026
Brake pads are essential components that play a critical role in ensuring vehicle safety and braking performance. Variations in the pad–disc contact interface directly affect the behavior of both the disc and the piston, which can lead to reduced braking efficiency, unstable pedal response, or overall brake system degradation. As wear on the pad surface gradually alters the contact conditions, accurately predicting the evolution of brake pad wear is vital not only for maintaining brake stability but also for assessing long-term component durability. In particular wear behavior observed during the burnish evaluation mode is significant, as this phase governs the stabilization of the pad surface and influences the establishment of a steady friction coefficient. In this study, a finite element–based wear analysis procedure was developed using the Archard wear theory to evaluate the wear behavior of automotive brake pads. A wear direction algorithm and an element distortion control
SONG, SEONG IL, JOO, SANG DON, KIM, MIN SOCK, KERSZBERG, NICOLAS, Lee, Heewook
A Study on the Development of Brake Moan for CTBA Vehicles Using Simulation2026-01-0814To be published on 09/14/2026
Not only are customers' expectations for the development of various products, but also the demand for emotional quality improvement of the products is steadily increasing. Brake NVH, which is generated during vehicle braking, has a lot of influence on the emotional aspects of customers. There are several brake NVH such as judder, squeal, and moan. First, judder is phenomena of handle, brake pedal vibration and noise that occur during braking at the high-speed. The quality of judder has been improved a lot by applying judder detection and compensation logic in internal combustion engines and the heat load on the disc is reduced by regenerative braking in electric vehicles. So the judder problem hardly occurs these days. A squeal is a noise generated during braking at a low speed. The squeal is solved by tuning and shape change of a friction material in the high frequency band and by making the robust systems design such as caliper and disc in the low frequency band. Moan noise is low
KIM, SUNGHO, Kim, Jeongkyu, HWANG, JAEKEUN, Kang, Donghoon
Optimizing Brake Pedal Feel and Driver Comfort in Buses with Pneumatic Braking Systems2026-01-0804To be published on 09/14/2026
Abstract:- Brakes are a critical safety component in vehicles, and every parameter of the braking system plays a vital role in vehicle operation. Among these, brake pedal feel and driver confidence are key factors, in addition to achieving the required brake force, deceleration, and stopping distance. These aspects depend on the system-generated torque, available pneumatic pressure, lining material properties, and Electronic Braking System (EBS) parameters. This paper focuses on the factors influencing brake pedal feel while maintaining a balance between driver comfort and confidence during bus operation. Under optimal braking conditions, brake pedal response and brake torque gradient must align with the driver’s deceleration demands. The braking system must respond promptly, completing the application in the shortest possible duration. The brake torque gradient values specified in the EBS file should be neither too low nor too high, and the brake pedal feel must remain consistent
Pujari, Sachin Subhashrao, Karampurwala, Zoeb, RAJ, AMRITESH
Aerodynamic Disc Brake Drag: An Elusive Source of Variability2026-01-0802To be published on 09/14/2026
The ever-present drive to increase vehicle range and efficiency has resulted in disc brake caliper requirements at or near zero residual drag. It is increasingly critical to understand and design around potential edge cases that can drastically increase off-brake drag. One frequently observed, but often misunderstood, phenomenon is drag induced by aerodynamic forces surrounding the brake pad. Complex airflow characteristics surrounding the pad in the brake corner environment can lead to Venturi Effect induced air pressure differentials on each side of the pad, leading to transient, yet pronounced, increases in brake drag. This paper will follow a case study during which brake pad pressure differentials were discovered and experimentally measured, review the Venturi Effect as it relates to brake corners, and explore modelling approaches for identifying and correcting designs that are prone to this phenomenon.
Robere, Matthew, Tresmondi, Thales
Influence of Ferritic Nitrocarburizing with Smart-ONC® on the Modal and Damping Behavior of Gray Cast Iron Brake Rotors2026-01-0798To be published on 09/14/2026
Ferritic nitrocarburizing (FNC) with Smart-ONC® post-oxidation has been developed as a production-capable surface engineering solution for gray cast iron (GCI) brake rotors to meet the Euro 7 non-exhaust particulate emission limits. While prior investigations have demonstrated significant PM₁₀ reduction, improved corrosion resistance, and stable braking performance, the influence of FNC on noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) performance requires systematic evaluation. This study quantified the relative contributions of the alloy composition, rotor geometry, and FNC treatment to the modal frequency and damping behavior. Seven ventilated disc types from multiple foundries were characterized to assess the composition-driven variability. In addition, 120 production discs (ventilated and solid) were measured before and after FNC processing to isolate the treatment effects. Modal properties were obtained using impulse-hammer testing under free-free boundary conditions in accordance with
Awe, Samuel Ayowole, Holly, Mike, Winter, Karl-Michael
Real-time Estimation of Brake Temperature using Physics-Informed Machine Learning Model2026-01-0810To be published on 09/14/2026
The current work presents a novel approach to estimate brake surface temperature in real time to aid in brake wear prognostics. Brake prognostics involve estimating the brake pad wear in real-time that helps in its predictive maintenance. Brakes are a safety critical system for vehicles, therefore, demands accurate and robust pad wear estimation, ensuring vehicle safety. However, it involves several challenges. The estimation of pad wear is fundamentally a two-stage process: the first stage involves the accurate prediction of brake pad surface temperature, while the second stage utilizes this thermal history to calculate cumulative material wear. A significant challenge in estimating brake pad wear without expensive sensor is that it is sensitive to the surface temperature prediction; any error in the thermal model propagates and compounds in the wear prediction stage. To identify surface temperature, traditional physical sensors are often cost-prohibitive or prone to failure in the
Gannavarapu, Shivadath, Pal, Anuj, Fan, Mengdi
Electro-Hydraulic Brake-by-Wire and Off-the-Shelf ABS Integration: Control Design and Hardware in the Loop Validation2026-01-0795To be published on 09/14/2026
This work presents the design of a control logic for an electro-hydraulic brake-by-wire in series with an off-the-shelf ABS unit for motorsport applications. Validation is performed through hardware-in-the-loop testing with a complete hydraulic layout, including the brake-by-wire actuator, the ABS module, and brake calipers. State-of-the-art electro-hydraulic brake-by-wire systems are increasingly adopted in top-level motorsport and are now transitioning to high-performance road vehicles, in combination with ABS and ESC. However, due to motorsport regulations, racing brake-by-wire systems do not incorporate ABS functionality. To combine the performance of motorsport grade actuators with the ease of use required for non professional drivers, a series configuration between brake-by-wire and ABS represents a natural solution. This architecture is also relevant for future road vehicle applications, offering additional redundancy for autonomous driving-ready systems. A dedicated hardware-in
Milivinti, Massimiliano, Gimondi, Alex, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Cantoni, Carlo
A Multi Body Dynamic Analysis of Click Noise Generated in Rear Brake Caliper2026-01-0815To be published on 09/14/2026
As customer awareness of brake-related NVH(Noise, Vibration and Harshness) continues to increase across the automotive industry, noise originating from braking systems is increasingly regarded as important indicator of vehicle quality. Among these issues, intermittent click noise from rear brake caliper is commonly noticed during low-speed driving and initial brake application and is frequently associated with customer dissatisfaction. In the automotive industry, this noise has primarily been addressed through empirical design modifications and component-level testing. However, due to its low reproducibility and impulsive response characteristics, making quantitative prediction and root-cause identification during the design phase difficult. While most previous brake NVH research has mainly focused on continuous vibration phenomena such as squeal and groan, fewer studies have examined single-event impact noise related to pad-to-carrier clearances, contact transitions, and frictional
Choi, Hyeontae, Kim, Sangbum, Park, Ilho, Kim, Taeuk, Kwon, Yongsik, Yang, Soonhong, Ma, Jaehyeon, Kim, Jinwook
A Virtual Methodology to Define Air Tightness Criterion for Brake Calipers Based on Experimental Data2026-01-0818To be published on 09/14/2026
Air tightness in brake calipers is a critical requirement for ensuring braking system reliability and safety. However, defining a clear and practical analytical criterion for air leakage prediction remains challenging due to the complex contact behavior at the seal–piston interface. This study presents a virtual methodology to define an air tightness criterion for brake calipers based on experimental evaluation and structural analysis. The seal squeeze ratio was selected as the primary design variable to evaluate its effect on sealing performance. Test samples with different seal squeeze ratios were manufactured, and air tightness was tested under controlled pneumatic pressure to determine when leakage occurred. In parallel, a finite element (FE) structural analysis was conducted to simulate the seal installation process and quantify the resultant contact pressure distribution between the seal and the piston surface. To support reliable structural analysis, preliminary experiments were
Cho, Inyong, Kim, Beomseok
The Biomechanics of Brake Pedal Feel2026-01-0796To be published on 09/14/2026
Brake pedal feel is arguably the most important driver-facing characteristic of a vehicle’s brake system, as it represents the main interaction between the brake system and the driver and is experienced by the driver in every trip taken. It has traditionally been characterized by three fundamental curves - deceleration versus force at the pedal pad, deceleration versus travel at the pedal pad, and travel at the pedal pad versus force (which is derivable from the other two curves). These characterizations, while useful, stop short of describing what the driver actually experiences - felt through the force in and contraction of his or her leg muscles. When brake pedal feel is traced away from the brake pedal pad and into the driver’s leg, a complex new system emerges, containing the brake system and the biomechanics of the driver. This expanded system is now subjected to - but can also help explain - influences such as seating position, foot position, brake pedal geometry, and the
Antanaitis, David, Antanaitis, Rebecca, Morris, Brock
Influence of Modified Fly Ash Content on the Properties of Resin-Based Friction Materials2026-99-1657To be published on 07/24/2026
In this study, five resin-based brake pad samples with modified fly ash contents of 0%, 4%, 8%, 12%, and 16% were prepared to investigate the influence of fly ash content on the comprehensive performance of the friction materials. The tribological properties of all samples were evaluated under temperature conditions ranging from 100 °C to 350 °C, and their overall performance was assessed using five evaluation indices. Based on the AHP-MOORA algorithm, sample F12 exhibited the highest comprehensive weighted score of 0.11, followed by samples F0 and F8 with scores of 0.10 and 0.09, respectively, indicating a slight decline. In contrast, the comprehensive weighted scores of F4 and F16 were relatively low, at 0.05 and −0.01, respectively. Among the five composites, F12 demonstrated the best overall performance, with F0 and F8 ranking next, while F4 and F16 performed poorly. These results suggest that, within a certain range, increasing the fly ash content can enhance the comprehensive
Li, Xiaobiao, He, Kang, Zhao, Zhuanzhe, Wu, Bo, Sun, Fei
Design-Driven Sustainability of Automotive Components: A Comparative LCA from Conventional to Metal and Composite Additive Manufacturing2026-37-00376/9/2026
The increasing pressure to decarbonize manufacturing systems is pushing industry beyond conventional lightweighting strategies toward material and process paradigms, capable of delivering functional performance with radically lower environmental impact. In this context, polymer-based composite Additive Manufacturing (AM) offers an underexplored yet highly promising pathway for sustainable production of load-bearing components. This study presents a preliminary comparative cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a Formula SAE brake pedal, assessing the environmental transition from conventional sheet metal fabrication and finishing operations of Aluminum 7075-T6 to additive manufacturing solutions, with specific focus on Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) composites. Two topology-optimized designs, respectively for Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) in AlSi10Mg and Material Extrusion (MEX) in Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol with Carbon Fiber (PETG-CF) are compared to conventional
Dalpadulo, Enrico, Russo, Mario, Apté MD, Raphaëlle, Leali, Francesco
Driveline Parking Brake Test Procedure for Medium Duty VehiclesJ2690_202606 (Current)6/3/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice establishes uniform test procedures for friction based parking brake components used in conjunction with hydraulic service braked vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating greater than 4500 kg (10 000 lb). The components covered in this document are the primary actuation and the foundation park brake. Various peripheral devices such as application dashboard switches or indicators are not included. These test procedures include the following: a Brake Related Tests 1 Brake Functional Performance 2 Brake Dynamic Torque Performance 3 Brake Corrosion Resistance 4 Brake Endurance with Torque 5 Brake Endurance without Torque 6 Vibration Resistance 7 Brake Ultimate Static Load 8 Brake Lining Wear Adjuster Function b Actuation Related Tests 1 Mechanical Actuator Functional Performance 2 Mechanical Actuator Endurance 3 Mechanical Actuator Quick Release 4 Mechanical Actuator Ultimate Load 5 Spring Apply Actuator Functional Performance 6 Spring Apply Actuator
Truck and Bus Hydraulic Brake Committee
The Effect of Initial Foot Position on THOR-50M and THOR-05F Lower Leg Response in a Realistic Vehicle Buck09-14-01-00085/4/2026
This study aims to explore and evaluate the effect of various foot positions on the kinematic and kinetic response of the lower extremity during frontal crashes using a realistic vehicle interior. Frontal impact sled tests were performed with the Test Device for Human Occupant Restraint, 50th-percentile Male (THOR-50M) and Test Device for Human Occupant Restraint, 5th-percentile Female (THOR-05F) anthropometric test device (ATD) in the driver’s seat of a midsize SUV testing buck (with realistic interior components including an instrument panel with steering wheel and steering wheel airbag, seat, three-point seat belt with pretensioner and force-limiter, accelerator pedal, brake pedal, knee airbag, and seat belt retractor pretensioner). Six sled tests were performed in two principal directions of force (PDOF) [three each in frontal (0°) and oblique (−20°) configurations]. The right foot was positioned on the accelerator pedal, fully on the brake, and half on the brake. A single test was
Noss, Junior, Donlon, John-Paul, Morris, Anna, Samier, Germain, Park, Joseph, Forman, Jason
Inertial Pedal Displacement and Brake Switch Activation in Frontal Crash Events2026-01-05414/7/2026
This paper presents research into the inertial displacement of brake pedals and the subsequent activation of brake light switches during crash events. In certain scenarios, such as multiple-impact crashes or crashes with pre-impact interactions such as curb strikes or sideswipes, inertial forces alone may generate sufficient brake pedal movement to trigger the brake switch, activating the brake lights. Such signals may be recorded by an Event Data Recorder (EDR) or observed by witnesses and incorrectly interpreted as an indication of intentional driver braking. To investigate this phenomenon, HYGE sled tests were performed using brake pedal assemblies and associated components from a Toyota Tacoma pickup truck and a Cadillac DeVille passenger sedan. The assemblies were subjected to acceleration pulses simulating a frontal impact, with high-speed video used to capture brake pedal displacement and brake light activation. The tests demonstrated that inertial loading from a pulse with a
Walker, James, Duran, Amanda, Barnes, Daniel, Osterhout, Aaron, Clayton, Aidan
Development of a Lightweight and Quick-to-Install Pedal Robot for Unmanned Chassis Dynamometer Testing2026-01-01974/7/2026
As the adoption of electric vehicles continues to accelerate, the demand for their development and testing using chassis dynamometers has also increased significantly. Compared with internal combustion engine vehicles, chassis dynamometer testing for electric vehicles typically requires test durations several to several dozen times longer, resulting in substantially increased labor requirements. In addition, low-temperature testing is often required, further intensifying the workload associated with vehicle testing. To address these challenges, this study developed and evaluated a pedal robot designed to enable unmanned and automated testing. The pedal robot developed in this study weighs only 12 kg and can be installed within a few minutes. It is, to the authors’ knowledge, the world’s first pedal robot that mimics human driving behavior by using a single foot to operate both the accelerator and brake pedals. Unlike conventional driving robots, the actuators of the proposed system do
Lee, Daeyup, Kang, Ji Myeong, Jo, Yechan, Choi, SeongUn, Shin, Jaesik, Kim, Jongmin, Kang, Keonwoo
Prediction of Pressure Pulsation in Brake Line Considering Wave Propagation Characteristics of Fluid Contained in Flexible Hose for Automotive Hydraulic Brake System2026-01-02254/7/2026
Brake pulsation noise caused by fluid-borne vibration, which is generated by pressure pulsations from the pump in the Electronic Stability Control (ESC) modulator, occurs when the control brake function is activated under various driving conditions, such as Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) and regenerative-friction brake coordination. This noise is particularly noticeable in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), where the background noise from the power source is lower than that of internal combustion engine vehicles. The simulation of pressure pulsations in the brake system requires the excitation force of the pump built into the ESC modulator, the characteristics of valves, and the characteristics of the flexible hose; however, it is extremely difficult to determine these parameters with high accuracy from the design specifications. For this reason, in this study, the pump and valves were experimentally identified, while the flexible hose was represented by a three-element Voigt model to
Koike, Yohei, Komada, Masashi, Yano, Masahiro, Yoshioka, Nobuhiko
Machine Learning for Predicting Rotor and Brake-Fluid Temperatures in Hill-Descent Events2026-01-01594/7/2026
High thermal loads on brake systems during extended descents followed by vehicle soak pose significant safety and durability risks. Excessive rotor or fluid temperatures can cause loss of braking efficacy, fluid degradation or evaporation, thermal fade, and accelerated component wear. This study uses time-history data of brake-disc and fluid temperatures which were collected during controlled hill-descent events with subsequent soak periods, where the vehicle is parked in a wind protected area. Besides the rotor and brake fluid temperatures, environmental conditions were recorded (ambient temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction) and the vehicle and brake specifications are known (rotor/caliper geometry, pad material, vehicle aerodynamic configuration and mass). 126 test runs from a dedicated vehicle program are used, each providing time-history records that form the basis of our analysis. From these records we extract phase-specific samples (descent and soak phase) and engineer
Poojari, Uday Kumar, Westphalen, Jan, Venugopal, Narayana
Brake Lining Quality Test ProcedureJ661_202604 (Current)4/6/2026
The purpose of this SAE Recommended Practice is to establish a uniform laboratory procedure for securing and reporting the friction and wear characteristics of brake linings. The performance data obtained can be used for in-plant quality control by brake lining manufacturers and for the quality assessment of incoming shipments by the purchasers of brake linings.
Brake Linings Standards Committee
Test Procedures for Shear Strength of Automotive Brake Pads and Brake Lining AssembliesJ840_202603 (Current)3/31/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice covers equipment capabilities and the test procedure to quantify and qualify the shear strength between the friction material and backing plate or brake shoe for automotive applications. This SAE Recommended Practice is applicable to: bonded drum brake linings; integrally molded disc brake pads; disc brake pads and backing plate assemblies using mechanical retention systems (MRS); coupons from drum brake shoes or disc brake pad assemblies. The test and its results are also useful for short, semi-quantitative verification of the bonding and molding process. This Recommended Practice is applicable during product and process development, product verification and quality control. This Recommended Practice does not replicate or predict actual vehicle performance or part durability.
Brake Linings Standards Committee
Quasi-Static Mechanical and Dynamic Flow Model of Brake Vacuum Booster Using Hybrid Methodology2026-01-50193/11/2026
This study primarily focuses on quasi-static mechanical modeling and dynamic flow modeling of the brake vacuum booster used in a typical four-wheeled passenger vehicles, under brake apply condition. Vacuum Booster is a key component of brake actuation system whose primary function is to multiply the force received from brake pedal. A hybrid methodology consisting of FEA and 1D simulation of the vacuum booster has been constructed in this study by accommodating its compliance. The brake vacuum booster consists of two chambers, namely vacuum and apply chamber; the force multiplication in vacuum booster occurs because of pressure difference between these two chambers. The hybrid methodology not only captures its flow dynamics but also accommodates the structural interaction that happens between the ratio disc (rigid body) and the reaction disc (hyperelastic body) with the help of finite element analysis, which is the novel part of this project. The result from finite element analysis is
Iyengar, Sharan Yoganand, Mani Saravanan, C., Gopalan, Seshadri
Brake Pads, Lining, Disc, and Drum Wear MeasurementsJ2986_202602 (Current)2/19/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice provides a common method to measure wear of friction materials (brake pad assemblies and brake shoes) and their mating parts (brake disc or brake drum). These wear measurements apply to brakes fitted on passenger cars and light trucks up to 4536 kg of Gross Vehicle Weight Rating under the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS), or vehicles category M1 (passenger cars up to nine occupants, including the driver) under the European Community’s ECE Regulations.
Brake Dynamometer Standards Committee
Four-Wheel Independent Steering Vehicle Control under Wheel-Corner Brake Faults10-10-04-00282/18/2026
Wheel-corner brake failures can significantly deteriorate vehicle stability and safety, since unbalanced braking forces may introduce an undesired yaw moment. This work investigates a fault-tolerant control strategy for Active Wheel-Corner Systems, exploiting Four-Wheel Independent Steering (4WIS) to mitigate such effects and preserve vehicle stability when brake actuator malfunctions occur. Unlike many existing approaches, the proposed framework does not require explicit fault detection or quantification as a prerequisite for corrective action, eliminating potential delays and uncertainties associated with fault-diagnosis schemes. A reference model for yaw rate and sideslip angle, incorporating combined longitudinal and lateral dynamics, is proposed, and a Weighted Pseudo-Inverse Control Allocation (WPCA) scheme is employed to distribute corrective actions among the four steering angles according to each tire’s capability, compensating for yaw moment imbalances caused by degraded
Sonnino, Samuel, Melzi, Stefano, Caresia, Pietro, Manzoni, Alessandro, Vaini, Gianluca
Vibrational Analysis of Hybrid Composite Laminated Plates of E – Glass and Areca Fibers with Brake Pad Waste Powder2026-28-00732/12/2026
This study focuses on the vibration analysis of hybrid composite laminated plates fabricated from E-glass Fiber and areca Fiber reinforced with epoxy resin. The hybrid laminates were prepared using the Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM) process with different stacking sequences and Fiber ratios, where brake lining powder was also incorporated as a filler in selected configurations to enhance mechanical and damping properties. The fabricated plates (280 × 280 mm) were subjected to experimental modal analysis using an impact hammer and accelerometer setup, with data acquisition carried out through DEWESoft software. Natural frequencies and damping ratios were determined under three boundary conditions (C- C-C-C, C-F-C-F, and C-F-F-F). The results revealed that Plate 1, with E-glass outer layers, areca reinforcement, and filler addition, exhibited the best vibration performance, achieving a maximum natural frequency of 332.8 Hz under C-C-C-C condition, while Plate 2 showed a
D R, Rajkumar, O, Vivin Lenin, R, Saktheevel, R G, Ajay Krishna, Ng, Bhavan
Real time Implementation of Predictive Maintenance for Service Center Automation Using Automobile Life Extender (ALE) Based on Machine Learning2026-28-01242/12/2026
The Automobile Life Extender (ALE) comprises an on-board function, a machine learning model operating via cloud computing and a smartphone app. The on-board function receives signals such as engine RPM, throttle position, brake pedal position, and hydraulic pressure from the vehicle's ECUs. Based on this data, the on-board ALE module calculates the engine load, brake circuit load, etc., and sends it to the predictive maintenance model via the on-board IoT system. The predictive maintenance model contains recorded data about the type of engine, brake system, and their performance curves acquired from tests conducted by its OEM. Machine learning models holds a crucial role in dynamically analyzing vehicle data, identifying drive patterns, and predicting the need for maintenance of a part or system. A hybrid approach of training models based on supervised and unsupervised learning is incorporated, creating an active learning strategy to maximize the use of available data. Amazon SageMaker
Sundaram, Rameshselvakumar, Kumar, Lokesh, Saint Peter Thomas, Edwin, Sureshkumar, Srihari, Muthukumaran, Chockalingam, Menon, Abhijith
Benchmark of Conventional and By-Wire Brake System Layouts for Electric Vehicle Applications by Numerical Simulations2026-01-50082/3/2026
The recently increasing global concern about sustainability and greenhouse gas emission reduction has boosted the diffusion of electric vehicles. Research on this topic mainly focuses on either re-designing or adapting most conventional vehicle subsystems, especially the propulsion motor and the braking components. In this context, the present work aims to model, analyze, and compare three-braking system layouts design alternatives focusing on their contribution to vehicle performance and efficiency: a commercial vacuum-boosted hydraulic braking system, a commercial integrated electrohydraulic braking system, and a concept distributed electrohydraulic brake system. Braking systems performance are evaluated by simulating key maneuvers adopting a full model of a battery electric vehicle (BEV), which includes all relevant components like tires, and powertrain dynamics, which is validated against real-world data. Implementation and integration of the first two systems are discussed
Savi, Lorenzo, Garosio, Damiano, Floros, Dimosthenis, Vignati, Michele, Travagliati, Alessandro, Braghin, Francesco
Design and Validation of a Collapsible Brake Pedal System for Lower-Leg Protection in Frontal Impacts2026-26-05001/16/2026
Indian passenger car accident data indicates that approximately 44% of crashes are frontal impacts (Refer fig 1). Among the injuries sustained in these crashes, lower leg injuries are notably critical, contributing to nearly 25% of driver occupant injuries (Refer fig 2). To evaluate such injuries, the Bharat New Car Assessment Program (BNCAP) includes lower leg injury metrics as part of the Frontal Offset Deformable Barrier (ODB64) test. While the overall injury performance is assessed at the vehicle level, BNCAP also monitors vehicle interior intrusions—particularly pedal intrusions—as key contributors to lower limb injury severity. A major challenge in frontal crashes is the intrusion of the vehicle's front-end structure into the occupant compartment. Rigid components, particularly the brake pedal assembly, can be displaced rearward during a crash, significantly increasing the risk of lower leg injuries. Therefore, minimizing pedal intrusions into the driver foot-well is critical for
Shetti, Rahul R., Kudale, Shailesh, Naik, Nagaraj, Bisen, Badal, Kotak, Vijay, Dudhewar, Swapnil, Bhagat, Amit, Durgaprasad, HNV
Agricultural Tractor Brake Linkage Efficiency Prediction and Correlation Using Flexible Multibody Dynamics Model2026-26-01031/16/2026
In agricultural tractors, braking actuation is usually done through control linkages consisting of a series of connected four-bar linkages with multiple pivots from the pedal to the brake pads. The quality of force transmission is critical as it directly affects the braking performance of the tractor. Forces measured at the end of the control linkage or brake pull rod often show deviation from theoretical values based on mechanical advantage calculations. This is due to various factors such as linkage transmission angle, elasticity, and friction losses in joints. A standardized simulation method needs to be developed and validated to predict the losses in the control linkage system. In this paper, the author proposes a simulation approach using multi-body dynamics, which includes contribution factors such as transmission angle, linkage elasticity, and friction in joints. MBS models for brake linkage systems for three different tractors were developed with flex bodies using ADAMS/View
Subbaiyan, Prasanna Balaji, Nizampatnam, Balaramakrishna, Redkar, Dinesh, Arun, G, K, Vinoth, R, Sengottu, Paulraj, Lemuel
Evaluation of Thermo-Mechanical Behavior of Brake Discs in Vehicles Using Multidisciplinary Approach2026-26-04331/16/2026
The objective of this paper is to evaluate the thermal performance of the brake discs in the design stage of its life cycle by developing a methodology to replicate dynamometer testing using multi-disciplinary Finite Element Analysis (FEA) methods. A simulation workflow was formulated in which Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) was used to create temperature and velocity dependent Heat Transfer Coefficients (HTC) which were in turn used in Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) to do a thermo-mechanical analysis. With this workflow various designs of the brake discs were analyzed. A sensitivity study was done to determine critical design features that affected its thermal performance. A final design was fixed that met both the weight and thermal performance targets. This design was evaluated in dynamometer testing, and 93% correlation was achieved. Thus, the developed simulation workflow ensured that a first-time right brake disc can be finalized in the design stage, which will meet the
Balaji, Praveen, K, Karthikeyan, S, Kesavprasad, S Kangde, Suhas, Reddy, Jagadeeswara
Niobium Alloyed Brake Disc for reduced NVH and Emission Control2026-26-02851/16/2026
Recent regulations limiting brake dust emissions have presented many challenges to the brake engineering community. The objective of this paper is to provide a low cost, mass production solution utilizing well known existing technologies to meet brake emissions requirements. The proposed process is to alloy the Gray Cast Iron with Niobium and subsequently Ferritic Nitrocarburize (FNC) the disc. The Niobium addition will improve the wear resistance of the FNC case, reducing wear debris. The test methodology included: 1. Manufacture of disc samples alloyed with Niobium, 2. Finish machining and ferritic nitrocarburizing and 3. Evaluation of airborne wear debris utilizing a pin-on-disc tribometer equipped with emission collection capability. The airborne emission and wear surfaces were further analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy, Energy Dispersive techniques (SEM-EDS), X-Ray Diffraction and Optical Microscopy. The cast iron test matrix included four groups; Unalloyed eutectic 4.3
Barile, Bernardo, Holly, Mike
Coordinated Control of DYC/ABS for Cornering Braking Based on Driver Intention2025-01-734012/31/2025
This paper proposes a DYC/ABS coordinated control strategy for cornering and braking based on driver intention. A hierarchical control structure is established, where the upper-level controller uses a vehicle dynamics model to calculate the additional yaw moment required by the DYC controller to track the desired yaw rate and sideslip angle, as well as the driver’s intended braking intensity. Taking multiple constraints into account, a quadratic programming algorithm is employed to optimize the distribution of braking forces among the four wheels. The lower-level ABS controller is designed with multiple thresholds and corresponding control phases to precisely regulate the hydraulic pressure of individual wheel cylinders. In emergency braking scenarios where ABS intervention may conflict with the upper-layer braking force allocation, a rule-based, stepwise diagonal pressure reduction compensation strategy is proposed. This strategy fully considers the influence of longitudinal and
Zou, Yan, Ma, Yao, Kong, Yan, Pei, Xiaofei
Investigation of Particulate Matter Emissions from Brake Pads of Light-Duty Vehicles: A Comparative Analysis of Friction Material Compositions2025-36-020012/18/2025
Studies correlate air pollution with an increase in the incidence of respiratory diseases, affecting lung function and raising hospitalization rates. Among the pollutants associated with these diseases, inhalable coarse particulate matter (PM10) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) stand out. The emission of particulate matter resulting from the wear of brake pads in light vehicles is the second largest source, accounting for approximately 33% of a vehicle’s total emissions. The particulate matter generated during the braking process can be analyzed through its collection in tests conducted on dynamometers, using enclosure and sampling systems. The development of the dynamometer used was based on the braking cycles described in the SAE J2522:2003 standard, whose main objective is to provide comparative data on different friction materials. Given the variations in particulate matter emissions depending on the composition of the brake pads, as reported in the literature, this study
Catão, Vítor Gustavo Gomes, Machado, Amanda Ribeiro, Fiorentin, Felipe Klein, Silva, João Pedro Anuto, Bernardino, Lucas Gabriel, Fiorentin, Thiago Antonio, Carboni, Andrea Piga
Multi-Physics Numerical Modelling of a Magnetorheological Braking System2025-36-005012/18/2025
The global effort to reconsider transport in compliance with ecological challenges leads to a significant increase in the market share of Electric Vehicles (EVs), enlightening secondary sources of pollution. One of the most important is the particles emitted by the abrasion of braking pads. The innovative system addressed in this paper is among the most promising non-polluting solutions to ensure safety and comfort. It uses the capability of the Magneto-Rheological Fluid (MRF) to change its properties when subjected to a magnetic field, generating a braking torque between a stator and a rotor. This study focuses on characterizing the system's performance and endurance during an emergency braking situation by developing a numerical model that involves fluid and structural considerations. This model takes the form of a Finite-Element Model (FEM) that interpolates local forces determined from Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and takes them as input. It enables analysis of the stresses
de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Billiant, Lucas, Imberti1, Giovanni, Carello, Massimiliana
Braking systems for electrified vehicles in national market2025-36-007712/18/2025
The demand for electrified vehicles has been increasing over the last few years, near to 180 thousand units were sold only in 2024, which represented around 7% of total sales of this type of vehicle in Brazil. By the year 2030, it is expected that at least 40% of sales volume will be electrified vehicles, considering mild hybrids. These results show that vehicle manufacturers are moving towards electrification and reducing carbon emission rates. Different levels of electrification are applied in their portfolio: from mild hybrid or rechargeable vehicles to fully electric vehicles. When analyzing the number of components in each automotive system, it is possible to notice a huge reduction. Electric vehicles have 90% fewer moving parts in the engine than combustion vehicles. In brake systems, the reduction can be up to 20% in hybrid and electric vehicles, which can use the same solutions. This paper aims to present the changes in the sets of braking components from combustion vehicles to
Romão, Bruno, Batagini, Emerson, Horschutz, Everton
Thermo-Structural Analysis of a Brake Disc Project Through Finite Element Method2025-36-014412/18/2025
The development of a high reliability brake disc is fundamental to automobility projects, considering its relevance as a safety component. In competitions such as Formula SAE, there is an increased emphasis on the need to reduce weight, which demands a detailed engineering analysis to minimize mass without compromising safety requirements. This paper proposes a finite element based computational methodology, combining thermal and structural simulations, built upon data collected from bench tests and in-competition courses such as the Autocross (AC) and endurance. The results describe the thermostructural behavior of the brake disc in practical conditions, enabling the determination of the acting tensions during a competitive scenario, and consequently, calculate safety factors and fatigue life of the component. The proposed methodology validates the brake disc resilience and durability, which allows for the study of more optimal geometries or more specific materials, reducing weight
Machado, João Pedro Farias, Ribeiro, Rodrigo Eustaquio
Identification of Runway Friction Coefficient Using Extended Kalman Filter09-13-02-001212/11/2025
Aircraft operations during landing or takeoff depend strongly on runway surface conditions. Safe runway operations depend on the tire-to-runway frictional force and the drag offered by the aircraft. In the present research article, a methodology is developed to estimate the braking friction coefficient for varied runway conditions accurately in real-time. To this end, the extended Kalman filtering technique (EKF) is applied to sensor-measured data using the on-ground mathematical model of aircraft and wheel dynamics. The aircraft velocity and wheel angular velocity are formulated as system states, and the friction coefficient is estimated as an augmented state. The relation between the friction coefficient and wheel slip ratio is established using both simulated and actual ground roll data. Also, the technique is evaluated with the simulated data as well as real aircraft taxi data. The accuracy of friction estimation, with and without the measurement of normal reaction force on the
T.K., Khadeeja Nusrath, Singh, Jatinder
Characterization of the Brake Linings Coefficient of Friction by Means of Instrumented Suspensions Equipped on a Hybrid Race Vehicle10-10-01-000411/8/2025
The knowledge of the brake linings coefficient of friction (BLCF) is crucial for the control of the braking moment in modern vehicles equipped with electric powertrains. In the case of race vehicles equipped with carbon–carbon brakes, the coefficient of friction exhibits great variations as a function of the main influencing factors, namely the pressure, the temperature, and the sliding speed at the pad–disc interface. In this work, a Le Mans Hypercar instrumented with more than 150 sensors was adopted to perform the characterization of the BLCF from racetrack acquisitions. The front and rear left suspensions of the vehicle were instrumented with strain gauge channels and position transducers to acquire the reaction loads at the upright and the orientation of the arms. Then, the geometric matrix method was implemented for calculating the moments at the upright from which the braking torque was derived without the need to know any of the wheel inertia, nor the driveshaft torque. Data
Cortivo, Davide, Vendramin, Mattia, Dindo, Luigi
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