Browse Topic: Braking systems

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Design and Development of Integrated Brake and Bull Cage System for Enhanced Tractor Performance and Sustainability2026-28-0005To be published on 02/12/2026
Conventional tractor transmission systems feature separate Brake and Bull Cage housings, with brakes often being proprietary components and Bull Cage designed by the Original Equipment manufacturer (OE). To optimize design and performance, an innovative integrated system was developed, combining an in-house braking system with a unitized Bull Cage assembly. This robust design reduces part count, eliminates proprietary dependency (except for friction liners), and enhances performance. Virtual simulations performed under RWUP conditions demonstrated enhanced strength and stiffness in the integrated design. In this Integrated Brake & Bull Cage assembly (IBCA) , the braking layout was reconfigured from a 4+1 friction design to a 3+2 configuration which improved balancing, enhancing customer braking experience and increasing contact area by 11%. This adjustment extends friction liner life and boosts mechanical advantage by 7.5%, significantly improving tractor stability and performance
Dumpa, Mahendra Reddy, Dhanale, Swapnil, Perumal, Solairaj, Gomes, Maxson, Redkar, Dinesh, Savant, Kedarnath, V, SARAVANAN
Structural Redesign and Functional Integration of an Electrohydraulic Brake Valve for Enhanced Performance and Manufacturability2026-28-0002To be published on 02/12/2026
The Electrohydraulic Brake Valve (EBV) is a critical component in full-power brake systems, particularly in heavy-duty and off-highway vehicles, where precise braking control and system reliability are paramount. This paper presents a comprehensive cost and weight optimization initiative focused on the EBV housing, which currently accounts for approximately 75% of the total assembly weight due to its bar-machined construction. The project involved a complete redesign of the EBV housing with the dual objective of reducing mass and enhancing functionality. Key improvements include the integration of sensor ports for real-time pressure monitoring, a dedicated provision for nameplate mounting to support customer traceability, and a transition to a cast-based design optimized through advanced core modeling. Material substitution and structural simplification were explored to further improve manufacturability and cost-efficiency. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was employed to validate the
R, Thangarajan
Real time implementation of predictive maintenance for service center automation using Automobile Life Extender (ALE) based on Machine Learning2026-28-0124To be published on 02/01/2026
Automobile Life Extender (ALE) consists of an on-board function, machine learning model operating via cloud computing and a smart phone app. The on-board function will receive signals like engine rpm, throttle position, Brake pedal position, hydraulic pressure etc from vehicles Ecu’s. Based on this data onboard ALE module will calculate the engine load, brake circuit load etc . and sends it to the predictive maintenance model via on board IoT system. The predictive maintenance model will have historical data about the type of engine, brake system and their performance curve data acquired based on test done by its OEM. Here machine learning models play a crucial role in analyzing the vehicle data dynamically, identify drive patterns from it and predict the need for maintenance of a part or a system. A hybrid approach of training models based on Supervised and Unsupervised is incorporated, which will work with certain amount of labeled data along with a set of collected unlabeled data
sundaram, Rameshselvakumar, Kumar, Lokesh, Saint Peter Thomas, Edwin, Sureshkumar, Srihari, Muthukumaran, Chockalingam, Menon, Abhijith
Mechanical Performance & Vibration Analysis of Hybrid Composite Plates Composed of E - Glass and Areca Fibers2026-28-0073To be published on 02/01/2026
This study investigates the vibration characteristics of hybrid composite laminated plates made from E-glass and areca fibers, targeting applications that demand both mechanical performance and environmental sustainability. The motivation stems from the growing interest in replacing synthetic fibers with natural alternatives in structural applications, particularly for lightweight and vibration-sensitive components. Areca fiber, an abundant and biodegradable natural material, was combined with high-strength E-glass fiber to form hybrid laminates using the Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM) process. Three distinct composite plates were fabricated with different stacking sequences and filler variations using epoxy resin and brake lining powder. The mechanical integrity and vibrational behavior of these plates were then studied using experimental modal analysis. The tests were conducted under three boundary conditions: fully clamped (C-C-C-C), two-edge clamped (C-F-C-F), and
D R, Rajkumar, O, Vivin Lenin, R, Saktheevel, R G, Ajay Krishna, Ng, Bhavan
Optimization of Inverter Control Strategies for Improved Powertrain Efficiency Using E-Motor Emulation Platforms2026-26-0509To be published on 01/16/2026
The traction inverter is a critical component in electric vehicles (EVs), functioning as the heart and brain of the electric powertrain. It controls the power conversion between the high-voltage battery and the electric motor, enabling efficient propulsion and regenerative braking. As EV adoption grows, especially in emerging markets like India, the need for robust and scalable inverter testing solutions becomes paramount. Traditional testing methods involving real batteries and e-motors pose several challenges in the Indian context, including high safety risks, infrastructure limitations, high battery costs, and limited availability of prototype-grade components. This paper presents a comprehensive approach to inverter validation using the AVL Inverter TS™ system— an advanced Power Hardware-in-the-Loop (PHiL) test system based on e-motor emulation technology.. It enables safe, efficient, and reliable testing without the need for actual batteries or mechanical loads. The system
Mehrotra, Soumya, Chhabra, Rishabh
Enhancing Range Prediction Accuracy for the BEV: Bridging the Gap Between Simulation and Real-World Testing2026-26-0521To be published on 01/16/2026
Accurate range estimation in battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is essential for optimizing performance, energy efficiency, and customer expectations. This study investigates the discrepancies between physical test data and simulation predictions for the Jeep Wagoneer model. A detailed range delta analysis identifies key contributors to the observed deviations, including regenerative braking inefficiencies, increased propulsion demand, auxiliary loads, and estimated drivetrain losses within the Electric Drive Module (EDM) during traction and regen. Results indicate that the test vehicle exhibits lower regenerative braking efficiency and higher traction and lower regen consumption than predicted by simulations, primarily due to EDM inefficiencies and friction brake usage during regeneration. The study underscores the importance of refining simulation methodologies by integrating real-world, test based EDM loss maps to improve accuracy and better align predictive models with actual vehicle
Ali, Shoaib
Design and Validation of a Collapsible Brake Pedal System for Lower-Leg Protection in Frontal Impacts2026-26-0500To be published on 01/16/2026
Indian Passenger car accident data indicates that approximately 44% of crashes are frontal impacts. Among the injuries sustained in these crashes, lower leg injuries are notably critical, contributing to nearly 25% of driver occupant injuries. To evaluate such injuries, the Bharat New Car Assessment Program (BNCAP) includes lower leg injury metrics as part of the Frontal Offset Deformable Barrier (ODB64) test. While the overall injury performance is assessed at the vehicle level, BNCAP also monitors vehicle interior intrusions—particularly pedal intrusions—as key contributors to lower limb injury severity. A major challenge in frontal crashes is the intrusion of the vehicle's front-end structure into the occupant compartment. Rigid components, particularly the brake pedal assembly, can be displaced rearward during a crash, significantly increasing the risk of lower leg injuries. Therefore, minimizing pedal intrusions into the driver footwell is critical to enhancing lower leg
Shetti, Rahul R., Kudale, Shailesh, Naik, Nagaraj, Bisen, Badal, Kotak, Vijay, Dudhewar, Swapnil, Bhagat, Amit, Durgaprasad, HNV
Performance Evaluation and Optimization of Engine Brake System using Chassis Dynamometer2026-26-0511To be published on 01/16/2026
Engine braking is a deceleration technique that leverages the internal friction and pumping losses within the engine. By closing the throttle and potentially selecting a lower gear, the engine creates a retarding force that slows the vehicle. This practice contributes to better fuel economy, decreased brake system load, and improved vehicle handling in specific driving scenarios, such as steep declines or slippery road surfaces. To alleviate stress on their primary braking systems and prevent overheating, heavy vehicles frequently incorporate engine-based braking. While older trucks relied on simple exhaust brakes with a butterfly valve to restrict exhaust flow, these had limited impact. Hence contemporary heavy vehicles almost exclusively use more advanced engine braking technologies. Traditionally, our heavy-duty vehicles use Exhaust brake system to elevate the braking performance on hilly terrains. Hence an improved sample of Engine brake was developed for enhanced braking
M, Vipin Prakash, Rajappan, Dinesh Kumar, R, Suresh, N, Gopi Kannan
Simulation Research on Torque Vectoring, Braking, Chassis control Strategies for Electric & hybrid Vehicles using System Simulation2026-26-0423To be published on 01/16/2026
Electric Vehicles and Plug-in Hybrids alleviate the energy crisis but pose a unique challenge for vehicle dynamics. Though significant developments in motor control strategy and energy density management are evolving, we face significant challenges in Torque Management with several ADAS features being integral part of the EV's/xHEV's. It demands high-fidelity physical and control model exchanges between electric-chassis, ride-handling, tire modelling, Steering Assist, powertrain and validate using 0D-1D platform. This paper explicates a unified strategy for improving overall vehicle performance by intelligently distributing and coordinating drive torque to enhance traction, stability, and drivability across diverse operating conditions through the co-simulation. Co-Simulation platform includes physical models in AMESIM, and control strategies integrated in MATLAB/Simulink. The platform features comprehensive representations of digital vehicle that requires detailed modelling of
Eruva, Patrickxavier, Sarapalli Ramachandran, Raghuveeran, Chougule, Sourabh, Natanamani-Pillai, Siva Subramanian, Scheider, Clement, Leclerc, Cedric, Natarajasundaram, Balasubramanian
Assessing Brake Emission Performance Across New, Upgraded, and Retrofitted Test Bed Infrastructures2026-26-0232To be published on 01/16/2026
Brake wear particle emissions are a significant source of traffic-related particulate matter, prompting increasing regulatory attention through frameworks such as UN GTR No. 24 and the forthcoming Euro 7 standard. To address the demand for accurate and reproducible measurement solutions, a comparative study was conducted using an identical ventilated cast-iron disc brake across different test bed infrastructures. Three AVL solution configurations were assessed: (1) a newly built brake emission test bed, (2) an engine test bed upgraded with brake emission measurement equipment, and (3) a simulated third-party brake test bed (e.g., originally used for performance or NVH testing) retrofitted with brake emission measurement equipment. In the third configuration, the UN GTR No. 24 test sequence was automated and executed by the AVL System Control in coordination with the existing test bed infrastructure. The testing infrastructure included a CFD-optimized brake enclosure and sampling tunnel
Martikainen, Sampsa, Weidinger, Christoph, Huber, Michael Peter
Regenerative braking control strategy for electric commercial bus under Indian road condition using artificial neural network2026-26-0645To be published on 01/16/2026
The main objective of this research is to create a more efficient regenerative braking control strategy for electric commercial buses operating under Indian road conditions. The strategy uses Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) to optimize the regenerative braking process. Regenerative braking helps to recover energy that would otherwise be lost during braking and convert it back into usable power for the vehicle. The challenge is to design a system that works effectively on the diverse and often challenging road conditions found in India, such as varying gradients, traffic patterns, and road surface types. This study begins by collecting data (which includes vehicle speed, road gradient, traffic condition, etc.) from real-world driving conditions and aims to train an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) using a large set of driving data collected under various conditions to predict the most efficient regenerative braking settings for different driving scenarios. While the results are
Saurabh, Saurabh, Bhardwaj, Rohit, Patil, Nikhil, Gadve, Dhananjay, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya
Evaluation of Thermo-Mechanical behavior of brake discs in vehicles using Multidisciplinary approach2026-26-0433To be published on 01/16/2026
The objective of this paper is to evaluate the thermal performance of the brake discs in the design stage of its life cycle by developing a methodology to replicate the dynamometer testing using multi-disciplinary Finite Element Analysis (FEA) methods. A simulation workflow was formulated in which Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) was used to create temperature and velocity dependent Heat Transfer Coefficients (HTC) which were in turn used in Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) to do a thermo-mechanical analysis. With this workflow various designs of the brake discs were analyzed. A sensitivity study was done to determine critical design features that affected its thermal performance. A final design was fixed that met both the weight and thermal performance targets. This design was evaluated in dynamometer testing, and 95% correlation was achieved. Thus, the developed simulation workflow ensured that a first-time right brake disc can be finalized in the design stage, which will meet the
Balaji, Praveen, K, Karthikeyan, S, Kesavprasad, S Kangde, Suhas, Reddy, Jagadeeswara
Simulation of EV range Estimation for different payload of vehicle.2026-26-0389To be published on 01/16/2026
The electrification of transportation is reshaping the automotive and logistics industries, with electric vehicles (EVs) playing an increasingly central role in passenger mobility and commercial operations. As EV adoption grows, the need for accurate range estimation becomes critical, particularly under varying operational conditions such as increased payload. A key business challenge lies in the significant variability of EV range due to changes in vehicle load, which can affect performance, operational efficiency, and cost-effectiveness—especially for fleet-based services. This study focuses on addressing the technical gap in predicting EV range with respect to different payload conditions. Traditional range estimation methods often fail to account for real-world variables like additional cargo weight, leading to suboptimal route planning, increased energy consumption, and unanticipated charging requirements. Payload-induced range degradation can result in up to some deviation in
Khatal, Swaraj, Gupta, Anjali, Krishna, Thallapaka
Smart Stability: Dual-Mode Hill Hold and Parking Brake Strategy in Electric Tractors Using Motor Torque and Electro-Hydraulic Actuation2026-26-0205To be published on 01/16/2026
Operating tractors on Sloped Terrains presents safety challenges, especially during shuttle operations, loader use, or start-stop maneuvers at slopes. Unlike Diesel Counterparts, feedback from the prime mover (Motor) is minimal and silence often masks terrain feedback. Driver response tends to vary, leading to rollback & challenges to safety demanding skill & expertise for safe operation. Based on field observations across Mahindra tractor platforms, we identified start-stop maneuver task to be offloaded from the operator to improve control and consistency and take skill element out of picture. This paper outlines the approach derived based on dual-mode Hill Hold and Parking Brake system, developed using traction motor torque control and SAHR-based hydraulic braking via proportional valves. The VCU works at the heart of this system to dynamically choose between electric and hydraulic modes based on vehicle state, ignition, and motor conditions. Parking brake automation logic has been
M, Rojer, T, Ganesan, P, Velusamy, Natarajan, Saravanan, V, Mathankumar, tripathi, Shankar, Narni, Kiran, Haldorai, Rajan, Devakumar, Kiran
Auto Braking system for preventing commercial vehicle overloading.2026-26-0032To be published on 01/16/2026
Overloading in commercial vehicles is a widespread issue that creates serious safety, operational, and regulatory concerns. Excessive loads can result in mechanical breakdowns, diminished braking performance, accelerated tire wear, and a higher likelihood of accidents, posing risks to drivers and other road users. Moreover, overloading accelerates road deterioration and increases infrastructure maintenance costs. To tackle this pressing problem, this study introduces a novel integrated system that merges advanced load-sensing technology with the vehicle's braking system. The system utilizes high-precision sensors placed at key locations, such as the suspension or axle, to monitor the vehicle's load in real time. These sensors send data to a central control unit, which triggers the braking mechanism if the load surpasses a predetermined safety limit. Importantly, the braking system activates only when the vehicle is stationary, ensuring it does not disrupt normal driving operations. The
Raj, Amritesh, Pujari, Sachin, Londhe, Mahesh, Shirke, Sumeet, Shinde, Akshay
Design optimization of the propeller shaft and transfer case for high-speed 4WD vehicles2026-26-0343To be published on 01/16/2026
Nowadays, vehicle enthusiasts often vary their driving patterns, ranging from driving at very high speeds to off-roading. Due to these driving patterns, 4WD vehicle demand is continuously growing day by day. A 4WD vehicle used to have better traction control with enhanced stability. The 4WD vehicle performance and reliability at high speed are critically influenced by driveline stiffness and natural frequency. Driveline stiffness and natural frequency are very critical parameter for high-speed vehicles, that significantly influenced by the propeller shaft and transfer case. This study focuses on the design optimization of the transfer case and critical frequency of propeller shafts to enhance vehicle performance at high speeds. The analysis begins with a comprehensive study of the factors affecting power transfer path, transfer case stiffness, critical frequency, including material properties, propeller shaft geometry and the boundary conditions. Advanced computational methods are
Kumar, Sarvesh, Yadav, Sahdev, S, Manickaraja, Sanjay, L, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Jain, Saurabh Kumar, Deole, Subodh M
Self-supervised diagnostics & prognostics framework for predictive maintenance in electric vehicles2026-26-0673To be published on 01/16/2026
Predictive maintenance is essential for enhancing the reliability, safety, and operational efficiency of connected vehicles. However, traditional supervised learning approaches for fault prediction depend heavily on large, labeled datasets of failure events, which are often scarce and expensive to obtain in real-world automotive environments. This paper proposes an original self-supervised anomaly detection framework that predicts emerging failures using only healthy operational data, eliminating the need for explicit failure labels. The approach employs self-supervised pretext tasks, such as masked signal reconstruction and future telemetry prediction, to learn robust representations of normal multi-sensor behavior (e.g., temperature, pressure, current, vibration). An unsupervised anomaly detection model then identifies deviations from these learned patterns. This integrated with data-informed predictive models enable early detection of faults across critical subsystems such as
Kumar, Pankaj, Deole, Kaushik, Hivarkar, Umesh
Predictive SoC Management for Enhanced Recuperation Efficiency in Electric Vehicles2026-26-0154To be published on 01/16/2026
In recent years, the automotive industry has been looking into alternatives for conventional vehicles to promote a sustainable transportation future having a lesser carbon footprint. Electric Vehicles (EV) are a promising choice as they produce zero tail pipe emissions. However, even with the demand for EVs increasing, the charging infrastructure is still a concern, which leads to range anxiety. This necessitates the judicious use of battery charge and reduce the energy wastage occurring at any point. In EVs, regenerative braking is an additional option which helps in recuperating the battery energy during vehicle deceleration. The amount of energy recuperated mainly depends on the current State of Charge (SoC) of the battery and the battery temperature. Typically, the amount of recuperable energy reduces as the current SoC moves closer to 100%. Once this limit is reached, the excess energy available for recuperation is discharged through the brake resistor/pads. This paper proposes a
Barik, Madhusmita, S, Sethuraman, Aruljothi, Sathishkumar
Agricultural tractor brake linkage efficiency prediction and correlation using Flexible Multibody Dynamics model2026-26-0103To be published on 01/16/2026
In agricultural tractors, braking actuation is usually done through control linkages consisting of a series of connected four-bar linkages with multiple pivots from the pedal to the brake pads. The quality of force transmission is critical as it directly affects the braking performance of the tractor. Forces measured at the end of the control linkage or brake pull rod often show deviation with theoretically-based mechanical advantage calculations. This is due to various factors such as linkage transmission angle, elasticity, and friction in joints not considered, which contribute to loss in force transfer. A standardized simulation method needs to be developed and validated to predict the losses in the control linkage system. In this paper, the author proposes a simulation approach using multi-body dynamics, which includes contribution factors such as transmission angle, linkage elasticity, and friction in joints. MBS model for brake linkage system for three different tractors
Subbaiyan, Prasanna Balaji, Nizampatnam, Balaramakrishna, Redkar, Dinesh, Arun, G, K, Vinoth, R, Sengottu, Paulraj, Lemuel
Digital Twin-Enhanced Chassis Dynamometer for EV Drivetrain Testing2026-26-0363To be published on 01/16/2026
Accurate prediction of drivetrain performance and energy efficiency in electric vehicles (EVs) remains a challenge due to the limitations of conventional chassis dynamometer testing, which often overlooks dynamic vehicle-roller interactions, suspension responses, and regenerative braking effects. This paper presents a novel digital twin-enabled testing framework using a compact, two-roller chassis dynamometer integrated with real-time multibody dynamics and electromechanical co-simulation. The physical test bench is coupled with a virtual model of the EV, including suspension geometry, rear-to-front axle load distribution, tire–roller contact mechanics, and motor-inverter dynamics. By enabling bi-directional data exchange between the physical and virtual domains, the system emulates real-world load shifts, torque demand variations, and energy recovery under standardized drive cycles. This integrated approach enhances simulation fidelity, supports certification-compliant testing, and
Kumar, Akhilesh, V, Yashvati
Niobium Alloyed Brake Disc for reduced NVH and emission control2026-26-0285To be published on 01/16/2026
Recent regulations limiting brake dust emissions have presented many challenges to the brake engineering community. The objective of this paper is to provide a low cost, mass production solution utilizing well known existing technology to meet brake emissions requirements. The proposed process is to alloy the Gray Cast Iron with Niobium. The Niobium addition will reduce wear debris and improve NVH (Noise Vibration Harshness). The test methodology included: Manufacture of disc samples alloyed with Niobium, and Evaluation of airborne wear debris utilizing a pin-on-disc tribometer equipped with emission collection capability. The airborne emission and wear surfaces were further analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy, Energy Dispersive techniques (SEM-EDS), X-Ray Diffraction and Optical Microscopy. The cast iron test matrix included four groups; Unalloyed eutectic 4.3% Carbon Equivalent (CE), Unalloyed hypereutectic >4.3% CE, Niobium alloyed Eutectic and Niobium alloyed hypereutectic
Barile, Bernardo, Holly, Mike
Optimizing Collision Warnings: A Shift from Time to Collide to Time to Brake2026-26-0047To be published on 01/16/2026
In automotive safety systems, Time to Collide (TTC) is traditionally used to trigger warnings in auto-emergency braking systems. However, TTC can lead to premature or inaccurate warnings as it is calculated based on the relative speed and distance between the ego and an obstacle. TTC does not consider the vehicle's braking dynamics, such as brake prefill lag which varies across different vehicles, maximum deceleration, and the effectiveness of braking systems and assumes constant speed which may not always be realistic. We propose Time to Brake (TTB) as a more effective parameter for driver warnings. TTB directly relates to the action a driver needs to take—braking. It provides a clear indication of when braking should begin to avoid a collision, whereas TTC only tells us about the possibility of a collision. To calculate TTB we utilize the brake profile, which incorporates both deceleration and system jerk for improved accuracy. The proposed warning time is the sum of variable brake
Singh, Ashutosh Prakash, Kumawat, Himanshu, Gupta, Sara
Systemic modelling and simulation approach to estimate Brake response time in a Pneumatic brake systems2026-26-0469To be published on 01/16/2026
Brake response time in truck air brake systems is crucial for ensuring safety and operational efficiency. This paper presents the development of a simulation model designed to meet all necessary regulatory requirements for Brake response time and as an input to the stopping distance calculations. The actual pneumatic circuit, including brake valves, relay valves, brake chambers, and plumbing have been replicated. The focus is on utilizing 1D simulations to predict the compliance of response time during both the pressurizing (brakes applied) and depressurizing (brakes released) phases of the brake system. A mathematical model is developed using a commercially available 1D simulation tool. This model employs a lumped parameter approach for the pneumatic components, with governing equations derived from compressible flow theory and empirical valve flow characteristics. A parametric study is carried out on variables such as plumbing length, system pressure, and valve orifice diameters. The
Kumbar, Praful, Murugesan, Karthik, Shannon, Rick
Theoretical Analysis and Forecasting of Gust Resistance in Rail Crane2025-99-0226To be published on 12/23/2025
Rail cranes are often subjected to sudden gusts of wind during the course of their work. In the event that a crane lacks adequate windproof capabilities, its movement along the track may have a significant impact on its own functionality and the safety of the surrounding equipment. Consequently, the prediction of the capacity of the rail crane to impede sudden gusts of wind, and the rational configuration of its windproof apparatus, is paramount to the crane’s ability to withstand wind. This paper conducts a systematic theoretical analysis of the gust resistance of rail crane with different windproof device configurations. It considers the movement of the wheels under wind influence and the windproof characteristics of other devices along the track direction. A theoretical formula is established to predict the gust resistance of rail crane, enabling the estimation of their maximum windproof capacity and providing a foundation for the selection and configuration of windproof devices
Zhang, Guo, Wang, Gongxian, Hu, Zhihui, Sun, Hui
Multi-Physics Numerical Modelling of a Magnetorheological Braking System2025-36-0050To be published on 12/18/2025
The global effort to reconsider transport in compliance with ecological challenges leads to a significant increase in the market share of Electric Vehicles (EVs), enlightening secondary sources of pollution. One of the most important is the particles emitted by the abrasion of braking pads. The innovative system addressed in this paper is among the most promising non-polluting solutions to ensure safety and comfort. It uses the capability of the Magneto-Rheological Fluid (MRF) to change its properties when subjected to a magnetic field, generating a braking torque between a stator and a rotor. This study focuses on characterizing the system's performance and endurance during an emergency braking situation by developing a numerical model that involves fluid and structural considerations. This model takes the form of a Finite-Element Model (FEM) that interpolates local forces determined from Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and takes them as input. It enables analysis of the stresses
de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Billiant, Lucas, Imberti1, Giovanni, Carello, Massimiliana
Limited Slip Predictive Traction Control System for Light Vehicles2025-36-0003To be published on 12/18/2025
Traction control is a critical technique to prevent wheel slip in vehicles, ensuring optimal traction force between the tire and the ground. This study proposes a system that leverages Model-based Predictive Control (MPC) to effectively manage and control longitudinal slip. The proposed system introduces constraints specifically designed to limit longitudinal slip, offering a significant improvement over traditional approaches. The system is evaluated with simulations of a single-corner model, using the Pacejka’s Magic Formula to define the tire force. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the control in maintaining maximum traction and highlight its advancements compared to previous work.
Rosa, Tobias José Degli Esposte, Rodrigues, Gustavo Simão, Lopes, Elias Dias Rossi
Predictive Control Applied to Antilock Braking Systems of Heavy Vehicles on Deformable Terrain2025-36-0004To be published on 12/18/2025
Antilock braking systems (ABS) are critical to ensuring vehicle safety, particularly in challenging off-road environments where the braking dynamics is highly complex. This study focuses on the development of an advanced ABS controller for heavy off-road vehicles to improve operational safety and reliability. For this purpose, a Model-based Predictive Control (MPC) is proposed. The predictive capabilities of MPC, which optimize control actions based on system dynamics and constraints, are highlighted as a key aspect of this approach. The controlled system is modeled and simulated using a quarter-car model and a deformable ground model, providing a realistic representation of off-road conditions. Comparative simulations are conducted to evaluate the performance of both controllers, focusing on their effectiveness in maintaining stability and improving braking efficiency.
Sawada, Fernando Satoshi, Santos, Luís Guilherme Cavalcante, Rodrigues, Gustavo Simão, Rossi Lopes, Elias Dias
Fuzzy Logic-Based Traction Control for a 4WD In-Wheel Electric Formula Vehicle2025-36-0114To be published on 12/18/2025
Vehicle dynamic control is crucial for ensuring safety, efficiency and high performance. In formula-type electric vehicles equipped with in-wheel motors (4WD), traction control combined with torque vectoring enhances stability and optimizes overall performance. Precise regulation of the torque applied to each wheel minimizes energy losses caused by excessive slipping or grip loss, improving both energy efficiency and component durability. Effective traction control is particularly essential in high-performance applications, where maintaining optimal tire grip is critical for achieving maximum acceleration, braking, and cornering capabilities. This study evaluates the benefits of Fuzzy Logic-based traction control and torque distribution for each motor. The traction control system continuously monitors wheel slip, ensuring they operate within the optimal slip range. Then, torque is distributed to each motor according to its angular speed, maximizing vehicle efficiency and performance
Oliveira, Vivian Fernandes, Hayashi, Daniela Tiemi, Dias, Gabriel Henrique Rodrigues, Andrade Estevos, Jaqueline, Guerreiro, Joel Filipe, Ribeiro, Rodrigo Eustaquio, Eckert, Jony Javorski
Investigation of Particulate Matter Emissions from Brake Pads of Light-Duty Vehicles: A Comparative Analysis of Friction Material Compositions2025-36-0200To be published on 12/18/2025
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Catão, Vítor Gustavo Gomes, Machado, Amanda Ribeiro, Fiorentin, Felipe Klein, Silva, João Pedro Anuto, Bernardino, Lucas Gabriel, Fiorentin, Thiago Antonio, Carboni, Andrea Piga
Thermo-Structural Analysis of a Brake Disc Project Through Finite Element Method2025-36-0144To be published on 12/18/2025
The development of a high reliability brake disc is fundamental to automobility projects, considering its relevance as a safety component. In competitions such as Formula SAE, there is an increased emphasis on the need to reduce weight, which demands a detailed engineering analysis to minimize mass without compromising safety requirements. This paper proposes a finite element based computational methodology, combining thermal and structural simulations, built upon data collected from bench tests and in-competition courses such as the Autocross (AC) and endurance. The results describe the thermostructural behavior of the brake disc in practical conditions, enabling the determination of the acting tensions during a competitive scenario, and consequently, calculate safety factors and fatigue life of the component. The proposed methodology validates the brake disc resilience and durability, which allows for the study of more optimal geometries or more specific materials, reducing weight
Machado, João Pedro Farias, Ribeiro, Rodrigo Eustaquio
Braking systems for electrified vehicles in national market2025-36-0077To be published on 12/18/2025
The demand for electrified vehicles has been increasing over the last few years, near to 180 thousand units were sold only in 2024, which represented around 7% of total sales of this type of vehicle in Brazil. By the year 2030, it is expected that at least 40% of sales volume will be electrified vehicles, considering mild hybrids. These results show that vehicle manufacturers are moving towards electrification and reducing carbon emission rates. Different levels of electrification are applied in their portfolio: from mild hybrid or rechargeable vehicles to fully electric vehicles. When analyzing the number of components in each automotive system, it is possible to notice a huge reduction. Electric vehicles have 90% fewer moving parts in the engine than combustion vehicles. In brake systems, the reduction can be up to 20% in hybrid and electric vehicles, which can use the same solutions. This paper aims to present the changes in the sets of braking components from combustion vehicles to
Romão, Bruno, Batagini, Emerson, Horschutz, Everton
A Study of Electro-Hydraulic Brake of Electric Automobiles and Intelligent Connected Vehicles2025-99-040212/10/2025
The traditional hydraulic braking system with vacuum booster technology is very mature, but it is not suitable for use in electric vehicles due to the lack of a vacuum source. The brake system by wire is an innovative electronic controlled braking technology, and the Electro-Hydraulic Brake is currently the most widely used brake system by wire in electric vehicles. The classification, structure, working principle, and advantages of Electro-Hydraulic Brake as a braking system for electric automobiles and intelligent connected vehicles are studied. The structure, working principle, advantages and disadvantages of Pump-Electro - Hydraulic Brake and Integrated Electro-Hydraulic Brake are compared and analyzed.
Song, Jiantong, Zhu, Chunhong, Ren, Xiaolong
Measurement of Road Friction Coefficient with Strain at Tire Sidewall: Verification by Actual Vehicle Driving Experiments10-10-01-000511/20/2025
If road friction coefficient can be measured in a car driving, the performance of advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) such as antilock braking system (ABS) and automatic braking systems can be improved. Generally, ADAS uses information obtained from wheel speed sensors, acceleration sensors, and the like. However, it is difficult to measure accurately road friction coefficients with these sensors. Therefore, many studies measured road friction coefficients from strain or deformation in the bottom of a tire (tread), which is the only place to contact with a road surface. However, a sensor installed on the bottom of a tire is easy to peel or damage because greater deformation occurs locally on the bottom of a tire. Therefore, this study develops a method of measuring the road friction coefficient from the strain induced in a tire sidewall. If the tire sidewall can be used, stable measurement can be expected because the sidewall is harder to deform locally than the bottom of a tire
Higuchi, Masahiro, Tachiya, Hiroshi
Research on Off-Road Performance Optimization Strategy for Agricultural Smart Vehicles Based on Traction Control System2025-99-011811/11/2025
(TC)The paper presents a designed and evaluated optimal traction control (TC) strategy for unmanned agriculture vehicle, where onboard sensors acquire various real-time information about wheel speed, load sharing, and terrain characteristics to achieve the precise control of the powertrain by establishing an optimal control command; moreover, the developed AMT-adaptive SMC combines the AMT adaptive control algorithm and the SMC to implement the dynamic gear shifting, torque output, and driving mode switching to obtain an optimal power distribution according to different speed demand and harvest load. Based on the establishment of models of the autonomous agriculture vehicle and corresponding tire model, a MATLAB/Simulink method based on dynamic simulation is adopted to simulate the unmanned agricultural vehicle traversing different terrains conditions. The results from comparison show that the energy saving reaches 19.0%, rising from 2. 1 kWh/km to 1. 7 kWh/km, an increase in
Feng, Zhenghao, Lu, Yunfan, Gao, Duan, An, Yi, Zhou, Chuanbo
Research on Methods for Quantitative Assessment of Vehicle Controllability Level2025-99-010111/11/2025
As one of the main indexes of functional safety evaluation, controllability is of critical significance. According to ISO26262 standard, by analyzing the impact of potential faults such as unexpected torque and regenerative braking force loss on vehicle controllability under different working conditions, this paper designs a vehicle controllability test scheme under abnormal motor function under multiple scenarios such as straights, lane changes and curves, and builds a test scheme under abnormal motor function. The mapping relationship between vehicle dynamic state data and controllability level provides a new idea for quantitative analysis of vehicle controllability.
Yang, Xuezhu, He, Lei, Li, Chao, Ren, Zhiqiang
Research on Low-Power Control of Offshore Wind Sail Stabilization Devices Based on Single Pendulum Control Simulation2025-99-013111/11/2025
To tackle persistent operational instability and excessive energy consumption in marine observation platforms under wave-induced disturbances, this paper introduces a novel ultra-low-power stabilization system based on pendulum dynamics. The system employs an innovative mechanical configuration to deliberately decouple the rotation axis from the center of mass, creating controlled dynamic asymmetry. In this behavior, the fixed axis serves as a virtual suspension pivot while the camera payload functions as a concentrated mass block. This configuration generates intrinsic gravitational restoring torque, enabling passive disturbance attenuation. And its passive foundation is synergistically integrated with an actively controlled brushless DC motor system. During platform oscillation, embedded algorithms detect angular motion reversals. In addition, their detection triggers an instantaneous transition from motor drive to regenerative braking mode, and transition facilitates bidirectional
Zhang, Tianlin, Liu, Shixuan, Xu, Yuzhe
Characterization of the Brake Linings Coefficient of Friction by Means of Instrumented Suspensions Equipped on a Hybrid Race Vehicle10-10-01-000411/08/2025
The knowledge of the brake linings coefficient of friction (BLCF) is crucial for the control of the braking moment in modern vehicles equipped with electric powertrains. In the case of race vehicles equipped with carbon–carbon brakes, the coefficient of friction exhibits great variations as a function of the main influencing factors, namely the pressure, the temperature, and the sliding speed at the pad–disc interface. In this work, a Le Mans Hypercar instrumented with more than 150 sensors was adopted to perform the characterization of the BLCF from racetrack acquisitions. The front and rear left suspensions of the vehicle were instrumented with strain gauge channels and position transducers to acquire the reaction loads at the upright and the orientation of the arms. Then, the geometric matrix method was implemented for calculating the moments at the upright from which the braking torque was derived without the need to know any of the wheel inertia, nor the driveshaft torque. Data
Cortivo, Davide, Vendramin, Mattia, Dindo, Luigi
Power Electronics: The Backbone of Sustainable Electrification2025-28-022811/06/2025
Power electronics are fundamental to sustainable electrification, enhancing energy, efficiency, integrating renewable energy sources, and reducing carbon emissions. In electric vehicles (EVs), power electronics is crucial for efficient energy conversion, management, and distribution. Key components like inverters, rectifiers, and DC-DC converters optimize power from renewable sources to meet EV system requirements. In EVs, power electronics convert energy from the lithium-ion battery to the electric vehicle motor, with sufficient propulsion and regenerative braking. Inverters is used to transfer DC power from the lithium-ion eEV battery to alternating current for the motor, while DC-DC converters manage voltage levels for various vehicle systems. These components maximize EV energy efficiency, reduce energy losses, and extend driving range. Power electronics also support fast and efficient battery charging, critical for widespread EV adoption. Advanced charging solutions enable rapid
Pipaliya, Akash Pravinbhai, Hatkar, Chetan
Optimizing the Structural Finite Element Method based Process to Evaluate the Sustainable Human Accidental Sliding Load of Automobile Airvent Knob Design Made with Thermoplastic PC - ABS2025-28-028911/06/2025
The research work elaborated the structural integrity of airvent by skipping the assembly level snap fit finite element analysis of knob to reduce computational complexity of air vent knob sliding test post stopper. During assembly, the strain based mechanical breakage prediction of airvent sliding knob snaps is investigated in non-prestressed condition. The research work proposes a FEM based analysis approach to evaluate the mechanical breakage load of airvent knob assembly for accidental sliding load. This process skips the assembly level snap insertion load case along with silicone rubber pad compression which could serve as the prerequisite simulation. This prerequisite simulation is computationally expensive and complex to solve due to polymer plasticity and silicone rubber elastomer hyper-elasticity and moving frictional contacts between parts. If the accidental sliding load case without considering pre-tension on snaps is simulated, the load causing mechanical failure in the FEM
Shah, Viren, Wani, Dishant, Miraje, Jitendra
Enhancing Tipper Stability during Descent with Dynamic Angle Adjustment2025-28-027611/06/2025
Tippers transporting loose bulk cargo during prolonged descents are subject to two critical operational challenges: cargo displacement and rear axle lifting. Uncontrolled cargo movement, often involving loose aggregates or soil, arises due to gravitational forces and insufficient restraint systems. This phenomenon can lead to cabin damage, loss of control, and hazardous discharge of materials onto roadways. Simultaneously, load imbalances during descent can cause rear axle lift, increasing stress on the front steering axle, resulting in tire slippage and compromised maneuverability. This study proposes a dynamic control strategy that adjusts the tipper lift angle in real time to align with the descent angle of the road. By synchronizing the trailer bed angle with the slope of the terrain, the system minimizes cargo instability, maintains rear axle contact, and enhances braking performance, including engine and exhaust braking systems. Computational modelling is employed to assess the
Vijeth, Abhishek, Bhosle, Devidas Ashok, Cherian, Roshni, Dash, Prasanjita
Digital Simulation of Rear Axle Brake Lines Articulation for Commercial Vehicles2025-28-025711/06/2025
This paper focuses on defining the optimal length of rear axle brake lines (flexible polyamide tubes) for commercial vehicles by simulating the lines digitally by considering tube behavior and various axle articulation conditions. Currently, the length of rear axle brake lines are predominantly defined with the help of a physical mockup by articulating axle conditions in a vehicle. This approach requires actual components such as frame, axle, suspension, etc., which consumes considerable time and cost. Through technological advancements, prototyping can be reduced and convergence on digital to build can be achieved through digital simulation. This paper explores tube properties, axle configurations and definitions, and various methods of digitally simulating line articulation. Boundary conditions, space reservations and design criteria for pneumatic routing are defined for the type of line designed. Digital simulation of rear axle brake lines articulation was performed and compared
Duraiswamy, Rupesh, Sankaran, Bhargav, Raj, Santhosh
Multi-Criteria Decision-Making for Magnetorheological Fluid Selection in Automotive Brakes05-19-03-002011/04/2025
Magnetorheological brakes based on MR technology are being investigated for their potential use for automotive purposes. Among the design decisions, the selection of an appropriate MR fluid for the brake application remains an unexplored key issue. This article proposes an MCDM-based framework comprising analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) to select an appropriate MR fluid for the automotive brake application. Three commercially available MR fluids from Lord Corporation (MRF-122EG, MRF-132DG, and MRF-140CG) are assessed against six criteria, viz. density, temperature range, yield stress, viscosity, magnetic saturation limit, and solid content. Considering all the criteria, the AHP ranked MRF-140CG highest, while TOPSIS chose MRF-122EG. Excluding the temperature range, both methods converged on MRF-122EG as the optimal choice. The proposed framework can be used for the MR fluid selection problem of other MR
Powar, Kanhaiya, Patil, Satyajit
Automotive Tube FittingsJ512_202511 (Current)11/03/2025
This SAE Standard covers complete general and dimensional specifications for the various types of tube fittings intended for general application in the automotive, appliance, and allied fields. Refer to SAE J1131 for the performance requirements of reusable (push to connect) fittings intended for use in automotive air brake systems. Flare-type fittings shall be as specified in Figures 1 to 4 and Tables 3 to 5. Inverted flared-type fittings shall be as specified in Figures 5 to 11 and Tables 3, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Gauges and gauging procedures pertaining to inverted flared tube fittings are given in Appendix A. Tapered sleeve compression-type fittings intended for general use with annealed copper alloy tubings shall be as specified in Figures 12 to 17 and Tables 3, 10, 11, and 12. To assure satisfactory performance, spherical sleeve compression-type fitting components (refer to SAE J246) should not be intermixed with tapered sleeve compression-type fitting components when assembling
Air Brake Tubing and Tube Ftg Committee
Automatic Brake Failure Detection with Electromagnetic Braking System2025-28-037310/30/2025
Brake failures in the vehicles can cause hazardous accidents so having a better monitoring and emergency braking system is very important. So, this project consists of an autonomous brake failure detector integrated with Automatic Braking using Electromagnetic coil braking which detects the braking failure at the time and applied the combinations of the brakes, to overcome this kind of accidents. So, here the system comprises of IR sensor circuit, control unit and electromagnetic braking system. How it works: The IR sensor monitors the brake wire, and if the wire is broken, the control unit activates the electromagnetic brakes, stopping the vehicle in a safe manner. This system enhances vehicle safety by ensuring immediate braking action without driver intervention. Key advantages include real-time brake monitoring, reduced mechanical wear, quick response time, and an automatic failsafe mechanism. The system’s minimal reliance on hydraulic components also makes it suitable for harsh or
Raja, Selvakumar, John, Godwin, Siddarth, J P, Senthilkumar, Akash, Mathew, Abhay, R. S., Nakandhrakumar, Nandagopal, Sasikumar, Arumugam, Sivasankar
Simulation of Hydraulic Retarder Using Particleworks2025-28-038210/30/2025
This study explores the application of Particleworks, a meshless CFD solver based on the Moving Particle Simulation (MPS) method, for simulating hydraulic retarders. Two distinct models were used: one for validating physical fidelity and another for conducting performance-focused design investigations. Validation results demonstrated that Particleworks closely aligns with experimental data from the reference literature, effectively capturing torque variations with rotor speed effect. A sensitivity study also emphasized the importance of particle resolution on accuracy and computational cost. Design studies using an in-house hydraulic retarder model assessed the influence of flow rate, rotor speed, working fluid, temperature, and cup geometry on braking torque. Notably, torque increased with rotor speed and steeper cup angles, while thermal effects and fluid properties significantly impacted performance trends. Comparative analysis with Star-CCM+ showed that Particleworks offers similar
Kumar, Kamal S., Chaudhari, Gunjan B.
Evaluation of Alternative Cooling Method for High Performance Resistors in Zero-Emission Trucks2025-28-035910/30/2025
High Performance Resistors (HPR), also known as brake resistors are used in zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) to dissipate excess electrical energy produced during regenerative braking, as heat energy. It is necessary to use a suitable cooling technique to release this heat energy into the atmosphere in a regulated manner. Currently in most of the ZEVs, liquid cooled HPR with its dedicated heat exchanger and other auxiliaries such as pump, surge tank, Coolant and coolant lines, is used which increases the cost, packaging space and assembly time. This paper presents air cooling as a substitute heat-exchanging technique for high-performance resistors which eliminates the need of auxiliaries mentioned above, resulting in space optimization and reduction in assembly time. An air cooled HPR, designed for this study consists of a heat exchanger, which accommodates a resistor wire within its tubes. The design was made to fit commercial vehicle use, specific to trucks, due to packaging constraints
Menariya, Pravin Ganesh, Kumar, Vishnu, Arhanth, Mahima, Umesha, Sathwik, Jagadish, Harshitha
Integral–Derivative-Tilted Controller for Semi-Active Magnetorheological Truck Suspension System Using Combined Multi-Objective Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm02-19-02-000910/29/2025
This study proposes a novel control strategy for a semi-active truck suspension system using an integral–derivative-tilted (ID-T) controller, developed as a modification of the TID controller. The ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm is employed to tune the controller parameters. Performance is evaluated on an eight-degrees-of-freedom semi-active suspension system equipped with MR dampers. The objective is to minimize essential dynamic responses (displacement, velocity, and acceleration) of the sprung mass, cabin, and seat. The controller also considers the nonlinear effects including suspension travel, pitch dynamics, dynamic tire loads, and seat-level vibration dose value (VDV). System performance is assessed under both single bump and random road excitations. The ACO-tuned ID-T controller is compared against passive suspension, MR passive (OFF/ON), and ACO-tuned PID and TID controllers. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed controller achieves superior performance in
Gad, S., Metered, H., Bassiuny, A. M.
Motor Vehicle Brake FluidJ1703_202510 (Current)10/15/2025
This SAE Standard covers motor vehicle brake fluids of the nonpetroleum type, based upon glycols, glycol ethers, and appropriate inhibitors, for use in the braking system of any motor vehicle, such as a passenger car, truck, bus, or trailer. These fluids are not intended for use under arctic conditions. These fluids are designed for use in braking systems fitted with rubber cups and seals made from styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) or a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene, and a diene (EPDM).
Brake Fluids Standards Committee
Comparative Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Performance of Electric and Counterpart Diesel Tractors2025-01-041710/07/2025
The objective of this trial was to compare the energy efficiency and performance of battery electric and conventional diesel tractors. Controlled road tests replicating normal operations were conducted using two electric and two diesel day-cab tractors. The test protocol was based on the TMC - Type III RP 1103A and SAE J1526 test procedures. The tests were conducted on a 110 km long route that included a 59 km hilly portion with a maximum altitude difference of 307 m. The tractors were divided into test groups of two vehicles. Trailers and drivers were switched throughout the trial between the tractors in a test group. The tests found that the two electric trucks consumed 60% and 63% less energy than their counterpart diesel trucks, respectively. Considering the average emission factor for production of electricity in Canada, the electric trucks emitted on average 82% less GHG emissions than the conventional diesel-powered tractors. The two diesel trucks showed similar fuel consumption
Surcel, Marius-Dorin, Partington, Mark, Tanguay-Laflèche, Maxime, Schumacher, Richard
Development of an SSP-180 Synchronizer Durability Test2025-01-040810/07/2025
Synchronizers are designed to provide smooth, efficient and safe transfer of torque between mechanical gears. Friction level, durability, and consistency of the fluid / friction lining system are crucial to ensuring crisp gear engagements without clashing and noise, vibration and/or harshness (NVH) for the life of the transmission. Excellent wear control of gears, synchronizer ring and cone surfaces is also critical to protecting the life of moving mechanical parts. The SSP-180 synchronizer rig measures friction durability and wear up to 100,000 engagements, using a variety of fluids and friction materials. Methodology for the development of a synchronizer durability procedure using the SSP-180 rig is presented for qualifying fluids for dry dual clutch (DCT) and manual transmission (MT) applications for General Motors. It will be shown that the new DEXRON® SSP-180 Synchronizer Durability Test in Appendix C of the GMW 16612 fluid specification [1] satisfies four key conditions for new
Glasgow, Michael B., Zreik, Khaled, Ezanno, Philippe Nicolas, Shelton, Robert W.
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