Browse Topic: Braking systems
The automotive industry's transition towards electrification, particularly in the passenger car (PC) and light commercial vehicle (LCV) segments, has intensified the focus on vehicle lightweighting to maximize battery range and efficiency. Conventional brake systems in electric vehicles (EVs) are subject to minimal mechanical wear due to regenerative braking, making corrosion the primary cause of component failure and replacement. This paper details the development and production of an innovative lightweight brake, which addresses these challenges. The "Cast-In" brake disc combines a traditional gray cast iron friction ring with a pre-finished, deep-drawn steel hat through a specialized composite casting process. This design achieves a significant reduction in unsprung mass—1.6 kg per disc in a 390mm x 36mm example—directly contributing to improved vehicle dynamics and energy efficiency. Key manufacturing challenges, including ensuring a robust material bond, preventing casting defects, and sealing the steel hat during casting, have been overcome through advanced process controls, simulation, and a patented sealing system. Furthermore, a novel, enhanced corrosion protection system has been developed and validated to meet the required service life of over 10 years, addressing the specific demands of e-mobility. With production scheduled to begin in April 2026, this technology is a milestone for modern braking solutions in the era of electrification.
Moan noise is a low-frequency noise occurring in the 170–500 Hz frequency ranges. While it frequently appears in vehicles equipped with a rear Coupled Torsion Beam Axle (CTBA), the exact cause, generation mechanism and clear solutions remain unidentified. For those reasons, we have developed a moan noise analysis method capable of representing the moan noise phenomenon in vehicles with rear CTBA along with an automation tool. From these results, we can use moan analysis models to reduce real moan noise problems. Consequently, this not only enhances customer satisfaction and vehicle quality but also significantly increases the work efficiency of vehicle designers through design modification in the preliminary stages of vehicle development
Commercial vehicle fleets frequently operate with tractors that connect to different trailers and dollies, resulting in combinations with varying brake pad wear across wheel ends. Traditional brake-force distribution strategies do not consider these pad-life differences, which can lead to uneven brake utilization, irregular maintenance intervals, and increased total cost of ownership (TCO) in mixed-trailer operations [7, 9]. While modern electronically controlled braking systems (EBS) already incorporate pad wear based braking for the tractor itself [5], these capabilities do not extend across the entire vehicle combination because trailer-side communication is typically limited to standardized CAN protocols such as ISO 11992 and J1939 [1, 2, 3]. As braking systems become more software defined and rely heavily on distributed electronic communication, ensuring the authenticity and integrity of trailer originated brake information becomes essential for both functional safety and cybersecurity [6]. In the proposed architecture, trailers and dollies communicate brake related data to the tractor over the ISO 11992 Tractor-Trailer CAN (TT-CAN) network [1, 2], allowing the tractor Brake Control ECU to securely validate the source of the information and register each towed unit for health aware braking. Once authenticated pad life data is available, the tractor constructs a combination level brake health map covering every wheel end in the configuration. During normal braking, a supervisory allocator computes wheel end specific brake pressure targets that bias braking toward wheel ends with greater remaining pad life while ensuring full compliance with stopping distance regulations and stability requirements [4, 7]. By integrating authenticated pad wear information with tractor hosted supervisory control, the system improves braking consistency across mixed combinations, harmonizes pad utilization, enhances maintenance predictability, and reduces TCO while meeting the safety and cybersecurity expectations of modern commercial vehicle fleets.
Drum brake systems are becoming increasingly important in electric vehicles (EV) and purpose-built vehicles due to cost competitiveness and EURO-7 particulate emission regulations. Despite this trend, drum brake friction behavior remains incompletely characterized due to its dependence on multiple coupled variables: temperature history, braking conditions, and component interactions. To address this gap, this study presents a method for developing a time-series friction torque prediction model using the Mixed-effects Random Forest (MERF) machine learning framework. Time-series data collected from sensors during drum brake dynamometer tests were analyzed to identify the key variables that govern the friction torque. Significant inputs were selected through Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA), considering test-to-test variability and potential mixed effects, and were then used to train and tune the MERF model. Model performance was evaluated by comparing predicted friction torque with measured torque, and prediction error was quantified by using Mean Absolute Error (MAE) to check whether predicted model is reliable. The proposed prediction model demonstrates a high level of agreement with experimental measurements, confirming that the MERF approach can effectively capture the non-linear and transient characteristics of drum brake friction torque from time-series sensor signals. These results indicate that friction torque estimation is feasible using only sensor signals already available from conventional test instrumentation, without additional dedicated sensors. This capability is expected to support broader applications, including brake performance prediction for vehicles equipped with drum brakes and enhanced simulation of drum brake thermal performance across operating conditions.
The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system is a dry-type Brake-by-Wire technology that eliminates hydraulic components and directly controls friction braking using electrical actuators at each wheel. The EMB architecture consists of a Main Center Control Unit, a redundant Backup Center Control Unit, and four Wheel Control Units communicating via CAN FD. Due to its direct involvement in vehicle braking, compliance with ISO 26262 functional safety requirements is critical. As system complexity increases, potential risks such as hardware failures and communication faults must be systematically addressed. The proposed TSC was developed according to ISO 26262, covering the concept phase (Part 3), system-level development (Part 4), and software implementation (Part 6). Safety goals and Functional Safety Requirements derived from HARA are used to guide system architecture design and TSC development. Key design principles include modularity, redundancy, fault detection, and fail-safe operation. Verification is conducted at both system and vehicle levels using ECU-in-the-Loop Simulation (EILS), Hardware-in-the-Loop Simulation (HILS), and real-vehicle tests. Fault scenarios, including Main Center Control Unit failures and CAN communication losses, are injected using a custom LabVIEW-based fault injection tool. The study evaluates Fault Tolerant Time Interval (FTTI) settings, error handling mechanisms, and control handover strategies under fault conditions. The results show that redundancy and localized communication enable stable operation and smooth control transfer within the FTTI window without noticeable impact on braking performance or driver awareness. This study demonstrates the robustness of the proposed EMB architecture. Future work will focus on prognostics and maintenance strategies to support safe deployment in autonomous and electric vehicles. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
It was reported earlier that the wear differential between the inboard pad and the outboard pad leads to brake squeal generation. The (inboard/outboard) pads wear differential can occur due to hardware issues such as brake pad drag and/or two different wear rates of the (I/O) pads, which is caused by two different material properties of the pads although the pad formula may be the same. It is found that (I/O) pads compressibility differential/hardness differential/friction differential are all interrelated and that they contribute to brake squeal generation in addition to the inboard pad tangential/radial taper wear. A method has been found to separate the inboard pad friction and the outboard pad friction and to estimate each friction coefficient.
The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system is an essential technology for safe braking in modern vehicles. However, the adoption of multi-controller architectures has introduced new challenges to conventional Safe State strategies. Traditionally, the Safe State defined in functional safety means "function shutdown," and in accordance with ISO 26262-1:2018 (Part 1: Vocabulary), aims for an "operational mode without risks exceeding reasonable levels." However, in the multi-controller architecture of EMB systems, the Fail-Operational Safe State concept is applied, where the system continues to provide limited functions even in the event of faults. It is essential to verify whether such operational modes actually satisfy the safety requirements of ISO 26262-3 and ISO 26262-4. This paper redefines the Safe State according to failure modes in EMB systems, analyzes system state transitions, and presents a coherence analysis methodology for validating the availability of resources required to provide limited functions in the Fail-Operational Safe State. Through this approach, potential design defects in multi-controller-based EMB systems can be detected early, validated across 1,149,952 fault scenarios with zero total-failure outcomes, and traceability of functional safety requirements can be established.
A unified thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) life-prediction methodology is presented for lamellar graphite (grey) cast iron brake rotors operating under the severe transient thermal loads that arise in brake dynamometer durability testing. The workflow links four ingredients within a single rotor-level framework: transient nonlinear finite-element analysis, temperature-dependent inelastic constitutive modeling, a mechanism-based short-crack TMF damage model, and an elastic-plastic (nonlinear) fracture-mechanics crack-growth simulation. Two constitutive descriptions are exercised for the structural analysis — the standard rate-dependent Chaboche viscoplastic model available in Abaqus, and a user material subroutine (UMAT) that couples Chaboche viscoplasticity with continuum damage in order to reproduce the tension–compression asymmetry of cast iron. The resulting stress, strain, and temperature histories drive a multiaxial thermomechanical fatigue Damage (DTMF) computation that estimates crack initiation and early extension, after which a nonlinear fracture-mechanics procedure simulates crack-front advance toward through-thickness failure. Both constitutive models correctly localize the crack-initiation site on the rotor inner diameter, consistent with the dynamometer observations; for the loading histories examined, the standard Chaboche model yields lives in closer agreement with test. The crack-growth simulation reproduces the rapid post-initiation propagation seen experimentally and resolves branch-wise differences in crack-front evolution through the rotor section.
It is hardly a new trend for on road, vehicle intensive tuning and testing of chassis control features such as Anti-Lock Brakes, Traction Control, and Electronic Stability Control to move away from vehicle testing and towards non-vehicle test platforms such as Hardware-In the Loop (HIL) simulations and even further into pure math-based simulations. However, a significant acceleration of these activities has been occurring recently in the automotive industry, reducing or eliminating calibration time on vehicles and amplifying the demand for highly representative, non-vehicle test platforms to validate and even calibrate chassis controls features. In current state of the art HIL simulation, the input (brake pressure) to output (brake torque) of each wheel brake in a vehicle’s brake system is modeled relatively simplistically, including at most pressure and brake temperature sensitivities, usually in lookup table form. Each brake corner contains over 20 different friction interfaces, which in turn can cause hysteretic behavior (a difference in the output for a given input, depending on whether the brake is applying or releasing against the hysteretic friction). This hysteresis is neglected in most state of the art HIL simulations. Past studies by General Motors have shown that the importance of brake corner hysteresis in vehicle level, customer facing performance of chassis controls features can range from inconsequential to significant. With the crescendo-ing demand for high quality non-vehicle based methods for assessing chassis controls function, the effect of hysteresis is no longer academic. The present study starts with HIL based simulations, establishing the effect of brake corner hysteresis on one of the most visible chassis controls behaviors. An inertia dynamometer-based test was developed to exercises the subject brake corners through apply and release cycles, thus enabling any hysteretic behavior to be observed and characterized. Machine Learning models were trained with these data to represent brake corner hysteretic behavior and then deployed into an HIL simulation rig. The impact of these models – representing brake corner hysteretic behavior – was characterized for straight line stopping distance on low, medium, and high coefficient road surfaces.
The multi-articulated vehicle uses distributed drive mode. Due to its large degree of freedom of movement and the large number of driving shafts, different torque distribution methods affect the operational stability of the vehicle, how to coordinate and distribute the torque of each driving motor has become an urgent problem to be solved. To improve drive stability of the multi-articulated vehicles, propose a layered torque allocation control strategy. The upper-layer sliding mode controller determines the required additional yaw moments of each car body based on the linear reference model, the controller is characterized by swift response and a strong ability to resist interference. The lower-level allocation module comprehensively considers the torque output limitations of the electric hub motors, the prevailing road adhesion state, and the corrective yaw moment constraints given by the upper layer, and constructs an optimization objective function centered on the uniformity and stability of tire load. The optimal distribution of driving forces for each wheel is completed by solving this function dynamically. To validate the strategy's effectiveness, a vehicle dynamics model is built in the multi-body dynamics software ADAMS/View. Using a joint simulation framework integrating ADAMS/View and MATLAB®/Simulink, the effect of the layered control strategy is evaluated in comparative simulation with uncontrolled situation under U-turn and single lane change conditions. The simulation outcomes demonstrate that, compared to uncontrolled situation, the yaw rate deviation of each car body under the torque layered control are significantly reduced, and the adhesion utilization rate of tire is also effectively controlled, thereby the driving stability is improved.
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