Browse Topic: Braking systems

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Driver’s Pedal Control for Detecting Pedal Misapplication2025-01-8675To be published on 04/01/2025
Drivers sometimes operate the accelerator pedal instead of the brake pedal due to driver error, potentially resulting in serious accidents. Acceleration Control for Pedal Error (ACPE) has been developed, a system that detects such errors and controls vehicle acceleration to prevent these incidents. The United Nations is already considering regulations for this technology. If ACPE can detect errors based on the operations of the accelerator pedal at various driving speeds, the system will be even more effective in terms of safety. The purpose of this study is to investigate the operation characteristics of the accelerator pedal and brake pedal, focusing on the pedal operation characteristics of pedal stroke speed and pedal force speed used as thresholds for the operation of ACPE. We believe that if there is a significant difference in the operations of the accelerator pedal and brake pedals while driving, it can be used as a threshold for judging misstep. In this study, we utilized a
Natsume, Hayato, Shen, Shuncong, Hirose, Toshiya
Technical Paper
Research on Shuffle Reduction Control in Dual Motor Hybrid System based on the Motor Torque Intervention Filtering Strategy2025-01-8517To be published on 04/01/2025
Due to the frequent and significant changes of the motor torque of hybrid vehicles during driving often occurring with the driving conditions, and the existence of the transmission tooth surface switching caused by the change in torque direction, as well as the underdamping characteristics caused by the relatively simple transmission system, the vehicle is prone to vehicle body shaking problems under conditions such as the transformation from acceleration conditions to energy recovery conditions, and exit from energy recovery. In order to ensure the ride smoothness of the hybrid vehicle while improving its power response performance, aiming at the underdamping characteristics of its transmission system, this paper develops a transmission PCM vibration suppression control strategy based on the vehicle control system to enhance the torque response and smoothness after Tip out or Tip in after braking. This strategy includes the identification of preconditions and the active intervention
Jing, Junchao, Zhang, Junzhi, Zuo, Botao, Liu, Yiqiang, Huang, Weishan, Xue, Tianjian
Technical Paper
A zero-emission braking system: experimental setup, system characterization and model validation2025-01-8250To be published on 04/01/2025
Following the current need of the automotive sector on reducing secondary emissions coming from non-exhaust sources, this paper presents an innovative zero-emissions magneto-rheological braking system, specifically designed to meet future brake emission targets while maintaining state-of-the-art brake performance. In particular the article focusses on the experimental setup definition to evaluate the full-sized prototype under real load conditions and presents the preliminary results obtained from the experimental campaign. The zero-emission braking prototype has been developed for reaching performance compatible with the automotive application, specifically a segment-A vehicle, being able to generate enough braking torque as to perform an emergency brake maneuver without any other traditional braking system. A central aspect to confirm system’s performance is the development of a test bench engineered for assessing the magneto-rheological braking technology. Detailed insights into the
Tempone, Giuseppe Pio, De Carlo, Matteo, Carello, Massimiliana, de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Imberti, Giovanni
Technical Paper
Energy-Efficient Maneuvering of Connected and Automated Vehicles: NEXTCAR Phase II Results2025-01-8385To be published on 04/01/2025
Onboard sensing and Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) connectivity enhance a vehicle's situational awareness beyond direct line-of-sight scenarios. A team led by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) demonstrated 20% energy savings by leveraging these streams on a 2017 Prius Prime as part of the first phase of the ARPA-E-funded NEXTCAR program. When combined with automation, these information streams can not only improve vehicle safety but also enhance energy efficiency further. In the second phase, SwRI demonstrated 30% energy savings over the baseline by leveraging connectivity with higher levels of automation. This paper summarizes the efforts to achieve 30% savings on a 2020 Honda Clarity PHEV. The vehicle was outfitted with the SwRI Ranger automated driving suite for perception and localization. Model-based control schemes with selective interrupt and control (SIC) were used to override stock vehicle controls and actuate the accelerator and brake pedals, and the electric power steering
Bhagdikar, Piyush, Gankov, Stanislav, Sarlashkar, Jayant, Hotz, Scott, Rajakumar Deshpande, Shreshta, Rengarajan, Sankar, Adsule, Kartik, Drallmeier, Joseph, D'Souza, Daniel, Alden, Joshua, Bhattacharjya, Shuvodeep
Technical Paper
Research on Torque Management Safety Monitoring Control for Hybrid Vehicles2025-01-8579To be published on 04/01/2025
Hybrid vehicles are driven by the vehicle controller, engine controller and motor controller through torque control, and there may be unexpected acceleration or deceleration of the vehicle beyond the driver's expectation due to systematic failure and random hardware failure. Based on the torque control strategy of hybrid vehicles, the safety monitoring model design of torque control is carried out according to the ISO 26262 safety analysis method. Through the establishment of safety goals and the analysis of safety concepts, this paper conducts designs including the driver allowable torque design for safety monitoring, the driver torque prediction design for safety monitoring, the rationality judgment design of driver torque for safety monitoring, the functional safety degradation design and the engine start-stop status monitoring, enabling the system to transition to a safe state when errors occur. Among them, the design of the driver's allowable torque includes the allowable
Jing, Junchao, Wang, Ruiguang, Liu, Yiqiang, Huang, Weishan, Dai, Zhengxing
Technical Paper
Fluid topology optimization for heat dissipation of Ventilated brake discs2025-01-8183To be published on 04/01/2025
Passenger car ventilated brake disc is a rotating structure, which has a similar motion to impeller machinery and similar performance indexes to devices such as radiators. The optimization of the heat dissipation performance of a ventilated brake disc is a complex problem that includes fluids, solids, rotational motion, heat and friction. To address this problem, this paper built a brake disc heat dissipation simulation model based on the wind tunnel test of a MPV model with constant speed heat dissipation, compared the advantages and disadvantages of the two preconfigured discs; analyzed the sensitivity of each design parameter of the brake disc blade, and introduced the method of topology optimization in the optimization of the brake disc heat dissipation performance. The topology optimization method was demonstrated to be feasible to be applied to the complex system of brake disc thermal simulation, and through this, a brake disc blade with a special shape was obtained, and the
Zhao, Wentao, Jia, Qing, Qin, Lanwei, Xia, Chao, Chao, Han, Daxin, Jiang, Yang, Zhigang
Technical Paper
High-Quality Clamping Force Control for Electro-Mechanical Brake Considering Nonlinear Disturbances2025-01-8304To be published on 04/01/2025
The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) eliminates the traditional hydraulic pipeline arrangement through high-performance servo motor at the vehicles brake calipers. This provides a foundation for intelligent electric vehicles to achieve high-precision, fast response, and strong robustness in brake clamping force control. However, EMB faces some tricky nonlinear disturbances such as varying system stiffness disturbances, complex friction obstruction, etc., which leads to a decline in clamping force control performance. Therefore, this paper proposes a high-quality clamping force control for EMB considering nonlinear disturbances. First, we establish an EMB actuator model including the permanent magnet synchronous motor, mechanical transmission mechanism, and system stiffness characteristics. Next, the high-quality clamping force control strategy for EMB is designed. An outer-loop clamping force regulator is developed using Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) feedback control and
Zhao, HuiChao, Chen, Zhigang, Li, Lun, Wang, Zhongshuo, Wu, Jian, Chen, Zhicheng, Zhu, Bing
Technical Paper
Thermomechanical Fatigue Behavior of Gray Cast Iron2025-01-8319To be published on 04/01/2025
Gray cast iron is a cost-effective engineering material widely used for heavy duty engine blocks and brake rotors of vehicles. Thermomechanical fatigue condition is easily achieved in vehicle operation due to the temperature fluctuation in the components in assembly condition. To speed up the design of the component, it is critical to investigate the thermomechanical fatigue (TMF) behavior of the gray cast iron. In the present study, a series of fatigue tests including isothermal low cycle fatigue (LCF) test at elevated temperatures up to 700°C, in-phase (IP) and out-of-phase (OP) TMF tests in different temperature ranges have been conducted. Because of the asymmetric behavior in tension and compression, creep behaviors in both tension and compression and oxidation are also studied. These behaviors are the key aspects to be captured in virtualization.
Liu, Yi, Lee, Heewook, Hess, Devin, Coryell, Jason
Technical Paper
Material-Combined Vehicle Brake Disc Design for Enhanced Cooling Performance2025-01-8189To be published on 04/01/2025
The improvement of heat dissipation performance of ventilated brake discs is vital of braking safety. The usual technical approaches shall be material optimization or structural improvement. In this paper, a simulation model of the heat transfer of brake discs is established using STAR-CCM+ software. Cast iron, aluminum metal matrix composite (Al-MMC) and carbon-ceramic composite materials (C-SiC) are compared. The results show that: Al-MMC have better thermal conductivity so that a more uniform temperature gradient distribution shall be formed; C-SiC have poorer heat capacity yet better thermal stability; cast iron performs better with convective heat transfer rate, which enhances the heat transfer between the surface and surrounding flow field. Based on the results, this paper proposes four types of material combined brake disc using different friction materials and geometry structures. At the level of material application, Al-MMC and C-SiC friction layer are compared. At the level
Wang, Jiarui, Jia, Qing, Zhao, Wentao, Xia, Chao, Yang, Zhigang
Technical Paper
Electric Vehicle Dynamic Operation Simulation with Data-driven and Physical-based Models2025-01-8604To be published on 04/01/2025
Aiming at the complexity of the dynamic operation simulation of electric vehicles (EVs), this paper proposes a dynamic operation simulation model that integrates data-driven and physical-based principles. This model framework combines the advantage of interpretability from the physical model while leveraging the strength of rapid simulation under dynamic operating conditions of the electric vehicles from the data-driven model. The physical model part covers key aspects such as vehicle dynamics modeling, regenerative braking system, temperature model, and battery state estimation model. The data-driven part extracts key features and labels based on actual vehicle operation data, and establishes a capacity-life prediction model for the power pack of an electric vehicle by using the long-short-term memory model (LSTM). By combining the physical model with a data-driven approach, this model effectively simulates dynamic changes in vehicle cabin temperature, battery pack temperature, and
Jing, Hao, HU, Jianyao, Ouyang, Jianheng, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn)
Technical Paper
Bi-Level Control Co-Design for Parallel Electric-Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles2025-01-8582To be published on 04/01/2025
This study presents a control co-design method that utilizes a bi-level optimization framework for parallel electric-hydraulic hybrid powertrains, specifically targeting heavy-duty vehicles like class 8 semi-trailer trucks. The primary objective is to minimize battery energy consumption, particularly under high torque demand at low speed, thereby extending both battery lifespan and vehicle driving range. The proposed method formulates a bi-level optimization problem to ensure global optimality in hydraulic energy storage sizing and the development of a high-level energy management strategy. Two nested loops are used: the outer loop applies a Genetic Algorithm (GA) to optimize key design parameters such as accumulator volume and pre-charged pressure, while the inner loop leverages Dynamic Programming (DP) to optimize the energy control strategy in an open-loop format without predefined structural constraints. Both loops use a single objective function, i.e. battery energy consumption
Taaghi, Amirhossein, Yoon, Yongsoon
Technical Paper
A drive anti-slip and lateral stability control technique for distributed three-axis drive vehicle2025-01-8303To be published on 04/01/2025
The research object of this project is the longitudinal and lateral control of the distributed three-axis drive tractor. Which is different from the traditional four motors power system layout is that the third axel have two motors while the second axel only have one motor. Compared with the traditional design, it can reduce the dependence on battery performance and maintain motor operation in high efficiency range by switching different working model. For example, when driving at high speed, only the two-axis motor works, which can improve motor efficiency. When accelerate or climb, all motors work to provide a large power output. In the research, established the vehicle model in Simulink firstly, and then Co-simulated with Trucksim. The longitudinal control identified the optimal slip rate of the road firstly, then used the adaptive sliding mode control to obtain the driving torque of each wheel, which can achieve well control effect under various road conditions and motion modes
Shen, Ruiteng, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zong, Changfu
Technical Paper
Research on Anti-slip Traction Control for Aircraft Engine-off Towing System2025-01-8292To be published on 04/01/2025
When the aircraft tow tractor encounters slippery, icy, oily, or debris-covered ground, as well as situations such as overloaded towing, uneven aircraft weight distribution, sharp acceleration and turns, brake system malfunctions, or severely worn tires, it may slip due to a mismatch between traction force and ground adhesion. The slipping of aircraft tug is prone to cause the aircraft to lose control and collide, resulting in damage, flight delays or cancellations, posing a major safety hazard and affecting the smooth operation of the airport. Brake control is crucial to the safety of aircraft tow tractors. The Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) prevents wheel lock-up in aircraft tow tractors, ensuring vehicle stability during braking and avoiding loss of control. The Traction Control System (TCS) optimizes traction, prevents wheel slip, and enhances stability during starting, accelerating, and turning. Together, they improve the safety and handling of aircraft tow tractors under complex
Yao, Yanan, Xu, Yitong, Zhu, Hengjia
Technical Paper
Dynamics Analysis and Stability Control of a Lunar Unicycle Self-Balancing Robot2025-01-8301To be published on 04/01/2025
The one-wheeled self-balancing mobile system has superior mobility and flexibility due to its unique configuration and single-wheel grounding feature, and can autonomously perform exploration and delivery missions on narrow, rough and unstructured surfaces. In this paper, a one-wheeled self-balancing robot traveling on the lunar surface is proposed for autonomous exploration on the lunar surface. Firstly, a multi-body dynamics model of the robot is derived using the quasi-coordinate-Hamilton equations. Wheels in soft ground not only generate velocity deviations due to slip and slide, but also introduce additional travel resistance moments at the dynamics level due to soil deformation during wheel sliding. Therefore, a three-dimensional terramechanics model is used to characterize the coupling between the robot wheel and the soil. To achieve stability control of the robot's attitude, a series PID method is used for pitch self-balancing and velocity control. A model predictive control
Shi, Junwei, Zhang, Kaidi, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
The Accuracy of Vehicle Speeds, Decelerations, and Brake Onset Times Calculated from Onboard Dash Cameras2025-01-8691To be published on 04/01/2025
The goal of this study was to evaluate the influence of camera and video parameters on the accuracy of speeds and decelerations calculated from onboard dashboard cameras (“dashcams”). We equipped a single test vehicle with 5 commercially available dashcams. We also equipped the test vehicle with a 5th-wheel, a brake pedal switch, and a synchronization light visible to the dashcams. We conducted 9 emergency braking tests from about 60 km/h and calculated the reference speed and deceleration from the 5th-wheel data. The brake pedal switch indicated the moment of brake application. The light synchronized the dashcam videos to the 5th-wheel and brake pedal data. The 5 dashcams had horizontal fields of view (FOV) ranging from 120 to 170 degrees, frame rates of 30 or 60 frames per second (FPS), and resolutions of 1080p, 2K, or 4K. For each camera and brake test, we extracted the video from the dashcam and calculated its linear and rotational motion using SynthEyes, a 3D motion tracking and
Flynn, Thomas, Ahrens, Matthew, Young, Cole, Siegmund, Gunter P.
Technical Paper
Stability Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Using Particle Filter and Fuzzy Integral Sliding Mode Control2025-01-8811To be published on 04/01/2025
The Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles (DDEVs) features independently controllable torque at each wheel, with motors that respond quickly and precisely, effectively enhancing vehicle stability. Traditional vehicles typically employ hydraulic braking systems as actuators for Electronic Stability Control (ESC). In contrast, DDEVs can also achieve ESC control requirements with four independent drive motors. However, there are significant differences in control precision and response speed between the two types of actuators, rendering traditional ESC control strategies unsuitable for DDEVs. This paper proposes a layered ESC control strategy for DDEVs based on Particle Filte (PF) and Fuzzy Integral Sliding Mode Control (FISMC). First, the state estimation layer utilizes the PF algorithm to accurately estimate the center-of-gravity sideslip angle. The target torque decision layer consists of a PI vehicle speed tracking controller and a yaw moment controller. The yaw moment controller uses
Li, Xiaolong, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Technical Paper
Vehicle Motion Management - A Model Predictive Control Approach to Realize Holistic Redundancy to Enable Actuator Fail Operational Autonomous Driving2025-01-8812To be published on 04/01/2025
Since the introduction of ABS (1978), TCS (1986) and ESC (1995) in series production, the number of modern vehicle dynamics control functions and advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) has been continuously increasing. Meanwhile, many functions are available that influence vehicle motion (vehicle dynamics). Since these are only partially and not hierarchically coordinated, the control of vehicle motion is still suboptimal. Current megatrends (automated driving, electromobility, software-defined vehicles) and new key technologies (steer-by-wire, brake-by-wire, domain-based E/E architectures) lead to an increasing number of electrified, motion-relevant components being introduced into series production. These components enable the development of an integrated chassis control (ICC) that controls all motion-relevant components, networks them with each other and coordinates them holistically to optimally control the vehicle motion regarding an adjustable desired driving behavior. Vehicle
Wielitzka, Mark, Ahrenhold, Tim, Vocht, Moritz, Rawitzer, Jonas, Schrader, Jonas
Technical Paper
Smart Boosting: A Control Strategy for Optimized Energy Management with Boost Converter in Hybrid Electric Vehicles2025-01-8580To be published on 04/01/2025
In hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), optimizing energy management and reducing system losses are critical for enhancing overall efficiency and performance. This paper presents a novel control strategy for the boost converter in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), aimed at minimizing energy losses and optimizing performance by modulating to a higher boost converter voltage only when necessary. Traditional approaches to boost converter control often lead to unnecessary energy consumption by maintaining higher voltage levels even when not required. In contrast, the proposed strategy dynamically adjusts the converter's operation based on real-time vehicle demands, such as driver input, Engine Start-Stop (ESS) events, Active Electric Motor Damping (AEMD), entry and exit transitions for Engine Fuel Cut-Off (DFCO), Noise-Vibration-Harshness (NVH) events like lash-zone crossing and other specific operational conditions. The control strategy leverages predictive algorithms and real-time monitoring
Basutkar, Ameya, Huo, Shichao, Sullivan, Claire, Berger, Daniel, Tischendorf, Christoph
Technical Paper
A Control and Fault-Tolerant Strategy Based on Electromechanical Brake System2025-01-8265To be published on 04/01/2025
With the development of automobile electrification and intelligent technology, vehicles have higher and higher requirements for braking systems. On the one hand, they are required to have active braking functions and be easy to integrate with other control systems in the chassis domain; on the other hand, the system is required to minimize oil pollution and be able to recover as much braking energy as possible in cooperation with the upper-level control strategy under the premise of ensuring pedal force to increase the cruising range of electric vehicles. The composite braking system based on electromechanical brake (EMB) is a wire-controlled decoupled composite braking system that can not only meet the needs of brake pedal feel, but also achieve continuous and precise control of composite braking force, and can effectively take into account the braking energy recovery rate, braking safety and braking comfort. In addition, the current EMB technology is still immature and has a high
Li, Xuesong, Qin, Keyun, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Technical Paper
Decelerations for vehicles with anti-lock brake systems (ABS) during wet-to-dry transitions on asphalt and concrete road surfaces.2025-01-8703To be published on 04/01/2025
The braking performance of newer anti-lock braking systems (ABS) equipped vehicles on roads with varying wetness levels is not well studied. Two late-model ABS-equipped vehicles were used to perform ABS-engaged braking tests on dry and wet asphalt and concrete surfaces from which vehicle speed and deceleration as a function of time were calculated. Tests were initially conducted on a dry surface before a water truck distributed water onto the road to create a wet road condition. A continuous series of tests were then performed until the road dried and the cycle was repeated multiple times. Across all tests of both vehicles on both road surfaces, deceleration levels generally decreased when the road was wet and returned to dry levels only when less than 25% of the road surface remained wet. Also, wet deceleration levels were high compared to the historical values used for wet roads. These findings provide a useful and readily identifiable boundary between what can be considered a dry
Miller, Ian, King, David, Siegmund, Gunter
Technical Paper
Stability-Based Coordinated Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle Trajectory Tracking and Handling Stability2025-01-8307To be published on 04/01/2025
To address the issue of poor yaw stability in distributed drive electric vehicles under extreme trajectory tracking conditions, this paper proposes a novel control approach that coordinates upper-layer trajectory tracking and stability control with lower-layer active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC). Firstly, a stability domain boundary is defined in the β-β ̇ phase plane, and the instability factor is derived based on boundary line characteristics. This factor is used as a weight in the objective function to establish a model predictive control (MPC) for trajectory tracking and handling stability, thereby adjusting the control target weights for both objectives. Secondly, based on the front wheel tire load rate, a steering margin coefficient is set and used as a weight for AFS and DYC control quantities, modifying the front wheel steering angle and yaw moment control in the MPC model, and ultimately distributing the torque to all four wheels. Simulation results
Dou, Jingyang, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
Study on Emergency Obstacle Avoidance Lateral Stability Control of Tractor Semitrailer Vehicles2025-01-8296To be published on 04/01/2025
As a crucial component of highway freight systems, tractor semitrailer vehicles play a key role in the transportation industry. However, their complex vehicle structure can lead to significant lateral instability during emergency obstacle avoidance, posing challenges to the vehicle's dynamic stability and safety. To enhance the emergency obstacle avoidance lateral stability of tractor semitrailer vehicles, a direct yaw moment lateral stability control strategy based on differential driving/braking is proposed. First, a 3-degree-of-freedom ideal linear dynamic model of the tractor semitrailer is established, and the accuracy of this model is validated. Subsequently, an emergency obstacle avoidance lateral stability control strategy for tractor semitrailer vehicles is proposed. The upper-level controller adopts a model-free adaptive control (MFAC) method to track the target yaw rate and vehicle sideslip angle, while the lower-level controller is designed to optimize tire load
Guo, Shaozhong, Dou, Jingyang
Technical Paper
Development of deep reinforcement learning traction controllers for front and rear wheel drive electrified vehicles2025-01-8803To be published on 04/01/2025
Traction control plays a key role in improving vehicle safety, especially for driving scenarios involving low levels of tyre-road friction. Over the past 30 years, academic and industrial research in traction controllers has mainly favoured deterministic approaches. This paper introduces a traction control strategy based on a deep reinforcement learning agent tailored for straight-line acceleration manoeuvres from standstill in low-friction conditions. The proposed agent is trained on two different electric vehicles, a front-wheel drive city car (from EU vehicle segment A), and a rear-wheel drive sedan (from EU vehicle segment D). The paper presents a deep reinforcement learning agent formulation suitable for training on different vehicles, assesses the performance of the resulting controllers, and evaluates their response to changes in vehicle mass, powertrain parameters and tyre-road friction conditions. The assessment uses a high-fidelity co-simulation model, combining AVL VSM and
Caponio, Carmine, Mihalkov, Mario, Hankovszki, Zoltan, Fuse, Hiroyuki, Ivanov, Valentin, Sorniotti, Aldo, Gruber, Patrick, Montanaro, Umberto
Technical Paper
Concept of an electromechanical brake-by-wire system for battery-electric vehicles2025-01-8804To be published on 04/01/2025
Brake-by-wire systems have received more and more attention in the recent years, but a closer look on the available systems shows, that they have not reached full by-wire level yet. Most systems are still using hydraulic connections between main cylinder and the brake calipers on at least one axle to ensure functional safety. Mostly, this is the front axle, since the front brakes have to convert more kinetic energy during braking manoeuvers due to the dynamic wheel load shift. Electromechanical actuators are currently used for rear brake systems in hybrid brake-by-wire applications solely, since a loss of the front brake calipers can lead to severe conditions and control loss of the vehicle during braking. Further, the higher mass of battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) leads to much higher braking forces on both axles, so the electromechanical calipers on the market are no longer suitable. This article presents a concept for a brake-by-wire system for a battery electric vehicle, which
Heydrich, Marius, Lenz, Matthias, Ivanov, Valentin, Stoev, Julian, Lecoutere, Johan
Technical Paper
A design of electric drive system for all-wheel drive Formula Student racing car to improve racing performance2025-01-8005To be published on 04/01/2025
This paper introduces an innovative in-wheel electric drive system designed for all-wheel drive Formula Student Electric racing cars. The system utilized AMK's DD5-14-10-POW-18600-B5 model as the driving motor, with a gearbox transmission ratio of 13.2 determined through Optimum Lap simulation. A two-stage gear reducer was integrated into a unified hub-spoke assembly, which connected directly to the ten-inch carbon fiber rim. The planetary carriers were integrated with the wheel-edge suspension columns, and certain structural components were topologically optimized using Altair Inspire. This integration allowed the entire electric drive system to be housed within the wheel, resulting in a weight reduction of over 10% and an improvement in overall aerodynamic performance by approximately 5%, compared to conventional designs where the planetary gearboxes are integrated within the suspension columns. Meanwhile, a special floating brake disc mounting method was employed, which increased
Guo, Ruijie, Zeng, Junhao, Yang, Yuancai, Hou, Yijie, Zhu, Zhonghui, Xiong, Jiaming
Technical Paper
Research on energy recovery strategy in breaking of electric tractor-semitrailer2025-01-8290To be published on 04/01/2025
Tractor-semitrailers play an important role in the transportation industry. However, global warming and the rapid advancement of energy technologies have driven the transformation of high-emission vehicles, such as tractor-semitrailers, to be powered by new energy sources in order to achieve goals related to energy conservation, emission reduction, and cost savings. By using the motor as the primary driving force, the energy recovered during braking or coasting can be converted into electricity and stored in the battery for later use. While much research has been conducted on braking control and energy recovery for passenger cars, there is limited research on tractor-semitrailers. Additionally, the jackknife is a critical factor to consider under high-speed conditions. To investigate the braking energy recovery of electric tractor-semitrailers, tire and motor models were developed based on the turning and braking conditions of such vehicles. Taking into account the load transfer effect
Chen, Runping, Duan, Yupeng
Technical Paper
Research on Composite Braking Strategy of Pure Electric Commercial Vehicle on Downhill Low-adhesion Road considering Rainfall Intensity2025-01-8813To be published on 04/01/2025
As a distributed wire control brake system, the electro-mechanical brake (EMB) may face challenges due to the need to integrate the actuator in the limited space beside the wheel. During extended downhill braking, especially on wet roads with reduced adhesion, the EMB must operate at high intensity. The significant heat generated by friction can lead to thermal deformation of components, such as the lead screw, compromising braking stability.This paper focuses on pure electric light trucks and proposes a parallel composite braking method. This approach uses an eddy current retarder or motor to provide basic braking torque, while the EMB supplies the dynamic portion of the braking torque, thereby alleviating the braking pressure on the EMB. First, a driver model, tire model, motor model and braking models are developed based on the vehicle's longitudinal dynamics. In addition, the impact of various factors, such as rainfall intensity, road slope, ramp length, road type, and vehicle
Liu, Wang, Zhang, Yu, Xiao, Hongbiao, Shen, Leiming
Technical Paper
Evaluation and Prevention of Brake Drum Freezing by Aerodynamic Measures2025-01-8775To be published on 04/01/2025
The use of drum brakes in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) offers numerous benefits, including energy efficiency, reduced brake dust emissions, and reliable performance under challenging weather conditions. The capability of regenerative braking reduces the friction brake application frequency in BEVs and therefore the brakes can be prone to corrosion and performance degradation especially considering conventional disc brake systems. The closed design of a drum brake prevents corrosion of the friction-components by sealing out water, dirt or snow. A common sealing concept is performed with a labyrinth between the gap of the rotating drum and the axle mounted backplate. A hermetically isolation of water and snow ingress into the drum cannot be achieved with this concept, so additional aerodynamic measures are necessary to deflect the air/water path and protect the inner brake components. Additionally, interfaces like wheel cylinders, electric park brake parts, brake shoe pins, and axle
Hennicke, Tim, Kuthada, Timo, Bernhard, Adrian, Reichhart, Leander, Weber, Eugen, Moers, Michael, Rettig, Marc
Technical Paper
Research on Pressure Control Methods for a Dual-source Electro-Hydraulic Brake System with Redundant Braking Function2025-01-8716To be published on 04/01/2025
This paper presents a novel Dual-source Electro-Hydraulic Brake system (D-EHB) that incorporates a redundant braking module to enhance safety and reliability. The D-EHB is designed to address the critical issue of brake failure in vehicles, which can lead to severe accidents. The D-EHB system comprises two independent units: Main Brake Unit (MBU) and Redundant Brake Unit (RBU). Each unit has its own hydraulic power source. The hydraulic pressure of MBU is generated by a combination of a servo motor, ball screw, and servo piston, while the RBU has a simpler structure, and the hydraulic pressure is generated by a motor and plunger pump combination. Mathematical models for each component of the D-EHB are developed and validated using AMESim. An algorithm for estimating hydraulic pressure of wheel cylinders is developed by mathematical models of each component. The pressure of wheel cylinder is then obtained using the proposed algorithm using output signals of the motor and the valve, so
Wang, Wenqiang, Zhao, Xuezhi, Shangguan, Wen-Bin, Ren, Bingyu
Technical Paper
Experimental Case Study of Sonic Perception of a First-Generation Electric Truck14-14-02-000802/24/2025
The sound generated by electric propulsion systems differs compared to the prevalent sound generated by combustion engines. By exposing listeners to various sound situations, the manufacturer can start understanding which direction to take to achieve compelling battery electric vehicle trucks from a sound perspective. The main objective of this study is to understand what underlying aspects decide the experience and perception of heavy vehicle–related sounds in the context of electrified propulsion. Using a thematic analysis of data collected at a listening experiment conducted in 2020, factors affecting the perception of novel sounds generated by a first-generation electric truck are investigated. A hypothesis is that the experience of driving or being a passenger in electric trucks will affect the rating and response differently compared to listeners not yet experienced with this sound. The results show that the combination of individual preference and experience, hearing function
Nyman, Birgitta, Fagerlönn, Johan, Nykänen, Arne
Journal Article
Time-Varying Gain-Scheduled Path-Tracking Controller with Delay Compensation (TGDC) for Autonomous Vehicles10-09-02-001202/19/2025
Path-tracking control occupies a critical role within autonomous driving systems, directly reflecting vehicle motion and impacting both safety and user experience. However, the ever-changing vehicle states, road conditions, and delay characteristics of control systems present new challenges to the path tracking of autonomous vehicles, thereby limiting further enhancements in performance. This article introduces a path-tracking controller, time-varying gain-scheduled path-tracking controller with delay compensation (TGDC), which utilizes a linear parameter-varying system and optimal control theory to account for time-varying vehicle states, road conditions, and steering control system delays. Subsequently, a polytopic-based path-tracking model is applied to design the control law, reducing the computational complexity of TGDC. To evaluate the effectiveness and real-time capability of TGDC, it was tested under a series of complex conditions using a hardware-in-the-loop platform. The
Hu, XuePeng, Zhang, Yu, Hu, Yuxuan, Wang, Zhenfeng, Qin, Yechen
Journal Article
Modeling and Analysis of Comfort Braking Control Based on Brake-by-Wire and Active Suspension Systems10-09-02-001102/07/2025
As wire control systems advance, they have given rise to a diverse suite of advanced driver assistance services and sophisticated fusion control capabilities. This article presents an innovative strategy for achieving comfortable braking in electric vehicles, propelled by the unwavering goal of enhancing driving experience. By integrating active suspension systems with brake-by-wire technology, the approach ensures that drivers retain their confidence throughout the braking process. The brake-by-wire system adeptly discerns the driver’s braking intent through the pedal’s displacement sensor. Utilizing this technology, we have developed a pioneering function aimed at delivering comfort braking control (CBC). This function not only refines the braking experience but also solidifies the driver’s trust in the braking system. Designed to counteract the head nodding effect during vehicle deceleration, the CBC system minimizes or even eradicates the jarring sensation of pitching for both the
Tian, Boshi, Li, Liang, Liao, Yinsheng, Lv, Haijun, Qu, Wenying, Hu, Zhiming, Sun, Yue
Journal Article
Enhancing Disc Brake Performance: Investigating Squeal Noise, Wear, and the Application of Functionally Graded Materials in Brake Rotors2025-28-016202/07/2025
Disc brakes play a vital role in automotive braking systems, offering a dependable and effective means of decelerating or halting a vehicle. The disc brake assembly functions by converting the vehicle's kinetic energy into thermal energy through friction. The performances of the brake assembly and user experience are significantly impacted by squeal noise and wear behaviour. This paper delves into the fundamental mechanisms behind squeal noise and assesses the wear performance of the disc brake assembly. Functionally graded materials (FGMs) are an innovative type of composite material, characterized by gradual variations in composition and structure throughout their volume, leading to changes in properties such as mechanical strength, thermal conductivity, and corrosion resistance. FGMs have emerged as a groundbreaking solution in the design and manufacturing of brake rotors, addressing significant challenges related to thermal stress, wear resistance, and overall performance. These
C V, Prasshanth, S, Gurumoorthy, Bhaskara Rao, Lokavarapu, S, Sridhar, S, Badri Narayanan, Kumar, Ajay, Biswas, Sayan
Technical Paper
Feedforward Control of Clamping Force in Electronic Mechanical Brake System Based on Inertia Identification and Load Torque Observation2025-01-705101/31/2025
The braking system is an essential element for ensuring the safe operation of vehicles. This research investigates the influence of electronic mechanical brakes on the control performance of permanent magnet synchronous motors, with a particular focus on variations in the load torque and inertial load. This study addresses challenges such as delayed responses in the clamping force and diminished control accuracy. To mitigate these issues, a Luenberger load torque observer is utilized for the real-time identification of load torque. The identified load torque is subsequently converted into a compensation current, which is integrated into the current loop as a feed-forward compensation signal to enhance the control performance. Additionally, to reduce the impact of variations in inertial load on the overall control system, this study employs a model reference adaptive algorithm for the online identification of rotational inertia, with the identification results being fed back to the load
Wan, Xiaobo, Shang, Ruipeng, Li, Yingchun
Technical Paper
Verification of Vulnerable Road User Pre-Crash Scenarios in Vision-Based Safety Applications12-08-01-000401/10/2025
Verifying training datasets in vision-based vehicle safety applications is crucial to understanding the potential limitations of detection capabilities that may result in a higher safety risk. Vision-based pedestrian safety applications with crash avoidance technologies rely on prompt detection to avoid a crash. This research aims to develop a verification process for vulnerable road user safety applications with vision-based detection functionalities. It consists of reviewing the application’s safety requirements, identifying the target objects of detection in the operational design domain and pre-crash scenarios, and evaluating the safety risks qualitatively by examining the training dataset based on the results of pre-crash scenarios classification. As a demonstration, the process is implemented using open-source pedestrian tracking software, and the pre-crash scenarios are classified based on the trajectories of pedestrians in an example training dataset used in a pedestrian
Hsu, Chung-Jen
Journal Article
Modeling and Simulation of an Electromagnetic Brake-by-Wire System for Formula SAE Vehicles2024-36-016912/20/2024
Electric vehicles represent a shift towards sustainability in the automotive industry, with the Brake-by-Wire (BBW) system as an innovation to enhance safety, and performance. This study proposes an electromagnetic BBW system for Formula SAE vehicles, optimizing an electromagnet with a genetic algorithm as the actuator. Through a selection process from a million individuals, the system was modeled. Integrated with electric motors using CarMaker® software, the optimized electromagnet surpassed the minimum required force of 228.08 N without reaching its nominal current of 12.5 A, achieving a force of 231.1 N for 150 W power, indicating an energy efficiency of 0.706 N/Watt. The system also exhibited a response time of 17.92ms for an 80 bar increase, 1.52 times better than compared systems. Simulation under varying braking intensities demonstrated dynamic behavior, with settling times for slow, moderate, and sharp braking at 193 ms, 62 ms, and 21 ms, respectively. Efficiency during
Salgado, Vinícius Batista Alves, Gomes, Deilton Gonçalves, Andrade Lima, Cláudio
Technical Paper
Enhancing Vehicle Safety: Investigating the Role of Active Anti-Roll Bars in Vehicle Dynamics2024-36-005812/20/2024
A serious problem of public healthcare around the world is the number of road vehicle accidents, every year almost 1,3 million people die and approximately 20 to 50 million people suffer a non-fatal accident because of a road vehicle accident [1]. As a result of that, in 2021 the World Health Organization stated the “The Second Decade of Action for Road Safety”, which the goal is to prevent at least 50% of deaths and injuries due traffic by 2030. To achieve this goal, the automobile companies have invested in technology and products that can enhance vehicle safety. Despite exist some control systems able to reduce roll, and consequently the roll over, such as active suspension, semi-active suspension, and stability control systems, none of them have as main purpose reduce the number of rollovers. The following study aims to examine the effects of an active anti roll bar, to improve the vehicle dynamics during corners and reduce the risk of a rollover by reducing the roll of the sprung
Gomes, Pedro Carvalho, Teixeira, Evandro Leonardo Silva, Morais, Marcus Vinicius Girão, Fortaleza, Eugenio Liborio Feitora, Santos Gioria, Gustavo
Technical Paper
Brake Pedal Sizing and Preliminary Design of Balance Bar in the Brake of a SAE Formula Type Vehicle2024-36-005412/20/2024
The SAE Formula prototypes are developed by students, where in the competition, various aspects of project definitions are evaluated. Among the factors evaluated for scoring is the braking system, in which the present work aims to present the development and design of the braking system of a vehicle, prototype of Formula SAE student competition. As it is a project manufactured mostly by students, where the chassis, suspension system, electrical, transmission and powertrain are developed, it is important to first pass the static and safety tests, where the brakes of the four wheels are tested during deceleration at a certain distance from the track. To enable such approval and also to demonstrate, for the competition judges, the veracity of the system’s sizing, all the parameters and assumptions of the choice of the vehicle’s braking system are presented, thus ensuring their reliability, efficiency and safety. Using drawing and simulation software such as SolidWorks and Excel for
Gomes, Lucas Olenski, Grandinetti, Francisco José, Martins, Marcelo Sampaio, Souza Soares, Alvaro Manoel, Reis de Faria Neto, Antônio, Castro, Thais Santos, Almeida, Luís Fernando
Technical Paper
Trajectory Planning and Tracking Control for Single Lane Changing with Different Driving Styles of Intelligent Vehicles Based on Seventh-Degree Polynomial12-08-03-002812/14/2024
Single lane changing is one of the typical scenarios in vehicle driving. Planning an appropriate lane change trajectory is crucial in autonomous and semi-autonomous vehicle research. Existing polynomial trajectory planning mostly uses cubic or quintic polynomials, neglecting the lateral jerk constraints during lane changes. This study uses seventh-degree polynomials for lane change trajectory planning by considering the vehicle lateral jerk constraints. Simulation results show that the utilization of the seventh-degree method results in a 41% reduction in jerk compared to the fifth-degree polynomial. Furthermore, this study also proposes lane change trajectory schemes that can cater to different driving styles (e.g., safety, efficiency, comfort, and balanced performance). Depending on the driving style, the planned lane change trajectory ensures that the vehicle achieves optimal performance in one or more aspects during the lane change process. For example, with the trajectory that
Lai, Fei, Huang, Chaoqun
Journal Article
Redundant Brake Boost Control Strategy of Integrated Electro-hydraulic Braking System2024-01-703812/13/2024
The traditional braking system has been unable to meet the redundant safety requirements of the intelligent vehicle for the braking system. At the same time, under the change of electrification and intelligence, the braking system needs to have the functions of braking boost, braking energy recovery, braking redundancy and so on. Therefore, it is necessary to study the redundant braking boost control of the integrated electro-hydraulic braking system. Based on the brake boost failure problem of the integrated electro-hydraulic brake system, this paper proposes a redundant brake boost control strategy based on the Integrated Brake Control system plus the Redundant Brake Unit configuration, which mainly includes fault diagnosis of Integrated Brake Control brake boost failure, recognition of driver braking intention based on pedal force, pressure control strategy of Integrated Brake Control brake boost and pressure control strategy of Redundant Brake Unit brake boost. The designed control
Dexing, Lao, Luping, Yan, Qinghai, Sui, Long, Cao, Shang, Gao, Zhigang, Chen, Mingxing, Ren, Zhicheng, Chen
Technical Paper
Optimizing Search Testing Method for Brake Boost Degradation Based on Electrical Chassis System M-HIL Bench2024-01-705012/13/2024
With the technology of electronic chassis control systems of automobile is widely used, the functional interaction between brake system and the other electronic systems may lead to brake boost degradation. Therefore, it is necessary to find out brake boost degradation events in the quite large number of driving scenarios. To solve the difficulty of thoroughly and quickly searching for brake boost degradation conditions in the large number of driving scenarios, based on Mechatronic-Hardware-In-the-Loop (M-HIL) technology, this paper constructs an electrical chassis system M-HIL bench to verify the function and performance of the electronic brake control system under actual chassis system conditions. To search and locate the brake boost degradation conditions rapidly and enhance the searching efficiency of levels boundary of affecting factors for brake boost degradation, firstly, based on pair-wise coverage combinatorial testing, brake boost degradation occurrence rate is estimated and
Guo, Xiaotong, Li, Lun, Chen, Zhicheng, Zhang, Liliang, Yan, Luping, Wang, Wei, Zh, Bing
Technical Paper
Brake Rotor Thickness Variation and Lateral Run-Out MeasurementsJ3111_202412 (Current)12/12/2024
This SAE Recommended Practice is derived from common methods used within the industry and is not intended to validate a given design or configuration. This SAE Recommended Practice applies to vehicles below 4540 kg of gross vehicle weight rating.
Brake NVH Standards Committee
Recommended Practice
Investigating Mechanical Performance of Load Vehicle Brake Liners Enhanced with Nanomaterials Using Finite Element Analysis2024-01-521012/10/2024
This study investigates into the mechanical performance of load vehicle brake liners that have been enhanced with nanomaterials, employing Finite Element Analysis (FEA). The analysis involves a detailed investigation of structural, thermal, and wears characteristics to evaluate the overall performance of the brake liners. This research aimed to reduce the stress and pressure exerted on vehicle brakes during braking by conducting a comprehensive stress analysis of the braking system. Finite Element Analysis serves as a powerful tool for simulating and assessing the behavior of complex structures under varying conditions. In this research, the study employs FEA techniques to model and analyze the load vehicle brake liners, considering the incorporation of nanomaterial’s, with a special emphasis on materials like Al2O3.The aim is to gain a profound understanding of how these nanomaterial’s influence and improve the mechanical aspects of the brake liners.
Kumar, N. Mathan, Thillikkani, S., Kannan, S., Soundararajan, S., Bharti, Kundan
Technical Paper
Road Vehicles - Friction Materials - Finished Brake Pad Normalized Elastic Constant of Friction MaterialJ3175_202412 (Current)12/06/2024
This SAE standard specifies a method for testing and measuring a normalized elastic constant of brake pad assemblies using ultrasound. This document applies to disc brake pad assemblies and its coupons or segments used in road vehicles.
Brake Linings Standards Committee
Technical Standard
Truck and Bus Grade Parking Performance Test ProcedureJ360_202412 (Current)12/06/2024
This SAE Recommended Practice establishes methods to determine grade parking performance with respect to: a Ability of the parking brake system to lock the braked wheels. b The vehicle holding or sliding on the grade, fully loaded or unloaded. c Applied manual effort. d Unburnished or burnished brake lining friction conditions. e Down and up grade directions.
Truck and Bus Brake Systems Committee
Recommended Practice
Active Hydro-Pneumatic Suspension Active Disturbance Rejection Sliding Mode Control for Improved Vehicle Stability2024-28-021512/05/2024
Hydro-pneumatic suspension is widely used because of its desirable nonlinear stiffness and damping characteristics. However, the presence of parameter uncertainties and high nonlinearities in the system, lead to unsatisfactory control performance of the traditional controller in practical applications. In response to this challenge, this paper proposes a novel stability control method for active hydro-pneumatic suspension (AHPS). Firstly, a nonlinear mathematical model of the hydro-pneumatic suspension, considering the seal friction, is established based on the hydraulic principle and the knowledge of Fluid dynamics. On the basis of the established hydro-pneumatic suspension nonlinear model, a vehicle dynamics model is established. Secondly, an active disturbance rejection sliding mode controller (ADRSMC) is designed for the vertical, roll, and pitch motions of the sprung mass. The lumped disturbance caused by the model nonlinearities and uncertainties is estimated by the extended
Niu, Changsheng, Liu, Xiaoang, Jia, Xing, Gong, Bo, Xu, Bo
Technical Paper
A Method for HPR Critical Routes Identification and Evaluation2024-28-015012/05/2024
Heavy-duty vehicles, particularly those towing higher weights, require a continuous/secondary braking system. While conventional vehicles employ Retarder or Engine brake systems, electric vehicles utilize recuperation for continuous braking. In a state where HV Battery is at 100% of SOC, recuperated energy from vehicle operation is passed on to HPR and it converts electrical energy into waste heat energy. This study focuses on identification of routes which are critical for High Power Brake Resistors (HPRs), by analyzing the elevation data of existing charging stations, the route’s slope distribution, and the vehicle’s battery SOC. This research ultimately suggests a method to identify HPR critical vehicle operational routes which can be useful for energy efficient route planning algorithms, leading to significant cost savings for customers and contributing to environmental sustainability.
Thakur, Shivam, Salunke, Omkar, Ambuskar, Mandar, Pandey, Lokesh
Technical Paper
NASA’s Inspection Technology for Spacecraft Tests Quality of Seacraft HullsTBMG-5222312/05/2024
Shipbuilders didn’t have the option of fiberglass when the nonprofit American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) was established 160 years ago to help safeguard life and property on the seas. Fortunately, technology to help better ensure the safety of ocean vessels has also come a long way in that time, in part because people have become a spacefaring species.
Magazine Article
A Simulation Based Methodology for Optimizing Correlation of Brake Disc Temperature2024-28-018312/05/2024
Brake disc temperature is a critical factor influencing the performance and wear characteristics of braking systems in automobiles. Hence it is very important to optimize the correlation of brake disc temperature prediction with test. In this study critical parameters of Brake Disc temperature evaluation are identified, and algorithm is used to optimize the critical parameters to achieve the correlation of prediction with experiment data. Through a series of controlled experiments and simulations, disc temperatures are monitored under different braking conditions and simultaneously input parameters for prediction are optimized to achieve the correlation. Statistical methods were applied to evaluate the observed correlations and to model the predictive behavior of brake disc temperatures. Finally, A front-loading tool is developed to optimize the brake disc keeping target thermal capacity via algorithm. The findings of this study are expected to contribute to the enhancement of brake
Negi, Ayush Singh, Kochhar, Raman
Technical Paper
Inertia-Dynamometer Disc Brake Drag Measurement Test Procedure for Vehicles Less Than 4540 kg GVWRJ2923_202412 (Current)12/03/2024
The SAE J2923 procedure is a recommended practice that applies to on-road vehicles with a GVWR below 4540 kg equipped with disc brakes.
Brake Dynamometer Standards Committee
Recommended Practice
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