Browse Topic: Test equipment and instrumentation

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Load Analysis of Flap and Slat Actuators in Aircraft High-Lift Systems2026-99-18027/17/2026
This study develops an end-to-end load analysis scheme for flap and slat actuators, which comprise the aircraft’s high-lift system, and the analysis results are directly integrated into hardware optimization. Because they shoulder heavy responsibilities during the takeoff and landing phases, whether they can remain rock-solid under complex aerodynamic conditions or even remain unmoved in emergencies is directly related to their overall safety performance. This work process is closely linked and includes three major links. First of all, according to the CCAR-25.301 standard, the load envelope under normal working conditions is sorted out, and the limit cases of abnormal faults are exhausted. Subsequently, ANSYS Workbench pulled silk and peeled off the cocoons to capture the peak stress at the engagement between the output shaft and the gear. In the end, the closed-loop verification of the customized test bench made the theoretical calculations and the hardware-measured data exactly the same. The entire package provides designers with hardcore data support, and always uses airworthiness, not convenience, as the criterion when improving actuator performance.
Xu, Yuanze
Who’s Riding? Machine Learning-Powered Rider Identification from E-Bike CAN Data2026-01-07787/1/2026
This study investigates the feasibility of identifying individual e-bike riders based on CAN data using machine learning techniques. Datasets from 12 test riders performing various predefined cycling tasks on a dynamometer test bench are collected and used to ensure controlled and reproducible conditions. The recorded CAN data includes various sensor signals, such as power output, cadence, torque, and the used support mode. After pre-processing, two different methods of feature extraction are tested and compared, one based on snapshots of the data and one based on driving events such as braking and accelerating, measured by calculating statistics of the riding data over sliding windows. A range of machine learning models is employed to classify riders based on their distinct riding patterns using the extracted features. The evaluated models comprise KNN, Random Forest and Naïve Bayes. The findings demonstrate the efficacy of machine learning in differentiating riders, with Random Forest and KNN achieving the highest and most robust accuracy among the tested models. The KNN-model achieves up to 99% accuracy, the Random Forest up to 75%. The paper analyzes the influence of different signals, feature extraction methods and model parameterizations on the results. The results show that machine learning-based rider identification using CAN data is a viable approach for enhancing e-bike security, authentication, and personalization. Potential applications include theft prevention, automatic user recognition for personalized assistance settings, and access control. Future research could include the exploration of the impact of additional sensor data, real-world outdoor conditions, and deep learning approaches, with the aim to further enhance identification accuracy and efficiency.
Simmann, Gabriel, Rauch, Yannick, Beißert, Florian, Kriesten, Reiner
Feasibility Study on the Mechanical Adjustment of the Vibration Behaviour of a Powertrain Test Rig for Validating Longitudinal Vehicle Shuffle2026-01-07357/1/2026
Vehicle manufacturers use Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) approaches to validate overall vehicle characteristics, including those dependent on the powertrain, at an early stage of vehicle development. A powertrain test rig is a typical example. In the specific setup, the vehicle engine and side shafts are mechanically coupled to the load machines of the test rig, eliminating the physical influence of the rims, tires and vehicle body. Adapting a specimen to the test rig changes some characteristics. This affects the specimen's vibration behaviour, making it more challenging to validate comfort-related characteristics. A particular example is longitudinal vehicle shuffle; the powertrain's first torsional natural frequency causes it. The natural frequencies of the real vehicle and device under test differ significantly, so a road-matching approach is not directly feasible. To account not only for tire-road contact but also for the missing vehicle mass, some scientific studies propose a purely model-based adjustment, without significant evidence. On the one hand, this has the advantage of flexible parameter adjustment, but on the other hand, the necessary computing technology and suitable parameterisation methods must be available. To investigate the extent to which the demand for a purely simulated adjustment is justified, this paper will consider a feasibility study that mechanically corrects for the missing vehicle influence. The method must determine the necessary target moment of inertia of real vehicles and the given one on the rig. This study presents a solution for reaching the target value. In addition, secondary constraints, such as manufacturing effort and costs, and safety aspects, must be considered. The approach should be flexible to accommodate variations in the most common vehicle and tire dimensions. Only by adapting the HiL to the target system, the actual vehicle, is it possible to perform road matching and thus validate driveability at an early stage in the development process.
Hübner, Carl, Prokop, Günther
Development of a Digital Twin of an Electrical Powertrain in a Testbench Environment for Efficiency Estimations2026-01-07447/1/2026
The aim of this work is to develop a modular, real-time-capable digital twin of an electric powertrain based on machine learning (ML)-based model structures and a systematic, component-oriented architecture with a focus on efficiency estimation in test bench environments. The further goal here is to enable virtual testing, which can be used for frontloading and thus both prevent errors and increase the speed of product development. Based on a comprehensive set of measured and derived test bench data, a multi-stage procedure is implemented that integrates data acquisition, physically informed feature selection, modeling at the component and subsystem level, and hybrid coupling strategies. The digital twin captures inverter, electric machine, and mechanical transmission stages and generates consistent predictions of key variables such as torque, speed, power factors, and subsystem as well as overall drivetrain efficiency. The methodology enables a systematic comparison of black box, dark grey box, grey box, and bright grey box architectures with respect to prediction accuracy, information content, and real-time capability. The methodology provided uses new model structures that explicitly integrate physical dependencies while also using ML models to map nonlinear effects. The hybrid architectures presented have been shown to significantly reduce the measurement effort while achieving nearly identical model quality and surpassing purely physics-based models in terms of accuracy, robustness, and real-time capability. For the final bright grey-box architecture, average relative efficiency errors below 1 % are achieved while maintaining real-time execution rates. The study shows that bright grey box-models in particular offer a best-case compromise between the requirements of information content, error quality, and synchronization rate, thus representing a methodological advance over conventional digital twins, which are often created at the component level. The shown methodology provides an implementable framework for digital twins of electric powertrains in industrial test environments.
Kopp, Lennart, Proksch, Daniel, Ockert, Niels, Karthaus, Carsten, Kley, Markus
Identifying and Mitigating Resonance Effects in HV Powernets: A Comprehensive Investigation into Current Ripple Effects in HV Power Nets2026-01-07427/1/2026
HV Power nets of electric vehicles consist of various HV components such as batteries, inverters, auxiliaries and cables. During in-vehicle testing, multiple failures of an auxiliary inverter were observed, caused by resonance issues within the component filter. Initial investigations revealed that these resonances, absent during manufacturer testbench evaluations, were influenced by the vehicle power net and its impedance characteristics. To better understand the underlying causes and identify preventative measures, extensive simulations were performed. The results demonstrate a diminishing influence of the power net capacitance when significantly larger than the component capacitance. Also, they highlight the critical impact of cable inductance on the component resonance frequency when comparable to the component’s inductance. A simplified electrical equivalent circuit was used to derive an equation predicting the resonance frequency as a function of the component’s capacitance/inductance and the cable length to the main power net capacitances. Based on these findings, recommendations for component filter design and testing protocols were proposed to mitigate similar failures in future applications.
Schmiel, Fabian, Aurand, Tobias, Koehnlechner, Benjamin, Zimmer, Markus
Interpretable Tire Force Modeling for Formula Student Vehicle Dynamics and Lap Time Applications2026-01-07627/1/2026
Accurate tire models are a key enabler for vehicle dynamics simulation, control design, and lap time optimization, particularly in the context of Formula Student race cars, where vehicle setups and tire characteristics differ significantly from production vehicles. State-of-the-art tire models, such as Pacejka’s Magic Formula, generally provide high prediction accuracy. However, their predefined functional structure and large number of coupled parameters are designed for broad applicability across many tire types rather than for specific racing tires. This often results in limited interpretability, nontrivial parameter identification, and unnecessary model complexity for specialized applications such as Formula Student. This paper presents a data-driven approach for deriving compact and physically interpretable tire force models using symbolic regression. The proposed method employs an intelligent tree search to systematically explore the space of mathematical expressions and identify models that optimally balance prediction accuracy and structural simplicity. In contrast to black-box machine learning approaches, the resulting models consist of explicit mathematical expressions that enable physical interpretation and efficient evaluation. The methodology is applied to experimental tire test bench data, focusing on the lateral force – slip angle relationship at constant vertical load. In a first step, the symbolic regression algorithm is utilized to derive a set of candidate mathematical expressions. These models are subsequently benchmarked against 200 independent data sets comprising various tire types and vertical loads. The evaluation reveals that the identified models approximate the measured tire behavior with accuracy comparable to, and in many cases exceeding, the Magic Formula, while exhibiting lower model complexity. The results demonstrate that symbolic regression can uncover alternative tire models that better represent the characteristics of Formula Student racing tires than conventional approaches. Owing to their compact structure and physical consistency, the derived models are particularly well suited for real-time vehicle simulations, parameter studies, and control-oriented applications in Formula Student vehicle development.
Anselment, Marcel, Borowski, Julian, Rudolph, Stephan
An Experimental Setup for Vibroacoustic and Fluid-Born Noise Characterization of Electric Refrigerant Compressors Using R1234yf or R7442026-01-07246/20/2026
The increasing electrification of vehicles means that heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems have a broader range of tasks and a different priority assessment. In electric cars, air conditioning systems are not only responsible for cooling the passenger compartment, but also for controlling the battery temperature, particularly during rapid charging, which represents a high-load operating point. Furthermore, achieving high thermodynamic efficiency is desirable, as this directly impacts the range of electric cars. The elimination of the combustion engine as a major source of noise prioritizes the noise, vibration and harshness behavior of the refrigerant compressor for product selection. To investigate the vibration and acoustic behavior, as well as the fluid dynamic forces resulting from the cyclic compression principle of an electric refrigerant compressor, a test rig was developed that allows compressors to be operated and measured in isolation in an anechoic chamber under various defined operating conditions. This test rig has been expanded in two ways within the scope of this work. Firstly, the compressor can be either rigidly attached to a dead mass using a VDA mount or measured while suspended freely. Secondly, a new R744-compatible refrigeration circuit has been added to the test rig, enabling compressors operating with the environmentally friendly refrigerant CO₂, which has so far only been used by a few manufacturers in selected models, to be tested. Measurement results obtained using this test rig provide valuable insight into the vibration behavior and sound spectra of the refrigerant compressor's fluid, structural, and airborne noise when operating at different points.
Beer, Gabriel, Saur, Lukas, Schwarz, Manuel, Zemsch, Stefan, Becker, Stefan
Standardized Equivalent Tire Load Measurements Delivered by Suppliers to an OEM Enabling Consistent and Comparable Simulation Input2026-01-06996/20/2026
Part- or component-level tests are commonly performed by Tiers and OEMs to investigate the NVH behavior and loading mechanisms. However, because test bench dynamics differ from those of the actual vehicle environment, correlating measured sound, acceleration and forces between bench and vehicle often proves challenging. Blocked forces offer a way to address this issue, as they provide test bench and vehicle independent load representations. This effectively enables different Tiers to deliver consistent load data, which OEMs can then use to better tune excitation and noise transmission on their vehicles. This paper focuses on 2 test bench compensation techniques, involving pure test and a simulation models of the tire to obtain accurate blocked-forces. The compensation techniques are validated on four testbenches of different companies.
Reichart, Ron, de Klerk, Dennis
Automating Component NVH Characterization: A Systematic Approach for Component Test Bench Characterization2026-01-07046/20/2026
Vehicle electrification and accelerated development cycles create a need for virtual Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) development tools which are fast, precise and, seamlessly interchangeable between development sites, suppliers and OEMs. Component-based Transfer Path Analysis (C-TPA), standardized in ISO 20270:2019, enables independent component characterization and integration with virtual models to predict sound and vibration in new assemblies, referred to as Virtual Prototype Assemblies (VPA). However, conventional measurements are labor-intensive, typically restricted to a small number of samples, and overlook production variability. This paper introduces a fully automated, ISO 20270-compliant C-TPA system for non-rigid test benches, featuring a pre-instrumented test fixture with multiple vibration shakers and sensors automatically linked to a data acquisition system for immediate processing. Components can be characterized within minutes, with blocked forces directly integrated into a VPA workflow, replacing time-intensive in-vehicle testing with a repeatable, operator-independent bench procedure. A case study on an automotive steering system demonstrates the method’s accuracy, repeatability, and efficiency, along with its ability to predict realistic interior sound pressure levels and capture production variability, enabling robust virtual NVH evaluation early in the development cycle.
Sturm, Michael, Wienen, Kevin, Brandstetter, Markus, Sorber, Eric, Corbeels, Patrick, Verrecas, Bart, Gonçalves, Vinícius
Towards Realistic Stick-Slip Testing: Efficiently Mapping Material Behavior across a wide Range of Loading Conditions2026-01-07136/20/2026
To minimize noise caused by interior components rubbing against each other, automotive materials are usually tested in advance with the established stick-slip method according to VDA standard 230-206. This procedure is widely used for soft materials, upholstery and plastics. However, it is limited to constant climatic and selected loading conditions. Contrary, in real application, changing climates and dynamic excitations can nevertheless trigger noise issues even in materials rated as suitable in the prior tests. To address this gap, a new test method has been developed that evaluates the stick-slip behavior of material combinations for a wide range of loading and climatic conditions. Conducted in a climate chamber with a standard stick-slip test bench, the procedure applies sinusoidal excitations, dynamic climatic shifts and advanced data analysis. In addition to the usual results the new method also evaluates realistic scenarios such as starting a vehicle in different seasons or sudden jolting movements with high excitation speeds. The result is a detailed map of stick-slip behavior as a function of excitation speed and climate. While requiring a similar level of effort as the traditional test, this approach delivers far greater insight. It enables a more reliable optimization of materials and facilitates targeted material selection for specific applications. In this manner, it can not only contribute to improve product quality but also to achieve quiet interiors and customer satisfaction.
Fritz, Susanne, Strangfeld, Martin
Heavy-Duty Nonroad Material Handler Electrification Part 1: Real-World Drive Cycle Development02-19-03-00156/10/2026
Knowing a detailed operating cycle is critical for developing and testing equipment. Operating cycles can be separated by two clear distinctions: (1) regulatory or non-regulatory and (2) application at the engine-only or full machine level. The Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Nonroad Transient Cycle (NRTC) may be a good representation of engine use in many types of equipment, but there is a gap in standardized and validated drive cycles specifically for nonroad material handlers. Lacking a standardized drive cycle makes it difficult to accurately benchmark machine performance and validate new powertrain technologies. The objective of this investigation is to illustrate the development of a custom drive cycle augmented with real-world customer use data that serves multiple purposes: (1) understand the range of operation and utilization that formulated inputs for electrified architecture analysis and (2) develop a repetitive and consistent maneuver to establish baseline energy consumption enabling equivalent comparison to future electrified prototype builds. This article presents a solution specifically for a 23-ton nonroad material handler in which material handling, machine transport, and extended idle were homologated to form representative short cycles defined by machine velocity and hydraulic cylinder position. The most intensive material handling short cycles had a load factor of 40% and an average fuel rate of 16 L/h. Combined with a visual aid, the short cycles exhibited low variability, having less than 5% root mean square (RMS) error in lift and reach position with respect to the average. The machine’s performance on these short cycles at the Advanced Power Systems Research Center (APSRC) was compared to results from two real-world customer locations operating the instrumented test machine in a cyclical manner, and for similar ground conditions were found to be comparable in fuel consumption.
Czarnecki, Alexander, Goodenough, Bryant, Worm, Jeremy, Robinette, Darrell, LaTendresse, Phil, Westman, John
Performance and Combustion Characteristics of Coryton SUSTAIN Classic Super 80 Carbon-Neutral Fuel versus EN 228 in a 1980s Fiat 500 Engine2026-37-00336/9/2026
The energy transition requires a rapid reduction in the use of fossil fuels, whose combustion generates substantial greenhouse-gas emissions. In Europe, transport alone accounts for roughly a quarter of total greenhouse-gas emissions, with road transport being the predominant component. In this context, the use of biofuels has emerged as a potential solution for limiting further increases in CO₂ emissions. However, most studies available in the literature evaluate the performance of these fuels on modern engines, while their effects on historic carburetted engines remain largely unexplored. This is particularly significant given the large fleet of historic vehicles across Europe, supported by a long-standing tradition of vehicle preservation, associations, and classic car collectors. The main historic-vehicle federations advise caution and the use of low-ethanol formulations so as not to damage elastomers, fuel tanks, and carburettor float bowls. For this reason, a few suppliers have developed fuels specifically for classic vehicles. Among this minority, in 2023 Coryton Advanced Fuels introduced the SUSTAIN Classic line, including the Super 80 variant. In the present study, the performance, fuel consumption, and emissions of an air-cooled, four-stroke Fiat 500 engine fueled with commercial RON 95 gasoline and Coryton SUSTAIN Classic Super 80 were analyzed. A first test comprised a complete sweep from 1000 to 5000 RPM and a second test evaluated four different main jets at maximum torque speed and maximum power speed. To evaluate the performance, the engine was installed on a test bench equipped with a torque meter. Static pressure and temperature sensors were employed to characterize the engine operating conditions, while a dynamic pressure sensor installed in the combustion chamber was used to analyze the combustion characteristics. Exhaust emissions were also measured using a gas analyzer, allowing for a detailed and accurate comparison of the effects associated with the use of the two fuels.
Tarchiani, Marco, Fossati, Federico, Raspanti, Sandro, Baroni, Alberto, Ferrara, Giovanni, Romani, Luca
System and Method of Strain Emulation Using a Beam Load Cell Test Setup2026-26-07436/1/2026
This novel method deals with emulation of Strain of a Structural Measurement System which includes software validation, acceptance tests and training. Current methods for simulating strain and force data for developing and verifying data acquisition (DAQ) software typically rely on costly electronic simulators or specialized hardware, making it challenging and expensive for developers, researchers, and small organizations to test their solutions under realistic conditions. To verify DAQ software, multiple specialized hardware solutions are deployed, that include Electronic Simulators, Commercial DAQ Modules and Hydraulic/Pneumatic test rigs. These technologies pose a challenge with limited flexibility and scalability options for small-scale prototyping, especially in budget-constrained scenarios. The sensors on these equipment may or may not be company approved inducing acceptance challenges. Our invention is an inexpensive, scalable, and mechanically simple alternative. Using a 3D-printed structure combined with standard cantilever load cells and easily accessible weights, it enables realistic and customizable strain simulations without the need for expensive electronic simulation equipment. All platforms namely NI based, Dewesoft, VTI and others can be integrated into a unified test framework in this method which otherwise needs to be simulated on suitable equipment individually.
Murthy, Harsha, Bhat Venkatesh, Aditi, K Padmanabhan, Rahul, Madhu, Sheetal, Garag, Naveen
Effect of Forced Boundary Layer Transition on Hovering Rotor Aerodynamics and AeroacousticsF-0082-2026-02095/5/2026
This study experimentally examines the effect of forced boundary layer (BL) transition on the aerodynamic and aero-acoustic performance of a low Reynolds number rotor in hover. An APC 15×4E two-bladed rotor was tested in three configurations: clean, upper-surface trip (U.S.T.), and combined upper- and lower-surface trip (U.S.T./L.S.T.). Surface oil flow visualization was used to characterize the BL structure. A hover test rig was used to measure the static thrust and torque. Acoustic measurements were conducted in an anechoic chamber, with tonal and broadband noise components separated during post-processing. Results show that surface trips effectively force BL transition, increasing turbulent attachment over the blade. Tripped configurations reduced thrust and increased torque but mitigated Reynolds-number sensitivity. Forced transition reduced the tonal noise for all but one case. For the broadband noise, the forced transition increased the noise in the frequency range where turbulent boundary layer-trailing edge (TBLTE) mechanisms dominate, while decreasing the noise in the frequency range where laminar boundary layer vortex shedding (LBL-VS) occurs.
Harris, Joseph, Narsipur, Shreyas, Deters, Robert, Sriram, Akhilesh
Development of Test Facility for Interconnected Drivesystem of a Tandem Rotary Wing UAVF-0082-2026-02325/5/2026
This work presents the development of an interconnected gearbox drive system for a tandem rotor unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) designed for a power rating of 20 kW per rotor. Development of the facility for dynamic testing of the interconnecting drive system is also presented. Tandem rotor configurations offer superior payload capacity and aerodynamic efficiency but pose challenges in transmission design due to the need for synchronized power distribution between counter-rotating rotors. The proposed gearbox employs a simple two-stage reduction system combining bevel and planetary gears to achieve compactness, high torque transmission, and ease of fabrication. A dedicated test rig is concurrently being developed to evaluate gearbox performance under variable torque and speed conditions for the first stage with the mechanical interconnection. The test set-up integrates a variable-speed drive, torque and vibration sensors, and a data acquisition system to measure efficiency, losses, and thermal characteristics. While fabrication and assembly are ongoing, this work lays the foundation for experimental validation and optimization of drivetrain performance. The project contributes toward developing reliable, lightweight, and scalable transmission solutions for heavy payload multi-rotor vertical lift UAVs. The drive system dynamics, in particular, the torque transmission through the cross shaft during maneuvers will be the investigated using the current test rig configuration.
Mathur, Tanmay, Nayak, Ashish, Singh, Sriansh
Machine Learning–Based Detection of External Gunshot Sound Sources in Propeller Acoustic Near FieldF-0082-2026-01405/5/2026
This paper presents a study of gunshot acoustic signal detectability in the near field of propeller noise, with a focus on the isolation of external gunshot signatures masked by propeller-induced noise. Controlled measurements were conducted in a Recirculation Delayed Anechoic Chamber (RDAC), where acoustic data were collected across varying rotor speeds, source locations, and propagation distances. Propeller noise characteristics were verified using UCD-QuietFly. The recorded signals were analyzed for the acoustic pressure, sound pressure level, and overall sound pressure level directivity to quantify masking effects. Results show that RPM is the dominant factor governing signal detectability. At 3000 RPM, the gunshot signal remains clearly identifiable within the low frequency range of 200–2000 Hz. At 4000 RPM, the signal becomes partially masked, while at 5000 RPM, propeller noise fully dominates and the gunshot signal becomes undetectable. Detectability is further reduced with increasing propagation distance. In-plane microphone locations provide improved detectability. A machine learning-based spectral separation framework was developed to suppress propeller noise and enhance the visibility of impulsive gunshot signatures in multichannel spectrograms. Experimental results show that learning-based denoising is effective at lower RPMs where the signal-to-noise ratio remains favorable, but performance degrades as broadband masking intensifies at higher rotor speeds.
Sian-Bates, Grace, Li, Sicheng Kevin, Jiang, Peng, Chowdhury, Kowshik
The Golden Tester2026-01-00924/7/2026
The objective of this paper is to understand the effort required to integrate the hardware and software of in-vehicle cybersecurity systems. The in-vehicle cybersecurity method discussed is the SAE J1939-91C, which involves Network formation, Rekeying, and secure Message Exchange between Electronic Control Units (ECUs). The SAE J1939-91C network security protocol operates over a CAN-FD network to perform necessary cryptographic operations and key generation. To evaluate the method, test vectors were created to validate SAE J1939-91C key generations and cryptographic operations on the simulated ECU in-vehicle network system hardware (such as the Beacon or Pi devices). We introduce a lightweight, transport-agnostic benchmark comprising deterministic AES-CMAC test vectors and a simple verification utility, requiring no specialized hardware or build system. This minimal artifact set enables reproducible and machine-parsable validation of SAE J1939-91C security across diverse lab environments.
Zachos, Mark, Medam, Krishna Teja
Adaptive Torque Vector Control for Distributed Drive Intelligent Electric Vehicles Using Model and Data Driven Approaches2026-01-06284/7/2026
To effectively improve the performance of chassis control of distributed drive intelligent electric vehicles (EVs) under difference road conditions, especially in combing road information and chassis control for improving road handling and ride comfort, is a challenging task for the distributed drive intelligent EVs. Simultaneously, inaccurate chassis control and uncertainty with system input, are always existing, e.g., varying road input or control parameters. Due to the higher fatality rate caused by variable factors, how to precisely chose and enforce the reasonable chassis control strategy of distributed drive intelligent EVs become a hot topic in both academia and industry. To issue the above mentioned, an adaptive torque vector hierarchical controller based on road level and adhesion is proposed, which optimizes the comprehensive. First, combined with the characteristic of the unbalance dynamic force caused by the air gap between the stator and the rotor of the in-wheel motor, a nonlinear vehicle model based on motor unbalanced electromagnetic force is developed. Then, using the deep neural network, an algorithm for road level and adhesion recognition based on system response data is designed. Meanwhile, an adaptive torque vector controller based on road information is designed to improve the driving safety and handling stability of chassis. Finally, the proposed algorithm is validated on the full-car test rig platform, results show that the proposed algorithm can improve chassis performance under double lane-change test. The research achievements develop a reasonable algorithm to apply to the improving road handling and ride comfort performance for distributed drive intelligent EVs.
Wang, Zhenfeng, Zhao, Gaoming, Zhang, Zhijie, Zhou, Zitao, Huang, Taishuo, Ma, Changye
Development of a Virtual Test Rig to Evaluate Thermal Management of a Battery-Electric Vehicle under Battery Heating-Cooling Modes2026-01-04164/7/2026
A battery-electric vehicle (BEV) has multiple powertrain components (battery, inverter, e-motor), a thermal management system (compressor, heat exchanger, cabin heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning), and a vehicle body, among others. Vehicle testing is time-consuming, and changing powertrain components during the testing and design process is costly. Simulation models (aka virtual or simulation test rig) have been widely used for efficient vehicle design. This work presents a systematic approach to developing a virtual test rig to evaluate the thermal performance of battery-electric vehicles. A Tesla Model Y is tested in a chassis dynamometer, and the measured vehicle performance data are used as boundary conditions for the complete vehicle model. The detailed lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack model, including its cooling system, was developed and calibrated using various transient driving cycle data. The HVAC model uses a simplified controller to maintain the cabin temperature at 25 °C in both battery heating and cooling modes. The predicted thermal and electrical performance of the BEV is well validated by test data. Then, the complete vehicle model is used to compare the thermal performances of the BEV under cabin heating and cooling modes for various transient driving cycles. The simulated results show that using an external cabin air circulation model can reduce the battery energy consumption and dissipated heat by 9.9% and 2.4%, respectively. This calibrated virtual test rig can be used to evaluate a new HVAC system.
Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin
NVH Characterization of New Pulse Width Modulation Strategies2026-01-02244/7/2026
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is needed to supply AC motors from DC voltages, but it creates high-frequency sideband harmonics that contribute negatively to sound quality. Several strategies were developed in the last decades to reduce the total harmonic distortion and switching losses, including discontinuous PWM. A new formulation of discontinuous PWM waveforms is proposed. It eases the implementation of PWM in simulation models and on experimental platforms, but it also enables the creation of new strategies. This study aims at assessing the NVH performance of six new strategies proposed by the authors. The goal is not to enhance the electrical performance but to seek new sound attributes, to change the sound quality of the machine. All strategies were tested on a test bench to characterize their current, vibration, and noise level on the full modulation index range. The measurements performed with the new strategies present some contrast. Semi-discontinuous strategies, which present a constant segment twice as short as that of existing discontinuous strategies, allow new sound attributes to appear. They also reduce the number of commutations compared to the classic sinusoidal strategy. The method adopted therefore seems relevant for creating new strategies but requires a complete characterization to assess the compromise between electrical and acoustic performance.
Wanty, Salomé, Delpoux, Romain, Glesser, Martin, Totaro, Nicolas, Parizet, Etienne, Degrendele, Karine
Development of a Tire Blowout Experimental Platform for Dynamics and Control Validation2026-01-02024/7/2026
Tires are critical to vehicle dynamics, transmitting traction, braking, and cornering forces to the road. A tire blowout, the sudden and rapid loss of inflation pressure due to puncture or structural failure, can cause severe instability, rollover, or collisions. Understanding vehicle response during blowout events is essential for developing robust safety systems and control strategies. Earlier developed simulation models are used to study and understand vehicle behavior during blowouts, but there is a lack of on-road testing platforms to validate these models experimentally. In this paper, an experimental platform integrating a tire blowout device and an instrumentation system has been developed to address this gap. The blowout device consists of multiple solenoid valves mounted on the wheel surface and powered by a 12V power supply. All valves can be triggered at the same time using an RF remote, producing rapid and synchronized deflation. As an extension of this implementation, an Arduino-based actuation system is being developed for individual valve actuation and custom deflation profiles. The instrumentation system includes GNSS, IMU, and CAN-based data acquisition for vehicle dynamic variables. Furthermore, outriggers will be installed on the vehicle to ensure safety during testing. Unlike prior devices that use single valves with external pneumatic hoses and laboratory-only operation, the proposed platform is compact, lightweight, and field-deployable due to its integration of multi-valve actuation, custom deflation control, outrigger-based safety measures, and instrumentation. The developed platform enables safe, repeatable, and full-scale on-road blowout testing within required timeframes, providing a novel framework that bridges simulation and real-world validation.
Kanthala, Maha Vishnu Vardhan Reddy, Krishnakumar, Ashwin, Lin, Wen-Chiao, Chen, Yan
Leveraging Machine Learning for Occupant Body Size Estimation via B-Pillar Seatbelt Systems2026-01-05594/7/2026
Occupant body size in vehicles varies significantly, encompassing differences in height, mass, and overall body composition. Adaptive restraint systems, featuring adjustable parameters such as belt load limiters, steering column load limiters and stroke, seat pan stiffness, and airbag pressure, can offer more equitable protection tailored to individual body sizes. In this study, a test rig modeled after the Volvo XC90 (2016) was used to collect data from 46 participants who were dressed in typical summer clothing and seated upright, without slouching or leaning sideways. Stepwise adjustments of the seat pan and seatback were performed. The collected measurements include seat pan movements (front-back and up-down), seatback recline, and key seatbelt-related parameters, such as belt payout length, D-ring angle, lap belt length, and buckle tension. The collected data was then used to train machine learning models to predict individual occupant characteristics: standing height, mass, and seated height. This study shows the challenges and opportunities for occupant body size estimation from seatbelt and seat location inputs. The prediction’s root mean square error across validation dataset was as follows: standing height 8.76cm, mass 11.33kg, and seated height 5.61cm. The prediction of mass fulfilled the defined criterion, while the prediction accuracy for standing height and seated height require further improvement. Our analysis reveals that a key improvement could be achieved by implementing an upgraded lap belt position sensor, given that lap belt length was identified as a dominant feature across models. Furthermore, the analysis suggests that D-ring angle, buckle tension, and seatback recline can be excluded from the input feature set.
Wang, Da, Ahmed, Jawwad, Rowe, Mike, Brase, Dan
Evaluation of PAEB Performance of a GM Vehicle Using EDR and Ground Truth Data2026-01-00544/7/2026
In order to determine the on-board EDR data recording characteristics of a GM vehicle, a 2023 GMC Sierra Denali was tested in several Pedestrian Automatic Emergency Braking (P-AEB) scenarios. Using a variety of test tools, including the STRIDE robotic platform and its onboard data systems, a GPS/IMU installed in the vehicle, and several camera units, the vehicle was put into collision imminent scenarios in which the crash avoidance systems were actuated. The flags in the EDR data, the order in which EDR events were written, and the correlation between the EDR and data recorded by the aforementioned external acquisition systems were examined for each test case. Testing was done in both forward and reverse scenarios and at low speeds only. These results provide a picture of the current state of the additional data available in current EDRs installed on GM vehicles equipped with P-AEB capability, as well as an insight into the accuracy and meaning of that data which should prove beneficial to the accident reconstruction community, among others.
Bartholomew, Meredith, Arnett, Michael, Guenther, Dennis
Effect of Key Operating Parameters on Homogenous Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition Concept with Renewable Fuels03-19-02-00094/1/2026
As part of the dTEC MORE project, sustainable powertrain technologies are being explored, including an alternative combustion concept tailored for engines in serial hybrid powertrains. Among the low-temperature combustion strategies, Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition (RCCI) is a prominent approach, offering significant reductions in NOx and soot emissions while enhancing combustion efficiency. The dual-fuel nature of RCCI enables improved control over combustion by utilizing fuels of differing reactivities. In this study, a premixed RCCI strategy was implemented using ethanol as a port-injected low-reactivity fuel and octanol as a directly injected high-reactivity fuel. The experimental work was conducted on a single-cylinder research engine with design features that are found in a gasoline passenger car application. Key combustion parameters such as the start of injection (SOI) of the high-reactivity fuel, injection pressure, intake temperature, lambda, premixed fuel ratio, and valve overlap were varied and evaluated on the engine test bench. The impact of these parameters on performance, combustion stability, and emissions was systematically analyzed. The results were benchmarked against a baseline direct-injected gasoline combustion cycle with a higher compression ratio. The comparison highlights the advantages of the premixed RCCI strategy, particularly in reducing NOx and soot emissions. Additionally, the test results also support in the future steps to model and validate the simulation models, to achieve higher efficiency and lower emissions.
Sundaram, Pravin Kumar, Grundl, Larissa Michaela, Trapp, Christian Thorsten, Tinschmann, Georg
An Equivalent Circuit Model of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Commercial Charging Strategy: Application to Step Charge2026-01-70422/27/2026
Lithium-ion batteries represent a complex and nonlinear voltage behaviour on various time scales. Battery models are needed to analyze and estimate the battery behaviour and determine their suitability for practical applications. Battery model simulations in previous studies were mainly based on pulse charge and discharge cases. The current amplitude used in the test cases was limited, and the temperature factor of the battery model was neglected. The simulation conditions above were significantly different from those in practical applications. In this paper, an equivalent circuit model considering the temperature factor is developed to simulate the practical applications of lithium-ion batteries. Experimental tests for parameterization are applied to the commercially available 189 Ah lithium iron phosphate battery cells under a wide range of experimental conditions. The parameters are obtained through experimental tests and are used to build the equivalent circuit model of the battery. The parameterized model is modified to fix the voltage error in both low and high state-of-charge levels before model verification. Constant-current charge test and step charge test are both applied to the proposed model and the comparative model without temperature factor to verify and compare the model accuracy. Simulation results are compared against laboratory experimental results under the same conditions. For most of the state-of-charge levels, the voltage error of the proposed model lies below 0.5% for the constant-current charge test and 1% for the step charge test. Compared with the model without the temperature factor, the proposed model demonstrates the average reductions in RMSE and MAE of 49.89% and 47.74% under constant-current charge test, and 59.72% and 71.04% under step charge test, respectively. Increased accuracy is obtained for practical applications compared with previous studies.
Chang, An, Wang, Shengwei, Zhou, Kai
GAGE PIN FOR SOCKET CONTACT ENGAGEMENT TESTAS31971B (Current)2/23/2026
AE-8C1 Connectors Committee
Evolution of a Novel Hybrid Stab-Link for a Born Electric Sports Utility Vehicle2026-28-00012/12/2026
The present study details the design evolution and failure analysis of a novel hybrid stabilizer bar link (stab link) developed for the front suspension of a born electric sports utility vehicle (SUV) platform characterized by higher gross vehicle weight (GVW), increased wheel travel, and constrained packaging space. To address these challenges, a unique hybrid stab link was designed featuring dual plastic housings at both the metal ball joint ends, connected by a steel tube, and achieving a 30% weight reduction while offering enhanced articulation angles for extremely lower turning circle diameter (TCD) of the vehicle, compared to the conventional stab link. The unique hybrid stab failed under complex loading conditions during accelerated durability testing (ADT), prompting a comprehensive investigation. The failure analysis included road load data acquisition across various stab bar diameter configurations evolved during suspension tuning, different stabilizer link designs evolved during the design stages, comparative load assessments on different road patches, simulation of failure scenarios on test rigs, and extensive material testing. Investigation techniques such as fishbone diagram, destructive testing, part quality and dimensional accuracy evaluation, mechanical property evaluation, chemical composition analysis, metallography, and microscopic examination were employed. Results confirmed that the mechanical and chemical properties of the stab link met the design specifications. The comprehensive failure analysis was concluded by attributing to fatigue fracture caused by excessive loading of the stab link. This paper introduces a unique methodology for hybrid link design optimization that considers real-world loading conditions such as higher equivalent ADT block cycle during the hybrid stab link development process. The study concludes with insights into the iterative design enhancements and investigative procedures that led to improved durability and performance of the stab link assembly, offering a significant advancement over conventional stab link designs.
Selvendiran, P, J, Ramkumar, Nayak, Bhargav, M, Sudhan, Patnala, Avinash
Flow-Based Corrosion Analysis of NBR-PVC Fuel Hoses in Ethanol-Gasoline Blends2026-28-00792/12/2026
The integration of ethanol into gasoline presents compatibility challenges for automotive fuel-system materials. In this study, the degradation of NBR-PVC fuel hoses exposed to ethanol-gasoline blends (E30, E50, E70, and E100) was investigated under dynamic flow conditions. A custom-designed test rig simulates real-time fuel circulation for 1,200 h. FESEM, ATR-FTIR, and elemental mapping analyses revealed ethanol-induced degradation, including dehydrochlorination, plasticizer leaching, and filler detachment. Among the blends, E30 exhibited the least material degradation, whereas E100 showed significant surface damage and chemical alteration. This study recommends multilayered fuel hose structures with ethanol-resistant inner linings for enhanced durability.
PC, Murugan, L S, Adhitya, G, Arun Prasad, W, Beno Wincy, T, Karthi
Research on Characterization Parameters for Engine Valve Clearance Based on Vibration Signals2026-01-50052/2/2026
To address mechanical faults caused by abnormal engine valve clearance, this study investigates the extraction methods of vibration signal feature parameters. A six-cylinder diesel engine test bench was established to collect cylinder head vibration signals under varying rotational speeds, torque loads, and valve clearance conditions. Four time–domain parameters, including peak-to-peak values, rectified average values, standard deviations, and root mean square amplitude, were extracted alongside the energy distribution of frequency bands obtained through wavelet packet decomposition. The correlations between these parameters and valve clearance states were systematically analyzed. The results demonstrated that all parameters exhibited significant increasing trends with elevated rotational speeds, whereas torque variations exerted minimal influence. Abnormal valve clearance induces significant amplitude increases in time–domain parameters. The energy within frequency bands 5–8 (6–12 kHz) derived from wavelet packet decomposition demonstrates marked sensitivity to valve clearance variations. These findings provide effective technical support for online monitoring of engine valve clearance and early fault warning systems.
Ji, Shaobo, Dong, Yiming, Yue, Yuanhang, Pan, Chi, Liao, Guoliang, Lu, Yueqi
Rolls-Royce pursues pure methanol for marine engines26TOFHP02_052/1/2026
Rolls-Royce has successfully tested the world's first high-speed marine engine powered exclusively by methanol on its test bench in Friedrichshafen, Germany. The company began this engine-development journey six years ago when it gathered experts to determine what the future fuel of the maritime industry should be, according to Denise Kurtulus, senior vice president of global marine at Rolls-Royce. “For us, it's clear. It's methanol,” she said. Rolls-Royce worked with industry partners as part of the joint project meOHmare, which is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy. Injection system specialist Woodward L'Orange and the WTZ Roßlau technology and research center contributed their expertise. Their goal was to not only develop a comprehensive concept for a CO2-neutral marine engine based on green methanol, but also to run it on the test bench by the end of 2025.
Gehm, Ryan
PRODUCT BRIEFS26TOFHP02_102/1/2026
Measurement Uncertainty and Consumer RiskAIR6553 (Current)1/28/2026
This document addresses measurement uncertainty and consumer risk as they relate to AS8879 thread inspection. It describes the rationale, theory and methodology used to generate the technical content of the AS5870. The document describes how to calculate measurement consumer risk. It documents all of the calculation methods which industry employs today to calculate what is commonly called measurement uncertainty (Appendices A, B, C, D, E and F). These, in turn, are used to calculate measurement uncertainty ratios which are required inputs to calculate measurement consumer risk. Users of this document can apply the information described herein for the evaluation of the capability of their measurements based on the measurement consumer risk. It involves the analysis of the measurement (product) distribution and biases of both the product and measurement system distributions. It protects the consumer from the worst case distribution results.
E-25 General Standards for Aerospace and Propulsion Systems
Scalable and Modular Data-Driven Hybrid Chassis Dynamometer Framework for EV Powertrain Evaluation2026-26-03631/16/2026
In its conventional form, dynamometers typically provide a fixed architecture for measuring torque, speed, and power, with their scope primarily centered on these parameters and only limited emphasis on capturing aggregated real-time performance factors such as battery load and energy flow across the diverse range of emerging electric vehicle (EV) powertrain architectures. The objective of this work is to develop a valid, appropriate, scalable modular test framework that combines a real-time virtual twin of a compact physical dynamometer with world leading real-time mechanical and energy parameters/attributes useful for its virtual validation, as well as the evaluation of other unknown parameters that respectively span iterations of hybrid and electric vehicle configurations, ultimately allowing the assessment of multiple chassis without having to modify the physical testing facility's test bench. This integration enables a blended approach, using a live data source for now, providing a point of calibration and validation for the virtual model(s), as well as using the virtual model capability to determine other unknown/measurable characteristics about the physical model. So, this test framework makes that system's capability, representing an enhancement to its ability, with a virtual twin merging them together to enable virtual evaluation of multiple configurations of the chassis without changing the physical test stand. So, this combined real-world and virtual framework offers a scalable and flexible testing and modelling platform for both early performance characterisation, as well as life cycle-based energy evaluations. In responding to the identified gaps, this work introduces an innovative hybrid chassis dynamometer framework that applies to a real-world test bench in tandem with a concurrently simulated virtual model, offering early-stage validation and optimisation potential using the shift-left development proposition. The result is a reusable and forward-thinking platform supporting efficient EV development by forecasting and drawing informed insights into energy flow, battery performance, and lifecycle behaviour from ahead of typical physical testing boundaries.
Kumar, Akhilesh, V, Yashvati
Power Loss Evaluation in 4WD Axle & Correlation with Testing Results2026-26-01071/16/2026
In tractors, efficiency is predominantly influenced by the transmission system, with transmission elements being the major contributors to power losses. Enhancing efficiency necessitates monitoring these power loss areas. Transmission power loss refers to the reduction in power from the engine to the final drive elements. Various parameters and factors affect these losses, and analyzing these conditions helps identify and improve the components that contribute most to driveline efficiency. This study correlates analytically calculated power loss with losses measured during testing under different load conditions. Additionally, critical parameters contributing to power loss in gears, bearings & in seals have been identified, and theoretical relationships have been established.
Jayapal, Jayaraj, Mahapatra, Soumya Ranjan, Sethi, Suvendu Kumar, Joshi, Shrikant, Bange, Prashant
Experimental Evaluation of High Energy Impact Test of Wheel Rim2026-26-05041/16/2026
High energy impact testing using free fall mass is a crucial method for evaluating the structural integrity, and safety performance of automotive components subjected to sudden impact forces. This study focuses on assessing critical parts such as wheel rims, suspension knuckles, commonly exposed to unintentional impacts during vehicle operation, maintenance, or collisions. The test involves dropping a standardized mass from predetermined heights onto the component to simulate real-world impact scenarios. Key performance indicators include deformation, crack propagation, fracture resistance, and energy absorption capacity. Wheel rims and knuckles are evaluated for their ability to maintain structural integrity under localized impact without compromising vehicle handling or safety. Seats and related interior structures are tested to ensure occupant protection during crash-like events. Other components, such as brackets, mounts, or housings, are included based on functional criticality and exposure risk. Results from the free fall impact tests inform design optimizations, material selection (e.g., aluminium alloys, composites, high-strength steels), and manufacturing processes to improve product reliability and compliance with automotive safety requirements. This approach supports the development of robust vehicle systems capable of withstanding harsh real-world conditions, ultimately enhancing vehicle safety, performance, and customer satisfaction.
Roham, Prasad, Bagade, Mohan, Sinnarkar, Nitin, Pawar, Prashant R, Shinde, Vikram
Adoptive Safety Solutions in Road Simulators for Commercial Vehicle Structural Validation2026-26-05331/16/2026
Road Simulators used to carry out accelerated structural durability validation of a vehicle. As a commercial vehicle manufacturer, for our commercial vehicles structural validation, we are using 8 poster road simulators. We use road load data, torture track data, synthetic profiles or road events as the input test data. From a mini 4 wheeler trucks to high capacity 8 wheeler truck, and any bus variant is being tested at road simulator. All the vehicle variants are tested with prescribed road and load conditions for the pre-determined life. Each wheel of the vehicle is positioned on the wheel pan of the hydraulic actuators so that each actuator excites the corresponding vibration data. The vehicle is being restrained as per the manufacturers recommendation. Manufacturer recommendations widely addresses the risks associated with the test rigs. In addition to that there are risks associated with the vehicle running, vehicle handling, vehicle positioning. For example, when durability test running when EB power goes off, the vehicle will move down rapidly affects test vehicle as well as test system, when any of the restraint fails, the vehicle wheel dislocates from its position and fall off from test rig can cause heavy damage. Very few OEM’s use heavy vehicle road simulators. Hence the safety related information is very limited. We have identified many areas of road simulator operation in which the safety of the human, test vehicle and test rig is concerned and we have implemented the tailor made solutions for the safer structural validation at road simulator. To name a few, modular vehicle platform for drive on vehicle, primary and secondary restraints, steering locks, hydraulic whip locking (HWL), wireless E stops, Auto power off test halt system (APOTS), auto pit entry locking systems, Break wire test halt system (BWTHS) Wireless wheel slip detection system (WDS).
Arumugam, Paramasivam, N, Gopi Kannan, N, Mahendra, Muthu kumar, Pandurangan, Singh, Laxman, Tiwari, Manish, V, Subash
Optimizing Vehicle Dynamics: A Methodology for Reducing Correlation Gaps2026-26-00911/16/2026
Final design choices are frequently made early in the product development cycle in the fiercely competitive automotive sector. However, because of manufacturing tolerances design tolerances stiffness element fitment and other noise factors physical prototypes might show variations from nominal specifications. Significant performance differences (correlation gaps) between the digital twin representation produced during the design phase and real-world performance may result from these deviations. Measuring every system parameter repeatedly to take these variations into account can be expensive and impractical. The goal of this study is to identify important system parameters from system characteristic data produced by controlled dynamic testing to close the gap between digital and physical models. Dynamic load cases are carried out with a 4-poster test rig where vehicle responses are captured under controlled circumstances at different suspension locations. An ideal set of digital model parameters is found by examining these target responses and comparing them with the output of the digital twin. This procedure makes digital simulations more accurate and guarantees that they more accurately depict the behavior of actual vehicles. By reducing the need for extensive physical validation this method increases the dependability of digital twins and facilitates more effective design refinement. In the end this approach helps to improve overall performance predictions in the early stages of design optimize vehicle dynamics and lower development costs. Across various vehicle architectures the research conclusions may prove useful facilitating more accurate simulations and well-informed engineering choices.
Verma, Rahul Ranjan, Goli, Naga Aswani Kumar, Prasad, Tej Pratap
High-Frequency Dynamic Stiffness Measurements of Automotive Elastomers for Electric Vehicles2026-26-03121/16/2026
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has intensified the demand for advanced elastomeric materials capable of meeting stringent noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) requirements. Unlike internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs lack traditional masking noise generated by the powertrain. In the automotive industry, the dynamic stiffness of elastomers in internal combustion engines has traditionally been determined using hydraulic test rigs, with test frequencies limited to a maximum of 1,000 Hz. Measurements above this frequency range have not been possible and are conducted only through computerized FE or CAE calculation models. Electric drive systems, however, generate distinct tonal noise components in the high-frequency range up to 10,000 Hz, which are clearly perceptible even at low sound pressure levels. Consequently, the dynamic stiffness characteristics of elastomers up to 3,000 Hz are critical for optimizing NVH performance in EVs. This study focuses on high-frequency dynamic stiffness testing of automotive elastomers using a specialized high-frequency test rig. According to ISO 10846-1 [1], there are two methods for determining the dynamic stiffness of elastomers: the direct method (part 2) and the indirect method (part 3). This paper presents measurements carried out using the direct method, employing an electrodynamic shaker and applying static preload conditions. The objective is to accurately determine the frequency-dependent dynamic stiffness and damping properties of elastomeric components, such as engine mounts, bushings, and isolators, which play a crucial role in mitigating structure-borne noise and vibrations.
Bohne, Christian, Gröne, Michael
Tractor Clutch Wear Simulation by Inhouse Development2026-26-05721/16/2026
To develop a Test Method & Procedure for validating the Tractor clutch system performance & Wear simulation endurance test. Tractor clutch wear simulation test conducted along with transmission by operating clutch in different modes as per RWUP operation. In this test we can validate clutch field failures in short time with improved test accuracy at lab. In one of M&M technology project, Transmission Wet clutch system for higher HP tractors where we don’t have any dedicated test rig/methodology for validating Clutch wear & related failure simulation at lab
D, Yashwanth, Raja, R, Udayakumar, S, M, Jeevaharan, Vijayakumar, Narayanan
Development of a Fuel Injector Driver for Accelerated Testing2026-26-05641/16/2026
This paper presents the design of a cost-effective fuel injector driver designed for accelerated testing of injectors. The driver simulates injection patterns across a wide range of vehicle operating conditions and can be programmed with injection maps for different engines, test cycles based on drawing specifications, pre-defined engine running profiles, and manual control, where the user defines PWM frequency and duty cycle. It also enables remote operation through a Wi Fi access point. An injector driver-based test setup was developed to study wear and evaluate leakage tendency in an injector design. To simulate extended field usage in a short timeframe, an accelerated operating cycle was derived using telematics data. Injector samples were tested with periodic leak rate measurements. Conducting such tests at vehicle level or on engine test bench would involve significant time and cost. This setup is an effective tool for rapid comparative analysis across supplier design, enabling data driven product selection. It can also be used for quick evaluation of design improvement features introduced in injectors. The flexible architecture and remote operability make it a valuable tool for future injector development and validation.
Bhatt, Pancham, Agrawal, Adheesh, Kuchhal, Abhinav
Thermal Shock Test Rig for CNG Shut-Off Valve2026-26-05261/16/2026
In Automobile, Gasoline Engines are being used along with electrically operated shut-off valve installed at the roof of bus in case of higher capacity of CNG systems. In order to start/ stop CNG supply from cylinder for running of engine/ safety/ servicing an electrical operated ignition switch/ key controlled CNG Shut-Off Valve is placed just after the cylinders. There have been few failures of these CNG shut-off valves in field application. On investigation, it was observed that the CNG shut-off valve gets failed due to water ingress in coils from the cracks on surface generated due to spray of water (due to daily washing of bus and rain) on heated shut-off valves. In order to validate this field failure and subsequent validation of modified design, a need was felt to use a test rig which can exactly simulate the water spray based thermal shocks. However, there was no low cost facility available to simulate the field service condition for validation. Therefore, a low cost test set-up was designed and developed to simulate the failure in test lab to analyze the failure and root cause analysis and further durability validation of improved design. The designed and developed test rig was very useful to investigate the root cause of failures and validation of improved samples. The test rig has been in operation for 2 years without any failures and has validated more than 30 samples of existing and improved samples. The test rig was designed and developed completely in-house and is a low cost in price as well as low running cost.
Srivastava, Pravin Kumar, Vivekanand, Vivekanand, Kumar, Satish
Research on Characterization Parameters of Main Bearing Wear Condition Based on Vibration Signals2026-01-50031/15/2026
This study aims to investigate the influence of torque, rotational speed, lubricating oil temperature, and main bearing clearance on the vibration signals of diesel engine block surfaces, thereby establishing a foundation for diagnosing abnormal main bearing wear conditions using engine block surface vibration signals. An experimental test bench was constructed for a six-cylinder diesel engine to collect vibration signals under varying rotational speeds, torques, lubricant temperatures, and main bearing clearances. Frequency domain analysis and wavelet packet decomposition were then performed. The frequency domain analysis results indicate that the vibration signal amplitudes associated with abnormal main bearing wear are primarily concentrated below 5 kHz. Specifically, the energy in frequency bands below 1 kHz and around 2.5 kHz tends to increase with higher rotational speed, torque, and main bearing clearance, while the overall frequency domain amplitudes decrease with rising lubricant temperature. The wavelet packet decomposition results reveal that the energy in most decomposed frequency bands exhibits a positive correlation with rotational speed, torque, and main bearing clearance, but a negative correlation with lubricant temperature. Notably, the energy in wavelet packet bands 1–5 is significantly affected by rotational speed, bands 1, 3, 4, and 5 are notably influenced by torque, and bands 1 and 2 are strongly affected by main bearing clearance. The findings of this study provide a theoretical foundation and data support for the identification of abnormal wear states in the crankshaft–main bearing system.
Dong, Yiming, Hu, Yuping, Ji, Shaobo, Pan, Chi, Yue, Yuanhang, Liao, Guoliang
Research and HIL Test of Rear Wheel Steering Control Strategy Based on Zero Sideslip Angle2025-01-732312/31/2025
This paper briefly introduces the vehicle characteristics of four-wheel steering. Based on the parameters of an electric SUV, a linear two-degree-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model is established, and the transfer function of the rear wheel steering angle is derived to keep the sideslip angle at the center of gravity(CoG) constant at zero and proportional to the front wheel steering angle under steady state. The active rear wheel steering control strategy based on zero sideslip angle is established by MATLAB/Simulink, and a co-simulation model is built with CarSim and the HIL test bench to simulate and analyze the proposed control strategy. Subsequently, through classic handling stability test conditions such as the snake test, steering angle step test, and double lane change test, the influence of active rear wheel steering on vehicle dynamic response indicators such as sideslip angle, lateral acceleration, and yaw rate is studied, and the control effect is compared with that of the feedforward control rear wheel steering strategy. Test results demonstrate that the rear-wheel steering technology based on zero sideslip angle control improves the vehicle's low-speed maneuverability and high-speed stability. Under the double lane change test condition at 80 km/h, the sideslip angle is reduced by approximately 30%, and the yaw rate gain is decreased by about 25% compared to the feedforward control strategy. These enhancements significantly improve the overall dynamic performance of the vehicle.
Xu, Xiangfei, Qu, Yuan, Liu, Jiabao
Control Strategies for a Hybrid Electric-Combustion Powertrain Applied to a Test Bench2025-36-024612/18/2025
This paper presents the design and implementation of a test bench intended for the development and validation of control strategies applied to a hybrid-electric powertrain. The setup combines a 48 V SEG BRM electric machine with a small-displacement internal combustion engine (ICE), the HONDA GX160, operating in a parallel hybrid configuration. The platform was developed to improve energy efficiency in comparison to a conventional ICE-only system. Modifications were carried out on an existing test bench at Instituto Mauá de Tecnologia, including the fabrication of a new enclosure for the battery pack and its battery management system (BMS), as well as the integration of a Vector VN8911 real-time controller. A custom control strategy was implemented and experimentally evaluated using a predefined drive cycle under two conditions: (I) ICE-only operation and (II) hybrid-electric operation with the proposed strategy. Results showed a fuel consumption reduction of approximately 13% with the hybrid-electric configuration. The comparability of both tests was ensured by maintaining equivalent initial and final battery state of charge (SoC), allowing a fair assessment based solely on fuel consumption.
Polizio, Yuri, Zabeu, Clayton, Pasquale, Gian, Pinheiro, Giovana, Vieira, Renato
Equivalent Circuit for Driving Piezoelectric Injectors2025-36-017712/18/2025
The activation of the fuel injector affects both engine performance and pollutant emissions. However, the automotive industry restricts access to information regarding the circuits and control strategies used in its vehicles. One way to optimize fuel injections is using piezoelectric injectors. These injectors utilize crystals that expand or contract when subjected to an electric current, moving the injector needle. They offer a response time up to four times faster than solenoid-type injectors and allow for multiple injections per combustion cycle. These characteristics result in higher combustion efficiency, reduced emissions, and lower noise levels, making piezoelectric injectors widely used in next-generation engines, where stricter emission and efficiency standards are required. This study aims to design a drive circuit for piezoelectric injectors in a common rail system, intended for use in a diesel injector test bench. Experimental measurement of voltage was obtained from an injector coupled to a running diesel engine. The developed equivalent circuit demonstrated the capability to drive piezoelectric injectors with voltage values close to those observed in a commercial injector installed in a diesel engine, validating its suitability for research and experimental applications. Additionally, injector operating curves were generated, evaluating the injected diesel mass flow rate for different energization times and injection pressure. The designed equivalent circuit successfully enabled the correct operation of piezoelectric injectors on the test bench, reproducing the expected charge and discharge behavior required for precise actuation.
Moreira, Vinicius Guerra, Silveira, Hairton Júnior José da, Morais Hanriot, Sérgio de, Euzébio, Wagner Roberto
Influence of Supply Voltage over Fuel Injector’s Deadtime2025-36-017412/18/2025
This study presents three methods for obtaining the latency of an indirect injection Electro-Injector as a function of the applied voltage. This parameter is relevant for the linearization of the injected mass in order to model fuel mass delivery on modern ECUs. For this purpose, the authors built a test bench, with the intent of running analysis on the results of tests of mass differential between injections, circulating current, and mechanical vibration. The authors gathered data over the iterative experiments and correlated the mass differential, vibration data and current measurements. The authors observed that with a reduction of supply voltage at the injector’s pins, a greater injector dead time made itself present displaying a need for a compensation of opening time in function of voltage since the injector’s needle takes a longer amount of time in partially open positions. Modern ECU manufacturers broadly use the data obtained by this type of iterative experiment to accurately model fuel mass-flow over different boundary conditions not limited only to supply voltage but also differential pressure and fuel temperatures.
Juliatti, Rafael Motter, Oliveira, Julia Mathias de, Morais Hanriot, Sérgio de, Silveira, Hairton Júnior Jose da, Moreira, Vinicius Guerra
Accelerated Aging Methodology for Catalyst on Engine Test Benches: Practical Considerations for a Successful Implementation of the Methodology2025-36-008712/18/2025
The durability of automotive catalysts is a critical factor in ensuring compliance with strict environmental regulations throughout the vehicle’s lifespan. Accelerated aging methods are widely used in the industry to predict catalyst degradation over a reduced period, allowing for performance optimization and ensuring their effectiveness in emission reduction. The ABNT NBR 16897:2021 standard establishes general guidelines for these tests but does not define in detail all the experimental conditions necessary for practical implementation. Addressing this gap, this study proposes the application and development of a standardized experimental procedure for accelerated catalyst aging, aligned with current regulations and adapted to test conditions in an engine dynamometer test bench. The objective is to provide a solid technical foundation, filling gaps for future implementations of this methodology, allowing investigations into the durability of aftertreatment systems and assisting both researchers and manufacturers in validating their products. This paper focuses exclusively on the description and validation of the experimental procedure. The methodology adopted in this study involves equipping the catalysts with K-type thermocouples for precise thermal monitoring, the selection and calibration of an internal combustion engine on a dynamometer test bench, and the control of test parameters via the FuelTech control unit. The aging time was determined using the Bench Aging Time (BAT) equation, following the temperature profile recorded during the Standard Road Cycle (SRC) on a chassis dynamometer. The implementation of the cycle, following the collected data, is carried out by running the engine on a bench dynamometer using the Standard Bench Cycle (SBC), ensuring precise accelerated aging that accurately reflects the same thermal exposure that the aftertreatment unit experiences during conventional vehicle operation throughout its lifespan. The methodological standardization and the analysis of implementation challenges offer a solid technical reference for future applications.
Yana, Diego Andree Reynoso, Pradelle, Florian, Braga, Sergio Leal, Sánchez, Fernando Zegarra, Machado, Guilherme Bastos, Carvalho, Rogério Nascimento de, Silva, Katia Moniz da
Design and Construction of a Bench Test System for Elastomers Suspension2025-36-004112/18/2025
This study presents the design, construction, and experimental validation of a test bench for characterizing elastomer-based torsion suspensions in light vehicle applications. The system replaces conventional spring-damper assemblies with viscoelastic elements that simultaneously absorb and dissipate road-induced vibrations. We developed a scaled prototype instrumented with an Arduino-based data acquisition system and analyzed results using Octave®. The experimental protocol comprised: (1) tribological tests to identify optimal friction pairs through coefficient of friction (μ) and wear rate measurements, and (2) dynamometric evaluations of torque transmission capacity, power output, and efficiency across gear ratios (2.03-6.34). Results indicate that a steel-steel friction pair under a normal force of 250-300 N achieves optimal performance, delivering an output power of 1706 W (84.8% efficiency) and a torque of 30.25 Nm. Comparative analysis shows this configuration reduces wear rates by 42% compared to aluminum-polyurethane pairs while maintaining comparable μ values (0.32±0.03). The system provides a cost-effective platform (75% cheaper than commercial alternatives) for validating Continuous Torque Transmission (CTT) technologies, with direct applications in electric vehicle drivetrains and engineering education.
Silva, Diego Bruno, Grandinetti, Francisco José, Castro, Thais Santos, Dias, Érica Ximenes, Souza Soares, de Álvaro Manoel, Martins, Marcelo Sampaio, Reis de Faria Neto, dos Antônio
Evaluation of Surface Integrity Aspects Induced by Different Gear Manufacturing Paths for Electric Vehicle Transmission Systems2025-36-006212/18/2025
The mobility electrification process is currently of great interest due to its environmental appeal, but it is accompanied by new technical requirements for vehicle systems, the powertrain being one of those with the most significant trade-offs to be solved. Higher power densities, higher torque efficiency and lower noise and vibration generation are simultaneously required. The literature shows that the manufacturing chain can influence the final state of surface integrity of a part, which affects the operational behavior and service life of a component. Therefore, a customized transmission system design for electric propulsion requires several analyses, from the raw material to the gear manufacturing processes, so that surface integrity plays a significative role in the required performance. From the perspective of their capability to meet the e-mobility requirements in terms of surface integrity is essential to conduct a comparative analysis of gear manufacturing processes. So, the objective of this study is to evaluate the influence of surface integrity induced by gear grinding and shaving processes on the contact fatigue. Gear samples were manufactured by the grinding and shaving finishing processes and compared in terms of the obtained topography, manufacturing deviations, carburized layer and induced residual stresses. Contact fatigue tests performed in a circulating power test rig evidenced that the intergranular oxidation present in the shaved gears is critical in terms of micropitting related-failure in gear teeth when compared to the ground gears. However, lower roughness values obtained in the shaved gears are promising aspects compared to the ground gears.
Gomes, Caio F. S., Gomes, Gilberto M. O., Colombo, Tiago C. A., Rego, Ronnie R., Michelotti, Alvaro C., Berto, Lucas F.
Research on the Rotation Resistance Coefficient Experiment Based on the 6 Degree-of-Freedom Rig2025-99-030812/17/2025
The rotational resistance coefficient of the bogie is a critical parameter for assessing the operational safety of vehicles, significantly influencing the stability of the vehicle’s snaking motion and the safety of curve negotiation. This paper conducts measurements of the rotational resistance coefficient using a 6- degree-of-freedom bogie test rig, evaluating the variation patterns of the indicator under different vehicle load conditions and air spring inflation states. By establishing a SIMPACK dynamic model of the 6-DOF platform, it is possible to obtain actuator displacement control curves that comply with the EN 14363 standard. Taking a specific subway trailer bogie as an example, the rotational resistance coefficient under various operating conditions was measured. The test results indicate that under the condition of air spring deflation, the rotational resistance coefficient is significantly higher than that under air spring inflation. Moreover, under the condition of air spring deflation, the effect of vehicle load on the rotational resistance coefficient is negligible. Due to assembly errors and the approximate methods used in calculations, the hysteresis curve of the rotational resistance torque-angle measured by the 6-DOF test rig exhibits minor fluctuations, which have a minimal impact on the results, and there is room for further optimization. The method proposed in this paper can provide a basis for vehicle design optimization, reduce the risk of derailment, and also assist in vehicle maintenance and repair during the operation stage to ensure safe operation. It has been widely applied in the design and operation practice of subway vehicles.
Li, Li, Hu, Jie
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