Browse Topic: Test equipment and instrumentation

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Simulative temperature determination of an electric machine from test bench tests2025-01-0520To be published on 11/25/2025
One of the most important components of an electric vehicle is the drive motor. Induction motors are often used for this purpose. Power losses occur during the operation of these motors, particularly at high speeds. Among other things, this power loss corresponds to the sum of winding losses, iron core losses and mechanical losses. The power losses generate heat, causing the temperature in the rotor and stator to rise. The increase in temperature of the components inside the motor can lead to premature wear and fatigue failure. To prevent overheating, the motors are air or water cooled. Water cooling can be achieved by jacket cooling, for example. In this case, the heat generated is dissipated directly by forced convection. However, the cooling jacket makes it difficult to determine the temperature inside the motor. Determining these temperatures is necessary to prevent the motor from fatiguing prematurely. The temperatures that occur inside the motor during operation are of particular
Schamberger, Stephanie, Reuss, Hans-Christian
Fatigue in Plastic Field of AISI 304L on an Engine Component: An Interesting Case on a Pulley for Automotive Application2025-32-008011/03/2025
This study investigates the failure mechanisms of a press-fitted AISI 304L pulley, which is used to drive an engine coolant variable water pump in automotive applications. The analysis focuses on the peculiar loading scheme of the pulley resulting from the innovative water pump design which combines high mean stress from press fitting with cyclic stress from rotating bending loads that exceed the material's yield point. This is coupled with the cyclic material behavior of AISI 304L which exhibit a strong cyclic hardening. This combination significantly influences the stress distribution and fatigue life of the component under cyclic loads combined with material plasticity, ultimately leading to fatigue failure at the pulley-shaft mating surface. Assembly endurance tests were conducted on a specialized test bench, allowing control of pulley bending load. A comprehensive failure analysis, including visual inspection, metallurgical examination, and finite element analysis (FEA) was
Franceschini, Alessandro, Squarcini, Raffaele, Rybicki, Gilles
An SVM-based approach to develop a new control module for H2-powered engine using driver behaviour classification2025-32-004211/03/2025
In the next years, the global hydrogen vehicle market is expected to grow at a very high rate. Consequently, it is necessary for scholars and professionals to study and test specific components in order to rise motor efficiency leveraging the new features of connectivity available in smart roads. In particular, our research is focused on the developement of an engine control module driven by evaluation of usage characteristics (e.g., driving style) and "connected-to-x" scenarios using the standard engine control approach. Moreover, the module proposed enables the implementation of "fast running" models to improve the response of vehicle and make the best possible use of H2-powered engine characteristics. That said, in this paper is proposed a new approach to implement the control module, using Support Vector Machine (SVM) as the machine learning algorithm to detect driving style, and consequently modify the parameters of the engine. We choose SVM because i) it is less prone to
Mastroianni, Michele, Merola, Simona, Irimescu, Adrian, De Santis, Marco, Esposito, Christian, Aversano, Lerina
Experimental analysis of wheel bearing friction losses under realistic driving cycles on a component and roller test bench2025-32-010011/03/2025
The ongoing electrification of vehicle powertrains brings attention to components with a minor contribution to overall friction losses in research and development. To optimize the overall energy efficiency, it is essential to analyze and reduce the losses in these components. Wheel bearings are of particular interest in this context, as their friction losses affect both the driving and recuperation phases. These losses are dependent on temperature, mechanical loads and the bearing mounting situation into the vehicle. The analysis of friction losses and their dependency on the factors mentioned above is usually conducted by measurements on component test benches to allow an isolated evaluation. In contrast, the friction losses of the complete drive system are measured on powertrain or roller test benches. In this context, the factors affecting the losses in wheel bearings may deviate from the measurements obtained on component test benches. The purpose of this paper is to analyses the
Hartmann, Lukas, Erxleben, Lars, Rebesberger, Ron, Henze, Roman, Sturm, Axel
Development of Electric Vehicle Motor Test Rig for Performance Analysis2025-28-038010/30/2025
Electric two-wheeler testing before they are introduced in the market is one of the essential features needed by the certification agencies. Different types of test bench are available for measuring the torque and power from the electric two-wheeler that includes eddy current based motor test bench and mechanical based loading benches. In the present work an electric motor bench is designed and developed that takes care all features of electric two wheelers. The power supply to the motor is done through convertors and controller while mechanical loading is applied through belt. The other features that are kept in the rig includes lighting system and speed controller for the motor. The design is developed for variable outer diameter of electric two-wheeler testing. Tests were conducted on the developed rig. Test results were compared with electric motor specifications and were found to be in good agreement
Vashist, Devendra, Verma, Kartik, Chamok, Fahim, Tewatia, Bharat, Rajput, Neeraj
Optimizing Electric Vehicle Motor Testing with Fine Gaussian SVM and Bilayered Neural Network2025-28-039710/30/2025
Electric vehicles are shaping the future of the automotive industry, with the drive motor being a crucial component in their operation. Ensuring motor reliability requires rigorous testing using specialized test benches to validate key performance parameters. However, inefficiencies in the helical gear configuration within these test systems have led to frequent malfunctions, affecting production flow. This study focuses on optimizing the motor test bench by refining critical design parameters through vibration signal analysis and machine learning techniques. Vibrational data is collected under different gear configurations, utilizing an accelerometer integrated with a Data Acquisition (DAQ) system and MATLAB-based directives for seamless data collection. Machine learning classifiers, including Fine Gaussian SVM and Bilayered Neural Network, are applied to categorize signals into normal and faulty conditions, both with and without a 0.25 KW load. The analysis reveals that SVM achieves
S, Ravikumar, Sharik, N, Syed, Shaul, V, Muralidharan, D, Pradeep Kumar
A Guideline for Aerospace Platform Fiber Optic Training and Awareness Education Introduction to Aerospace Fiber Optics Knowledge CompetenciesARP5602/1 (Current)10/23/2025
This document establishes training guidelines applicable to fiber optic safety training, technical training and fiber awareness for individuals involved in the manufacturing, installation, support, integration and testing of fiber optic systems. Applicable personnel include: Managers Engineers Technicians Logisticians Trainers/Instructors Third Party Maintenance Agencies Quality Assurance Shipping Receiving Production Purchasing
AS-3 Fiber Optics and Applied Photonics Committee
A Guideline for Aerospace Platform Fiber Optic Training and Awareness EducationARP5602 (Current)10/23/2025
This document establishes training guidelines applicable to fiber optic safety training, technical training and fiber awareness for individuals involved in the manufacturing, installation, support, integration and testing of fiber optic systems. Applicable personnel include: Managers Engineers Technicians Logisticians Trainers/Instructors Third Party Maintenance Agencies Quality Assurance Shipping Receiving Production Purchasing
AS-3 Fiber Optics and Applied Photonics Committee
In-Service Fiber Optic Inspection, Evaluation, and Cleaning, Best Practices, Expanded Beam TerminiARP6283/1 (Current)10/23/2025
This document provides user information on best practice methods and processes for the in-service inspection, evaluation, and cleaning of expanded beam (EB) fiber optic interconnect components (termini, alignment sleeves, and connectors), test equipment, and test leads based on the information provided in AIR6031 and ARP6283. This document provides the user with a decision-making tool to determine if the fiber optic components are acceptable for operation with EB fiber optic termini.
AS-3 Fiber Optics and Applied Photonics Committee
Research on Network Control System for Heavy Duty Trains Based on Laser + Ethernet2025-99-005110/17/2025
Trains traditionally transmit braking and mitigation commands through the air tube filling and exhausting method, which is easy to cause local large longitudinal impact. In order to meet the high-precision requirements of synchronous transmission of commands for heavy-duty trains with large groupings, this paper proposes a laser+industrial Ethernet network control system, which can meet the requirements of flexible train grouping and virtual connecting under the premise of ensuring synchronous transmission of commands for trains with large groupings. The system consists of central control unit, locomotive laser communication module, locomotive switch, mobile wireless communication terminal, security gateway, vehicle control unit, vehicle laser communication module, vehicle switch, etc. It is designed according to the three-layer architecture of vehicle-level network, train-level network and line-level network, which can realise the issuance of internal control commands and status
Meng, Xiangzhen, Li, Chuanhu, Zhu, Youlong
Simulation Study of Wheel Bearing Friction Losses at Vehicle Level2025-01-039910/07/2025
With the ongoing electrification of vehicles, components contributing a minor share of overall drivetrain losses are coming into focus. Analyzing these losses is crucial for enhancing the energy efficiency of modern vehicles and meeting the increasing demands for sustainability and extended driving range. These components include wheel bearings, whose friction losses are influenced by parameters such as temperature, mechanical loads, and mounting situation. Therefore, it is essential to analyze the resulting friction losses and their dependence on the mentioned influencing parameters at an early stage of development, both through test bench measurements and with the help of simulation models. To achieve these objectives, this submission presents a methodology that combines test bench measurements with a measurement-based simulation of the friction losses of wheel bearings occurring in the vehicle as a complete system under varying driving cycles and parameters. For this purpose, an
Hartmann, Lukas, Sturm, Axel, Henze, Roman, Notz, Fabian
Military Battery Tester Development Using MBSE and Digital Twins2025-01-044409/16/2025
This paper presents a model-based systems engineering (MBSE) and digital twin approach for a military 6T battery tester. A digital twin architecture (encompassing product, process, and equipment twins) is integrated with AI-driven analytics to enhance battery defect detection, provide predictive diagnostics, and improve testing efficiency. The 6T battery tester’s MBSE design employs comprehensive SysML models to ensure traceability and robust system integration. Initial key contributions include early identification of battery faults via impedance-based sensing and machine learning, real-time state-of-health tracking through a synchronized virtual battery model, and streamlined test automation. Results indicate the proposed MBSE/digital twin solution can detect degradation indicators (e.g. capacity fade, rising internal impedance) earlier than traditional methods, enabling proactive maintenance and improved operational readiness. This approach offers a reliable, efficient testing
Sandoval, Roman
Enhancing Robustness of Electro-Hydraulic Brake-by-Wire Actuators via Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control2025-01-034109/15/2025
In recent years, motorsport has increasingly focused on environmental concerns, leading to the rise of hybrid and fully electric competitions. In this scenario, electric motors and batteries take a crucial role in reducing the environmental impact by recovering energy during braking. However, due to inherent limitations, motors and battery cannot fully capture all braking power, necessitating the use of standard friction brakes. To achieve an efficient balance between electric motors and friction brakes, the brake pressure can no longer be directly controlled by the driver. Instead, it must be computed by the Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) and sent to a smart actuator, i.e. the Brake-By-Wire (BBW), which ensures that the required pressure is applied. The standard approach to achieve precise pressure control is to design a nested Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control architecture, which requires an accurate nominal model of the system dynamics to meet the desired tracking
Gimondi, Alex, Dubbini, Alberto, Riva, Giorgio, Cantoni, Carlo
Development of a Laboratory Brake for a Flywheel Mass Test Rig for Variable Pad Sizes and Shapes with a Force Distribution Unit for Ideal Contact Pressure and a Topography Measurement System for In-Situ Recording of Surface Changes and Wear2025-01-033109/15/2025
Pin-on-disk tribometers are used to determine the frictional behaviour and boundary layer dynamics of material pairings. Material pairings are examined under defined conditions in order to reason about the friction behaviour and wear. Pairings for real brake systems with larger pad sizes can be tested on flywheel mass test rigs in order to provide proof of suitability. This is mainly due to a lack of knowledge about the scaling behaviour of friction linings. The Department of Machinery System Design at TU Berlin has combined the classic approach of a pin-on-disk tribometer with a flywheel mass test rig (up to 12.78 kgm2) and thus set up a laboratory brake on which material pairings with different pad shapes and sizes (up to 48 cm2) can be examined. The flywheel mass test rig consists of an adjustable DC-motor that drives a shaft on which variable flywheel masses and brake disks can be installed. The variability allows for different kinetic energies at different friction speeds. The
Heuser, Robert Michael, Rosenthal, Tobias Richard, Wiest, Daniel Christian, Meyer, Henning Jürgen
Method to Analyze Driving Dynamics during Faults in the Electric Drivetrain on a Vehicle-in-the-Loop Test Bench2025-24-012309/07/2025
The mechanical components of drive systems for electric vehicles are less complex than those of conventional drives and are therefore generally less prone to faults. On the other hand, a challenge lies in the relatively limited experience in dealing with faults in the electric drivetrain and their effects on driving dynamics compared to conventional drives. To meet these challenges, this paper presents a method to simulate faults in the electric powertrain of a real demonstrator vehicle on a full vehicle test bench and to evaluate the influence on driving dynamics. For this purpose, the demonstrator vehicle was modeled in detail in a co-simulation between the driving dynamics simulation software CarMaker and the real-time solution for simulating and testing electrical components Typhoon HIL. This enabled the investigation of the vehicle’s behavior in the event of a fault. Subsequently, tests with the vehicle were performed on the Vehicle-in-the-Loop full vehicle test bench and the
Rautenberg, Philip, Konzept, Anja, Hitz, Arne, Frey, Michael, Reick, Benedikt
Experimental Simulation of a Real Mission for Identifying a Telematics-Based Diagnostic Model in Connected Light Commercial Vehicles2025-24-012409/07/2025
Remote monitoring of commercial vehicles is taking an increasingly central position in automotive companies, driven by the growth of the on-road freight transportation sector. Specifically, telematics devices are increasingly gaining importance in monitoring powertrain operability, performance, reliability, sustainability, and maintainability. These systems enable real-time data collection and analysis, offering valuable support in resolving issues that may occur on the road. Moreover, the fault codes, called Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs), that arise during actual road driving constitute fundamental information when combined with several engine parameters updated every second. This integration provides a more accurate assessment of vehicle conditions, allowing proactive maintenance strategies. The principal goal is to deliver an even faster response for resolving sudden issues, thus minimizing vehicle downtime. High-resolution data transmission and failure event information
D'Agostino, Valerio, Cardone, Massimo, Mancaruso, Ezio, Rossetti, Salvatore, Marialto, Renato
Optimum Design and Sizing Approach for a Series-Hybrid Vehicle2025-24-009909/07/2025
The need to reduce pollutant emissions has pushed the automotive industry towards sustainable mobility promoting new technological solutions, among which the use of hybrid powertrains stands out. The development of a hybrid architecture is very complex and demands proper components sizing and the determination of optimized power-split strategies among different power sources, for example: Internal Combustion Engine (ICE), electric generator/motor and batteries. Moreover, the experimental analysis regarding performance and emissions requires that the whole propulsive system must be set up on the test bench, hence, negatively affecting the cost of the entire design phase. In this scenario, an optimum design and sizing approach for a series-hybrid electric vehicle (S-HEV) is proposed aiming at a design cost reduction. The presented procedure relies on numerical modelling of the hybrid powertrain and on the optimization of the fuel consumption and the driving range. The series-hybrid
Lisi, Leonardo, Saponaro, Gianmarco, Episcopo, Domenico, Torresi, Marco, Camporeale, Sergio Mario
Experimental Analysis and Model-Based Characterization of the Toyota Mirai II’s Electric Machine2025-24-013609/07/2025
The electrification of the transportation sector relies on extensive research and data availability to accelerate technological advancements. However, for certain key components such as electric machines, detailed operational information remains scarce, which in turn limits the development of accurate system-level models for electrified powertrains. As a contribution to addressing this challenge, this study presents an experimental benchmark of the electric machine in the second-generation Toyota Mirai, a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV) featuring a variable DC voltage bus, which was tested on a roller test bench. The proposed methodology aims to characterize the electric machine with minimal instrumentation and prior knowledge of the machine’s configuration, by identifying electrical and geometric parameters that are relevant for a steady-state model of the machine, applicable to system-level studies, with the objective of providing a methodology that can be used in future
Carlos Da Silva, Daniel, Kefsi, Laid, Sciarretta, Antonio
Innovative Full-GaN Inverter Development for 800V/100kW Automotive Applications2025-24-013309/07/2025
In the rapidly advancing field of EV applications, the design of high-efficient inverters is one of the key factors in improving overall vehicle performance. This paper presents the design of a three-level (3-L) automotive inverter based on GaN technology, aimed at enhancing the performance and efficiency of electric vehicles (EVs). GaN components, sourced from Cambridge GaN Devices (CGD), are utilized to leverage their superior switching characteristics and efficiency. The work is supported by both simulation and experimental results, which confirm the advantages of integrating GaN components and the 3-L inverter topology. The findings demonstrate improved performance, lower losses, and enhanced overall efficiency, making this design a promising solution for the future of EV power electronics.
Battiston, Alexandre, Aghaei Hashjin, Saeid, Findlay, John, Haje Obeid, Najla, Siad, Ines
Model-Based Optimization of Diesel/OMEx Fuelled CI Engine under Multiple Blending Conditions2025-24-003809/07/2025
The search for alternative solutions for vehicle electrification, while reducing the carbon footprint during the transition to green mobility, leads to the investigation of electro-fuels (e-fuels) in conventional internal combustion engines. Leveraging previous research, the present study focuses on the optimisation of a Compression Ignition (CI) engine combustion control in response to the use of the Oxymethylene Dimethyl Ethers (OMEx) blended with conventional diesel. The selected e-fuel is the OME3, which is expected to be used as a drop-in solution and to easily achieve a reduction in soot emissions due to both its high oxygen content and lack of direct carbon bonds in its molecular structure. To verify its potential, a 1D single-cylinder CI multi-zone engine model has been exploited to simulate various diesel/OME3 blends in a wide engine operating range. The first step deals with the evaluation of performance and emissions to demonstrate the differences, particularly in terms of
Foglia, Antonio, Cervone, Davide, Frasci, Emmanuele, Arsie, Ivan, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare
DLR Tire and Road Wear Particle Emission Testing Methodology–Collection System Influence and Repeatability Assessments2025-24-009209/07/2025
Tire and road wear particles (TRWP) have emerged as air quality hazardous matters and significant sources of airborne microplastic pollution, contributing to environmental and human health concerns. Regulatory initiatives, such as the Euro 7 standards, emphasize the urgent need for standardized methodologies to quantify TRWP emissions accurately. Despite advancements in measuring tire abrasion rates, critical gaps persist in the characterization of airborne TRWP, particularly regarding the influence of collection system design and influencing parameters on measurement accuracy and repeatability. This study addresses these challenges by designing a controlled methodological framework that aims to minimize the influencing effects and ensure comparability in TRWP emission quantification results. At the German Aerospace Center (DLR) dynamometer testbench in Stuttgart, Germany, a methodical framework was established to ensure the repeatability and comparability of TRWP measurements
Celenlioglu, Melis Seren, Epple, Fabius, Reijrink, Nina, Löber, Manuel, Reiland, Sven, Vecchi, Roberta, Philipps, Franz
AeroSolfd: Advancing Air Quality through Retrofitted Gasoline Particulate Filters – Insights from Laboratory and Real-World Evaluations2025-24-008809/07/2025
This article details the experimental and testing activities of the EU project AeroSolfd, with a particular focus on the project's efforts to reduce combustion-based nanoparticle emissions in exhaust gases for the European fleet of vehicles by developing a GPF retrofit solution. The technical activities undertaken the process of developing such a retrofit are examined in this article. The findings illustrate the viability of reducing nanoparticle levels in gasoline-powered vehicles with the utilization of appropriate GPFs. For this purpose, in addition to a fleet, four vehicles were examined in great detail and underwent the process of obtaining component approval for the particulate filter. The vehicles were measured in a preliminary state, then following the installation of the GPF, and subsequently after several months of continuous field operation. A total of four vehicles were selected for evaluation as a representative subgroup of a larger test fleet of vehicles in the project
Engelmann, Danilo, Mayer, Andreas, Comte, Pierre, Rubino, Lauretta, Larsen, Lars
Investigation of the Combustion Process of a Thermally Conditioned Active Prechamber in Monovalent Operation with Ammonia2025-24-002809/07/2025
The debate over synthetic fuels is intense especially in sectors with a high energy demand like maritime [1, 2]. Hydrogen production from renewable sources is growing, but immediate measures for decarbonization are needed [3, 4]. In this context, the project MethMag was funded, and a gas engine for methane combustion with an innovative cooling concept and a purged prechamber (PC) spark plug was virtually developed [5, 6]. Validation with data from the test bench demonstrates that the simulations accurately represent the operating conditions [7, 8]. This combustion process is adapted for ammonia, which is being considered as a climate-friendly fuel of the future, particularly in maritime transportation [4, 9]. This fuel faces significant combustion challenges and is therefore mostly considered in complex, bivalent systems [10]. In particular, the prechamber is examined regarding the ignitability of ammonia. The overarching objective is to eliminate the necessity for a secondary fuel
Rothe, Paul, Bikas, Georgios, Mauss, Fabian
Design of a High-Speed Pure Synchro-Reluctant Machine with Asymmetrical Poles for Automotive Applications2025-24-012909/07/2025
In this article, the authors present the various choices made to design a magnet free and directly recyclable pure synchro-reluctant (Pure-SynRel) machine with asymmetrical poles operating at a maximum speed of ~21,000 rpm dedicated to automotive. This project focused on identifying design levers and optimizing the magnetic circuit to address three well-known challenges of this topology that limit its application as an automotive traction machine. These challenges include: maximizing the power factor to reduce inverter rating and cost, minimizing sources of NVH (noise, vibration, and harshness) and torque ripples, and ultimately maximizing efficiency to bridge the performance gap with magnet-based technologies (PMaSynRel). The sizing of stator components—such as the choice of winding (concentric or distributed, full or fractional pitch, round or hairpin wire)—and rotor components (e.g., the number of pole pairs, shape, and number of barriers) are explained. Additionally, the
Applagnat-Tartet, Antoine, Milosavljevic, Misa, Delpit, Pierre
Numerical and Experimental Investigation of a Pre-Chamber Igniter for Enhanced Low Load Stability in Internal Combustion Engines2025-24-000209/07/2025
Developing innovative ignition technologies offers a crucial opportunity to improve the performance of internal combustion engines while significantly reducing harmful emissions, contributing to a more sustainable future. The replacement of the standard spark plug with a pre-chamber igniter is a well-known combustion accelerator for externally ignited engines for passenger vehicles. An increase in engine efficiency, especially at high loads, can be realized. However, pre-chamber ignition technology has not yet been widely adopted in the market, primarily due to the difficulty of achieving stable operation at lower engine loads. A better understanding of the flow and mixture conditions is needed to improve the combustion stability with the pre-chamber igniter in low-load operating conditions. The gas exchange in the passive pre-chamber was studied using a combination of numerical modelling and experimental methods. Accessing those parameters experimentally requires a high effort in test
Fellner, Felix, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte, D'Elia, Matteo, Burgo Beiro, Marcos, Nambully, Suresh Kumar, Rothbauer, Rainer
Experimental Study of the Lubricating Oil Impact on the Unsteady Performance of an Automotive Turbocharger2025-24-007809/07/2025
Turbocharging technique is a key technology for the development of hydrogen engines, allowing high lambda values to reach low NOx emissions. In ultra-lean mixture conditions, the thermal management of the lubricating oil and its cold condition becomes a crucial aspect that cannot be neglected. Accordingly, the impact of different lubricating oils and different lubricant thermal conditions is highlighted referring to the performance of a turbocharging system for automotive application. To this aim, an experimental campaign is conducted at the test bench for components of propulsion systems of the University of Genoa. Tests are performed on a turbocharger equipped with a variable geometry turbine under both steady and unsteady flow conditions, considering different positions of the turbine regulating device. A 4-cylinder engine head was coupled to the turbocharger in order to reproduce the pulsating flow related to the opening and closing of the engine valves. The influence of the
Marelli, Silvia, Usai, Vittorio, Cordalonga, Carla
Visualization Analysis of Hydrogen Combustion Triggered by Non-Controlled Hotspots Using a Rapid Compression Expansion Machine2025-24-004709/07/2025
Research on hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines has gained growing attention as a carbon-neutral solution to reducing emissions in the transport sector. However, challenges remain, with the risk of abnormal combustion being one of the major criticalities. This paper aims to clarify the ignition process of a hydrogen-air mixture caused by lubricant oil droplets and soot deposition. To achieve this, high-speed imaging methods were applied with a Rapid Compression Expansion Machine under engine-like conditions. Direct imaging and OH* chemiluminescence were captured simultaneously on the engine head to visualize the ignition point and flame propagation. Different operating conditions were tested to evaluate the influence of lambda, intake pressure, and soot quantity on ignition occurrence. For each test bench configuration, ten successive tests were conducted to assess the probability of ignition. The presence of soot was ensured through a preliminary run with diesel injection. The
Tempesti, Claretta, Yukitani, Takumi, Horibe, Naoto, Romani, Luca, Ferrara, Giovanni, Kawanabe, Hiroshi
Integrated CFD-Experimental Methodology for Hydrogen-Fuelled Small Loop Scavenged Two-Stroke Engines2025-24-001409/07/2025
This paper presents an integrated methodology for the analysis of hydrogen-fueled 2-Stroke engines, combining experimental data, 1D-CFD simulations, and 3D-CFD combustion calculations. The proposed approach aims to enhance the understanding of scavenging, injection, and combustion processes in a 50 cm3 loop-scavenged engine with low-pressure direct hydrogen injection, experimentally studied on a test bench. The hydrogen-fueled engine was capable of achieving a maximum power output of 3.1 kW, using a slightly lean air-to-fuel ratio (lambda = 1.3). The maximum engine speed for stable combustion without knocking was achieved at wide open throttle at 7119 RPM. The developed 1D-CFD model, based on the engine layout at the test bench, was calibrated using average experimental data and specific full load operating points. 3D-CFD simulations were performed for one full load operating point, focusing on combustion dynamics and fuel distribution within the chamber, with combustion model
Caprioli, Stefano, Ferretti, Luca, Scrignoli, Francesco, Fiaschi, Matteo, D'Elia, Matteo, Oswald, Roland, Schoegl, Oliver, Nambully, Suresh Kumar, Rothbauer, Rainer, Mattarelli, Enrico, Kirchberger, Roland, Rinaldini, Carlo
Validation of a Suspension Lifter Bracket through a Test Bench2025-36-030608/01/2025
In the Brazilian market, the 6x2 configuration for commercial vehicles is widely used. These vehicles feature a driven rear axle and a non-driven axle. For the non-driven axle, it is common to use a lifter system that allows the axle to be lifted when the vehicle is running empty. This system provides benefits such as reduced fuel consumption, lower tire wear, and reduced toll costs when charges are based on the number of axles in contact with the ground. Given these advantages, the system has a high demand, making it mandatory to perform a durability test prior to its market implementation. This paper will present the validation methodology for the lifter system bracket. To achieve this, the following stages will be discussed: CAE, instrumentation, data acquisition, test bench concept, test execution and results.
Leme, Cristiano, da Costa Rodrigues, Gilson, Figueiredo, Guilherme Galvão, de Souza Maria, Heitor Cunha, Pires, Luciano Rogério
Cab Roof Strength Evaluation - Quasi-Static Loading Heavy TrucksJ2422_202507 (Current)07/22/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice describes the test procedures for conducting quasi-static cab roof strength tests for heavy-truck applications. Its purpose is to establish recommended test procedures that will standardize the procedure for heavy trucks. Descriptions of the test setup, test instrumentation, photographic/video coverage, and test fixtures are included.
Truck Crashworthiness Committee
Multivariable Fuzzy Sliding-Mode Torque Control for Internal Combustion Engines03-18-05-003207/21/2025
Internal combustion engine torque control presents a persistent challenge due to pronounced nonlinearities, parametric uncertainties, and time-varying dynamics. While conventional controllers like the proportional–integral derivative (PID) are widely implemented, they often struggle to deliver high-performance results under transient conditions. To address this gap, this work introduces and experimentally validates a novel torque controller with fuzzy sliding-mode controller (FSMC) architecture, a hybrid control not previously applied to the domain of engine torque regulation. The proposed FSMC is specifically engineered to systematically mitigate the effects of system nonlinearities by integrating the robustness of sliding-mode theory with the adaptive, chattering-suppression capabilities of fuzzy logic. This study details the controller’s development, implementation, and rigorous experimental validation on an ethanol-fueled engine via a dynamometer test bench. The controller’s
Silva, Marcos Henrique Carvalho, Maggio, André Vinícius Oliveira, Laganá, Armando Antônio Maria, Pereira, Bruno Silva, Justo, João Francisco
Ethanol Fuel as Enabler for High-Efficiency and Low-Soot Combustion in Dual-Fuel and Blend Modes03-18-04-002807/16/2025
Global climate initiatives and government regulations are driving the demand for zero-carbon tailpipe emission vehicles. To ensure a sustainable transition, rapid action strategies are essential. In this context, renewable fuels can reduce lifecycle CO2 emissions and enable low-soot and NOx emissions. This study examines the effects of renewable ethanol in dual-fuel (DF) and blend fueling modes in a compression ignition (CI) engine. The novelty of this research lies in comparing different combustion modes using the same engine test rig. The methodology was designed to evaluate the characteristics of various injection modes and identify the inherent features that define their application ranges. The investigation was conducted on a single-cylinder engine equipped with state-of-the-art combustion technology. The results indicate that the maximum allowable ethanol concentration is 30% in blend mode, due to blend stability and regulatory standards, and 70% in DF mode, due to combustion
Belgiorno, Giacomo, Ianniello, Roberto, Di Blasio, Gabriele
SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine 3600 rpm Stepped Power TestJ2487_202507 (Current)07/16/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice is intended as the definition of a standard test, but it may be subject to frequent change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This should be kept in mind when considering its use. The SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine is used to evaluate the friction characteristics of automatic transmission plate clutches with automotive transmission fluids. It can also be used to conduct durability tests on wet friction systems. The specific purpose of this document is to define a 3600 rpm stepped power test for the evaluation of wet friction system performance variation as a function of power level. This procedure uses an initial engagement speed of 3600 rpm and is intended as a standard procedure for common use by both suppliers and end users. The only variables selected by the supplier or user of the friction system are: a Friction material b Fluid c Reaction plates These three variables must be clearly identified when reporting the results of using
Automatic Transmission and Transaxle Committee
Brief Communication: Measurement of Boundary Layer Turbulent Transition Using an Acoustic Microphone Unit01-18-02-001107/16/2025
In this article the transition of a laminar boundary layer (BL) over a flat plate is characterized using an acoustic technique with a pitot probe linked to a microphone unit. The probe was traversed along a BL plate at a fixed wind tunnel flow velocity of 5.5 m/s. A spectral analysis of the acoustic fluctuations showed that this setup can estimate the streamwise location and length of the BL transition region, as well as the BL thickness, by using the intermittency similitude approach. Further work is required to quantify the uncertainty caused by signal attenuation within the data acquisition system.
Lawson, Nicholas John, Zachos, Pavlos K.
Application of Sustainable Aviation Fuels in Compression Ignition Aviation Engines: In-Flight Investigations2025-01-031707/02/2025
To achieve a significant reduction in net CO₂ emissions in the aviation sector, sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) are considered a key factor. Current research efforts are therefore focused on SAFs, which exhibit properties that differ from conventional kerosene, particularly in aspects critical to compression-ignition (CI) engines, such as cetane number, evaporation behavior or lubricity. These differences necessitate dedicated investigations to assess their suitability and performance in such engines. However, real operating conditions — such as intake air- and exhaust- pressure levels during flight — cannot be fully replicated on standard engine test benches. For this reason, real flight experiments were conducted to address these limitations. Notably, this work marks the first instance of in-flight testing of SAFs in CI aviation engines, constituting a significant milestone in this research area. In the course of these investigations, ASTM D7566 Annex A2-compliant HEFA
Kleissner, Florian, Reitmayr, Christian, Hofmann, Peter
Experimental Evaluation of Purge Strategies in the Recirculation Path of a PEM Fuel Cell System2025-01-031607/02/2025
PEM fuel cell technology plays a vital role in realizing an emission-free mobility and, depending on the considered use case, offers significant advantages over battery electric solutions as well as hydrogen combustion engines. When high performance over a longer period of time as well as short refueling times are key requirements, fuel cell powertrains show their core strengths. However, the adaption of fuel cells in the mobility sector strongly depends on their efficiency which directly relates to the vehicle’s fuel consumption, range and ultimately cost to operate. Therefore, the influence on efficiency and power of different purge strategies used to operate PEM fuel cells is experimentally investigated and compared. A concentration-dependent purge strategy is developed and examined in reference to a charge-dependent strategy. The measurements are carried out on a fuel cell system test bench which corresponds to a fully functional fuel cell system including all commonly used
Hauser, Tobias, Allmendinger, Frank
Improving Gearbox Acoustics through Elastomer-Based Bearing Damping2025-01-032307/02/2025
This study analyses the effect of external damping of roller bearings on the acoustic behaviour of gearboxes in electric powertrains. The growing use of electric vehicles has increased the importance of reducing gearbox noise, as the lack of noise masking from internal combustion engines and the higher operating speeds of electric motors exacerbate the acoustic challenges. Gearbox noise, which is primarily caused by tooth mesh excitation and its transmission through shafts and bearings, requires strategies to minimise its impact on vehicle comfort and performance. External damping is achieved through the integration of specific elements at the circumference of the outer bearing ring. These elements are utilised to modify the vibration transfer behaviour of the bearing assembly. This, in turn, can lead to a reduction in both structure-borne and airborne noise emissions at the gearbox housing. A test design was created to quantify the effects of different damping configurations. This
von Schulz, Kai, Linde, Tilmann, Jäger, Steffen
Performance Specifications for Anthropomorphic Test Device TransducersJ2570_202506 (Current)06/30/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice defines the minimum performance specifications for sensors used within anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) when performing impact tests per SAE J211. It is intended that any agency proposing to conduct tests in accordance with SAE J211 shall be able to demonstrate that the transducers they use would meet the performance requirements specified in this document.
Safety Test Instrumentation Standards Committee
Ammonia-Diesel Engines Segmented Modeling Approach and Simplified Combustion model Research2025-01-023206/16/2025
Ammonia-diesel dual-fuel engines can effectively reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Aiming at the real-time control requirements of ammonia/diesel dual-fuel engines, this study proposes a segmented real-time modeling method and a heat release rate model simplification strategy by linearized heat release rate curves. First, the engine working cycle is divided into three parts: intake and exhaust stage, compression and expansion stage, and combustion process. Different simulation steps and modeling strategies are designed to optimize computational efficiency while maintaining the necessary level of accuracy at each stage. Secondly, based on the calibrated heat release rate (HRR) curves, feature points are extracted to construct a simplified linear heat release model. In the absence of calibration data, the characteristic points of the HRR curves are obtained through interpolation. Compared with the commonly used combustion model, the Wiebe model, the proposed simplified model can
Li, Guangyuan, Chen, Run, Wang, Xinran, Li, Tie, Zheng, Kexiong, Liu, Shaoling, Liu, Yanzhao, Lyu, Xiaodong
A Pitch Shift Synthesis Algorithm for Electric Vehicle Sound Based on Quadratic Interpolation and Continuous Sample Indexing2025-01-025406/16/2025
The electric vehicle driveline generates less vibration and noise compared to a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle, making it harder for the driver to perceive the vehicle’s operating status through driveline sounds, thereby diminishing driving engagement and experience. To compensate for the absence of engine sound in EV drivelines, Active Sound Design (ASD) technology has become a crucial method for drivetrain sound enhancement, with sound synthesis algorithms playing a key role in this process. Although pitch-shifting algorithms based on frequency shift principles can synthesize engine sounds, they suffer from spectral leakage and stuttering caused by sound splicing. To address these issues, a pitch-shifting synthesis algorithm (QCPS, Quadratic interpolation-based Continuous audio sample indexing Pitch Shifting algorithm) is proposed in this paper, which combines a quadratic interpolation method with a continuous audio sample indexing strategy. First, the frequency
Liu, Dezhu, Xie, Liping, Liu, Zhien, Lu, Chihua
HFC-134a Refrigerant Electronic Leak Detectors, Minimum Performance CriteriaJ2791_202505 (Current)05/16/2025
This SAE Standard provides testing and functional requirements to meet specified minimum performance criteria for electronic probe-type leak detectors, so they will identify smaller refrigerant leaks when servicing all motor vehicle air conditioning systems, including those engineered with improved sealing and smaller refrigerant charges to address environmental concerns and increase system efficiency. This document does not address any safety issues concerning their design or use.
Interior Climate Control Service Committee
Characterize the Sound Field Generated from a Vehicle Horn by Pellicular Analysis2025-01-005805/05/2025
To predict the sound field produced by a vehicle horn requires a good source representation of it in the full vehicle model. This paper investigates the characterization of a physical vehicle horn by an inverse method called pellicular analysis. To implement this method, firstly an acoustic testing is performed to measure the sound pressure radiated from the horn at a certain number of microphone locations in a free field environment. Based on the geometry of a virtual horn, the locations of each microphone and measured sound pressure data, pellicular analysis is adopted to recover a set of vibration pattern of the virtual horn. The virtual horn and the recovered vibration information are then incorporated in a full vehicle numerical model to simulate its exterior sound field. The validity of this approach is confirmed by comparing the prediction for a horn in a production vehicle to the corresponding physical test which is required to meet the Brazilian regulation CONTRAN 764/2018.
Yang, Wenlong, Melo, Andre
Evaluation of Invariant Structural and Acoustic Loads Estimation Methods to be Used in Vehicle Platform Development Independent to the Boundary Conditions of Load Generation2025-01-005305/05/2025
Platform based vehicle development is standardized at John Deere. The challenges of frontloading the integration of individual components within different platforms using predictive methods is key to shortening the development cycle. Components are individually characterized on test benches and results cannot directly be used to evaluate system performance. Invariant characterization is needed instead, which is possible through techniques such as blocked loads estimation. To evaluate the applicability of such methods, the component-based loads and vehicle in-situ operational loads need to be compared. The confident use of these methods for obtaining structural and acoustic loads enables the use of hybrid system models, enhancing early NVH response predictions. The objective of this work was to enable the confident use of test stand measurements in predictive models across various vehicle platforms. This study compares a powertrain characterization in a vehicle against a test stand to
Vesikar, Prasad Balkrishna, Edgington, Jason, Drabison II, John
Multi-Method Approach for Car Tailgate Electric Telescopic Rod Noise: Detection, Characterization, and Prediction2025-01-003805/05/2025
As the automotive industry moves towards greater intelligence, electric tailgate systems have seen widespread adoption, featuring remote control, obstacle detection, and intelligent opening functions that significantly enhance the user experience. The electric telescopic rod, as a key actuator, has drawn attention for its structural and transmission design. However, studies have shown that during actual operation, various noise issues arise with electric telescopic rods, affecting the sound quality and smoothness of the tailgate's opening and closing. This paper presents a noise detection and analysis study based on a dedicated testbench platform specifically developed for electric telescopic rods. The platform was designed to simulate the real-world opening and closing process of automotive tailgates, enabling a controlled environment for capturing and analyzing noise characteristics effectively. Using a microphone to capture noise signals, three main types of noise were identified
Fan, Sibei, Wang, Siling, Zhu, Zhehui, Li, Lei, Qin, Jiade, Zhang, Lijun, Meng, Dejian, Pei, Kaikun
Experimental Investigation on Genetic Algorithm Optimized Proportional Integral Derivative Based Active Suspension System2025-01-001405/05/2025
In this work, Genetic Algorithm (GA) optimized Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller is employed in the active suspension. The PID gain values are optimally tuned based on the objective function by the Integral Time Absolute Error (ITAE) criteria of various suspension measures like vehicle body displacement, suspension and tire deflections. The proposed GAPID controller is experimentally validated through the 3-DOF quarter-car (QC) test rig model. The fabricated model with passive suspension system (PASS) and active suspension system (ACSS) with an electrical actuator is presented. The schematic representation of the fabricated test set-up with and without ACSS is also illustrated. Further, simulation and experimental response of the fabricated model with and without ACSS are compared. It is identified that the proposed GAPID controller attenuates the sprung mass acceleration by about 41.64 % and 29.13 % compared with PASS for the theoretical as well as experimental cases
A, Arivazhagan, Kandavel, Arunachalam
NVH Improvement of the BEV Transmission by Altering Bearing Mounting Arrangement2025-01-010405/05/2025
As per metaphor, “The squeaky wheel gets the grease,” and in the case of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), the transmission system has become the focal point for NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) improvements. With the engine being replaced by the near-silent electric motor, the noise generated by the transmission has become more prominent, demanding greater attention to noise reduction. This shift has created a pressing need for innovations in both design and manufacturing processes to enhance the overall quietness of the vehicle. As a result, ongoing advancements are being made to address and improve the NVH characteristics of BEV transmissions. Following paper will discuss the improvement in NVH achieved through a design innovation in the way bearings are installed and demonstrated a significant amount of improvement. We have used SMT MASTA as a simulation tool to predict the expected results and a Transmission Dyno test bench in an anechoic chamber to test the NVH performance
Pingale, Abhijeet, Soni, Jaldeep
Active Control of Engine Order Noise for Heavy-Duty Trucks: Using the Genetic Algorithm for the Optimization of Error Microphone Arrangement2025-01-001305/05/2025
The arrangement of error microphones for a vehicle active noise control (ANC) system is no trivial work, especially for heavy-duty trucks, due to the dilemma resulted from the large volume of the cab and the limited number of microphones accepted by most manufacturers in the auto industry. Although some pioneering work has laid the foundation for the application of numerical methods exemplified by the genetic-algorithm (GA) to optimize the error sensor arrangement in an ANC system, most ANC developers still resort to trial and error in practice, which is not only a heavy workload given the amount of interested working conditions to be tested, but also does not guarantee to yield the optimum noise cancellation performance. In this paper, the authors designed and implemented an error microphone selection process using a genetic-algorithm (GA) -based mechanism. The target vehicle was a heavy-duty truck with a six-piston diesel engine, and two application scenarios were particularly
Wang, Jian, Ling, Zihong, Zhang, Zhe, Cai, DeHua, lv, Xiao, Zhang, Ming, Gao, GuoRan
A Comparative Analysis of Fault Diagnosis by Vibration Signals for Critical Gear Components in Electric Vehicle Motor Testing Machines Using Machine Learning Algorithms2025-01-004005/05/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) are shaping the future of mobility, with drive motors serving as a cornerstone of their efficiency and performance. Motor testing machines are essential for verifying the functionality of EV motors; however, flaws in testing equipment, such as gear-related issues, frequently cause operational challenges. This study focuses on improving motor testing processes by leveraging machine learning and vibration signal analysis for early detection of gear faults. Through statistical feature extraction and the application of classifiers like Wide Naive Bayes and Coarse Tree, the collected vibration signals were categorized as normal or faulty under both loaded (0.275 kW) and no-load conditions. A performance comparison demonstrated the superior accuracy of the wide neural networks algorithm, achieving 95.3%. This methodology provides an intelligent, preventive maintenance solution, significantly enhancing the reliability of motor testing benches.
S, Ravikumar, Sharik, N, Syed, Shaul, V, Muralidharan, D, Pradeep Kumar
Test Methods and Equipment for Lighting Devices for Use on Vehicles Less than 2032 mm in Overall WidthJ575_202505 (Current)05/03/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice is intended as a guide toward standard practice and is subject to change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This document provides standardized laboratory tests, test methods and equipment, and requirements for lighting devices covered by SAE Recommended Practices and Standards. It is intended for devices used on vehicles less than 2032 mm in width. Tests for vehicles larger than 2032 mm in overall width are covered in SAE J2139. Device-specific tests and requirements can be found in applicable SAE Technical Reports.
Test Methods and Equipment Stds Committee
Eddy Current Inspection of Circular Holes in Nonferrous Metallic Aircraft Engine HardwareAS4787A (Current)05/02/2025
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) establishes minimum requirements for eddy current inspection of circular holes in nonferrous, metallic, low conductivity (less than 5% IACS) aircraft engine hardware with fasteners removed. The inspection is intended to be performed at maintenance and overhaul facilities on engine run hardware.
AMS K Non Destructive Methods and Processes Committee
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