Browse Topic: Road tests

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Virtual Validation of ADAS Algorithms Using Driver-in-the-Loop Simulation2026-26-005001/16/2026
Driver-in-the-Loop (DIL) simulators have become crucial tools across automotive, aerospace, and maritime industries in enabling the evaluation of design concepts, testing of critical scenarios and provision of effective training in virtual environments. With the diverse applications of DIL simulators highlighting their significance in vehicle dynamics assessment, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and autonomous vehicle development, testing of complex control systems is crucial for vehicle safety. By examining the current landscape of DIL simulator use cases, this paper critically focuses on Virtual Validation of ADAS algorithms by testing of repeatable scenarios and effect on driver response time through virtual stimuli of acoustic and optical warnings generated during simulation. To receive appropriate feedback from the driver, industrial grade actuators were integrated with a real-time controller, a high-performance workstation and simulation software called Virtual Test
Sharma, Chinmaya, Bhagat, Ajinkya, Kale, Jyoti Ganesh, Karle, Ujjwala
Advancing Automotive Radar Characterization: OTA HIL Testing for Enhanced ADAS Safety2026-26-004301/16/2026
The precise validation of radar sensor is necessary due to surging demand for reliable Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems (ADAS) and autonomous driving technologies. Over-the-Air (OTA) Hardware-in-the-Loop approach is the optimal solution for the current challenges facing with traditional on road testing. This approach supports productive, controllable and repetitive environment because of its lab-based setup which will eliminates the drawbacks such as high costs, limited repeatability, safety related issues. Key parameters of radar such as accurate detection of objects, analysis of doppler velocity, range estimation, angle of arrival measurement, can be tested dynamically. And this test setup offers wide range of testing scenarios, including varying distance of target, relative speeds, simulation of objects and environmental effects also supported.OTA provides the flexibility to eliminate the physical test tracks or targets so that developers can simulate the errors, by introducing
Jadhav, Tejas, Karle, Ujjwala, Paul, Harshit, SNV, Karthik
A Scientific Approach to Identify the Source of Intermittent Steering Rattle Noise and Implementing the Design Solutions2026-26-034601/16/2026
Body-on-frame vehicles are well-regarded for their durability and off-road capabilities, but their structural design often makes them more vulnerable to noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) issues. Vibrations originating from uneven roads are transmitted through the suspension and steering assemblies, sometimes resulting in rattles or other disturbances. These vibrations can be amplified by the inherent flexibility in the body-to-frame mounting system. In such vehicles, the steering system plays a critical role in driver comfort and is highly sensitive to vibrational inputs from the road surface, especially on coarse or uneven terrain. Occasionally, these inputs result in subtle rattle noises that are perceptible only to the driver and may not be detected under controlled testing environments. This poses a challenge for engineers trying to isolate and resolve such intermittent NVH phenomena. Identifying the source requires a combination of real-world driving evaluations, structural
Ramesh Chand, Karan Kumar, Gopinathan, Haridoss, Kabdal, Amit
Parameterizing External Factors Influencing E-Motor Consumption2026-26-017501/16/2026
In recent times, a standard driving cycle is an excellent way to measure the electric range of EVs. This process is standardized and repeatable; however, it has some drawbacks, such as low active functions being tested in a controlled environment. This sometimes causes huge variations in the range between driving cycles and actual on-road tests. This problem of variation can be solved by on-road testing and testing a vehicle for customer-based velocity cycles. On-road measurement may be high on active functions while testing, which may give an exact idea of real-world consumption, but the repeatability of these test procedures is low due to excessive randomness. The repeatability of these cycles is low due to external factors acting on the vehicle during on-road testing, such as ambient temperature, driver behavior, traffic, terrain, altitude, and load conditions. No two measurements can have the same consumption, even if they are done on the same road with the same vehicle, due to the
Kelkar, Kshitij, Kanakannavar, Rohit
Mode Identification and Collaborative Switch for the Front-Centralized and Rear-Distributed Electric Drive Vehicle Based on BP Neural Network2025-01-733512/31/2025
Distributed-drive electric vehicles (DDEVs) significantly enhance off-road maneuverability but suffer from compromised high-speed stability and robustness. This research introduces a front-centralized and rear-distributed (FCRD) architecture that synergistically leverages the advantages of each configuration. The electric-drive-wheel (EDW) on the rear suspension can provide three working modes: (a) Drive-connected mode, (b) Drive-disconnected mode, (c) Brake mode. It is the key actuator for vehicle mode-switching, which supports the vehicle with three driving modes: (a) DDEV, (b) front-wheel drive (FWD), (c) all-wheel drive (AWD). A hierarchical control architecture employs the upper-layer controller with Back Propagation Neural Network (BPNN) for mode identification and decision-making. The lower-layer controller enables the intelligent torque distribution and collaborative control of the motors. The control strategy is pre-trained in the VCU (vehicle control unit) with off-line data
Ding, Xiaoyu, Chen, Xinbo, Wang, Wei, Zhang, Jiantao, Kong, Aijing
Road Test Emulation: A Data-Driven Calibration Approach2025-01-052111/25/2025
The resource-intensive process of road testing constitutes an essential part of the development of powertrain software. A significant proportion of explorative tests and adjustments for use in service are conducted during the vehicle test phase. However, the observed trends of decreasing development cycles and increasing system complexity generate a field of conflicts. In order to address this issue, this paper proposes road test emulation as a data-driven approach for continuously adapting powertrain software to the evolving overall system. A dedicated data strategy is designed to enhance customer-oriented software development. Therefore, test scenarios equivalent to in-service conditions are determined based on customer data. These test scenarios enable an emulation of road testing and the analysis of the system in a real-world operational context from the early stages of the product development process. System-specific data from the vehicle under development itself is utilised to
Martini, Tim, Kempf, André, Winke, Florian, Auerbach, Michael, Kulzer, André Casal
Development of an Artificial Calibrator for Shift Program Optimization to Enhance Fuel Efficiency2025-32-008211/03/2025
The calibration of automotive electronic control units is a critical and resource-intensive task in modern powertrain development. Optimizing parameters such as transmission shift schedules for minimum fuel consumption traditionally requires extensive prototype testing by expert calibrators. This process is costly, time-consuming, and subject to variability in environmental conditions and human judgment. In this paper, an artificial calibrator is introduced – a software agent that autonomously tunes transmission shift maps using reinforcement learning (RL) in a Software-in-the-Loop (SiL) simulation environment. The RL-based calibrator explores shift schedule parameters and learns from fuel consumption feedback, thereby achieving objective and reproducible optimizations within the controlled SiL environment. Applied to a 7-speed dual-clutch transmission (DCT) model of a Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle (MHEV), the approach yielded significant fuel efficiency improvements. In a case study on
Kengne Dzegou, Thierry Junior, Schober, Florian, Rebesberger, Ron, Henze, Roman
Comparative Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Performance of Electric and Counterpart Diesel Tractors2025-01-041710/07/2025
The objective of this trial was to compare the energy efficiency and performance of battery electric and conventional diesel tractors. Controlled road tests replicating normal operations were conducted using two electric and two diesel day-cab tractors. The test protocol was based on the TMC - Type III RP 1103A and SAE J1526 test procedures. The tests were conducted on a 110 km long route that included a 59 km hilly portion with a maximum altitude difference of 307 m. The tractors were divided into test groups of two vehicles. Trailers and drivers were switched throughout the trial between the tractors in a test group. The tests found that the two electric trucks consumed 60% and 63% less energy than their counterpart diesel trucks, respectively. Considering the average emission factor for production of electricity in Canada, the electric trucks emitted on average 82% less GHG emissions than the conventional diesel-powered tractors. The two diesel trucks showed similar fuel consumption
Surcel, Marius-Dorin, Partington, Mark, Tanguay-Laflèche, Maxime, Schumacher, Richard
Revolutionizing Government Efficiency: Harnessing Commercial Off-the-Shelf Generative Artificial Intelligence Solutions for Enhanced Services and Decision-Making2025-01-048709/16/2025
This paper introduces a secure and cost-effective framework for integrating Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) technology into government enterprise solutions. It explores key aspects of GenAI, emphasizing its transformative role in enhancing efficiency and decision-making within government operations. Central to the discussion is a GenAI Feasibility Study [1] conducted by Booz Allen for the Director, Operational Test & Evaluation (DOT&E), which outlines the development of the AI-Enabled Test & Evaluation Module (ATEM) GenAI Knowledge Assistant. The paper also examines critical factors for successful implementation, including use case definition, model selection, data quality, and prompt engineering.
Vandrovec, Bryan, Kruger, John, Birr, Calvin, Mazzara, Mark, Mossy, Glenn, Himmel, Max, Barnhart, James, Senger, Jeff
A Novel Mechanical Model Simulating a Pavement Deflection Measuring System for Non-Invasive Pavement Monitoring Based on a Reliability-Based Optimization Algorithm02-18-03-002509/04/2025
This article presents a novel mechanical model for simulating the behavior of pavement deflection measuring systems (PDMS). The accuracy of the model was validated by comparing the acceleration of the new model with the data achieved through experimental tests fusing a deflection measurement system mounted on a Ford F-150 truck. The experimental test for the PDMS is carried out on a random road profile, generated by an inertial profiler, over a 7.4-mile (12 km) loop around a lake near Austin, Texas. Integrating a reliability-based optimization (RBO) algorithm in a PDMS aims to optimize system parameters and reduce vibrations effectively. The PDMS noises and uncertainties make it crucial to use a robust system to ensure the stability of the system. This article presents a robust algorithm for considering the uncertainties of PDMS parameters, including the damping coefficients and spring stiffness of the supporting brackets. Moreover, it considers the variation of system parameters, such
Yarmohammadisatri, Sadegh, Sandu, Corina, Claudel, Christian
Exploring the Correlation between Physiological States and Driving Behavior on Highways with Integrated ECG Measurements2025-01-029207/02/2025
Human driver errors, such as distracted driving, inattention, and aggressive driving, are the leading causes of road accidents. Understanding the underlying factors that contribute to these behaviors is critical for improving road safety. Previous studies have shown that physiological states, like raised heart rates due to stress and anxiety, can influence driving behavior, leading to erratic driving and an increased risk of accidents. In this study, we conducted on-road tests using a measurement system based on the Driver-Driven vehicle-Driving environment (3D) method. We collected physiological signals, specially electrocardiography (ECG) data, from human drivers to examine the relationship between physiological states and driving behaviors. The aim was to determine whether ECG can serve as an indicator of potential risky driving behaviors, such as sudden acceleration and frequent steering adjustments. This information enables automated driving (AD) systems to intervene in dangerous
Ji, Dejie, Flormann, Maximilian, Bollmann, Julian, Henze, Roman, Deserno, Thomas M.
Q&A25TOFHP06_1406/01/2025
Last summer, SAE Media was invited to Eaton's proving grounds in Marshall, Michigan, to test drive an electric truck the company had built in collaboration with BAE Systems. The truck was a showcase not only of BAE's powertrain control technology, but also of Eaton's new multi-speed heavy-duty EV transmission. That truck was on display at the 2025 ACT Expo, as was Eaton's transmission. SAE Media spoke with Scott Adams, SVP of technology and global products for Eaton, in Anaheim, California, about the company's portfolio of multi- and single-speed medium- and heavy-duty transmissions as well as other upcoming driveline offerings.
Wolfe, Matt
Methods to Reduce Transmission of Airborne Viruses in a Bus Cabin02-18-04-002105/19/2025
Public buses can be high-risk environments for the transmission of airborne viruses due to the confined space and high passenger density. However, advanced cabin air control systems and other measures can mitigate this risk. This research was conducted to explore various strategies aimed at reducing airborne particle transmission in bus cabins by using retrofit accessories and a redesigned parallel ventilation system. Public transit buses were used for stationary and on-road testing. Air exchange rates (ACH) were calculated using CO2 gas decay rates measured by low-cost sensors throughout each cabin. An aerosol generator (AG) was placed at various locations inside the bus and particle concentrations were measured for various experiments and ventilation configurations. The use of two standalone HEPA air filters lowered overall concentrations of particles inside the bus cabin by a factor of three. The effect of using plastic “barriers” independently showed faster particle arrival times
Lopez, Brenda, Swanson, Jacob, Dover, Kevin, Renck, Evan, Chang, M.-C. Oliver, Jung, Heejung
Research on In-Vehicle Clustered Multi-Channel Active Noise Control System2025-01-001605/05/2025
To address the issue of intermittent engine intervention during the charging and discharging processes of hybrid vehicles, which results in roaring noise within the cabin, this paper proposes a semi-coupled cluster control strategy that offers superior overall performance. This strategy is based on the traditional multi-channel Active Noise Control (ANC) system and integrates the advantages of both centralized and decentralized control approaches. The proposed clustered control strategy reduces computational load by approximately 50% compared to the centralized control strategy, while maintaining comparable noise attenuation performance. Moreover, it demonstrates significantly improved stability over the decentralized control strategy, with outstanding noise reduction results. Using the MATLAB simulation platform, the performance of the proposed in-vehicle clustered control strategy is compared with that of traditional control strategies. Additionally, road test experiments are
Deng, Huiping, Lu, Chihua, Chen, Wan, Liu, Zhien, Chen, Pian, Dou, Sirui, Sun, Menglei
Leveraging User Feedback to Optimize the Tuning of EVSE Models2025-01-002005/05/2025
The implementation of active sound design models in vehicles requires precise tuning of synthetic sounds to harmonize with existing interior noise, driving conditions, and driver preferences. This tuning process is often time-consuming and intricate, especially facing various driving styles and preferences of target customers. Incorporating user feedback into the tuning process of Electric Vehicle Sound Enhancement (EVSE) offers a solution. A user-focused empirical test drive approach can be assessed, providing a comprehensive understanding of the EVSE characteristics and highlighting areas for improvement. Although effective, the process includes many manual tasks, such as transcribing driver comments, classifying feedback, and identifying clusters. By integrating driving simulator technology to the test drive assessment method and employing machine learning algorithms for evaluation, the EVSE workflow can be more seamlessly integrated. But do the simulated test drive results
Hank, Stefan, Kamp, Fabian, Gomes Lobato, Thiago Henrique
Active Control of Engine Order Noise for Heavy-Duty Trucks: Using the Genetic Algorithm for the Optimization of Error Microphone Arrangement2025-01-001305/05/2025
The arrangement of error microphones for a vehicle active noise control (ANC) system is no trivial work, especially for heavy-duty trucks, due to the dilemma resulted from the large volume of the cab and the limited number of microphones accepted by most manufacturers in the auto industry. Although some pioneering work has laid the foundation for the application of numerical methods exemplified by the genetic-algorithm (GA) to optimize the error sensor arrangement in an ANC system, most ANC developers still resort to trial and error in practice, which is not only a heavy workload given the amount of interested working conditions to be tested, but also does not guarantee to yield the optimum noise cancellation performance. In this paper, the authors designed and implemented an error microphone selection process using a genetic-algorithm (GA) -based mechanism. The target vehicle was a heavy-duty truck with a six-piston diesel engine, and two application scenarios were particularly
Wang, Jian, Ling, Zihong, Zhang, Zhe, Cai, DeHua, lv, Xiao, Zhang, Ming, Gao, GuoRan
HV-Battery Impact on Car Body Acoustics and Damping Package Case Study of the Electric Vehicle2025-01-004105/05/2025
Damping treatments play a key role in the definition of efficient acoustic packages for passenger cars with all types of propulsion systems. Many damper configurations are similar for all vehicles including treatments of wheelhouses, spare wheel area, roof panels etc. However, there are some characteristics of car body acoustics in electric vehicles, which need to be considered in the definition of the efficient damping package. This paper investigates the impact of the high voltage (HV) battery on interior noise related characteristics of the car body using laser scanning vibrometry (LSV) and 3D sound intensity test methods. It is shown that both methods lead to similar conclusions in terms of proper distribution of damping material. Furthermore, findings are used in the damping package case study resulting in two additional proposals of the damping layout with different lightweight and acoustic requirements. Lab evaluation of the new damping package variants are conducted by laser
Unruh, Oliver, Gielok, Martin
Drive Quality Evaluation for Chassis Dynamometer and On-Road TestingJ2951_202504 (Current)04/14/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice establishes uniform procedures for evaluating conformity between the actual and target drive speeds for chassis dynamometer and on-road testing utilizing standard fuel economy/energy consumption and emissions drive schedules.
Light Duty Vehicle Performance and Economy Measure Committee
BEV incremental CO2 emissions in a ranked order electric grid2026-01-042404/07/2025
Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) have been promoted and required by many governments towards the need to reduce transportations CO2 emissions. BEV are not “Zero Emissions Vehicles” because they run on grid electricity, but could be ‘effectively ZEV’ if the incremental CO2 is ‘very small’. To answer this question at the national level, three metrics are needed and estimated: (1) ICEV fuel consumption, approximated by the total US gasoline consumption divided by the total fleet miles driven, 25 mpg or 350 g CO2/mi. For strong HEV it is about one third less, 240 g CO2/mi. (2) BEV energy consumption, using data from systematic on-road testing of a wide range of vehicles, estimated at 40 kWh/100 mi for a US sales mix. (3) Electric grid marginal CO2, with ranked order sourcing: zero-CO2 sources are prioritized and supplemented by fossil sources. IEA hourly data show that the US 48 contiguous states are nearly self-contained, with zero-CO2 sources providing about a third of total demand. The
Phlips, Patrick
Navigation Integrated End-to-end Path Planning Development and Vehicle Testing2026-01-003204/07/2025
In order to achieve fully autonomous driving, point to point autonomous navigation is the most important task. Most existing end-to-end models output a short-horizon path which makes the decision process hard to interpret and unreliable at intersections and complex driving scenarios. In this research, we build a navigation-integrated end-to-end path planner on top of an openpilot open source model. We created a navigation branch that encodes route polyline geometry, distance-to-next-maneuver, and high-level instructions and combines with path plan branch using residual blocks and feed-forward layers. By adding minimal parameters, new model keeps the original openpilot tasks unchanged and have the path output based on the navigation information. The model is trained on diverse urban scenes and lighting conditions, and it shows improved route adherence in vehicle testing. The proposed model is validated in a comma 3x device installed on a 2025 Nissan Leaf test vehicle. The road test
Wang, Hanchen, Li, Taozhe, Hajnorouzali, Yasaman, Burch, Collin, li, Victoria, Tan, Lin, Arjmanzdadeh, Ziba, Xu, Bin
Development of A Tire Blowout Experimental Platform for Dynamics and Control Validation2026-01-020204/07/2025
Tires are critical to vehicle dynamics, transmitting traction, braking, and cornering forces to the road. A tire blowout, the sudden and rapid loss of inflation pressure due to puncture or structural failure, can cause severe instability, rollover, or collisions. Understanding vehicle response during blowout events is essential for developing robust safety systems and control strategies. Earlier developed simulation models are used to study and understand vehicle behavior during blowouts, but there is a lack of on-road testing platforms to validate these models experimentally. A custom-built blowout device integrated with a data acquisition system has been developed to address this gap. It consists of multiple solenoid valves mounted on the wheel surface and powered by a 12V supply. All valves are triggered at the same time using an RF remote, producing rapid and synchronized deflation. An Arduino-based actuation system is being developed for individual valve actuation and custom
KANTHALA, Maha Vishnu Vardhan Reddy, Krishnakumar, Ashwin, Lin, Wen-Chiao, Chen, Yan
Camera Monitor System Soiling Correlation for a Class-8 Truck Using Lattice Boltzmann Method2026-01-059604/07/2025
As Camera Monitoring Systems (CMS) become an integrated part of the driving experience for current automotive and heavy vehicles, keeping the CMS clean from water, dirt, sand, snow and ice is a main focus of the design process in order to avoid safety issues due to obscured visibility. On-road soiling prevention becomes an important feature when designing these camera and sensor systems. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis can be used to facilitate the design process, to provide important information of the cause of the problems and design mitigation mechanism to prevent the visibility issues. There are many published papers for soiling studies for the automotive application but very limited publication available for heavy trucks, this paper is targeted to fill this space. In these current studies during a design process, road tests were performed in Alaska by the testing department. Correlation was done between those road tests and the CFD analysis, performed in-house. This
He, Wei, Dasarathan, Devaraj, Linden, Tom, Park, Jeongbin
Collision Avoidance Testing of the Waymo Automated Driving System2026-01-051904/07/2025
This paper describes Waymo's Collision Avoidance Testing (CAT) methodology: a scenario-based testing method that evaluates the safety of the Waymo Driver Automated Driving Systems' (ADS) intended functionality in conflict situations initiated by other road users that require urgent evasive maneuvers. Because SAE Level 4 ADS are responsible for the dynamic driving task (DDT), when engaged, without immediate human intervention, evaluating a Level 4 ADS using scenario-based testing is difficult due to the potentially infinite number of operational scenarios in which hazardous situations may unfold. To that end, in this paper we first describe the safety test objectives for the CAT methodology, including the collision and serious injury metrics and the reference behavior model representing a non-impaired eyes on conflict human driver used to form an acceptance criterion. Afterward, we introduce the process for identifying potentially hazardous situations from a combination of human data
Kusano, Kristofer, Beatty, Kurt, Schnelle, Scott, Favaro, Francesca, Crary, Cam, Victor, Trent
Typical cloud-vehicle-integration-based functional safety testing technology for intelligent chassis2026-01-005104/07/2025
Model-based virtual vehicle testing technology is an advanced simulation technique that significantly improves the efficiency and quality of vehicle development. It effectively addresses challenges such as complex operating conditions and experimental hazards in physical road testing. However, due to limitations in modeling accuracy, virtual vehicle parameters often remain overly idealized, resulting in limited credibility of test results. In response to the above issues, this article proposes a testing method based on vehicle-cloud fusion technology that combines the advantages of physical and virtual vehicle testing to avoid the disadvantages of both parties. Experimental validation demonstrates that the synchronization rate between virtual car and physical car data can reach 92.02%, which can safety and efficiently complete the initial vehicle testing, provide data support for subsequent physical car testing, and shorten the real car testing cycle.
Cheng, Qing Hua, Qu, Wenying, Liao, Yinsheng, Wu, Yan
MBSE-Driven XIL Workflow for Energy Evaluation of Automated Vehicles: From Simulation to VIL Testing2026-01-028904/07/2025
This paper presents a Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE)-driven X-in-the-Loop (XiL) methodology for quantifying the energy impacts of automated vehicles in realistic road scenarios while preserving high-fidelity powertrain behavior. We developed Argonne’s multi-vehicle simulation tool, RoadRunner, which automatically builds closed-loop road scenarios (road geometry, vehicle sensors, other vehicles, and traffic controls) and connects them to Argonne’s validated, high-fidelity vehicle and powertrain models in Autonomie. The MBSE backbone in AMBER organizes requirements, interfaces, plant and controller models, and test scenarios into a single set of models that carries through pure simulation, Software-in-the-Loop (SiL), Processor-in-the-Loop (PiL), and Vehicle-in-the-Loop (ViL) stages. Each stage has a clear role: simulation enables rapid development and validation of advanced models or controls across a large number of scenarios; SiL supports standalone algorithm verification and
JEONG, Jongryeol, Sharer, Phillip, Di Russo, Miriam, Das, DEBASHIS, Zhang, Yaozhong, Karbowski, Dominik
A Novel Method for Evaluating on-Road Drag Changes Using Constant Power Measurements2025-01-876404/01/2025
This paper introduces a new approach for measuring changes in drag force across different vehicle configurations using an on-road testing technique. The method involves fixing the vehicle’s power across configurations and then measuring the resulting speed differences. A detailed formulation is provided on how these speed variations can be used to calculate the change in drag force for each configuration. The OBD II port is used to access and record additional data necessary for the calculations. The method is applied to both a passenger car and a commercial van to evaluate drag changes for different vehicle add-ons. A roof sign was installed at various positions along the roof of the vehicles to assess drag increases, while novel rear appendages were fitted to both vehicles to evaluate the resulting drag reductions. Detailed CFD simulations were performed on the road-tested configurations to compare the simulated drag changes with those measured on the road. Excellent agreement was
Connolly, Michael Gerard, Ivankovic, Alojz, O'Rourke, Malachy J.
Examination of the Data Structures of the Bendix® Data Recorder2025-01-871204/01/2025
Bendix® EC-80™ and certain EC-60™ ABS control units contain an event data recorder called the Bendix® Data Recorder (BDR). Raw BDR data is obtained using commercially available software, however, the translation of the raw data into an event report has only been performed by the manufacturer. In this paper, the raw data structures of the commercially available datasets are examined. It is demonstrated that the data follows uniform and repeatable patterns. The raw BDR data is converted into a conventional report and then validated against translation reports performed by the manufacturer. The techniques outlined in this research allow investigators to access and analyze BDR records independently of the manufacturer and in a way previously not possible.
DiSogra, Matthew, Hirsch, Jeffrey, Yeakley, Adam
On-Road Investigation of Energy Saving Opportunity for Autonomous Light-Duty Vehicles through Automated Vehicle-Following in Safe Distance Scenarios2025-01-802904/01/2025
Reducing aerodynamic drag through Vehicle-Following is one of the energy reduction methods for connected and automated vehicles with advanced perception systems. This paper presents the results of an investigation aimed at assessing energy reduction in light-duty vehicles through on-road tests of reducing the aerodynamic drag by Vehicle-Following. This study provides insights into the effects of lateral positioning in addition to intervehicle distance and vehicle speed, and the profile of the lead vehicle. A series of tests were conducted to analyze the impact of these factors, conducted under realistic driving conditions. The research encompasses various light-duty vehicle models and configurations, with advanced instrumentation and data collection techniques employed to quantify energy-saving potential. The study featured two sets of L4 capable light duty vehicles, including the Stellantis Pacifica PHEV minivan and Stellantis RAM Truck, examined in various lead and following vehicle
Poovalappil, Aman, Robare, Andrew, Schexnaydre, Logan, Santhosh, Pruthwiraj, Bahramgiri, Mojtaba, Bos, Jeremy P., Chen, Bo, Naber, Jeffrey, Robinette, Darrell
Adaptive Sliding Mode Control for Active Hydro-Pneumatic Suspension Based on Extended State Observer2025-01-827204/01/2025
Hydro-pneumatic suspension is widely used due to its favorable nonlinear stiffness and damping characteristics. However, with the presence of parameter uncertainties and high nonlinearities in the hydro-pneumatic suspension system, the effectiveness of the controller is often suboptimal in practical applications. To mitigate the influence of these issues on the control performance, an adaptive sliding mode control method with an expanded state observer (ESO) is proposed. Firstly, a nonlinear mathematical model of hydro-pneumatic suspension, considering seal friction, is established based on the hydraulic principle and the knowledge of fluid mechanics. Secondly, the ESO is designed to estimate the total disturbance caused by the nonlinearities and uncertainties, and it is incorporated into the sliding mode control law, allowing the control law to adapt to the operating state of the suspension system in real time, which solves the effect of uncertainties and nonlinearities on the system
Niu, Changsheng, Liu, Xiaoang, Jia, Xing, Gong, Bo, Xu, Bo
A Novel Hybrid Approach for Segmenting Drivers Based on Their Driving Style2025-01-820504/01/2025
Drivers present diverse landscapes with their distinct personalities, preferences, and driving habits influenced by many factors. Though drivers' behavior is highly variable, they can exhibit clear patterns that make sorting them into one category or another possible. Discrete segmentation provides an effective way to categorize and address the differences in driving style. The segmentation approach offers many benefits, including simplification, measurement, proven methodology, customization, and safety. Numerous studies have investigated driving style classification using real-world vehicle data. These studies employed various methods to identify and categorize distinct driving patterns, including naturalist differences in driving and field operational tests. This paper presents a novel hybrid approach for segmenting driver behavior based on their driving patterns. We leverage vehicle acceleration data to create granular driver segments by combining event and trip-based methodologies
Chavan, Shakti Pradeep, Chinnam, Ratna Babu
Sensor Cluster for Recording the Spread of Emissions in the Wake of a Vehicle2025-01-849204/01/2025
Progressive emission reductions and stricter legislation require a closer look at the emission behaviour of a vehicle, in particular non-exhaust emissions and resuspension. In addition to the analysis of emissions in isolation, it is also necessary to consider the impact of transport routes and dispersion potential. These factors provide insight into the movement of dust particles and, consequently, the identification of particularly vulnerable areas. Measurements using low-cost environmental sensors can increase the level of detail of dispersion analyses and allow a statement on the distribution of emissions in the vehicle's wake, as several measuring points can be covered simultaneously. A newly developed measurement setup allows vehicle emissions to be recorded in a plane behind the vehicle in a measurement area of 2 by 2 metres. The measuring grid consisting of 16 sensors (4x4 grid) can be variably positioned up to 1 metre from the rear of the vehicle. The sensors detect fine dust
Kunze, Miles, Ivanov, Valentin, Gramstat, Sebastian
Analysis of the Characteristics of Hybrid Vehicles and Low-Viscosity Lubricating Oil Based on Real Road Tests in Four Extreme Environments04-18-02-000901/07/2025
As countries around the world attach more importance to carbon emissions and more stringent requirements are put forward for vehicle emissions, hybrid vehicles, which can significantly reduce emissions compared with traditional fuel vehicles, as well as low-viscosity lubricating oil, have become significant trends in the industry. In this article, a total of nine vehicles of 48 V mild-hybrid models and full-hybrid models are tested. Using three kinds of low-viscosity lubricating oil and driving a total of 120,000 km in environments with low temperature, high humidity, high temperature, or high altitude, the engines are then disassembled and scored. The effects of the four extreme environments on the engine starts–stops, ignition advance angle, engine power, state of charge (SOC), acceleration performance, and oil consumption characteristics of hybrid vehicles are studied; the oxidation characteristics and iron content change characteristics of low-viscosity lubricating oil are analyzed
Zhu, Gezhengting, Hu, Hua, Pan, Jinchong, Luo, Yitao, Hua, Lun, Jiao, Yan, Jiang, Jiandi, Shao, Heng, Xu, Zhengxin, Yan, Jingfeng, Wei, Guangyuan, Zhang, Heng
Mass Production Development of 4D Millimeter-Wave Radar Based on a Single Chip2024-01-702611/15/2024
In this paper, a single-chip based design for an automotive 4D millimeter -wave radar is proposed. Compared to conventional 3D millimeter-wave radar, this innovative scheme features a MIMO antenna array and advanced waveform design, significantly enhancing the radar's elevation measurement capabilities. The maximum measurement error is approximately ±0.3° for azimuth within ±50° and about ±0.4° for elevation within ±15°. Extensive road testing had demonstrated that the designed radar can routinely measure targets such as vehicles, pedestrians, and bicycles, while also accurately detecting additional objects like overpasses and guide signs. The cost of this radar is comparable to that of traditional automotive 3D millimeter-wave radar, and it has been successfully integrated into a forward radar system for a specific vehicle model.
Cai, Yongjun, Zhang, Xiansheng, Bai, Jie, Shen, Hui-Liang, Rao, Bing
Development and Experimental Validation of a Physics-Based Identification and Mitigation Strategy for Torsional Vibratory Behavior in Medium-Duty Commercial Vehicle Drivelines02-18-01-000111/08/2024
Torsional vibration generated during operation of commercial vehicles can negatively affect the life of driveline components, including the transmission, driveshafts, and rear axle. Undesirable vibrations typically stem from off-specification parts, or excitation at one or more system resonant frequencies. The solution for the former involves getting the system components within specification. As for the latter, the solution involves avoiding excitation at resonance, or modifying the parameters to move the system’s resonant frequencies outside the range of operation through component changes that modify one, or more, component inertia, stiffness, or damping characteristics. One goal of the effort described in this article is to propose, and experimentally demonstrate, a physics-based gear-shifting algorithm that prevents excitation of the system’s resonant frequency if it lies in the vehicle’s range of operation. To guide that effort, analysis was conducted with a numerical simulation
Dhamankar, Shveta, Ali, Junaid, Parshall, Evan, Shaver, Gregory, Evans, John, Bajaj, Anil K.
Real-Time Implementable Reduced-Order Energy Model for an Electric Vehicle14-14-01-000608/22/2024
Accurate estimation of vehicle energy consumption plays an important role in developing advanced energy-saving connected automated vehicle technologies such as Eco Approach and Departure, PHEV mode blending, and Eco-route planning. The present study developed a reduced-order energy model with second-order response surfaces and torque estimation to estimate the energy consumption while just relying on the drive cycle information. The model is developed for fully electric Chevrolet Bolt using chassis dynamometer data. The dyno test data encompasses the various EPA test cycles, real-world, and aggressive maneuvers to capture most powertrain operating conditions. The developed model predicts energy consumption using vehicle speed and road-grade inputs for a drive cycle. The accuracy of the model is validated by comparing the prediction results against track and road test data. The developed model was able to accurately predict the energy consumption for track drive cycles within the error
Goyal, Vasu, Dudekula, Ahammad Basha, Stutenberg, Kevin, Robinette, Darrell, Ovist, Grant, Naber, Jeffery
Driver–Steering Wheel Interaction during Cornering10-08-03-002407/24/2024
This research aims at understanding how the driver interacts with the steering wheel, in order to detect driving strategies. Such driving strategies will allow in the future to derive accurate holistic driver models for enhancing both safety and comfort of vehicles. The use of an original instrumented steering wheel (ISW) allows to measure at each hand, three forces, three moments, and the grip force. Experiments have been performed with 10 nonprofessional drivers in a high-end dynamic driving simulator. Three aspects of driving strategy were analyzed, namely the amplitudes of the forces and moments applied to the steering wheel, the correlations among the different signals of forces and moments, and the order of activation of the forces and moments. The results obtained on a road test have been compared with the ones coming from a driving simulator, with satisfactory results. Two different strategies for actuating the steering wheel have been identified. In the first strategy, the
Previati, Giorgio, Mastinu, Gianpiero, Gobbi, Massimiliano
On-Center Steering Model for Realistic Steering Feel based on Real Measurement Data2024-01-299407/02/2024
Driving simulators allow the testing of driving functions, vehicle models and acceptance assessment at an early stage. For a real driving experience, it's necessary that all immersions are depicted as realistically as possible. When driving manually, the perceived haptic steering wheel torque plays a key role in conveying a realistic steering feel. To ensure this, complex multi-body systems are used with numerous of parameters that are difficult to identify. Therefore, this study shows a method how to generate a realistic steering feel with a nonlinear open-loop model which only contains significant parameters, particularly the friction of the steering gear. This is suitable for the steering feel in the most driving on-center area. Measurements from test benches and real test drives with an Electric Power Steering (EPS) were used for the Identification and Validation of the model. The open-loop architecture on steering rack level shows adequate results and generate a nearly delay-free
Dieing, Andreas, Reuss, Hans-Christian, Schlüter, Marco
FMCW Lidar Simulation with Ray Tracing and Standardized Interfaces2024-01-297707/02/2024
In pursuit of safety validation of automated driving functions, efforts are being made to accompany real world test drives by test drives in virtual environments. To be able to transfer highly automated driving functions into a simulation, models of the vehicle’s perception sensors such as lidar, radar and camera are required. In addition to the classic pulsed time-of-flight (ToF) lidars, the growing availability of commercial frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) lidars sparks interest in the field of environment perception. This is due to advanced capabilities such as directly measuring the target’s relative radial velocity based on the Doppler effect. In this work, an FMCW lidar sensor simulation model is introduced, which is divided into the components of signal propagation and signal processing. The signal propagation is modeled by a ray tracing approach simulating the interaction of light waves with the environment. For this purpose, an ASAM Open Simulation Interface (OSI
Hofrichter, Kristof, Linnhoff, Clemens, Elster, Lukas, Peters, Steven
Anti-Rollover Control for All-Terrain Vehicle Based on Zero-Moment Point2024-01-505504/30/2024
To investigate the rollover phenomena experienced by all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) during their motion caused by input from the road surface, a combined simulation using CarSim and Simulink has been employed to validate an active anti-rollover control strategy based on differential braking for ATVs, followed by vehicle testing. In the research process, a nonlinear three-degrees-of-freedom vehicle model has been developed. By utilizing a zero-moment point index as a rollover warning indicator, this approach could accurately detect the rollover status of the vehicle, particularly in scenarios involving low road adhesion on unpaved surfaces, which are characteristic of ATV operation. The differential braking, generating a roll moment by adjusting the amount of lateral force each braked tire can generate, was proved as an effective method to enhance rolling stability. Simulation and on-road testing results indicated that this control strategy effectively monitored the state of the ATV and
Hong, Hanchi, Wang, Kuan, d’Apolito, Luigi, Quan, Kangning, Yao, Xu
Effect of Shock Absorber Friction on Vehicle Vertical Dynamics10-08-02-001004/10/2024
In order to efficiently predict and investigate a vehicle’s vertical dynamics, it is necessary to consider the suspension component properties holistically. Although the effects of suspension stiffness and damping characteristics on vertical dynamics are widely understood, the impact of suspension friction in various driving scenarios has rarely been studied in both simulation and road tests for several decades. The present study addresses this issue by performing driving tests using a special device that allows a modification of the shock absorber or damper friction, and thus the suspension friction to be modified independently of other suspension parameters. Initially, its correct functioning is verified on a shock absorber test rig. A calibration and application routine is established in order to assign definite additional friction forces at high reproducibility levels. The device is equipped in a medium-class passenger vehicle, which is driven on various irregular road sections as
Deubel, Clemens, Schneider, Scott Jarod, Prokop, Günther
On-Road Testing to Characterize Speed-Following Behavior in Production Automated Vehicles2024-01-196304/09/2024
A fully instrumented Tesla Model 3 was used to collect thousands of hours of real-world automated driving data, encompassing both Autopilot and Full Self-Driving modes. This comprehensive dataset included vehicle operational parameters from the data busses, capturing details such as powertrain performance, energy consumption, and the control of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). Additionally, interactions with the surrounding traffic were recorded using a perception kit developed in-house equipped with LIDAR and a 360-degree camera system. We collected the data as part of a larger program to assess energy-efficient driving behavior of production connected and automated vehicles. One important aspect of characterizing the test vehicle is predicting its car-following behavior. Using both uncontrolled on-road tests and dedicated tests with a lead car performing set speed maneuvers, we tuned conventional adaptive cruise control (ACC) equations to fit the vehicle’s behavior. We
Duoba, Michael, Vellamattathil Baby, Tinu, Pulpeiro Gonzalez, Jorge, HomChaudhuri, Baisravan
Data-Driven Estimation of Coastdown Road Load2024-01-227604/09/2024
Emissions and fuel economy certification testing for vehicles is carried out on a chassis dynamometer using standard test procedures. The vehicle coastdown method (SAE J2263) used to experimentally measure the road load of a vehicle for certification testing is a time-consuming procedure considering the high number of distinct variants of a vehicle family produced by an automaker today. Moreover, test-to-test repeatability is compromised by environmental conditions: wind, pressure, temperature, track surface condition, etc., while vehicle shape, driveline type, transmission type, etc. are some factors that lead to vehicle-to-vehicle variation. Controlled lab tests are employed to determine individual road load components: tire rolling resistance (SAE J2452), aerodynamic drag (wind tunnels), and driveline parasitic loss (dynamometer in a driveline friction measurement lab). These individual components are added to obtain a road load model to be applied on a chassis dynamometer. However
Singh, Yuvraj, Jayakumar, Adithya, Rizzoni, Giorgio
Numerical Simulation of Fluctuating Wind Noise of a Vehicle in Reproduced on-Road Wind Condition2024-01-235304/09/2024
In vehicle development, reducing noise is a major concern to ensure passenger comfort. As electric vehicles become more common and engine and vibration noises improve, the aerodynamic noise generated around the vehicle becomes relatively more noticeable. In particular, the fluctuating wind noise, which is affected by turbulence in the atmosphere, gusts of wind, and wake caused by the vehicle in front, can make passengers feel uncomfortable. However, the cause of the fluctuating wind noise has not been fully understood, and a solution has not yet been found. The reason for this is that fluctuating wind noise cannot be quantitatively evaluated using common noise evaluation methods such as FFT and STFT. In addition, previous studies have relied on road tests, which do not provide reproducible conditions due to changing atmospheric conditions. To address this issue, automobile manufacturers are developing devices to generate turbulence in wind tunnels. However, in wind tunnels, it is
Tajima, Atsushi, Ikeda, Jun, Nakasato, Kosuke, Kamiwaki, Takahiro, Wakamatsu, Junichi, Oshima, Munehiko, Li, ChungGang, Tsubokura, Makoto
Analysis of Low-Frequency Brake Noise for Drum Brakes on Semi-Trailers2024-01-289504/09/2024
A road test on semi-trailers is carried out, and accelerations of some characteristic points on the braking system,axles,and truck body is measured,also brake pressure and noise around the support frame is acquired.The measured data was analyzed to determine the causes of the brake noise, and the mechanism of the noise of the drum brake of semi-trailers during low-speed braking was investigated. The following conclusions are obtained: (1) Brake noise of the drum brake of the semi-trailer at low-frequency is generated from vibrations of the brake shoes, axle, and body, and the vibration frequency is close to 2nd natural frequency of the axle. (2) Brake noise is generated from stick-slip motion between the brake shoes and the brake drum, where the relative motion between the brake drum and the brake shoes is changed alternately with sliding and sticking, resulting in sudden changes in acceleration and shock vibration. A multi-body dynamic model of the semi-trailer is established for
Tang, Hao, Shangguan, Wen-Bin, Kang, Yingzi, Zheng, Jing-Yuan, Lan, Wen-Biao
Evaluation of Difficulty for Autonomous Vehicles Testing Roads based on Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis2024-01-198304/09/2024
Autonomous Vehicles are being widely tested under diverse conditions with expectations that they will soon be a regular feature on roads. The development of Autonomous Vehicles has become an important policy in countries around the world, and the technologies developed by countries and car manufacturers are different, and at the same time to adapt to the road environment and traffic management facilities of different countries, so some countries have built self-driving test sites, and the test content is also different, so it is impossible to compare its relative difficulty. This study surveyed experts and scholars to develop a means of weighting the respective difficulty of various autonomous vehicle testing conditions based on the analytic hierarchy process and fuzzy analytic hierarchy process, applied to a sample of 33 sets of testing conditions based on road type, management actions and operational capabilities. Weights are also adjusted in response to environmental impact factors
Lin, Da-Jie, Liu, Hsin Hsien, CHOU, AI-CHEN, Huang, Pin-Cheng, WU, CHENG HSIN, CHANG, CHUN-YI, CHEN, MING-HSU
Research on Intelligent Shift Strategy for Heavy Vehicles Based on Predictive Information2024-01-214004/09/2024
By installing an automated mechanical transmission (AMT) on heavy-duty vehicles and developing a reasonable shift strategy, it can reduce driver fatigue and eliminate technical differences among drivers, improving vehicle performance. However, after detaching from the experience of good drivers, the current shifting strategy is limited to the vehicle state at the current moment, and cannot make predictive judgment of the road environment ahead, and problems such as cyclic shifting will occur due to insufficient power when driving on the ramp. To improve the adaptability of heavy-duty truck shift strategy to dynamic driving environments, this paper first analyzes the shortcomings of existing traditional heavy-duty truck shift strategies on slopes, and develops a comprehensive performance shift strategy incorporating slope factors. Based on this, forward-looking information is introduced to propose a predictive intelligent shift strategy that balances power and economy. The vehicle power
Zhang, Junfeng, Chen, Daxin, Wang, Gaoxiang
Identification of Important Issues and Driving Modes for Enhancing NVH Performance of Electric Vehicles Based on Comparative Analysis of User Experience with Conventional ICE Vehicles2024-01-234104/09/2024
The challenges concerning noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) performance in the vehicle cabin have been significantly changed by the powertrain shift from a conventional drive unit with an internal-combustion engine (ICE) to electric drive units (eAxles). However, there is few research regarding the impact of electrification on NVH considering the influence of the context such as multi-stimuli and traffic rules during a real-life driving. In this study, the authors conducted test drives using EVs and ICEVs on public roads in Europe and conducted a statistical analysis of the difference in driver impression of NVH performance based on interviews during actual driving. The impression data were categorized into clusters corresponding to related phenomena or features based on driver comments. Furthermore, the vehicles data (vehicle speed, acceleration, GPS information, etc.) were recorded to associate the driver impressions with the vehicle’s conditions when the comments were made
Mise, Shion, Torii, Kenji, Sellerbeck, Philipp, Hank, Stefan, Iwano, Hidetaka, Nishikoji, Takuya
Analysis and Improvement of the Cabin Low Frequency Noise Caused by Underbody Rear Cavity Airflow Oscillation in the Pure Electric Vehicle High Speed Cruise2024-01-235004/09/2024
During the pure electric vehicle high speed cruise driving condition, the unsteady air flow in the chassis cavity is susceptible to self-sustaining oscillations phenomenon. And the aerodynamic oscillation excitation could be coupled with the cabin interior acoustic mode through the body pressure relief vent, the low frequency booming noise may occur and seriously reduces the driving comfort. This paper systematically introduces the characteristics identification and the troubleshooting process of the low frequency aerodynamic noise case. Firstly, combined with the characteristics of the subjective jury evaluation and objective measurement, the acoustic wind tunnel test restores the cabin booming phenomenon. The specific test procedure is proposed to separate the noise excitation source. Secondly, according to the road test results, it is inferenced that the formation mechanism of low frequency noise is the self- sustaining oscillation with the underbody shedding vortex feedback
Shen, Long, Zhang, Jun, Gu, Perry
Braking Judder Test and Simulation Analysis of Commercial Vehicle2024-01-234204/09/2024
Brake judder affects vehicle safety and comfort, making it a key area of research in brake NVH. Transfer path analysis is effective for analyzing and reducing brake judder. However, current studies mainly focus on passenger cars, with limited investigation into commercial vehicles. The complex chassis structures of commercial vehicles involve multiple transfer paths, resulting in extensive data and testing challenges. This hinders the analysis and suppression of brake judder using transfer path analysis. In this study, we propose a simulation-based method to investigate brake judder transfer paths in commercial vehicles. Firstly, road tests were conducted to investigate the brake judder of commercial vehicles. Time-domain analysis, order characteristics analysis, and transfer function analysis between components were performed. Subsequently, a multi-body dynamics model of the commercial vehicle was established using ADAMS software, and the effectiveness of the model in predicting brake
Huang, Dehui, Zhang, Kai, Sun, Jichao, Li, Wenbo, Pei, Kaikun
Dynamic Spark Advance Technology for Gasoline Fuel Blends2024-26-007401/16/2024
Fuel efficiency is one of the most important customer requirement in Indian market as well as very crucial to meet the upcoming regulation like CAFÉ for Indian Automotive manufacturers. Most of the technology changes to meet this challenge, always come with a cost penalty with hardware addition. To counter the above challenge, a strategy has been identified in the EMS software that will dynamically adapt the spark timing based on fuel octane rating. This strategy has resulted in fuel efficiency improvement on Modified Indian Drive Cycle on chassis dynamometer test and as well as on real life road tests using fuels with various octane number.
Tyagarajan, Sethuramalingam, Kavekar, Pratap, Suna, Bhagyashree, Agarwal, Nishant, Shaikh, Wasim
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