Replacing fossil fuels with renewable ammonia could provide a crucial step towards the decarbonisation of transport sectors. However, many challenges remain in utilising ammonia within combustion systems: the volumetric energy density of ammonia is significantly lower than that of gasoline, exposure to ammonia (including ammonia slip) can be detrimental to human health, and the production of emissions, including unregulated emissions (such as N2O), from ammonia combustion can be catastrophic for the environment if not treated appropriately. Therefore, there is a need to determine the efficacy of ammonia as a fuel for internal combustion engines and the impact on the efficiency of energy release and the resulting exhaust emissions. A modern spark ignition engine was modified such that ammonia was aspirated through the engine intake air to incrementally displace engine gasoline and maintain a constant work output. It was found that displacing the fuel energy supplied by direct injected

Sivaranjitham, Annaniya Mitchell, Hellier, Paul, Ladommatos, Nicos, Millington, Paul, Alcove Clave, Silvia

Enhanced Equivalent Consumotion Minimization Strategy Based on Bayesian Optimization

2025-01-0194

To be published on 06/16/2025

The Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) is an effective approach for managing energy flow in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), balancing the use of electric energy and fuel consumption. The strategy’s performance depends heavily on the Equivalent Factor (EF), which governs this trade-off. However, the optimal EF varies under different driving conditions and is influenced by the inherent randomness in factors such as traffic, road gradients, and driving behavior, making it challenging to determine through traditional methods. This paper introduces Bayesian Optimization (BO) as a solution to address the stochastic nature of the EF parameter tuning process. By using a probabilistic model, BO efficiently navigates the complex, uncertain performance landscape to find the optimal EF parameters that minimize fuel consumption and emissions across variable conditions. Simulation results under WLTP cycles show that the proposed method reduces fuel consumption by 0.9% and improves

Zhang, Cetengfei, Zhou, Quan, Jia, Yiqi, Xiong, Lu

Decarbonisation of GDI Engines Utilising On-Board Hydrogen Production in an Improved Design Thermochemical Exhaust-Assisted Fuel Reformer

2025-01-0186

To be published on 06/16/2025

Engine intake charge enrichment with hydrogen (H2) is one way to enhance engine thermal efficiency and decrease pollutant emissions while replacing carbon-based fuel. Waste energy from hot exhaust gas can be thermochemically recovered as hydrogen in catalytic exhaust gas fuel reforming, which can then be used in combustion. This study focuses on tailoring the design of the fuel reformer, including the catalyst chemistry and coating on ceramic and metallic structures, to benefit the whole system’s fuel economy and decrease engine out emissions. The main reformer improvements focused on exhaust flow management and interaction with the engine's after-treatment system, while the final stage focused on the reformer's internal design structure. The new design iteration enabled hydrogen production improvements between 78% and 86% in the critical exhaust gas temperature range of 410°C to 520°C with gas hourly space velocities (GHSVs) in highly demanding engine operating conditions ranging from

Lee, Seung Woo, Wahbi, Ammar, Herreros, Jose, Zeraati Rezaei, Soheil, Tsolakis, Athanasios, Millington, Paul

Development of After-Treatment Systems and Control Strategy for a Hybrid-Dedicated Homogeneous Lean Burn Engine

2025-01-0217

To be published on 06/16/2025

The development of lean-burn gasoline engines has continued due to their significant improvements in thermal efficiency. However, challenges associated with NOx emissions have hindered their mainstream adoption. As a result, the development of an effective NOx after-treatment system has become a key focus in lean-burn engine research. Additionally, HC emissions pose another challenge, as they tend to increase under lean combustion conditions while their conversion efficiency simultaneously declines. This study presents a novel after-treatment system incorporating a lean NOx trap(LNT) and a passive SCR(pSCR) system. This configuration enables efficient NOx reduction at a competitive cost while maintaining operational simplicity. Moreover, conventional catalyst technologies, including three-way catalysts (TWCs) and fuel-cut NOx traps (FCNTs), were optimized to maximize conversion performance under lean operating conditions. To further enhance system performance, various control

Oh, Heechang, Lee, Jonghyeok, Sim, Kiseon, Lim, SeungSoo, Park, Jongil, Park, Minkyu, Kang, Hyunjin, Han, Donghee, Lee, Kwiyeon, Song, Jinwoo

Multi-Objective Robust Optimization for a Parallel Link Steering System: A Six Sigma and Monte Carlo Approach

2025-01-5036

06/03/2025

The steering system is one of the most important assemblies for the vehicle. It allows the vehicle to steer according to the driver’s intention. For an ideal steering system, the steering angle for the wheel on the left and right side should obey the Ackman equation. To achieve this goal, the optimization method is usually initiated to determine the coordinates of the hard points for the steering system. However, the location of hard points varies due to the manufacturing error of the components and wear caused by friction during their working life. To decrease the influence of geometry parameter error, and system mass, and improve the robust performance of the steering system, the optimization based on Six Sigma and Monte Carlo approach is used to optimize the steering system for an off-road vehicle. At last, the effect is proved by the comparison of other methods. The maximum error of the steering angle is decreased from 7.78° to 2.14°, while the mass of the steering system is

Peng, Dengzhi, Deng, Chao, Zhou, Bingbing, Zhang, Zhenhua

Immersion Cooling for Lithium-Ion Batteries at High Discharging Rates

14-14-02-0012

05/29/2025

The high-performance electric sports cars market is expected to register rapid development in the next years, driven by a different attitude of racing enthusiasts toward electric vehicles. The improvements in battery technology are reinforcing consumer confidence and interest in electric sports vehicles, making them more attractive to enthusiasts and accelerating their adoption. Batteries have been used in high heat generation conditions more often with fast charging and discharging. Therefore, the need for more advanced battery thermal management systems (BTMS) has been increasing in recent years. Vegetable oil, owing to its unique availability and biodegradability, is considered as a viable alternative to fossil fuel-based cooling fluids in immersion cooling systems. In the present work, the feasibility of using vegetable oil in immersion cooling under high discharge conditions is studied by comparing it with four types of fossil fuel-based cooling fluids. Immersion cooling was

Hong, Hanchi, Song, Xiang, Shi, Xu, d’Apolito, Luigi, Xin, Qianfan

Experimental Investigation of Carbon Nanotube Additives Effect on Performance and Emission of a High-Injection Pressure Common Rail Diesel Engine

03-18-03-0020

05/16/2025

Due to the continuous decrease in fossil fuel resources, and drawbacks of some biofuel properties, in addition to restricted environmental concerns, it becomes a vital manner to innovate some approaches for energy saving and emission reduction. One of the promising approaches is to enhance the fuel properties via adding nanoparticles. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) blended with biofuels get extensive investigations by researchers using conventional diesel engines at relatively limited operating regimes. The objective of this work is to extend these studies using diesel fuel, rather than biofuels, on a high-injection pressure (1400–1600 bar) common rail diesel engine at wide operating conditions and higher CNT concentrations. Experimental results show an increase in peak pressure up to 24.46% than pure diesel when using 100 ppm CNTs concentration. Also, BSFC has decreased by 33.19%, and BTE increased by 54.2% compared to pure diesel fuel at high speeds and loads. NOx and CO2 emissions raised

Moaayet, Sayed, Neseem, Waleed Mohamed, Amin, Mohamed Ibrahim, Shahin, Motasem Abdelbaky

Experimental Quantitative Analysis of Spray Velocity Field Characteristics of Four Compression-Ignition Engine Oxygenated Alternative Fuels

03-18-03-0021

05/10/2025

As the suitable substitutes for diesel in compression-ignition (CI) piston engines, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (PODEs), and bio-aviation fuel (BAF), among other oxygenated alternative fuels have been widely recognized due to higher cetane values. To explore the in-cylinder fuel spray dynamics and subsequent fuel–air entrainment of these fuels, experimental studies on near-field and full-field spray characteristics were carried out by the diffuser back-illumination imaging (DBI) method within a constant-volume chamber. The local velocity was inferred by momentum flux conservation and Gaussian radial profile assumption, and the dimensionless Jet number was introduced to qualify the strength of interaction within two-phase flow. It was found that the initial spray transitions from a “needle” to a larger spray head structure as injection pressure rises, especially with PODE3-5 exhibiting a stable “mushroom” structure due to its higher surface tension

Chen, Houchang, Jiang, Junxin, Hu, Yong, Yu, Wenbin, Zhao, Feiyang

Variable Speed Limit Control Based on Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient under Mixed Traffic Environment

12-09-01-0004

05/06/2025

The existing variable speed limit (VSL) control strategies rely on variable message signs, leading to slow response times and sensitivity to driver compliance. These methods struggle to adapt to environments where both connected automated vehicles (CAVs) and manual vehicles coexist. This article proposes a VSL control strategy using the deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG) algorithm to optimize travel time, reduce collision risks, and minimize energy consumption. The algorithm leverages real-time traffic data and prior speed limits to generate new control actions. A reward function is designed within a DDPG-based actor-critic framework to determine optimal speed limits. The proposed strategy was tested in two scenarios and compared against no-control, rule-based control, and DDQN-based control methods. The simulation results indicate that the proposed control strategy outperforms existing approaches in terms of improving TTS (total time spent), enhancing the throughput efficiency

Ding, Xibin, Zhang, Zhaolei, Liu, Zhizhen, Tang, Feng

A Computational Process to Predict and Mitigate Liftgate Gap Noise

2025-01-0028

05/05/2025

This study introduces a computational approach to evaluate potential noise issues arising from liftgate gaps and their contribution to cabin noise early in the design process. This computational approach uses an extensively-validated Lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) based computational fluid dynamics (CFD) solver to predict the transient flow field and exterior noise sources. Transmission of these noise sources through glass panels and seals were done by a well-validated statistical energy analysis (SEA) solver. Various sealing strategies were investigated to reduce interior noise levels attributed to these gaps, aiming to enhance wind noise performance. The findings emphasize the importance of integrating computational tools in the early design stages to mitigate wind noise issues and optimize sealing strategies effectively.

Moron, Philippe, Jantzen, Andreas, Kim, Minsuk, Senthooran, Sivapalan

Research on NVH Performance of Pulse Heating System of One Vehicle

2025-01-0078

05/05/2025

When the ambient temperature is too low, the performance of the lithium-ion battery will deteriorate, and the car will have the problems of difficult charging, fast power consumption, and even difficult to start, so the battery needs to be heated before use to provide a comfortable working environment for the lithium-ion. The high-frequency pulse heating system can quickly and evenly raise the temperature of the battery, but there is noise during operation, which affects the NVH performance of the vehicle itself, and its noise comfort needs to be further optimized. Firstly, the high-frequency pulse heating system is discussed in detail, and the parameters affecting the NVH performance are explored. Secondly, NVH tests and subjective and objective evaluations were carried out based on different system parameters, relevant data were collected to establish a model, the influence degree of each parameter was demonstrated, and the best parameter combination was determined. Finally, the

Yun, Zhao, Shouhui, Huang, Hu, Zhongxun, Hui, Hui, Zhou, Changshui, Teng, Charlie

Model-Based Design and Energy Management of an Aeronautical Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell System

2025-01-0150

05/02/2025

The growing demand for air transport requires efficient and sustainable power systems to meet the pressing need for decarbonizing the sector. A hybrid unit, consisting of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system and a lithium-ion battery, is a suitable option due to the advantages of reduced gravimetric and volumetric impacts, along with the flexibility of energy management strategies. This work addresses, using a model-based approach, the issue of integrating these electrochemical devices into the aircraft’s electrical architecture considering both design and energy management aspects. A literature derived DC-DC converter bi-dimensional power map is exploited to investigate scenarios differentiated by the fuel cell system power rating and number of stacks working in parallel such that the DC bus line voltage requirements can be respected. These maps relate the converter’s maximum deliverable power to the input and desired output voltage. The combined design and energy management

Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Napolitano, Ciro

Designing and Controlling a Hybrid Fuel Cell System for Propelling a Turboprop Aircraft

2025-01-0151

05/02/2025

In the context of aviation sector decarbonization, fuel cell hybrid electric aircrafts are a promising alternative to conventional fuels, presenting opportunities for more sustainable and efficient flight. Hence, the present work is focused on an alternative powertrain architecture, wherein a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system cooperates with a lithium-ion battery to fulfil the electrical power demand of a turboprop-based aircraft. Particularly, a mathematical tool is proposed to evaluate both the components size and performance, while a degradation aware rule-based control strategy guarantees an effective power split between the hybridizing components. Such an energy management approach introduces an idling level and a rate limiter to mitigate degradation associated with start-up/shut-down and transient phases, respectively. Moreover, to have a reliable estimation of the vehicle’s fuel economy, while also guaranteeing the correct components dimensioning, the fuel cell system

De Donato, Angelo, Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Musto, Carmine

New Study Showcases 3D Photonics with Record Performance for AI

TBMG-53013

05/01/2025

Artificial intelligence (AI) systems promise transformative advancements, yet their growth has been limited by energy inefficiencies and bottlenecks in data transfer. Researchers at Columbia Engineering have unveiled a groundbreaking solution: a 3D photonic-electronic platform that achieves unprecedented energy efficiency and bandwidth density, paving the way for next-generation AI hardware.

Development of a High-Frequency Measurement Apparatus for Evaluating Piston Friction in a Small Gasoline Engines

2024-32-0100

04/18/2025

Efforts to enhance fuel efficiency in small gasoline engines, vital for reducing CO2 emissions, are concentrated on minimizing piston friction losses. Achieving this balance while addressing concerns such as piston seizure prevention and minimizing oil consumption presents challenges, particularly in small gasoline engines operating at higher speeds where the risk of piston seizure is significant. Hence, there is a critical need for accurate methods to measure piston friction. This study introduces the development of a measurement apparatus employing the floating liner method, initially devised by Takiguchi [1] and further adapted by Yamasaka for a mono-cylinder air-cooled gasoline engine [2, 3]. Yamasaka’s research successfully investigated the correlation between the apparatus’s natural frequency and the maximum engine speed measurable, achieving piston friction measurement up to 5000 rpm. Expanding on this achievement, this research aims to broaden the application of the floating

Honda, Riku, Ito, Akemi, Saika, Santa, Yamase, Ryouta, Hasegawa, Tatsuhiko, Sakioka, Takeru, Suda, Naoyuki, Ninomiya, Yoshinari

A Concept for Functional Modelling of an E-Bike Powertrain

2024-32-0017

04/18/2025

The increasing popularity of e-bikes, especially pedelecs, has led to a growing interest in consideration of e-bike cycling. To achieve a deeper understanding on the process of e-bike cycling and in particular the effects on the rider it can be instrumental to use simulation methods. In this context, the e-bike drive system and its function are of central importance for e-bikes. Therefore, this work proposes a functional modeling of the powertrain of an e-bike with a mid-drive motor, considering legal constraints and support functionalities. The model incorporates the mechanical transmission between pedals, motor, and crank shaft, allowing for a detailed analysis of the e-bike’s performance. Additionally, the support mechanism is depicted, where an electric motor amplifies the rider’s pedaling torque. The electrical behavior of the motor, energy consumption, and battery state of charge are also integrated into the model. This comprehensive approach aims to provide a generic

Rauch, Yannick, Kettner, Maurice, Kriesten, Reiner

Studying the Lean Burn Operation in Two-Wheelers to Increase Fuel Efficiency and Investigate the Use of Lean NOx Trap Catalyst (LNT) for Lean Burn System

2024-32-0058

04/18/2025

This study offers an overview of the impact of lean burn technology in two-wheeler vehicles, specifically concentrating on enhancing the fuel economy and addressing the challenges associated with its adoption. Lean burn systems, characterized by a fuel-air mixture with a higher air content than stoichiometric ratio. The study focuses on technology which meets stringent emission standards while enabling the optimization of fuel efficiency. The lean burn system employs strategies to optimize air-fuel ratio using electronic fuel injection, ignition timing control, and advanced engine control algorithms like - updated torque modulation control algorithm for drivability, lambda control algorithm for rich and lean switch and NOx modelling algorithm for LNT catalyst efficiency tracking. The challenges related to lean burn systems, includes issues related to combustion stability, nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions, and their impact on drivability, is summarized in the study. Mitigation strategies

Somasundaram, Karthikeyan, Sivaji, Purushothaman, John Derin, C, Vishal, Karwa, Manoj Kumar, S, Maynal, Rajesh

Techniques and Analysis Methods Used in Development of 13.4kW Horizontal Water-Cooled Diesel Engine

2024-32-0116

04/18/2025

Horizontal water-cooled diesel engines are single-cylinder engines equipped with all the necessary components for operation such as a fuel tank and a radiator. Due to their versatility, there are used in a wide range of applications in Asia, Africa, South America, etc. It is necessary to comply with strengthened emissions regulations year by year in countries where environmental awareness is increasing such as China, India, etc. We have developed a new compact and high-power 13.4kW(18HP) engine which meets these needs. We realized a high-power density by using our unique expertise to maintain an engine size and increase a displacement. In addition, by optimizing a layout of crankcase ribs through structural analysis, we have achieved a maximum bore and “Reduction of the weight of the crankcase and lubricating oil consumption (LOC), and reduction of friction with narrow-width low-tangential load piston rings”. Furthermore, by designing an intake port using 3D CFD, we have optimized a

Shiomi, Kenta, Hosoya, Ryosuke, Komai, Yoshinobu, Takashima, Yusuke, Kitamura, Takahiro, Fujiwara, Tsukasa, Suematsu, Kosuke

Development of Cylinder Deactivation Control during Idle for Conventional Engines

2024-32-0019

04/18/2025

This report examines the advancement and utilization of cylinder deactivation technology that enhances fuel efficiency in conventional engines without hardware modifications. It operates by halting fuel supply to some of the cylinders in multi-cylinder engines and increasing the output power of the remaining active cylinders to maintain an idle state. By implementing this technology in the mass-produced 90° V-twin engine, the U502, and deactivating one of its two cylinders, fuel consumption during idling is reduced by over 30%. The focus of this study is on the technology developed to minimize engine speed fluctuations during the transition to cylinder deactivation and reactivation for the engine. By making various modifications to the fuel injection control sequence and optimizing the throttle opening of each cylinder in idle and driving conditions, engine speed fluctuations were minimized. This allows users to reduce fuel consumption while maintaining the engine’s original

YANAGIDA, Shoji

Development of the Mild Hybrid System for Off-Road Machinery

2024-32-0067

04/18/2025

In recent years, the importance of achieving carbon neutrality has been highlighted in response to the escalating severity of climate change. In the leading automobile market, the share of electric vehicles is gradually expanding, especially in passenger car sector. However, it is not same in commercial vehicle sector. In the off-road machinery market, as with electrification in commercial vehicles, the factors such as the need to install charging infrastructure and the requirement for large batteries to expand operating duration are significant challenge to full electrification. As one of the realistic solutions toward carbon neutrality for off-road machines, methods to utilize both internal combustion engines (ICE) and their applied products are being reconsidered. Under the circumstances, we have developed a mild-hybrid (MH) system for small off-road machinery. This system adopts a 48V power supply in order to minimize size of the system offers as a “Drop-in” package solution. This

Koyama, Kazuaki, Kimura, Ryota, Nagamori, Yuko, Horita, Tatsuhiko, Nosaka, Kento

Experiment Characterization and Simulation Analysis of a Lithium-Ion Battery in Different Ambient Conditions

2025-01-5028

04/15/2025

A great number of performances of an electric vehicle such as driving range, powering performance, and the like are affected by its configured batteries. Having a good grasp of the electrical and thermal behavior of the battery before the detailed design stage is indispensable. This paper introduces an experiment characterization method of a lithium-ion battery with a coolant system from cell level to pack level in different ambient conditions. Corresponding cell and pack simulation models established in AMESim that aimed to capture the electrical and thermal features of the battery were also illustrated, respectively. First, the capacity test and hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) test were conducted in a thermotank to acquire basic data about the battery cell. Next, based on acquired data, first-order equivalent circuit model (1C-ECM) was built for the battery cell and further combined with environmental boundary conditions to check the simulation accuracy. Then, hybrid

Zhou, Shuai, Liu, Huaiju, Yu, Huili, Yan, Xu, Yan, Junjie

Adapting Basic On-Road Data to the Heavy Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck Schedule for Guiding the Electrification of Long-Haul Truck Transport

14-14-02-0011

04/10/2025

Heavy heavy-duty diesel truck (HHDDT) drive cycles for long-haul transport trucks were developed over 20 years ago and have a renewed relevance for performance assessment and technical forecasting for transport electrification. In this study, a model was constructed from sparse data recorded from the real-life on-road activity of a small fleet of class 8 trucks by fitting them into separate driving-type segments constituting the complete HHDDT drive cycle. Detailed 1-s resolution truck fleet raw data were also available for assessing the drive cycle model. Numerical simulations were conducted to assess the model for trucks powered by both 1.0 MW charging and 300 kW-level e-Highway, accounting for elevation and seasonally varying climate conditions along the Windsor–Quebec City corridor in Canada. The modeling approach was able to estimate highway cruising speeds, energy efficiencies, and battery pack lifetimes normally within 2% of values determined using the detailed high-resolution

Darcovich, Ken, Ribberink, Hajo, Soufflet, Emilie, Lauras, Gaspard

Predictive Battery Thermal Management System Control Strategy and Simulation in Electric Vehicle

2025-01-5027

04/03/2025

With the global issue of fossil fuel scarcity and the greenhouse effect, interest in electric vehicles (EVs) has surged recently. At that stage, because of the constraints of the energy density and battery performance degradation in low-temperature conditions, the mileage of EVs has been criticized. To guarantee battery performance, a battery thermal management system (BTMS) is applied to ensure battery operates in a suitable temperature range. Currently, in the industry, a settled temperature interval is set as criteria of positive thermal management activation, which is robust but leads to energy waste. BTMS has a kilowatt-level power usage under high- and low-temperature environments. Optimizing the BTMS control strategy becomes a potential solution to reduce energy consumption and overcome mileage issues. An appropriate system simulation model provides an effective tool to evaluate different BTMS control strategies. In this study, a predictive BTMS control strategy, which adjusts

Huang, Zhipei, Chen, Jiangbo, Tang, Hai

Learning-Based Energy Management Strategy of Fuel Cell City Buses Considering Power Source Degradation

02-18-02-0012

04/02/2025

Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) offer a promising solution for achieving environmentally friendly transportation and improving fuel economy. The energy management strategy (EMS), as a critical technology for FCVs, faces significant challenges of achieving a balanced coordination among the fuel economy, power battery life, and durability of fuel cell across diverse environments. To address these challenges, a learning-based EMS for fuel cell city buses considering power source degradation is proposed. First, a fuel cell degradation model and a power battery aging model from the literature are presented. Then, based on the deep Q-network (DQN), four factors are incorporated into the reward function, including comprehensive hydrogen consumption, fuel cell performance degradation, power battery life degradation, and battery state of charge deviation. The simulation results show that compared to the dynamic programming–based EMS (DP-EMS), the proposed EMS improves the fuel cell durability while

Song, Dafeng, Yan, Jinxing, Zeng, Xiaohua, Zhang, Yunhe

PRODUCT BRIEFS

25TOFHP04_11

04/01/2025

Fully Automated Global Powertrain Optimization for Electric Truck Using Active Learning Algorithm and Backwards Simulation Approach

2025-01-8536

04/01/2025

Electric trucks, due to their weight and payload, need a different layout than passenger electric vehicles (EVs). They require multiple motors or multi-speed transmissions, unlike passenger EVs that often use one motor or a single-speed transmission. This involves determining motor size, number of motors, gears, and gear ratios, complicated by the powertrain system’s nonlinearity. The paper proposes using a stochastic active learning approach (Bayesian optimization) to configure the motors and transmissions for optimal efficiency and performance. Backwards simulation is applied to determine the energy consumption and performance of the vehicle for a rapid simulation of different powertrain configurations. Bayesian optimization, was used to select the electric drive unit (EDU) design candidates for two driving scenarios, combined with a local optimization (dynamic programming) for torque split. By optimizing the electric motor and transmission gears, it is possible to reduce energy

Chen, Bicheng, Wellmann, Christoph, Xia, Feihong, Savelsberg, Rene, Andert, Jakob, Pischinger, Stefan

Power Loss Estimation in Poly-V Belts for Micro and Mild Hybrid Powertrains Using the Generalized Maxwell Model

2025-01-8316

04/01/2025

In modern automotive powertrains, the front-end accessory drive represents a crucial subsystem that guarantees the proper functioning of micro and mild hybrid configurations and auxiliary vehicle functionalities. The motor/generator (12 V or 48 V), the air conditioning compressor and other accessories rely on this subsystem. Therein, the poly-V belt is the main transmission mechanism. From an efficiency standpoint, its behavior is usually represented through slip and elastic shear phenomena. However, the viscoelastic nature of the compounds that constitute the belt layers demand a more detailed approximation of the loss mechanisms. The quantification of such losses allows evaluating the performance of the e-machine integrated in the powertrain. This work models the belt through a lumped-parameter time-domain model, where domains are discretized into multiple elements and represented through the generalized Maxwell model. Loss contributions due to bending, stretching, compression and

Galluzzi, Renato, Amati, Nicola, Bonfitto, Angelo, Hegde, Shailesh, Zenerino, Enrico, Pennazza, Mario, Staniscia, Emiliano

Coupled Routing and Charge Schedule Optimization of Electrified Delivery Truck Fleets: Feasibility Analyses

2025-01-8602

04/01/2025

Electrifying truck fleets has the potential to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions from the freight transportation sector. However, the range limitations and substantial capital costs with current battery technologies imposes constraints that challenge the overall cost feasibility of electrifying fleets for logistics companies. In this paper, we investigate the coupled routing and charge scheduling optimization of a delivery fleet serving a large urban area as one approach to discovering feasible pathways. To this end, we first build an improved energy consumption model for a Class 7-8 electric and diesel truck using a data-driven approach of generating energy consumption data from detailed powertrain simulations on numerous drive cycles. We then conduct several analyses on the impact of battery pack capacity, cost, and electricity prices on the amortized daily total cost of fleet electrification at different penetration levels, considering availability of fast

Wendimagegnehu, Yared Tadesse, Ayalew, Beshah, Ivanco, Andrej, Hailemichael, Habtamu

On-Vehicle Optimum Route Selection for a Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle

2025-01-8388

04/01/2025

This paper presents a methodology to optimally select between routes proposed by mapping software. The objective of the optimization is to make the best trade-off between travel time and energy consumption when deciding between different routes. The method uses an Intelligent driver model to convert the data from the mapping software into a vehicle speed & torque profile, then uses a reduced order energy model to find the vehicle energy consumption for each route. Weightings are applied to the difference in energy and travel time for each route compared to the primary route. The vehicle used in this investigation is the Stellantis Pacifica PHEV. Results support energy savings of up to 20% compared to the primary route, which depends on the routes and initial battery State of Charge (SOC).

Robare, Andrew, Poovalappil, Aman, Udipi, Anirudh, Bhure, Mayur, Bahramgiri, Mojtaba, Robinette, Darrell, Naber, Jeffrey, Chen, Bo

Assessing the Energy Consumption Impact of Intelligent Driving Technologies on Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review

2025-01-8598

04/01/2025

With the continuous advancement of artificial intelligence technology, the automation level of electric vehicles (EVs) is rapidly increasing. Despite the improvements in travel efficiency, safety, and convenience brought about by automation, cutting-edge intelligent technologies also pose the potential of increased energy consumption, such as the computational power required by advanced algorithms and the energy usage of high-precision equipment, leading to higher overall energy consumption for connected or autonomous electric vehicles (CAEVs). To assess the impact of intelligent technologies on AEVs, this study innovatively provides a comprehensive evaluation of the impact of intelligent technologies on CAEV energy consumption from both positive and negative perspectives. After reviewing 59 relevant studies, the findings highlight energy savings achieved through Vehicle-to-Infrastructure and Vehicle-to-Vehicle cooperation as positive effects, while increased energy consumption from

Liu, Tianyi, Qi, Hao, Ou, Shiqi (Shawn)

An Integrated Data-Driven and Physics-Based Approach for Dynamic Operation Simulation of Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8604

04/01/2025

To address the challenges of complex operational simulation for Electric Vehicles (EVs) caused by spatial-temporal variations and driver behavior heterogeneity, this study introduces a dynamic operation simulation model that integrates both data-driven and physics-based principles, referred to as the Electric Vehicle-Dynamic Operation Simulation (EV-DOS) model. The physics-based component encompasses critical aspects such as the powertrain energy transfer module, heat transfer module, charge/discharge module, and battery state estimation module. The data-driven component derives key features and labels from second-by-second real-world vehicle driving status data and incorporates a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network to develop a State-of-Health (SOH) prediction model for the EV power pack. This model framework combines the interpretability of physical modeling with the rapid simulation capabilities of data-driven techniques under dynamic operating conditions. Finally, this study

Jing, Hao, HU, Jianyao, Ouyang, Jianheng, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn)

Digital Twin, A Multiphysics Numerical Tool Chain for Next Generation Electric Drive Design

2025-01-8624

04/01/2025

Following early adoption, the BEV market has shifted towards a mass market strategy, emphasizing on crucial attributes, such as system cost reduction and range extension. System efficiency is crucial in BEV product development, where efficiency metric influenced greatly vehicle range and cost. For instance, higher iDM efficiency reduces the need for larger battery, cutting cost, or extends range with the same battery size. BorgWarner adopted Digital Twin technology to optimize Integrated Drive Module (iDM) within a vehicle ecosystem. Digital Twin comprises high-fidelity physics based numerical tool suites offering greater degree of freedom to engineers in designing, sizing, optimizing a component versus system benefit tradeoff, thus enabling most efficient product design within economic constraints. BorgWarner’s Analytical System Development (ASD) plan used as framework provides a global unified process for tool development and validation, ensuring the digital print of a real product

Bossi, Adrien, Bourniche, Eric, Leblay, Arnaud, David, Pascal, Nanjundaswamy, Harsha

Optimization-Oriented Adaptive Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy for Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8552

04/01/2025

Fuel economy and the ability to maintain the state of charge (SOC) of the battery are two key metrics for the energy management of a full-power fuel cell hybrid vehicle fitted with a small-capacity battery pack. To achieve stable maintenance of SOC and near-optimal fuel consumption, this paper proposes an adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (PA-ECMS) based on power prediction. The strategy realizes demand power prediction through a hybrid deep learning model, and periodically updates the optimal equivalent factor (EF) based on the predicted power to achieve SOC convergence and ensure fuel economy. Simulation results show that the hybrid deep learning network model has high prediction accuracy with a root mean square error (RMSE) of only 0.733 m/s. Compared with the traditional ECMS based on SOC feedback, the PA-ECMS effectively maintains the battery SOC in a more reasonable range, reduces the situation of the fuel cell directly charging the power cell in the high

Gao, Xinyu, Ju, Fei, Chen, Gang, Zong, Yuhua, Wang, Liangmo

Improving Modal Frequencies in Class 5 Truck Fuel Cell Tank Structure through Topology Optimization

2025-01-8648

04/01/2025

In addition to electric vehicles (EVs), hydrogen fuel cell systems are gaining attention as energy-efficient propulsion options. However, designing fuel cell vehicles presents unique challenges, particularly in terms of storage systems for heavy hydrogen tanks. These challenges impact factors such as NVH (noise, vibration, and harshness) and safety performance. This study presents a topology optimization study for Hydrogen Energy Storage System (HESS) tank structure in Class 5 trucks, with a focus on enhancing the modal frequencies. The study considers a specific truck configuration with a HESS structure located behind the crew cab, consisting of two horizontally stacked hydrogen tanks and two tanks attached on both sides of the frame. The optimization process aimed to meet the modal targets of this hydrogen tank structure in the fore-aft (X) and lateral (Y) directions, while considering other load cases such as a simplified representation of GST (global static torsion), simplified

Yoo, Dong Yeon, Chavare, Sudeep, Viswanathan, Sankar, Mouyianis, Adam

Impact of Hybrid Electric Vehicles on Energy Consumption and Emission Reduction for Agricultural Applications

2025-01-8540

04/01/2025

As the agricultural industry seeks to enhance sustainability and reduce operational costs, the introduction of mild hybrid technology in tractors presents a promising solution. This paper focuses on downsizing internal combustion (IC) engine, coupled with integration of electric motor, to reduce fuel consumption and meet stringent emission regulations while maintaining power requirement for agricultural applications in India. The hybridization aims to deliver instant power boosts during peak loads and capitalizes on energy recovery during part loads and braking. Furthermore, the idle avoidance feature minimizes fuel consumption during periods of inactivity thus improving fuel efficiency. The hybridization also aims to hybridize auxiliary systems for flexible power management, enabling operation of either engine, auxiliaries, or both as needed. A newly developed hybrid supervisory control prototype efficiently manages electric power and mechanical power, enabling intelligent management

Prasad, Lakshmi P., PS, Satyanarayana, Paygude, Tejas, Gangsar, Purushottam, Thakre, Mangesh, Choudhary, Nagesh, Gitapathi, Ajinkya

Series and IMMD+: Performance Comparison and Analysis of Hybrid Vehicles with Additive Clutches

2025-01-8538

04/01/2025

In hybrid vehicle systems, the addition of a clutch at the engine end can significantly enhance the overall energy efficiency of the vehicle. In this paper, a novel multi-mode series-parallel configuration is proposed based on the Honda IMMD system and a comprehensive comparison is made with series and series-parallel configurations. Firstly, this paper analyses the various operational modes induced by the inclusion of a clutch at the engine end based on the IMMD system. Subsequently, the fuel consumption of the novel optimized series-parallel configuration is assessed using a rapid dynamic programming method aimed at minimizing fuel consumption during the powertrain operation; additionally, its dynamic performance is analyzed through dynamic programming algorithms. Finally, the performance of different configurations is quantitatively evaluated in terms of acceleration and fuel consumption. The findings reveal that the IMMD + Clutch configuration significantly enhances dynamic

Zhang, Yuxin, Zou, Yunge, Yang, Yalian

Research on Motor Harmonic Injection Control in Hybrid System to Suppress the Torsional Vibration

2025-01-8515

04/01/2025

Based on the harmonic current injection method used to suppress the torsional vibration of the electric drive system, the selection of the phase and amplitude of the harmonic current based on vibration and noise has been explored in this paper. Through the adoption of the active harmonic current injection method, additional torque fluctuations are generated by actively injecting harmonic currents of specific amplitudes and phases, and closed-loop control is carried out to counteract the torque fluctuations of the motor body. The selection of the magnitude of the injected harmonic current is crucial and plays a vital role in the reduction of torque ripple. Incorrect harmonic currents may not achieve the optimal torque ripple suppression effect or even increase the motor torque ripple. Since the actively injected harmonic current is used to counteract the torque ripple caused by the magnetic flux linkage harmonics of the motor body, the target harmonic current command is very important

Jing, Junchao, Zhang, Junzhi, Liu, Yiqiang, Huang, Weishan, Dai, Zhengxing

Increasing Energy Efficiency of Vehicles Using Combined Electromechanical Engine-Transmission Systems

2025-01-8527

04/01/2025

The rise of electric and hybrid vehicles with separate axle or wheel drives enables precise torque distribution between the front and rear wheels. The smooth control of electric motors allows continuous operation on high-resistance roads, optimizing torque distribution and improving efficiency. In hybrid vehicles, synergistic control of both internal combustion engines and electric motors can minimize energy consumption. Using the internal combustion engine for steady driving and electric power for acceleration enhances dynamic performance. Keeping the internal combustion engine at a constant speed is key to improving energy efficiency and vehicle responsiveness. The proposed method aids in selecting optimal power levels for both engines during the design phase. As acceleration time decreases, the ratio of electric motor power to internal combustion engine power increases. The torque distribution system, relying on sensors for axle loads, vehicle speed, and engine power, can reduce

Podrigalo, Mikhail, Sergyjovych, Oleksandr Polianskyi, Kaidalov, Ruslan, Dubinin, Yevhen, Abramov, Dmytrii, Molodan, Andrii, Andrey, Korobko, Kholodov, Mykhailo, Omelchenko, Vasyl, Krasnokutskyi, Maksym

Modal Analysis Approach for Analysis and Design of Vehicle Transient Behavior

2025-01-8794

04/01/2025

In order to manage the serious global environmental problems, the automobile industry is rapidly shifting to electric vehicles (EVs) which have a heavier weight and a more rearward weight distribution. To secure the handling and stability of such vehicles, understanding of the fundamental principles of vehicle dynamics is inevitable for designing their performance. Although vehicle dynamics primarily concerns planar motion, the accompanying roll motion also influences this planar motion as well as the driver's subjective evaluation. This roll motion has long been discussed through various parameter studies, and so on. However, there is very few research that treats vehicle sprung mass behavior as “vibration modes”, and this perspective has long been an unexplored area of vehicle dynamics. In this report, we propose a method to analytically extract the vibration modes of the sprung mass by applying modal analysis techniques to the governing equations of vehicle handling and stability

Kusaka, Kaoru, Yuhara, Takahiro

Energy Savings and Range Extension from Aerodynamic Improvements of Emerging Zero-Emission Heavy Vehicle Concepts

2025-01-8787

04/01/2025

An energy-use analysis is presented to examine the potential energy-savings and range-extension benefits of aerodynamic improvements to tractors and trailers used in commercial transportation. The impetus for the study was the observation of aerodynamically-redesigned/optimized tractor shapes of emerging zero-emission commercial vehicles that have the potential for significant drag reduction over conventional aerodynamic tractors. Using wind-tunnel test results, a series of aerodynamic performance models were developed representing a range of tractor and trailer combinations. From modern day-cab and sleeper-cab tractors to aerodynamically-optimized zero-emission cab concepts, paired with standard dry-van trailers or low-drag trailer concepts, the study examines the energy use, and potential savings thereof, from implementing various fleet configurations for different operational duty cycles. An energy-use analysis was implemented to estimate the energy-rate contributions associated

McAuliffe, Brian, Ghorbanishohrat, Faegheh

Validation of a New Road and Contact Model for Vehicle-Soft Soil Terrain Interaction through an Elaborate Modeling of the FED-Alpha Vehicle

2025-01-8800

04/01/2025

Employing multibody dynamic simulations with semi-empirical tire models is widely recognized as a cost-effective approach. A recent development introduces a novel road and tire-soil contact model that is not only swift and memory-efficient but also addresses limitations in classical semi-empirical models. This study conducts a thorough validation of the new road and contact model by creating a detailed multibody model of the four-wheeled vehicle, Fuel Efficiency Demonstrator (FED) – Alpha, integral to NATO's Next-Generation reference mobility model. The comprehensive model encompasses the chassis, suspension, tires, engine, transmission and various other components. Through simulations of various driving scenarios, accounting for complex terrain geometries, spatially varying soil properties, and multi-pass phenomena, the model's performance is evaluated. The simulation results are compared with physical measurements, providing a detailed assessment of the tire-soil model's predictive

Papapostolou, Lampros, Koutras, Evangelos, Leila, Felipe, Ribaric, Adrijan, Natsiavas, Sotirios

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