Browse Topic: Off-board energy sources

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Latency-Aware Optimal Scheduling Scheme for Computational Offloading12-10-01-000210/9/2026
Proactive safety and vehicle automation typically requires high energy use from sensors and energy-intensive computing from sensor data processing. For high-quality, reliable perception and localization within a driving environment at the vehicle level, incoming data from multiple sensors need to be fused using advanced computational algorithms, which demand a high compute load. Alternatively, computational offloading of automated driving tasks shifts energy consumption from the vehicle to cloud infrastructure, where renewable energy sources, such as hydropower or solar power, can be utilized more efficiently. Herein, an optimal scheduling strategy for autonomous driving tasks via the cloud layer is formulated as a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) problem and verified using measurement-informed task graphs. It is shown that cloud-based computational offloading enables energy-efficient operation while maintaining task deadlines to ensure the timely availability of perception and localization information, which is consistent with prior studies in the literature. Simulation results demonstrate that on average, 35.78% of the computational load was offloaded to the cloud, which can achieve significant energy savings for the onboard system. The compute operations achieved an average energy savings of 35.65%, while total system savings ranged from 26.16% to 30.67% under different cloud energy efficiency scenarios, highlighting the advantages of offloading compute-intensive tasks. The framework was further evaluated using multiple directed acyclic graph (DAG) configurations to assess its scalability and adaptability. Critical tasks, such as sensor fusion, were executed exclusively on the vehicle to ensure real-time responsiveness.
Sharma, Sachin, Meyer, Richard, Feinberg, Ben, Asher, Zachary
A Shared-Hardware Battery Management System for Solar-Assisted and Capacitive Balancing in Unmanned Surface Vehicles12-10-01-000110/7/2026
This article presents a hybrid battery management system for unmanned surface vehicles, integrating three operational modes: solar-to-cell balancing, capacitive balancing, and solar-to-pack charging—within a shared architecture. The system prioritizes solar-to-cell balancing when solar energy is available, capacitive balancing when charging without solar input, and solar-to-pack charging when cells are balanced. This approach eliminates additional hardware by utilizing a shared-hardware architecture. A 14.8 V battery pack composed of four 3.7 V Li-ion modules was simulated and prototyped to validate the system. Experimental and simulation results confirm improved cell balancing, reduced state-of-health deviation, and extended operational time, demonstrating superior performance, sustainability, and adaptability over conventional battery management system solutions for unmanned surface vehicles and similar platforms.
Blair, Raymond, Kyger, Kenton, Duan, Chen
Parametric Screening of Hybrid Powertrain Architectures for High-Energy Laser Vehicles: Application to Foxhound and Boxer2026-01-75529/22/2026
The US Army and several NATO allies have committed funds for directed energy weapons including high energy lasers (HEL), which require substantial electrical power. Silent Mobility and Silent Watch requirements mandate hybridization, which also provides the electrical capacity needed for a HEL. This paper introduces a HEL framework of classes A-E based on target types and fluence physics. It estimates installed HEL mass and power demand by class, and applies rapid powertrain screening to hypothetical hybrid variants of the UK vehicles Foxhound and Boxer. Results show that HELs up to Class B (60 kW) and D (300 kW) laser output can be supported with minimal powertrain modifications by Foxhound and Boxer respectively, and upgrades to support Class C (150 kW) and E (500 kW) are containable within the payload of each vehicle. A rapid methodology is presented to determine what powertrain architecture is needed to support a given HEL.
Salis, Rupert Tull
Short-Term Load Forecasting of Sustainable Power Systems Based on Newton–Raphson-Based Optimizer–Extreme Gradient Boosting under Extreme Weather Events13-07-02-00089/17/2026
With continuous advancements in load-side resources such as distributed photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles, and virtual power plants, the low-carbon and sustainable development attributes of power systems have been significantly enhanced. Meanwhile, the coupling intensity between sustainable power systems and meteorological conditions has been further consolidated. Considerable impacts are exerted by weather variations, particularly extreme weather events, on the dispatching and operation of sustainable power systems. Accurate load forecasting is critical for enabling sustainable power systems operators to optimize power generation strategy, ensuring supply stability and resilience against extreme weather-induced disruptions. However, the intrinsic non-stationarity and volatility of extreme weather events present significant challenges to conventional forecasting approaches. Herein, we introduce a hybrid algorithm integrating Newton–Raphson-based optimizer (NRBO) with extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) to enhance short-term load predictions under such conditions. The model uses optimally selected meteorological and load features as inputs, while NRBO systematically tunes XGBoost’s hyper-parameters to maximize performance. Evaluated on an Irish dataset, the proposed framework is quantitatively compared against five baseline models, including traditional decision trees and neural networks. The case studies show that the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of the proposed model is 2.57%, which is the lowest among these decision tree and neural network algorithms.
Wang, Yi, Zhou, Jian, Wu, Gang, Ma, Tiannan, Ma, Ruiguang, He, Chuan, Zhu, Huixian
Architecting Safety-Critical Systems for AI-Enabled Software-Defined Vehicles: A Compute, Timing, and Isolation Framework with a Brake System Case Study2026-01-08119/14/2026
Software-defined vehicle (SDV) platforms are reshaping safety-critical system design by consolidating braking and other motion-control functions on centralized heterogeneous edge compute that also executes physical-AI workloads. This consolidation breaks traditional assumptions of fixed ECUs and simple timing envelopes, complicating assurance of determinism, isolation, and fail-operational behaviour for ASIL-D brake functions. Building on a decentralized brake-by- wire (BbW) architecture with dual controllers, redundant low-voltage power grids, and smart electromechanical brake corner actuators, this paper proposes a systems-level framework for architecting safety-critical functions in AI-enabled SDVs along three dimensions: compute, timing, and isolation. The framework classifies conventional and AI-based functions and maps them to heterogeneous compute classes; defines architectural patterns that combine safety islands, power-domain redundancy, and hardware partitioning to support freedom from interference; and formalizes timing domains and contracts that bound latency, jitter, and failover dynamics across sensors, centralized controllers, and decentralized actuators. The contribution is not a new AI algorithm, but a safety-oriented architectural framework that constrains how AI-enabled functions may be integrated into fail-operational by-wire systems. A BbW case study with edge-resident AI observers and anomaly detectors shows how the framework complements System Analysis Tool (SAT)– based failure modelling and clarifies trade-offs among safety isolation, latency, and AI performance while preserving braking safety guarantees under continuous software evolution.
Srinivasaraghavan, Soumyasudharsan
Analysis of Influencing Factors of Human-Factor Reliability in Metro Dispatching System Based on Structural Equation Model2026-99-15919/11/2026
As system automation advances, the impact of human factors on human-machine system reliability becomes increasingly prominent. Given that the metro train dispatch system is central to metro operations, analyzing its human reliability aspects is crucial. Although human factor reliability analysis techniques have matured in fields like nuclear power and aviation, research on human-factor reliability analysis for metro train dispatch systems remains in its infancy. Based on this, the study proposes a method for identifying factors influencing human-factor reliability in metro train dispatch systems using exploratory factor analysis, grounded in survey data on such factors. Second, based on the identified factors, a structural equation model was constructed to identify the importance of human reliability factors in metro train dispatch systems. Through goodness-of-fit evaluation, the causal relationships among these factors were ultimately determined. The study indicates that individual, organizational, equipment, and environmental factors are the primary influences on human reliability in metro train dispatch systems, with 20 observable sub-factors under these main categories. The structural equation model results indicate that the relative importance of the four primary factors on human-factor reliability in the metro train dispatch system is: organizational factors > personal factors > equipment factors > environmental factors. This suggests organizational factors exert a relatively greater influence on human-factor reliability. This research provides a basis for enhancing the safety level and management decision-making of metro train dispatch systems.
Li, Xin, Wang, Liang, Tang, Shuo, Yao, Zhenxing
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - A Roadmap for Sustainable and Affordable Mobility135849/8/2026
The future of mobility may not be about building bigger, more feature-packed vehicles. Listen in as we sit down with Dr. Christopher Borroni-Bird, Founder, Afreecar Consulting, to discuss his vision for rethinking transportation through right-sized EVs, solar-powered mobility, autonomy, and locally tailored solutions. From fleet electrification and last-mile autonomy to new manufacturing models and the changing economics of vehicle ownership, this conversation explores what it takes make mobility more affordable, sustainable, and accessible around the world. Learn more in Dr. Borroni-Bird's award-winning SAE International book, Sustainable and Affordable Mobility for All, which expands on these ideas and offers a compelling roadmap for the future of transportation. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, X, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, X, and Instagram.
Patterson, Lori
Application and Research of Steam Compressors in Heat Supply of Coal-Fired Power Plants2026-99-12419/4/2026
The application of steam compressors in heating supply of coal-fired power units demonstrates significant energy-saving benefits, while also effectively addressing the operational constraints of steam supply at low loads, thereby achieving thermoelectric decoupling.. This study analyzes and compares the performance characteristics and operational ranges of three distinct mechanical steam compression technologies. Although centrifugal compressors exhibit a low single-stage pressure ratio, their operational flow rate and temperature ranges are better suited for coal-fired heating requirements. Three typical application scenarios of steam compressors in industrial steam supply for coal-fired power units are proposed: Steam compressors enable waste heat recovery by compressing turbine exhaust steam for heating purposes, increase pressure in branch networks of steam supply pipelines to achieve high-pressure steam delivery, and enhance industrial steam extraction pressure under low-load conditions to realize thermoelectric decoupling. This enables substantial improvement in both the energy efficiency and steam supply capacity of coal-fired power units. Based on practical application cases of steam compressor systems, the objectives of steam pressure and temperature elevation can be achieved. Through collaborative adjustment of the drive motor frequency and the recirculation valve, dual-objective control of outlet flow rate and temperature can be realized. An analytical model was developed to simulate compressor performance, and validation against actual operational data confirmed the model’s applicability for guiding operational practices and control simulations. The centrifugal steam compressor in actual operation demonstrates normal performance across all operational indicators under high-speed conditions, confirming its technical reliability in coal-fired heating applications and providing crucial references for the widespread adoption of steam compressor technology in steam supply systems of coal power units. It expands the steam supply parameter range of electro-thermal conversion systems, thereby making a positive contribution to renewable energy integration.
Zhang, Pan, Liu, Yan
Fluid-Structure Interaction Analysis of 150 m Wind-Turbine Concrete Tower2026-99-12959/4/2026
Wind turbines equipped with large blades significantly enhance power generation efficiency. For large turbines reaching 150 meters in height, concrete towers offer an effective means of cost savings. Nevertheless, the stability of such structures must be carefully considered, given that wind perturbations are amplified with increased height. In this study, we aim to develop a numerical approach for conducting fluid-structure interaction (FSI) analysis on a 150-meter wind turbine concrete tower. A two-way FSI analysis method has been developed using the immersed boundary method, effectively addressing the coupling effects between the structural and fluid models without the need for body-fitted meshing. Our numerical results demonstrate that the proposed method achieves stable convergence and accurately captures dynamic structural responses under high-speed wind conditions. This method will contribute to the numerical design and safety validation of wind turbine infrastructure in engineering projects.
Gan, Shishun, Li, Hao, Chu, Hao, Lin, Yiyang, Wang, Ban
Axial flux motors evolve hybrid design for heavy-duty trucks26TOFHP08_078/1/2026
The trucking industry is dealing with a lot of uncertainty, and higher fuel and equipment costs are making it harder for companies to plan and buy new trucks. What can OEMs and fleet operators do to mitigate these challenges? Hybrid systems may be the answer. With internal combustion and electric power, hybrid systems reduce fuel consumption, improve transient performance, enable low-speed electric operation and create more flexible power management. Vehicles and equipment that could benefit from new or retrofit hybrid systems include refuse trucks, dump trucks, long-haul trucks, port equipment, excavators, terminal tractors and commercial delivery vehicles.
Glass, Jason
Earth-Orbiting, Solar-Powered Data CentersTBMG-555498/1/2026
Penn Engineers have developed a novel design for solar-powered data centers that will orbit the Earth and could realistically scale to meet the growing demand for AI computing while reducing the environmental impact of data centers.
Indoor Photovoltaics Spark a Sustainable RevolutionTBMG-555458/1/2026
Led by Dr. Marina Freitag, a research group from the School of Natural and Environmental Sciences created dye-sensitized photovoltaic cells based on a copper (II/I) electrolyte, achieving an unprecedented power conversion efficiency of 38 percent and 1.0V open-circuit voltage at 1,000 lux (fluorescent lamp). The cells are non-toxic and environmentally friendly — setting a new standard for sustainable energy sources in ambient environments.
Microstructure and Property Evolution of T91 Steel under Deep Peak-Shaving Service Conditions2026-99-01687/31/2026
To address the safety assessment challenges of T91 steel heating surface components in the context of coal-fired power plant transformation toward deep peak-shaving, this study systematically investigates the evolution laws of microstructure and mechanical properties of in-service T91 pipes from different positions in a power plant after peak-shaving operation. Material properties were evaluated in accordance with standards such as GB/T 5310-2017 through metallographic analysis, tensile testing, impact testing, and hardness measurement, while the mechanisms linking microstructure to property degradation were explored. Results show that oxidation and decarburization occur on the outer surface of T91 pipes at all positions, with differences in the thickness of oxide/decarburized layers between the fire-facing and back-fire surfaces; the oxide layer exhibits fracture characteristics. After service, the tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, and hardness of the material still meet national standards. The performance at the platen and final superheater inlet is superior to that at the final reheater inlet, consistent with differences in operating temperature and pressure. This study indicates that the T91 steel provided in this study is in the early stage of its service life, providing a theoretical basis for the safe operation of the unit.
Huang, Liming, Li, Zutao, Zhang, Jie, Liu, Yaoren
Measurement and Regulation of Residual Stress in Door Opening Welds of Wind Turbine Towers2026-99-01977/31/2026
Weld residual stress is a critical factor affecting the structural integrity and service life of wind turbine towers. In this study, a systematic investigation was conducted on the residual stress distribution and control methods for door corner welds of an in-service wind turbine tower after approximately 20,000 hours of operation. X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements revealed significant tensile residual stress in the weld and heat-affected zone, with peak values reaching 315 MPa, particularly concentrated at depths of 5-7 mm. To mitigate these stresses, two post-weld treatment methods were employed: ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT) and localized heat treatment. UIT effectively transformed surface tensile stress into compressive stress, achieving a maximum compressive residual stress of -372 MPa within a depth of 3 mm, while simultaneously refining grains and increasing surface hardness. In contrast, localized heat treatment at 460 °C for 5 hours led to a broader stress relief effect, reducing residual stress by approximately 100 MPa without causing significant changes to the macrostructure, but inducing substructural rearrangements beneficial for stress relaxation. Mechanical testing confirmed that both treatments improved tensile strength, ductility, and toughness of the welds. The combined findings demonstrate that ultrasonic impact treatment is highly effective for enhancing fatigue performance at the surface, while localized heat treatment offers advantages for deep stress redistribution and long-term structural stability. This comprehensive approach provides valuable technical guidance for residual stress management in complex welded structures of wind turbine towers.
Sun, Wanting, Zhong, Zhenqian, Zhang, Bo, Liu, Hui
Study on Energy-related Mechanisms of Aeroelastic Instability of Ultra-Long Flexible Wind Turbine Blades Under Various Working Conditions2026-99-01347/31/2026
With the continuous increase in wind turbine power capacity, ultra-long flexible blades face intensified aeroelastic instability risks due to reduced structural stiffness, enhanced modal coupling, and aerodynamic nonlinearity. In addition to the analysis of basic vibration characteristics, this study focuses on energy-related mechanisms of aeroelastic instability under various working conditions. Using a numerical model integrating Dynamic Blade Element Momentum Theory (DBEMT) and Geometrically Exact Beam Theory (GEBT), over 400 time-domain simulations were conducted to characterize instability onset and development. Results reveal four distinct aeroelastic instability regions, each dominated by specific modes. In Region A, flutter dominated by the 2nd flapwise mode is observed. In Region B, flutter dominated by the 1st edgewise mode is observed. In Region C, flutter dominated by the 2nd edgewise mode is observed. While in Region D, where the medial angle of attack (AoA) of the blade has exceeded the stall angle, stall-induced vibration dominated by the 1st flapwise mode is observed. Energy analysis shows aerodynamic work concentration near the blade tip drives instability, with diverse energy exchange patterns across regions. Except for some operating conditions in region C, where instability is dominated by edgewise energy absorption, most aeroelastic instability conditions are dominated by flapwise energy absorption. Torsional degree of freedom contributes minimally to aerodynamic work, but the torsional vibration exerts a notable influence on the AoA. This, in turn, changes the comprehensive aerodynamic forces impacting the blade as well as the general aeroelastic stability. This study clarifies the relationship between operating conditions and energy-driven instability, offering some reference values for the design work and safety assurance of ultra-long flexible blades of the wind turbine.
Wang, Su, Chen, Jiajia, Zhou, Le, Shen, Xin, Li, Chun, Du, Zhaohui
Design and Research of Robotic Arm for Belt Conveyor Roller Replacement2026-99-01877/31/2026
To address the high failure rate of rollers in coal mine belt conveyors, the inefficiency of manual replacement, and the operational disruptions caused by maintenance shutdowns, this study proposes a robotic arm system capable of replacing rollers without halting conveyor operations. The research focuses on the kinematic performance and path planning strategy of the robotic arm. A kinematic model is established using the Denavit–Hartenberg (DH) parameters, and the workspace distribution is analyzed via the Monte Carlo method. The results show that the horizontal reach exceeds 2020 mm and the vertical reach extends up to 2000 mm, which fully satisfies the spatial requirements for roller replacement across the entire conveyor system. In the path planning phase, an obstacle expansion model is constructed, and an improved Informed RRT* algorithm is implemented to generate collision-free trajectories, ensuring effective obstacle avoidance. To improve trajectory smoothness, path pruning and cubic B-spline interpolation are applied to refine the initial paths. For trajectory planning in joint space, quintic polynomial interpolation is employed, with boundary conditions set to ensure zero velocity and zero acceleration at both the start and end points, thereby guaranteeing smooth and stable motion of the robotic arm. Simulation results indicate that joint angles, angular velocities, and angular accelerations vary smoothly throughout the roller grasping process, without abrupt changes, and converge to zero at the beginning and end of the trajectory. End-effector trajectory tracking error analysis reveals positioning errors within 0.8 mm for side rollers and 3 mm for central rollers, well within acceptable engineering accuracy thresholds. This work provides a theoretical foundation and a practical implementation framework for advancing automation and intelligent operation in roller replacement tasks within coal mine belt conveyor systems.
Pu, Congyuan, Qian, Ke
Desulfurization and Acid Resistance of Multifunctional Protective Coatings in Severe Environment2026-99-02387/31/2026
Desulfurization equipment in electric power industry is in a multi-field coupled corrosion environment with high temperature, high humidity, strong acid and solid-containing slurry. The annual direct economic loss of corrosion exceeds 5 billion yuan, and the equipment replacement cycle is only 1.5-2 years. Traditional protective coatings are difficult to meet the needs. The concept of “bionic barrier-intelligent response-in-situ purification” is proposed to construct multifunctional protective coatings: The Langmuir-Blodgett technique was used to alternately assemble MXene nanosheets and polysilazane. Ti-O-Si covalent bonds enhanced the interface bonding, resulting in a coating hardness of 4H and an elongation of 200%. After 1500 hours of extreme environment test, the coating has low weight loss rate, high self-repair and antibacterial rate, and its service life is extended by 8 times. The engineering application makes the maintenance period of desulfurization tower of a 660MW unit extended from 8 months to 6 years, saving 1.2 million yuan annually, and increasing 200,000 yuan annually by recovering H ˇ SO 2. It provides a cross-scale scheme for electric power corrosion protection.
Nie, Pengfei, Gao, Jiangyu, Chen, Wei
Development and Performance Validation of a Maintenance Platform for 10kV Switchgear Trolleys2026-99-02047/31/2026
With the development of the power industry, 10kV switchgear (circuit breaker switches) are increasingly widely applied in power grids. When performing power-off maintenance or testing on 10kV switchgear (circuit breaker switches) at substations, maintenance personnel require transport carts to move the equipment to suitable locations for operation. Traditional transfer carts suffer from structural design flaws and significant shortcomings. These include difficulty operating in the confined spaces of switchgear cabinets, high risks associated with manual handling, low efficiency in secondary transfers, and poor adaptability across multiple workstations. These issues collectively pose safety hazards during power-off maintenance or testing. When operating in a 3m×5m high-voltage room, traditional maintenance carts achieve less than 0.5 units transported per hour, with equipment damage rates reaching 3% annually due to drops, resulting in low work efficiency. To address these challenges, a 10kV switch cart maintenance platform has been developed. This standardized equipment facilitates 10kV switch cart maintenance, supporting the intelligent upgrade of power grid operation and maintenance.
Yang, Sen, Zhou, Han, Su, Hainan, Yu, Xin, Hu, Yutao, Wang, Xisheng
Design and Analysis of a Lightweight Offshore Gangway2026-99-08517/30/2026
During offshore wind power operation and maintenance activities, personnel transfer and boarding procedures involve numerous safety risks. is a highly effective solution for enhancing safety during ship transfers at sea. This paper designs a compact active motion-compensating lightweight gangway capable of compensating for multi-degree-of-freedom motions induced by sea waves, including roll, pitch, yaw, and heave. The structural design is first established, and based on this configuration, the output forces of the rotary electric cylinder, roll electric cylinder, and pitch electric cylinder are analyzed. A finite element method was employed to conduct a static analysis of the gangway under extreme loading conditions. Analysis of the first six modal orders revealed that the first natural frequency of the designed gangway is significantly higher than the wave frequency, thereby effectively preventing resonance phenomena. The forward transformation matrix of the gangway was simulated using the Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) method. Simulation results indicate that the working space of the lightweight gangway meets the preset motion range requirements, thereby validating the design’s feasibility. The designed compact passageway features simple operational control, high cost-effectiveness, minimal installation footprint, and low installation and control complexity, demonstrating high practicality.
Yu, Zhigang, Fu, Wanli, Zheng, Bowen, Wang, Zhuoqun, Fang, Jiwen
Design and Analysis of Offshore Wind Power Operation and Maintenance Shipborne Pitch Compensation Trestle Structure2026-99-08077/30/2026
In light of the significant roll/pitch experienced by traditional shipboard trestles due to wave action during the transfer of maintenance personnel from the operation and maintenance vessel to the offshore wind turbine base, an analysis of ship motion states was conducted under various sea conditions and ship manufacturing parameters. The kinematic capabilities and characteristics of the actuator were defined, and the mapping relationship between the wave compensation capability of the active wave compensation trestle and key design parameters, such as actuator power, was established. Consequently, an active wave compensation trestle executive mechanism was developed, incorporating lightweight research into its design. A prototype of the active wave compensation trestle was constructed and subjected to motion compensation testing. The results indicate that the prototype can effectively maintain stability between the ship and the offshore facility, thereby enhancing the safety of transferring personnel and improving maintenance efficiency.
Sun, Tierui, Zhao, Pengfei, Xin, Ran, Qiu, Jicheng, Yang, Xiaotao, Shiyuan, E
Research on the Protection Design of Flexible Cables for Civil Aircraft2026-99-18287/17/2026
Flexible cables are widely used in aircraft and are essential for ensuring the proper functioning of critical systems and flight safety. The design and validation of these cables represent a foundational technology in enabling the transmission of electrical power and signals throughout the entire aircraft. To achieve their intended service life, appropriate protective measures and experimental verification must be implemented. Drawing on the development experience of flexible cables for a specific domestic aircraft model, this paper proposes a combined protection method designed to extend the service life of flexible cables. Experimental analysis demonstrates the practicality and reference value of this approach.
Shi, Liqing, Hu, Huanghua, Ge, Zengwen
Construction and Empirical Analysis of Coal Road Freight Price Index Using Big Data2026-99-05607/10/2026
Coal is an important component of China's energy structure, mainly transported by three modes: railway, waterway, and highway. In regional coal transportation, highway transport undertakes numerous collection-distribution tasks and medium-short distance transport, playing a vital and indispensable role. Considering the characteristics of the coal highway transportation market and the demand for price indices, a three-tiered coal highway freight price index system has been established, including individual indices, classified indices, and an overall index. Using order data from the logistics platform of the Coal Big Data Center, the coal highway freight price index is compiled by adopting the internationally Laspeyres chain method. The methodological selection has passed the ADF stationarity test. Economically, the coal highway freight price index is closely correlated with coal prices, with the correlation coefficient reaching over 0.7, which can reflect about the coal highway freight market and fill the gap in market highway freight price monitoring.
Zhao, Nanxi, Wang, Xinzi, Rong, Haoyu
Stochastic Gradient Pulse Adaptation for Grid Friendly DC Fast Charging of Battery Electric Vehicles2026-01-07347/1/2026
This paper presents Stochastic Gradient Pulse Adaptation (SGPA), a real-time adaptive pulse-charging system for rechargeable electrochemical batteries that dynamically adjusts charging aggressiveness based on the battery's internal response, as opposed to predetermined CC–CV or fixed pulse profiles. SGPA is different from traditional charging methods that use static current de-rating and conservative voltage limits. Instead, SGPA uses gradient-based feedback from terminal voltage behaviour, temperature changes, internal resistance changes, and state of charge to continuously adapt pulse amplitude and duty cycle. This algorithm boosts the charging intensity when the electrochemical circumstances are good. It lowers the pulses slowly when signs of thermal or impedance-related stress show up. Simulation-based proof-of-concept experiments on a heavy-duty multi-battery system show that charging time is less than with multi-CCCV charging, while still keeping the current distribution across packs balanced. The suggested SGPA method adds an adaptive charging algorithm that is easy to understand and ready to use. It makes fast charging more efficient without lowering voltage and thermal safety limits.
Prakashkumar, Balagopal, Mannar, Vignesh
Development and Validation of a One-Dimensional Model for an Opposed-Piston Free-Piston Engine Generator with Parametric Analysis2026-37-00216/9/2026
Opposed-piston free-piston engine generators (OFPEGs) are emerging as a promising technology for next-generation hybrid and electrified transportation systems due to their high efficiency, reduced mechanical complexity, and improved noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) characteristics. However, due to eliminating the conventional crankshaft mechanism and directly coupling a free-piston engine with linear generators, performance of OFPEG systems is governed by a strong coupling between piston dynamics, in-cylinder combustion processes, and electrical loading conditions. This coupling presents substantial challenges for system design, control, and optimization, limiting the further development and application of OFPEGs. Existing researches lack a comprehensive numerical model that integrates detailed in-cylinder thermodynamic process with control system of linear generator, and quantitative analysis of the effect of piston motion trajectory on system performance remains insufficiently explored. In this study, a novel one-dimensional OFPEG model is developed in Gasdyn and coupled with a linear motor model and a control strategy in MATLAB/Simulink, thus forming a complete numerical model for OFPEG. The model is validated against experimental measurements, demonstrating effective prediction of thermodynamic and dynamic performance with acceptable errors. Based on the validated model, the effects of varying piston motion trajectory on system performance are analyzed. Lower Rt and higher Ωcom and Ωexp are recommended for higher performance. When Rt is reduced to 2.5:1, thermal efficiency and indicated power improve to 36.3% and 3.4 kW, respectively. When Ωcom is increased to 0.6, thermal efficiency and indicated power improve to 35.5% and 3.22 kW, respectively. When Ωexp is increased to 0.6, thermal efficiency and indicated power improve to 36.0% and 3.41 kW, respectively. These improvements are primarily attributed to reduced heat transfer losses and enhanced scavenging efficiency under the modified trajectories. The results provide valuable insights into the optimization of piston motion trajectory to achieve higher performance. Furthermore, the proposed numerical model provides an effective tool for OFPEG design, optimization, and control strategy development, supporting the advancement of high-efficiency, low-carbon OFPEG systems for future transportation applications.
Wang, Jiayu, Morandi, Nicola, Lucchini, Tommaso, FENG, HUIHUA, Jia, Boru, Ren, Peirong
An Investigation on Eppler 387 and Selig 1223 Airfoils Integrated Wing Section for Solar-Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicle2026-01-50356/3/2026
This study examines the aerodynamic performance of a wing section incorporating high-lift airfoils for use in a solar-powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) operating at low speeds. This paper evaluates the aerodynamic performance of a wing section integrated with high-lift airfoils for application in a solar-powered UAV. The primary objective is to simulate low-speed flight conditions representative of solar-powered UAV missions in order to obtain relevant aerodynamic parameters by adopting Eppler 387 and Selig 1223 airfoils. Experimental and Numerical simulations are performed over a range of angles of attack to systematically assess key aerodynamic coefficients, including the coefficient of lift (Cl), coefficient of drag (Cd), and coefficient of pressure (Cp) to sustain the flight physics and steady level flight. A scaled prototype of the wing section is experimentally evaluated in a low-subsonic wind tunnel to validate the computational results under low-speed operating conditions. An insightful study on the distribution of static and dynamic pressure over the wing surface is analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques to quantify aerodynamic performance. The Eppler 387-Selig 1223 twin-airfoil wing section attained the coefficient of lift Cl = 1.89 at 13° angle of attack (α), and it is suggested to utilize it for commercial solar-powered UAVs at low-speed operating conditions.
D., Lakshmanan, Swaminathan, Selvam
Researchers Turn Recovered Car Battery Acid and Plastic Waste Into Clean HydrogenTBMG-552586/1/2026
Researchers have developed a solar-powered reactor to break down hard-to-recycle forms of plastic waste – such as drinks bottles, nylon textiles and polyurethane foams – using acid recovered from old car batteries, and converting it into clean hydrogen fuel and valuable industrial chemicals.
Computational Analysis of Platform Motion and Wave Effects on the Aerodynamics and Wake of the IEA 22 MW Floating Wind Turbine2026-99-17355/22/2026
This study investigates the unsteady aerodynamic response, wake evolution, and vortex dynamics of an ultra-large floating offshore wind turbine (FOWT) under coupled motion–wave conditions. A high-fidelity aero–hydrodynamic CFD model is employed for the IEA 22 MW reference turbine. Platform pitch and surge motions are prescribed via sinusoidal functions, and wave conditions are independently introduced by considering two representative sea states (H = 4 m and 7 m) and a no-wave case. Results show that pitch and combined pitch–surge motions significantly amplify unsteady aerodynamic effects, increasing peak power from 81.1 MW (P5S0) to 92.6 MW (P5S5), with periodic negative power output and severe dynamic stall. Under strong motion, waves further raise peak power to 93.4 MW (H7P5S5), indicating a coupled amplification effect. Dynamic stall is mainly triggered by pitch motion, expanding in scope and duration with motion amplitude; wave effects on stall remain limited. Platform motion also enhances wake recovery by increasing inflow shear and turbulence, leading to higher turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) and a reduced velocity deficit (ΔŪ). Waves compress the low-speed wake core and reduce ΔŪ from 0.248 (no-wave case) to 0.204 under H7 conditions at x/D = 3.0, with the effect being particularly evident under combined motion. Vortex visualization reveals that platform movement leads to vortex merging, ring thickening, and deflection, with combined motion creating the strongest mixing. Wave-generated vortices interact with tip vortices near the surface, becoming more intense under larger wave heights. In general, platform motion is the main factor in FOWT unsteady aerodynamics, while waves have secondary but cooperative effects by changing inflow structures and aiding wake recovery. This study offers theoretical support and engineering guidance for aerodynamic design optimization and wind farm layout of next-generation ultra-large floating offshore wind turbines.
Xie, Bin, Sun, Haiying, Chen, Ye
Research on Temperature Measurement Requirements for Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage Water Pits2026-99-17055/22/2026
Solar seasonal thermal energy storage technology is an important means to solve the problem of seasonal uneven distribution of solar resources, and as the core component, the thermal storage capacity of the water pit directly affects the performance of the whole system. Accurately mastering the water pit temperature is essential for scientifically evaluating its thermal storage capacity. Based on the thermal storage water pit simulation software developed in the laboratory, this study focuses on determining the optimal number of temperature measurement points required for seasonal thermal energy storage water pits under an accuracy requirement of ±0.1°C, and establishes the mathematical relationship between the number of measurement points and the height-diameter ratio (H/D) as well as the inlet position. The proposed method can cover the temperature measurement point design for cylindrical and frustum-shaped water pits, and can also be referenced for prism-shaped configurations. Combined with the thermal performance analysis of the Huangdi City Phase II seasonal thermal energy storage project, the applicability of the mathematical relationship has been verified. The optimal number of measurement points obtained in this study provides effective suggestions for the scientific design of water pit temperature measurement systems.
Niu, Pengbin, Ma, Jianfu, Wang, Fangxing, Qi, Shiyu
A Coupled Aerodynamic-Hydrodynamic Analysis of IEA 15 MW Wind Turbine and UMaine VolturnUS-S Semi-Submersible Platform2026-99-17375/22/2026
The floating offshore wind turbine (FOWT) system contains a wide range of interdisciplinary knowledge, including the aerodynamics of wind turbines, the hydrodynamics of floating platform, and mooring system, as well as the complex coupling interactions among these domains. Due to this inherent complexity, achieving accurate simulation and analysis has remained a significant challenge. To address this issue, the present study develops a coupled aerodynamic-hydrodynamic framework based on the open-source computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software OpenFOAM. The framework incorporates multiphase flow, dynamic morphing and overset mesh techniques to facilitate high-fidelity analysis of FOWT. The aerodynamic performance of the IEA 15 MW reference wind turbine and the hydrodynamic response of the UMaine VolturnUS-S semisubmersible platform are independently validated against OpenFAST or experiments to ensure the reliability of the proposed framework. The results show strong agreement, confirming that the simulations accurately capture realistic aerodynamic and hydrodynamic performance, which are then applied in coupled aero-hydrodynamic FOWT analysis. The effects of the wind turbine on floating platform hydrodynamic responses and the impact of the floating platform on wind turbine aerodynamics are investigated in the coupled simulation. The results show that the speed, thrust, and torque of the wind turbine fluctuate with the motion of the floating platform, which is closely linked to the surge and pitch motion. Furthermore, a comparison of the platform response in the coupled simulation with that considering only wave loading reveals minimal change in heave motion, but a significant increase in surge and pitch motion due to the wind turbine aerodynamic load. Therefore, the aerodynamic and hydrodynamic components of the FOWT are mutually dependent, underscoring the necessity of a comprehensive analysis to achieve accurate results.
Dong, Xinhui, Deng, Xiaowei
Aerodynamic Performance and Wake Characteristics of Floating Offshore Wind Turbine under Pitch Motion2026-99-17155/22/2026
In actual marine environments, the aerodynamic behavior and wake properties of floating offshore wind turbines (FOWTs) are largely shaped by the pitching movement of their supporting platforms. The present study examines the aerodynamic performance and wake characteristics of a complete wind turbine system, encompassing its blades, nacelle, and tower, through the application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and the overset mesh method. This paper conducts an in-depth examination of how the amplitude and period of pitching motion influence the aerodynamic loads and flow field associated with wind turbines. The power and wake velocity results calculated in the study are compared with those obtained from numerical simulations by other researchers. The results indicate that the mesh and simulation parameters employed in this research precisely capture the aerodynamic characteristics and flow field surrounding the turbine. This work deliberates on how the amplitude and period of pitch motion impact the turbine aerodynamic behavior, while also conducting a quantitative analysis of the influence on the wake velocity recovery and wake range of the turbine. Findings from this research reveal that both the amplitude and period of pitching motion exert a significant impact on power output, thrust force, and wake-related properties.
Chen, Wei, Chen, Jian, Chen, Ye, Sun, Haiying
Research on Optimization Method for Composite Material Layup of 14MW-Class Wind Turbine Blade Structure2026-99-17265/22/2026
As the trend toward larger wind turbines continues, the increasing length of blades imposes higher demands on their structural properties. And in actual engineering, wind turbine blade accidents occur frequently. Consequently, ultra-long flexible blades at the hundred-meter scale typically employ composite materials. However, due to the high cost of composites, it is necessary to minimize blade weight to control costs. This study utilizes the MATLAB simulation platform combined with pattern search algorithms to optimize the composite layup of large wind turbine blade structures. The structural properties of the optimized design are then compared and analyzed against those of the reference structure. Simultaneously investigate the impact of different loads on the optimization results. The results demonstrate that the pattern search algorithm can optimize blade layup thickness, spar chordwise position, and spar width, yielding a new blade structure with improved performance. During structural optimization, adjustments to the spar, leading edge, and shear web primarily focus on thickness reduction, while modifications to the trailing edge and spar width depend on the specific applied loads. Reducing the thickness of the web and leading edge along the blade span while increasing the thickness and width of the spar region, along with appropriate adjustments to trailing edge thickness based on loading conditions, achieves both mass optimization and enhanced structural reliability. These findings provide valuable guidance for the structural design optimization of ultra-long flexible blades in large wind turbines, and have positive significance for the safety and economy of wind farm operation, offering a more scientific, efficient, and practical approach to their design.
Cao, Guangchuan, Guo, Xia, Meng, Hang
Research on the Prediction Method of Wind Speed Behavior under Multi-Featured Factors Based on Hybrid Time Series Model2026-99-17335/22/2026
As a part of new energy, wind power generation requires precise wind speed forecasting to enhance grid reliability. This paper proposes a hybrid time-series pattern prediction framework designed to continuously forecast wind speed across multiple wind turbine units. The proposed framework incorporates three key components. First of all, a multi-scale temporal pattern extraction module is introduced to improve the capability of the model to capture time-dependent structures, thereby enhancing predictive accuracy and robustness. Second, a three-dimensional adaptive probabilistic attention mechanism is developed to reinforce temporal feature interaction and fusion, ensuring both efficiency and performance. Third, a feature-factor pattern fusion strategy is applied to effectively model complex wind speed variations under diverse influencing factors, while reducing computational burden during training. Through comparative experiments, our model has better performance, obtaining an RMSE of 36.3, MAE of 5.34, and MAPE of 1.02%, which confirms its capability in delivering accurate and stable wind speed predictions.
Wang, Haiqiang, Xiao, Huan, Zhu, Xiaoxun, Gao, Xiaoxia
Multi-criteria Evaluation of Green Power Supply Paths for Pinglu Canal Project During Construction2026-99-17105/22/2026
In the context of the global active response to climate change and the strong advocacy of green development, China’s energy industry is demonstrating a steadfast commitment to low-carbon transformation. In this process, green power trading has gained significant development by virtue of its unique advantages and potential. In this process, green power trading has gained significant development by virtue of its unique advantages and potential. The core objective of the Pinglu Canal Project, a pivotal initiative promoting green and low-carbon development in the region, is to establish a “net-zero carbon” initiative by facilitating the supply of green energy throughout its entire life cycle. This initiative is designed to promote a green and low-carbon transition. This paper conducts an in-depth study on the green power supply path during the construction period of the Pinglu Canal project, and proposes four practicable options. In order to scientifically and objectively determine the optimal path, this paper constructs a comprehensive evaluation index system and a TOPSIS evaluation method based on comprehensive weights. The system encompasses the four dimensions of feasibility, economy, technology, and demonstration, enabling a comprehensive and precise evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of each path. The findings of the empirical analysis demonstrate that the combined scores of Path 1 (participation in green power trading), Path 2 (purchase of thermal power with green certificates), Path 3 (rooftop distributed photovoltaic system and purchase of new energy power), and Path 4 (rooftop distributed PV system and purchase of thermal power with green certificates) are 0.8166, 0.7486, 0.2197, and 0.2885, respectively. The comparative analysis reveals that participation in green power trading is the optimal strategy for the project’s construction period.
Huang, Zeyi, Wei, Yuchen, Li, Xiayang, Wang, Cuixian
Assessment of Flexibility Adequacy in Power Systems and Flexibility Resource Allocation2026-99-17175/22/2026
With the introduction of China’s dual-carbon goals (carbon peak and carbon neutrality), renewable energy has experienced rapid development in the country, particularly wind energy, which has established a pivotal role within the new energy sector. However, the inherent fluctuations in wind power generation pose significant challenges to maintaining grid stability and operational reliability. In power systems where the proportion of installed wind power capacity has significantly increased, the allocation of flexible resources becomes crucial. These resources help the system adapt to fluctuations in wind power generation and load demand, avoid wind power curtailment, and reduce costs. In addition, energy storage enhances grid flexibility and stabilizes renewable energy, but is constrained by high costs. Therefore, optimizing energy storage allocation and improving its economic efficiency have become urgent issues. This study focuses on flexibility adequacy assessment and resource allocation, proposing an optimization model that incorporates constraints from wind power, thermal power, energy storage, and load shedding. The model aims to identify the optimal energy storage configuration strategy to minimize operational costs while ensuring system flexibility adequacy. The model is constructed and simulated using MATLAB, with complex optimization problems solved using the Gurobi solver. The research involves developing flexibility evaluation indicators, determining the optimal energy storage capacity configuration, and creating an economic objective function. The goal is to minimize costs while ensuring system flexibility.
Peng, Jian, Wei, Jinpeng, Zhu, Zhengyin, Hu, Jianmin, Li, Yuxiang, Miao, Gang, Zhang, Huaide
Design of a Novel Intelligent Monitoring Platform for Low and Medium Altitudes2026-99-07395/15/2026
This paper presents the design of a novel intelligent monitoring platform for low and medium altitudes, aiming to offer a new solution for the development of intelligent equipment operating in this airspace. Current monitoring tasks are primarily performed by fixed-wing and multi-rotor UAVs, but these platforms face significant technical bottlenecks in flight endurance and monitoring precision. This research aims to address these deficiencies. The platform is based on a small-scale unmanned airship featuring a semi-rigid, hybrid lift-body structure. Improvements were made upon the traditional ellipsoidal hull; the hull profile was optimized using a geometric superposition method, introducing an aerodynamic camber line with a maximum camber (m) of 4% to enhance aerodynamic performance at small angles of attack. In terms of its energy system, the platform is powered by a purely electric energy system composed of solar panels and batteries; solar energy is used during the day, while surplus energy is stored in the batteries for night operations, thereby effectively extending flight endurance. For intelligent monitoring, the platform integrates an intelligent recognition and positioning system based on machine vision, which is deployed on a Jetson Nano and utilizes a YOLO11 instance segmentation model. The team has experimentally proven that the platform can effectively achieve intelligent monitoring in low and medium altitude airspace. Furthermore, the structural integrity of the gondola and the aerodynamic advantages of the modified hull have also been verified via simulation analysis. This work provides a new design concept for intelligent monitoring equipment. The platform can also be applied to scenarios such as forest fire prevention, precision agriculture, and long-term ecological monitoring, offering a new solution for the design of unmanned intelligent monitoring equipment.
Song, Ziang, Gao, Wenxuan, Cao, Xiaochuan, Zheng, Xing, Zhao, Chong
Study on the Hierarchical Control Algorithm of SMES-BESS Hybrid Energy Storage Based on VMD and Fuzzy Control2026-99-07105/15/2026
In China, the installed capacity of renewable energy sources such as wind and photovoltaic power has ranked first in the world for consecutive years, and new energy has become a core driver of energy structure transition. However, the strong volatility and intermittency of new energy output seriously affect the safe and stable operation of the power system, and high-efficiency energy storage technology is the key to solving this problem. Focusing on the short-term high-power charging and discharging characteristics of high-temperature superconducting magnets (SMES), this study proposes a Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS) that combines SMES with Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) to enhance the short-term power support capability of electrochemical energy storage. Variational Mode Decomposition (VMD) is introduced to establish a multi-level power allocation method, which addressing issues such as mode mixing, end effects, and low decomposition efficiency that are prone to occur in traditional Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD), and optimizes the internal power allocation of HESS and the State of Charge (SOC) management of energy storage units. A PI controller architecture with power outer loop and current inner loop for SMES and BESS is designed to enabling hierarchical complementary regulation of power and energy between the two components. A simulation model is built using MATLAB/Simulink to verify the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. Taking the power fluctuation suppression of wind farms as an example, the practicality of the scheme is further confirmed, demonstrating its promotion potential in multiple application scenarios.
Liu, Haiyang, Wang, Pengfei, Zhou, Wen, Lu, Jing, Wu, Yanan, Yin, Yunkuo, Jiang, Liping
A Hierarchical Distributed Architecture for Power Sharing and Average Voltage Regulation in AC/DC Microgrids2026-99-07065/15/2026
With the rapid growth of renewable energy sources such as photovoltaics, energy storage systems, and wind power, hybrid AC/DC microgrids (H-MGs) are gradually emerging as a key technology for achieving efficient interconnection between generation units and load demands. However, issues such as communication delays, unequal power sharing, and the restoration of voltage and frequency in hybrid microgrids have posed serious threats to the stable operation of microgrids. We also need to appropriately adjust the simulation parameters to ensure that the proposed control framework maintains sufficient flexibility under different load conditions and achieves high operating efficiency in simulation. To tackle these challenges, this paper proposes a distributed secondary control strategy grounded in coordinated consensus and combined with droop-based interlinking converters (ICs) to realize power coupling between the AC and DC subgrids. The proposed method enables precise active-power sharing among AC and DC distributed generators, balanced reactive-power sharing between AC subgrid and ICs, and effective restoration of system frequency and voltage. By introducing consensus indices into the IC control scheme—relying only on key indicators from both sides—the power-coupling capability of ICs is enhanced while communication complexity is reduced. All control objectives, including frequency /voltage restoration and proportional power sharing, are achieved at the secondary-control level. Based on the simulation results, the effectiveness of the proposed method is validated in this paper. Compared with existing methods, the proposed strategy not only achieves accurate power sharing and stable frequency /voltage restoration, but also rapidly recovers system stability under load variations, thereby enhancing the overall stability, reliability, and operational flexibility of hybrid AC/DC microgrids.
Yu, Peijie, Zhang, Fanghai, Sun, Wei, Yuan, Weibo, Peng, Bo
Conceptual Design of Hybrid-Electric Propulsion System for a Light UAVF-0082-2026-01645/5/2026
The present work focuses on the sizing and analysis of a parallel hybrid propulsion architecture for a conventional rotary light Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) in the 200kg class. First, the design methodology is outlined, with an emphasis on the optimization of the battery pack, which is one of the most crucial component of the whole powertrain. The sizing approach is applied to a wide range of thermal and electric power ratios, as well as two distinct hybridization strategies, to investigate the broad design space and discover possible sweet spots. For this aim, the various design points are then evaluated in terms of impact on aircraft capabilities, considering both extensive and intensive performance. Hence, the results provide the main advantages and disadvantages, performance wise, of the hybrid propulsion in comparison to a conventional full thermal solution.
Rovera, Eugenio, Corno, Matteo, Trivella, Andrea, Bonini, Valerio, Nesci, Andrea
Autonomous Inspection: Driving Affordability, Availability, and Safety Through Augmented Aircraft InspectionsF-0082-2026-01465/5/2026
Autonomous Inspection via small Unmanned Aircraft Systems (sUAS) is increasingly utilized across industrial use cases such as inspection of bridges, buildings, construction sites, roadways, transmission lines, pipes, wind turbines and power systems (1). In principle, the system workflow of inspection; identification and characterization of defects; and mapping in space is very similar across industries. Boeing and Proxim (A Near Earth Autonomy Company) have partnered to pursue this technology in the Aerospace and Defense industry for General Visual Inspection (GVI) of airframes predominantly in a maintenance setting. This activity began by deploying Proxim’s Autonomous Aircraft Inspection (AAI) technology and Boeing's Automated Damage Detection Software (ADDS) on Boeing C-17 Globemaster III at Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam. It has expanded to offer U.S. Department of War (DoW) and Commercial customers aircraft-agnostic enhanced exterior GVI capability at point of need by leveraging unique ADDS AI algorithm in support of both home station and deployed operations. This paper gives an overview to industry developments in Autonomous Inspection, and the development AAI/ADDS technologies.
Ransick, Hayley, Gatto, Vince, Rhodes, Peter, Coccia, Charles, Nevinsky, Michael
A Fully Autonomous Robotic System Measures Key Properties of New MaterialsTBMG-550735/1/2026
Scientists are striving to discover new semiconductor materials that could boost the efficiency of solar cells and other electronics. But the pace of innovation is bottlenecked by the speed at which researchers can manually measure important material properties.
Predicting the Impact of FIA 2026 Power Unit Regulations on the Performance of Formula 1 Car2026-01-02684/7/2026
This work investigates the impact of the forthcoming 2026 FIA Formula 1 power unit regulations on vehicle track performance. This new regulation introduces a rebalanced power distribution between the internal combustion engine and the Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic (MGU-K), with each unit contributing up to 350 kW. This transition nearly triples the previous 120 kW output of the MGU-K while constraining the internal combustion engine through newly imposed fuel energy limits. A full vehicle powertrain model was developed in GT-Suite following the 2026 FIA technical directives. Particular attention was given to Articles 5.4.7 to 5.4.10, which define key constraints on hybrid operation: a maximum variation of 4 MJ in battery state of charge, up to 9 MJ of recoverable energy per lap, and a peak MGU-K electrical power output of 350 kW. The model includes updated architecture specifications, active aerodynamic modules, energy deployment logic, and component-level constraints. Telemetry data from the 2024-2025 qualifying sessions was employed for model development, validation, and benchmarking, enabling performance comparisons under realistic track conditions. Analysis results reveal notable deviations in powertrain response and vehicle performance across a range of circuits, establishing a correlation between the powertrain performance and track layouts. The model enables the decomposition of overall system effects into discrete contributions from specific regulatory requirements and individual component limitations. This paper will propose a justification and scheme for developing circuit-specific strategies based on maximum energy constraint and vehicle performance.
Giaquinta Aitala, Lucio, Samuel, Stephen
Sensitivity Analysis and Development Approach of HV Battery Lifetime for Complete Vehicle Integration2026-01-03954/7/2026
The lifetime and aging of the high voltage battery is one of the major discussion points for the end-customer to decide between buying a car with an electric powertrain or still using a conventional powertrain. Therefore, the provision of adequate vehicles to the end-customer, the aging of the high voltage battery become an important topic for the complete vehicle development. In addition, also legal regulations (e.g. EU7) will preset minimum requirements for the warranty of the high voltage battery. These circumstances define the lifetime / aging of the HV battery to be a complete vehicle development target, which needs to be developed. The paper will present a method for the development process of a lifetime target from complete vehicle perspective. The method is based on the generation of a representative monthly power profile and temperature profile. Depending on a monthly user routine, ambient temperature profile and charging behavior, the vehicle specific battery power profile will be generated using energy flow simulation. In addition, the simulation of the HV battery SoC and temperature is included, too. Second, using a generic battery cell aging model, the impact on the state of health will be estimated using the power and temperature profile for the lifetime of the battery. The aging behavior over lifetime of the HV battery can be estimated. Using the tools, several sensitivity studies have been performed (e.g. impact on charging behavior, ambient temperature, vehicle operating strategy) to understand the main impacts on battery aging. The simulation tool as well as the results of the sensitivity analysis will be presented in the paper.
Martin, Michael
Optimizing Custom Hybrid Solutions for Low-Volume Specialist Equipment2026-01-04794/7/2026
Off-road vehicles are typically powered by diesel engines, sized to cover the highest peak loads in their dutycycles. Such applications can be designed with downsized engines, using hybridization to supplement engine power with electrical power for short periods. However, many applications are low-volume and specialized, making it impractical to deploy heavy engineering resources to optimize each one. For this reason, manufacturers tend to produce maid-of-all-work vehicles to cover every situation. This paper demonstrates the benefits of custom hybridization for specialist applications, and addresses the lack of accessible software tools for evaluating such opportunities. Analysis is applied with a fast, low-cost, Concept-based software tool named “ePOP Concept”, suited to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) who seek to provide custom low-volume vehicles. It allows many different powertrain architectures to be evaluated rapidly at the product planning stage, and can be quickly set up and used by non-specialists in simulation. Agricultural load cases are analyzed, showing the benefits of adding hybridization through electric motors and stored energy, supplementing engine power for demand peaks to enable engine downsizing. Use cases for four Fendt diesel tractors were taken from a dataset generated by Götz et al, at the agricultural facilities of the Technical University of Munich, which has been made publicly available by the authors to address the absence of standard load cycle data for the analysis of tractor electrification. The results show benefits for a customizable hybridization architecture to accommodate specific use cases, and the benefits of quick, accessible analysis methods for small engineering teams, to support early product decisions and what-if analyses.
De Salis, Rupert, Fons, Daniel
Electric Vehicles & the Grid - Synergy or Strain?2026-01-03984/7/2026
As the demand for electrical power has surged over recent years due to the increasing popularity of data centers for Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Electric Vehicles (EVs), it is becoming evident that the aging electrical grid infrastructure is struggling to keep up. Some of the problems this aging infrastructure has resulted in include frequent blackouts due to weather related events, reduced efficiency resulting in higher maintenance costs and outdated communication systems causing poor monitoring and response times. Modernization of the grid in conjunction with integration of the transportation sector with the grid is essential to ensure the reliability and resiliency of the grid. Electric vehicles have dramatically increased in popularity, with most vehicle manufacturers offering at least one electric option in their lineups. Looking at recent developments in vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, a new possibility becomes evident; instead of straining the power grid, the electric vehicle can synergize with it. This becomes possible when EVs can facilitate charging during off-peak (low demand) hours and supplying power back to the grid during on-peak (high demand) hours. There are quite a few challenges associated with this approach, lack of standardized charging infrastructure and higher install costs, regulatory and policy hurdles, gaps in technological know-how particularly in relation to impact of power supplied by EVs on grid and effect of V2G on EV battery degradation in the long run, to name a few. This paper reviews the current power demand and supply along with existing and projected power consumption metrics. We also discuss the V2G strategy to effectively manage load requirements, incentives that can be provided to facilitate the execution, and the challenges associated with its widespread implementation. Finally, we discuss case studies of vehicles that incorporate V2G capability and their implications.
Dahlmann, Alexander Drake, Lele, Sneha
Novel Air System for 300 kW Heavy Duty Fuel Cell2026-01-04344/7/2026
Hydrogen fuel cell powered vehicles for heavy duty trucking are a promising path for reducing future vehicle emissions due to their reduced mass for storage and faster refueling compared to battery electric trucks. These benefits come at the cost of increased system complexity stemming from the fact that fuel cells generate electricity through a chemical reaction which must be tightly controlled. The air handling system delivers the proper amount of air (oxygen) to react with fuel (hydrogen) in the fuel cell to produce power. Air delivery requires significant power and is the largest parasitic loss for a 300 kW fuel cell. Today’s systems use an electric motor driving an air compressor to supply pressurized air to the fuel cell stack. By operating at elevated pressure levels, fuel cells can achieve higher power density, which is important for vehicle powertrains. In addition to parasitic power loss, hydrogen fuel cell systems often have reliability issues associated with the air handling system. Reliability is of significant concern for heavy duty applications (especially long-haul applications). This project aims to improve both the electrical power consumption and reliability of hydrogen fuel cell air handling systems to meet the needs of heavy duty on-highway vehicle applications. The air handling is provided by a twin vortices series (TVS) compressor in addition to adding a TVS expander to recover waste heat energy back into the compressor. The final configuration includes a 600 V, 39 kW motor connected with a single shaft to the compressor and expander. This configuration reduced the total electrical power consumption from 48.6 kW to 37 kW at full load, 13.1 kW to 9 kW at half load and 0.44 kW to 0.22 kW at idle. The response time requirement was to be less than 2 sec while the final demonstration yielded 0.62 sec. Additional design changes, including water dosing into the compressor, addition of a recuperator, and elimination of the intercooler, were made to increase the energy efficiency of the air system.
Reich, Evan, Swartzlander, Matthew, Wine, Jonathan, McCarthy, Jr., James, Miller, Eric, Akhtar, Saad, Reddy, Sharan, Lawy, TJ
Success at Sea: NIWC Atlantic Uncrewed Surface Vessel Completes Fastest Transatlantic Crossing26AERP04_024/1/2026
Scientists with Naval Information Warfare Center (NIWC) Atlantic's Unmanned Naval Innovation Team (UNIT) reached a historic milestone on Sept. 9, 2025 when they recovered a U.S. Navy-sponsored Lightfish uncrewed surface vessel (USV) in Troia, Portugal, following its harrowing - and completely solo - transatlantic crossing. This fully autonomous vessel accomplished the journey in just over two months, nearly 12 days faster than the last known previous attempt of its kind. UNIT engineers launched the Lightfish, a solar-powered, low-profile USV designed for long-endurance missions, on a blazing summer day from a community boat ramp in Sullivan's Island, South Carolina, at the end of June. After performing numerous systems checks and taking a moment to christen the vessel, the team's lead scientist and program manager Michael Grass waded into waist-deep sea water to send the unmanned vehicle off on its long voyage across the Atlantic Ocean.
A Better Way to Recycle Carbon FibersTBMG-548704/1/2026
The world is hurtling rapidly toward a developed future, and carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) play a key role in enabling technological and industrial progress. These composite materials are lightweight and highly strong, making them desirable for applications in various fields, including aviation, aerospace, automotive, wind power generation, and sports equipment.
CONNECTOR, RECEPTACLE, EXTERNAL ELECTRIC POWER, AIRCRAFT, 270 VDC, 90 KWAS81790/1 (Current)2/23/2026
AE-8C1 Connectors Committee
Airport Electrical Power System HarmonicsAIR5387 (Current)2/17/2026
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is intended to cover all airport 50 or 60 Hz electrical systems as well as all electrical utilization equipment that is attached to those systems.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Analyzer Delivers Real-Time Insights for U.S. Power GridTBMG-546482/17/2026
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