Browse Topic: Exhaust emissions

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Biofuel Effect on Regeneration Capability and Soot Reactivity in SCRoF Systems2026-01-0750To be published on 07/01/2026
Biodiesel blends (B7, B20, B100) were evaluated in a Stage V-compliant SCR on Filter (SCRoF) system for heavy-duty applications to quantify soot reactivity and filter regeneration capability. Compared to conventional diesel (B7), B20 showed slightly faster regeneration performance under real-driving conditions, while B100 resulted in reduced particulate formation and higher soot reactivity, with more intense exothermic events requiring careful management. These differences are attributed to the distinct physical-chemical properties of the fuels (oxygen content, lower heating value) and their interaction with Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC)/SCRoF. All tests were conducted on an engine dynamometer with a Cursor 9 FPT (Fiat Powertrain). Findings are discussed in the context of EU Stage V limits and practical control strategies for heavy-duty applications.
Costa, Simone
NOx Formation Characteristics of Lean Hydrogen Combustion: From 0D Analysis to Comprehensive 3D-CFD Engine Investigations2026-01-0732To be published on 07/01/2026
The transition toward climate-neutral transportation requires powertrain concepts that combine high efficiency with low pollutant emissions. In this context, hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines represent a promising solution when hydrogen is produced from renewable energy sources. Owing to its specific molecular properties, hydrogen offers new possibilities for influencing and optimizing the combustion process and reducing the emission formation. This paper presents a numerical approach for characterizing the NOx formation in a single-cylinder research engine equipped with port fuel injection and a passive pre-chamber ignition system. The single-cylinder is operated over a wide range of engine loads and speeds, covering air-to-fuel ratios from λ=1.5 to 2.5 and achieving up to 23 bar indicated mean effective pressure. The study focuses on the influence of engine load and mixture composition on NOx emissions. A dedicated look-up table approach in combination with several reaction
Gal, Thomas, Vacca, Antonino, Chiodi, Marco, Schmelcher, Robin, Kulzer, Andre Casal
Improved Thermal Management for Operating a Battery Electric City Bus under Real Driving Conditions2026-01-0758To be published on 07/01/2026
The goal of reducing the global CO2 emissions requires actions especially for the transportation sector. To achieve the goal, electric traction motors are frequently implemented in passenger vehicles as well as in commercial vehicles like heavy-duty trucks or buses. Particularly electric city buses have the potential to reduce the local emissions in urban areas and provide local exhaust-emission-free mobility. While their number of registrations rises, research focusses on the improvement of the overall system in order to increase the energy efficiency. High importance is gained by the thermal management of the whole system. This research describes and investigates a simulative approach to improve the thermal management and therefore the energy efficiency of an electric bus system. The different thermal components of an electric city bus like drive system, battery system and heating, ventilation and air conditioning system (HVAC system) are modelled. Their thermal behaviour has been
Schäfer, Henrik, Hellberg, Tobias, Meywerk, Martin
Combined EGR-Air Dilution Effects on Performance, Combustion and Emissions of a Single-Cylinder Spark-Ignition Direct-Injection Hydrogen Engine2026-37-0009To be published on 06/09/2026
Hydrogen internal combustion engines research is particularly relevant for propulsion systems requiring long range and fast refuelling while offering advantages in fuel purity requirements and operational efficiency. Leveraging the existing engine industry offers the potential for a fast response in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. However, abnormal combustion and high NOx emissions limit the feasibility of stoichiometric operation in hydrogen engines, making the evaluation and optimisation of dilution strategies essential. While lean combustion has been widely studied, the impact of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), particularly in combination with lean mixtures, has yet to be comprehensively assessed. This study investigates the effectiveness of different dilution strategies, with a specific focus on the combined effects of air dilution and EGR on hydrogen combustion. Their joint influence on thermal efficiency, combustion stability, and emissions is evaluated across a range
King, Aidan, Islam, Reza, Pickering, Simon, Yuan, Hao, Mudge, Henry, Giles, Karl, Goyal, Harsh, Jones, Peter, Akehurst, Sam, Esposito, Stefania
Methane Emission Mitigation in Large-Bore Dual-Fuel Engines via Negative Valve Overlap Diesel Injection: Thermochemical Pathways and Reactivity Control2026-37-0045To be published on 06/09/2026
Low-load natural gas–diesel reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) in medium-speed marine engines is constrained by an insufficient charge thermal state. This limitation leads to partial fuel oxidation, producing high methane emissions. This work evaluates the use of negative valve overlap (NVO) combined with NVO diesel injection as an in-cylinder reactivity enhancement strategy. The simulation study was performed using the University of Vaasa's advanced thermo-kinetic multi-zone model (UVATZ), extended for reactive simulations during NVO. The extended framework was validated against test-bench data from a prototype Wärtsilä 6L20 dual-fuel engine operating in RCCI mode. The baseline low‑load operating point for reforming simulations was defined by reducing the intake manifold temperature to replicate conditions close to partial misfire with 52% combustion efficiency. The parametric sweeps of NVO injection timing and ratio showed that the strategy can be used for in-cycle
Soleimani, Amir, Nurmi, Mikael, Hunicz, Jacek, Kim, Jeyoung, Hyvonen, Jari, Mikulski, Maciej
Performance and Combustion Characteristics of Coryton SUSTAIN Classic Super 80 Carbon-Neutral Fuel Versus E95 in a 1980s Fiat 500 Engine2026-37-0033To be published on 06/09/2026
The energy transition requires a rapid reduction in the use of fossil fuels, whose combustion generates substantial greenhouse-gas emissions. In Europe, transport alone accounts for roughly a quarter of total greenhouse-gas emissions, with road transport being the predominant component. In this context, the use of biofuels has emerged as a potential solution for limiting further increases in CO₂ emissions. However, most studies available in the literature evaluate the performance of these fuels on modern engines, while their effects on historic carburetted engines remain largely unexplored. This is particularly significant given the large fleet of historic vehicles across Europe, supported by a long-standing tradition of vehicle preservation, associations, and classic car collectors. The main historic-vehicle federations advise caution and the use of low-ethanol formulations so as not to damage elastomers, fuel tanks, and carburettor float bowls. For this reason, a few suppliers have
Tarchiani, Marco, Fossati, Federico, Raspanti, Sandro, Baroni, Alberto, Ferrara, Giovanni, Romani, Luca
Comparative Toxicological Assessment of Exhaust Emissions from Modern Low-Emission Passenger Vehicles2026-37-0005To be published on 06/09/2026
The transition towards low-emission vehicle technologies, driven largely by efforts to reduce fleet-average CO2 emissions, has led to the widespread introduction of advanced powertrains, including hybridized gasoline vehicles, modern diesel vehicles, and compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles [1]. While these technologies are primarily promoted for their reduced regulated emissions, their comparative toxicological impacts under realistic driving conditions remain insufficiently understood. This study presents a comparative toxicological assessment of exhaust emissions from five state-of-the-art passenger vehicles representing different propulsion technologies. The vehicles were tested on a chassis dynamometer under controlled laboratory conditions, following a common experimental protocol. The test matrix included gasoline vehicles with varying degrees of hybridization and particulate filtration (with and without gasoline particulate filters, GPF), a diesel vehicle equipped with a
Tsakonas, Georgios, Stamatiou, Rodopi, Lazou, Antigone, Samaras, Zissis, Elihn, Karine
Investigating the potential of two individually controlled injectors per rotor for a DI hydrogen Wankel engine2026-37-0008To be published on 06/09/2026
Hydrogen-fuelled rotary engines offer a promising alternative for zero-emission powertrains in commercial applications, particularly where compact packaging is required. This study presents experimental results of the further development of the naturally aspirated hydrogen rotary engine by HTM with direct injection, integrated with an electric machine into a hybrid or genset system. Despite the lower volumetric energy density of hydrogen compared to conventional fuels, the compact design of the rotary engine enables installation within the packaging of a conventional internal combustion engine with comparable power output. Initial applications, including an airport baggage tractor, have demonstrated the feasibility of the concept. However, engine calibration revealed pre-ignition phenomena that constrained the maximum achievable torque. To address this limitation, the influence of mixture formation is further investigated. An experimental engine setup is used where two individually
Endres, Jonas, Beidl, Christian, Herold, Tim, Lavall, Philipp, Schmidt, Marvin, Hofmann, Silas, Kahl, Jonas
Hybridized Diesel Powertrains - an important enabler for commercial applications on the long journey towards full electrification2026-37-0022To be published on 06/09/2026
The ongoing efforts for reduction of the traffic-related greenhouse gas emissions and, at the same time, the mitigation of harmful pollutant emissions from vehicle exhaust emissions are important development tasks for the entire automotive industry worldwide according to demand to provide clean and efficient products. Further tightened fleet average FE standards and ultra-low limits for exhaust emissions require the continuous development of new propulsion system types. Due to the given reluctance of the end customer and corresponding low acceptance of fully electrified vehicles, especially in the commercial vehicle segment, new and innovative topologies are needed to meet regulatory requirements and maintain the high versatility of today’s dominating solutions. For further optimisation of operating conditions with enhanced fuel efficiency, the technical strategy is also determined by uplifting the attractiveness of electric driving incl. the avoidance of areas with poor ICE efficiency
Koerfer, Thomas
Nitrogen-based emissions from Ammonia Combustion in a Heavy-Duty Spark Ignition Engine2026-37-0032To be published on 06/09/2026
Ammonia (NH3) is increasingly recognized as one of the paths toward decarbonizing power generation and transportation. Its carbon-free molecular structure and ease of storage compared to hydrogen put NH3 at the forefront of alternative fuels. However, transitioning from hydrocarbon fuels to NH3 in internal combustion engines significantly alters the profiles of nitrogen oxide (NOx) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions. In traditional hydrocarbon combustion, NOx is formed mainly via the thermal Zeldovich mechanism, where atmospheric nitrogen reacts with oxygen at high temperatures. In contrast, ammonia combustion introduces "fuel-NOx," where the nitrogen atom within the NH3 molecule itself is oxidized. This study used experiments and numerical simulations to evaluate the effect of engine geometry and operating condition on these differences. In addition, the study observed the differences in NOx and N2O formation and destruction with respect to the engine cycle timeline. While ammonia's
Trujillo Grisales, Juan, Saenz Prado, Stefany, Alvarez, Luis F., Akkerman, Vyacheslav, Dumitrescu, Cosmin E.
Development and Experimental Validation of a 1D Model for Performance and Emissions Analysis of Oxygenated Fuel Blends in a CI Engine2026-37-0028To be published on 06/09/2026
Emissions reduction remains a major concern for internal combustion engines in view of increasingly stringent environmental regulations. To address these challenges while maintaining acceptable engine performance, a wide range of alternative fuels and fuel blends have been investigated to ensure the continued viability of CI engines. This study reports the effects of blending the oxygenated fuel diethylene glycol diethyl ether (DGDE) with hydrotreated vegetable oil biodiesel (HVO) on engine performance and emissions. The investigation is conducted on a 2.3-liter, four-cylinder, common-rail diesel engine equipped with variable geometry turbocharger and a high-pressure exhaust gas recirculation system. The objectives of this study are achieved by developing a one-dimensional predictive engine model using the commercial GT-Suite software. The engine model is developed and experimentally validated, at different operating conditions and HVO–DGDE fuel blends, to predict their effects on
Arain, M Wajahat Rasool, Foglia, Antonio, Frasci, Emmanuele, Vitek, Oldrich, Pianese, Cesare, Arsie, Ivan
An open-source framework to Automate Virtual Optimization of Internal Combustion Engine Calibration Maps through shape-based strategy2026-37-0001To be published on 06/09/2026
The automotive industry is facing increasingly stringent regulatory constraints, driving the need for faster and more efficient powertrain development. This results in higher systems complexity, making internal combustion engine calibration progressively more challenging to meet performance and emissions targets. This, combined with the manual nature of traditional calibration workflows, leads to a time‑consuming process that heavily relies on human expertise. Although virtualization can reduce development time and costs, the overall workflow remains largely dependent on manual decision‑making and iterative refinement. In this context, this work presents a virtual calibration framework based on a genetic algorithm, aimed at the automated optimization of engine calibration maps to satisfy performance and emissions constraints, while reducing manual effort. Each calibration map is represented through a polynomial parameterization. Specifically, a generic three‑dimensional polynomial with
Romano, Gianvito, Aglietti, Filippo, Spedicato, Tonio, cozza, Ivan Flaminio, Capra, Andrea
Conceptual Design of Hydrogen Fuel-Cell-Based Utility Aircraft2026-26-07836/1/2026
The aviation industry contributes to around 2% of global carbon dioxide emissions. As various sectors of the economy look to reduce their global carbon footprint, the aviation industry is positively acknowledging alternatives to jet fuel. Hydrogen proves to be one such alternative having a high energy density and producing zero carbon emissions on combustion. Hydrogen when used in a jet engine produces water vapour and NOx emissions. In order to reduce the effect of GHGs, the current study aims to develop aircraft concepts suitable with hydrogen propulsion through fuel cells for a short-haul commercial mission profile. Aircrafts such as Metro-23 and Dornier 228-212 were referenced for the requirements of a utility turboprop aircraft. The weight estimation was done to obtain the take-off weight of 10,863 kg following the optimization of thrust to weight ratio and wing loading to calculate the initial dimensions. OpenVSP was used to model the initial structure of the aircraft. For the
Bhattacharya, Anisha, Seetha Ramu, Sree Valli, C N, Lakshmi Manasa, Rohit, Benjamin
Thermo-Structural Analysis of Grid Fins for Re-Entry Modules2026-26-07496/1/2026
Grid fins are non-conventional aerodynamic lifting and control surfaces which are made of a frame supporting lifting surfaces positioned in the form of a lattice structure. Grid fins are also called as lattice fins and are used as control surfaces in launch vehicles, crew escape systems, missiles etc. to achieve static stability. Each panel of the grid fin acts as fin and it produces force which increases stability of the vehicle. For a crew escape system module, grid fins are used as a passive aerodynamic control surfaces to achieve static stability. Grid fins are positioned at the end of crew escape system module to provide required static margin by increasing moment arm. In contrast to conventional fins, grid fins incorporate a distinctive waffle-like pattern or grid pattern configuration, offering superior aerodynamic performance in supersonic regimes and enabling compact storage in stowed position during launch followed by deployment at the time of exigency. In case of an
Mali, Somanath Nandu, Sundar Raj, R, Sundaresan, MK, R, Suresh
Data-Driven Air Traffic Management: Forecasting Demand, Modeling Delay Propagation, and Demand Capacity Balancing2026-26-07726/1/2026
Air Traffic Management (ATM) must be familiar with the exact Aircraft Take-off Weights (ATOWs) of airplanes to make the most use of runways, maintain safety margins high, and keep utilization and resources in balance. This paper aims to present a dependable ATOW forecasting methodology that can assist the air transport industry in enhancing operational decision-making. This research used datasets acquired from the EUROCONTROL Performance Review Commission (PRC) 2024 Aircraft Take-Off Weight Estimation dataset featuring 527,000 flights over Europe containing aircraft details, air trips and flight conditions. Technique comprises structured data input, inspection of missing data, timestamp aggregation to identify demand cycles over time, and domain-specific feature engineering using distance_per_minute, block_minutes, taxiout_ratio, and a strong wake turbulence metric The two supervised learning models used were Linear Regression (LR) for understanding and XGBoost for performance
Senthilkumar, N., S, Gopalakrishnan, Gopinath, S
Experimental Investigation of Diesel, Aqueous Ammonia, and Compressed Natural Gas Mixtures on Performance and Emissions in a Compression Ignition Engine04-19-03-00115/30/2026
Abstract This study investigates and evaluates systematically the combustion, performance, and emissions characteristics of heavy-duty diesel engines fueled by diesel–ammonia–compressed natural gas triple blends. While dual-fuel systems are well-documented, the interactive effects of ammonia and CNG within a single compression ignition (CI) engine remain largely unexplored. Experiments were conducted on a 300 Nm, 660 rpm diesel engine by testing pure diesel, diesel–ammonia blends (10–20 wt.% aqueous ammonia), and triple-fuel mixtures containing 10% of the total energy from compressed natural gas. Pure diesel was first tested to provide baseline data, and subsequently blends were tested for a comparative study. The primary contribution of this work is the identification of a synergistic effect of the fuel triple blends on engine performance and emissions. Results indicate that all fuel blends improve thermal efficiency and reduce fuel consumption compared to conventional diesel. The
Sinkala, Happy, Sarıtaş, Mehmet, Kül, Volkan Sabri, Akansu, Selahaddin Orhan, Ünalan, Sebahattin
The Impact of Zero-Carbon Fuels on CO 2 Emissions Reduction from the Long-Haul Heavy-Duty Truck Fleet in Mainland China13-07-01-00035/22/2026
The decarbonization of heavy-duty trucks (HDTs) is a crucial path for China to achieve its “dual-carbon” goals and transition to decarbonized freight transport. Zero-carbon fuels are key alternatives to fossil fuels for these high-emission vehicles. This study develops an integrated scenario analysis framework to quantify the theoretical CO₂e emission trajectories of China’s long-haul HDT fleet from 2020 to 2060. Functioning as a macro-level stress test, the model derives theoretical equivalent stock from anticipated logistics turnover demand, integrating them with well-to-wheel (WTW) emission factors under six distinct policy stringencies (Projects 1 through 6), representing varying paces of fossil fuel vehicle phase-out. The results demonstrate that policy stringency primarily governs the timing and depth of emission reductions, while fuel technology defines the minimum achievable emission level. Three-dimensional visualization analysis reveals a nonlinear “emission cliff” under
Wu, Yunmei, Huang, Hua, Li, Rui, He, Guijia, Liu, Bo, Liu, Ruowei, Xie, Yongliang
Effect of Burning Biomass Fuel Cyclohexanol on Diesel Engine Performance2026-99-17085/22/2026
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Chen, Ke, Yang, Chenxi, Wang, Yibin, Fan, Jinyu, Liu, Yuchen, Ye, Zixiao, Huang, Jialiang
Prediction of CO 2 Emissions from Light-Duty Vehicles Based on Highway Alignment2026-99-17135/22/2026
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Liang, Yao, Wang, Yixuan, Zhao, Xiaoyan, Cheng, Shenzhen, Wu, Bing, Zeng, Weiyi
Analysis on the Technical Path and Engineering Application of Ship Carbon Capture2026-99-17305/22/2026
This study focuses on the engineering application and performance evaluation of shipboard carbon capture systems. A process combining amine absorption and membrane separation was constructed, and the combined process was applied to a typical 7000 TEU container ship. After sea trials, the average carbon dioxide capture efficiency achieved by the system exceeded 87%, and the power consumption was maintained within an acceptable range. The integrated system greatly improved the EEXI and CII index levels and verified its economic feasibility in the medium and high carbon price scenario. The payback period of the investment costs was reduced to five years. After port coordination tests, the operability of ship-shore carbon dioxide transfer was verified, which promoted future scalability. The engineering layout, energy recovery design, and operation data worked together to provide a practical solution for maritime decarbonization. This study provides a valuable technical reference for the
Yang, Yongjian
Overcoming the Carbon Neutrality Bottleneck: Multidimensional Innovations and Future Prospects of Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) Technology2026-99-17365/22/2026
As the global pursuit of carbon neutrality accelerates, carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technology is emerging as a critical strategic pillar for achieving significant emission reductions and facilitating the transition to green development. This review systematically summarizes the principal technological pathways and recent advances in carbon capture, resource utilization, and storage within CCUS systems, with particular attention to innovative directions including advanced adsorption and separation materials, synergistic catalytic conversion, biological carbon sequestration, and mineralization-based storage. By examining representative engineering practices and industrialization cases both domestically and internationally, this paper summarizes the major challenges currently facing CCUS, including material costs, energy consumption, environmental risks, and large-scale deployment. The positive impacts of interdisciplinary integration, process system optimization, and
Wang, Yingfei
Emission and Combustion Characteristics of a Hydrogen Direct-Injection Spark Ignition Engine Using EGR2026-01-03254/7/2026
This study experimentally investigates the combined effects of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and injection timing on the combustion and emission characteristics of a hydrogen direct injection engine. A single-cylinder 395 cc research engine was used, with injection timing varied from 60° to 180° BTDC and EGR rates from 0% to 30%. In-cylinder pressure, apparent heat release rate (AHRR), NOx, and unburned hydrogen concentrations were measured to analyze the influence of mixture formation and dilution on engine performance. Under non-EGR conditions, retarding the injection timing promoted mixture stratification, resulting in faster flame propagation and shorter combustion duration. However, localized high-temperature regions increased NOx formation, while incomplete combustion in lean or rich zones elevated unburned hydrogen emissions. When EGR was introduced, both ignition delay and combustion duration increased due to reduced oxygen concentration and thermal dilution. Nevertheless
Yang, Heetae, Ki, Youngmin, Kim, Jungho Justin, Kim, Jinsu, Bae, Choongsik, Hwang, Joonsik
A Latent Space Framework for Modeling Transient Engine Emissions Using Joint Embedding Predictive Architectures2026-01-04234/7/2026
Accurately modeling and controlling vehicle exhaust emissions, particularly during highly transient events such as rapid acceleration, is crucial for meeting stringent environmental regulations and optimizing modern powertrain systems. While conventional data-driven modeling methods, such as Multilayer Perceptrons (MLPs) and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, have improved upon earlier phenomenological or physics-based models, they often struggle to capture the complex nonlinear dynamics of emission formation. These monolithic architectures attempt to learn from all available data, which increases their sensitivity to dataset variability. They often require increasingly deep and complex architectures to improve performance, thereby limiting their practical utility. This paper introduces a novel approach that overcomes these limitations by modeling emission dynamics in a structured latent space. Using a rich dataset combining real-world driving data from a Portable Emission
Sundaram, Ganesh, Gehra, Tobias, Ulmen, Jonas, Heubaum, Mirjan, Görges, Daniel, Günthner, Michael
Experimental Study of Hydrogen Combustion in Argon-Oxygen Mixture Using an Optical Engine2026-01-03284/7/2026
The Argon Power Cycle (APC) is an emerging high-efficiency combustion technology for internal combustion engines. In APC, the conventional air-based working fluid is replaced with an inert argon gas. This substitution inherently increases engine efficiency through thermodynamic properties of argon, in particular a high adiabatic factor ?? ~1.67. A hydrogen-fueled APC engine offers the potential for highly efficient zero emission combustion by also eliminating nitrogen oxide (NOx) formation. In the present paper, hydrogen combustion is studied in an optical heavy-duty research engine, with the objective of providing the first visualization of H2 combustion in an argon–oxygen mixture. A comparative analysis of high-speed optical imaging and in-cylinder pressure measurements is conducted for two different modes: 1) conventional air operation and 2) argon-oxygen mixture operation. The high-speed images reveal a distinctly different combustion process between the two operating modes. The
Kapp, Joakim, Cheng, Qiang, Kaario, Ossi, Vuorinen, Ville
Study of Deposit Control Additive Efficacy in Gasoline Direct Injection Engines2026-01-03494/7/2026
There is an increasing adoption of Direct-Injection Spark-Ignition (DISI) engines in the market, which per 2024 US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Automotive Trends Report represents 73% of new vehicles sold in the US. And while it is well accepted that DISI offers advantages over Port Fuel Injection (PFI) technology in meeting stringent CO2 emissions and fuel economy requirements set by the EPA, DISI engines are also associated with increased formation of injector deposits. These deposits may foul injectors and accumulate on the injector tip causing distorted spray patterns and diffusive combustion. Ultimately, this leads to engine performance deterioration and increased harmful emissions. To control deposit formation, detergent-type chemistries are added to the fuel in small amounts. Deposit Control Additives (DCAs) function by preventing the formation of deleterious injector deposits as well as removing existing ones. This study used standardized protocols describing the
Soriano, Nestor, Williams, Rod, Cracknell, Roger, Lang, Wendy, Chahal, Jasprit
A New Approach for SI Combustion Modeling to Address the Upcoming Fuel Diversity Scenario2026-01-02764/7/2026
Climate change concerns demand a drastic reduction in CO2 emissions, tending to what is called carbon neutrality. Even if political guidelines promote electrification, considering the transportation sector, not all applications have the same requirements and boundary conditions, and hence, their optimal solution is not necessarily the same. In this context, in parallel with pure electric powertrains, the internal combustion engine (ICE) still has a relevant role to play, mainly in hybrid powertrains, working together with an electrical motor. In this hybridization context, the spark-ignition (SI) engine uses to be the most adopted solution because of its lower cost and complexity. Consequently, it can be concluded that the SI engine will still play a significant role in the near future. However, when ICEs are considered, the search for carbon neutrality requires the use of fuels other than fossil fuels. At this point, many alternatives arise, from biofuels to synthetic e-fuels, or even
Robayo-Rueda, Daniel, Lopez, J. Javier, Martin, Jaime, Novella, Ricardo
Model-Based Development of a Heavy-Duty H 2 -ICE and Integrated, Turbogeneration, Electrification, and Supercharging (ITES) System2026-01-04264/7/2026
Changing global economic conditions and efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are driving the need to develop efficient, near-term, alternative propulsion system technologies for heavy-duty vehicles. This study combines a hydrogen internal combustion engine (H2-ICE) with electrically assisted turbocharging, exhaust energy recovery, and mild hybridization to maximize propulsion system efficiency and reduce NOx emissions. To reduce cost and packaging impact of integration of these technologies on an engine, the study presents a model-based development and optimization of an Integrated Turbogeneration, Electrification, and Supercharging (ITES) system that combines the enabling components into a single compact unit. In the first phase of this study, a H2-ICE and aftertreatment concept for a MY2027 7.7L medium heavy-duty on-road engine was developed and evaluated through 1D simulation. The concept was to convert a diesel engine by changing the cylinder head to implement a port fuel
Bustamante, Oscar, Correia Garcia, Bruno, Joshi, Satyum, Franke, Michael
Impact of Hydrothermal Aging and Chemical Poisoning on NOx Reduction Performance of SCR – A Simulation Study2026-01-03724/7/2026
Diesel aftertreatment systems continue to play a critical role in compliance of tailpipe criteria pollutant compliance for commercial transportation applications. Quantification of performance of the aftertreatment system in particular Selective Catalytic Reduction component as a function of aging is critical in ensuring real world tailpipe NOx standard for aged systems. As part of A2CAT-II consortium at Southwest research Institute this aspect of the production AT system was studied for different aging conditions using a set of DAAAC aged components. The performance of these aged components was quantified through a set of steady state reactor tests and transient ECTO burner lab tests that simulate on engine performance. The data was collected at 0, 33 and 100% equivalent aging conditions and this data was used to develop a GT suite-based model with a set of inhibition factors to simulate the loss of Ammonia Storage Capacity and reduced SCR reaction rates caused by thermal load and
Chundru, Venkata Rajesh, Sharp, Christopher, Gankov, Stanislav, Eakle, Scott
Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Biodiesel and Renewable Diesel in a 4-Stroke Locomotive Engine2026-01-03154/7/2026
Rail transportation in North America consumes over 4 billion gallons of diesel fuel [1]. This is raising energy security and supply chain resilience concerns. Adopting renewable or alternative fuels is a practical approach to reduce petroleum dependence and improve supply security. The objective of this paper is to investigate the combustion and emission characteristics of biodiesel and renewable diesel as drop-in fuels without engine modification. In this study, a single-cylinder, four-stroke locomotive engine was employed to investigate the combustion and emissions characteristics of four fuels: conventional diesel No. 2, plant-based biodiesel, animal-based biodiesel, and renewable diesel. The experimental campaign was carried out under both part-load and full-load operating conditions, with injection duration adjusted to achieve the targeted engine load and speed. Results indicate that both biodiesel fuels and renewable diesel deliver comparable peak in-cylinder pressure and brake
Ewphun, Pop-Paul, Biruduganti, Munidhar, El-Hannouny, Essam, Longman, Douglas, Fu, Xiao, Subramanya, Raghavendra
Reactivity Controlled Compression Ignition (RCCI) Combustion Engine Characteristics Fuelled with Diesel/Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) and Diesel/Methanol Fuel Pairs2026-01-03194/7/2026
Ultra-low oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) from reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI) combustion have motivated researchers to explore more about low temperature combustion (LTC) engines. In this study, a comparative analysis of combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of RCCI combustion fuelled with diesel/compressed natural gas (CNG) and methanol/diesel fuel pairs has been carried out with respect to baseline compression ignition (CI) combustion. All experiments were performed in a constant speed engine at four different engine loads. For RCCI combustion experiments, a constant premixed ratio (rp= 0.50) and 15% exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) were used. The results exhibited a significant reduction in NOx emissions and relatively smoother RCCI combustion compared to baseline CI combustion. RCCI mode combustion resulted in relatively superior engine performance compared to baseline CI combustion, especially at higher engine loads. A
Saikia, Bhargav, Kant, Akshay, Gupta, Abhishek, Singh, Akhilendra Pratap
Heavy Duty Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Emissions Development to Achieve Ultra-low NOx2026-01-03564/7/2026
This paper presents the emissions development of a heavy-duty hydrogen internal-combustion engine (H₂ICE) targeting ultra-low NOx with a design goal of 20 mg/hp-hr. The approach integrates advanced thermal management of the engine and aftertreatment, including engine out NOx management through air-fuel ratio controls and an electric heater to accelerate catalyst light-off and sustain activity at low-load/idle conditions. A diesel-derived aftertreatment system (ATS) is selected to maximize practicality and component commonality, and an integrated controls strategy spanning the engine and ATS is implemented to demonstrate ultra-low NOx capability over EPA certification cycles. The paper concludes with considerations for periodic SCR regeneration to ensure emission compliance.
Shakya, Bijesh, Xu, Hui, Yang, Zhao, Stetter, John
Advanced Multifunctional Catalysts for Emission Control in Hydrogen and Diesel Engines2026-01-03674/7/2026
As hydrogen internal combustion engines (H2-ICE) gain traction, optimizing exhaust aftertreatment technologies for nitrogen oxide (NOx) control has become increasingly critical. While selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems remain the primary approach for NOx mitigation, oxidation catalysts are also being explored to facilitate hydrogen oxidation and improve overall exhaust treatment efficiency. This work presents a multifunctional catalyst (MFC) concept that combines supported Pd and Cu-zeolite to enable simultaneous NOx reduction and hydrogen oxidation within a single catalytic unit. Preliminary results show that hydrogen oxidation on supported Pd occurs above 300 °C, while Cu-zeolite achieves nearly complete NOx conversion. Experiments on individual components indicate that supported Pd initiates ammonia oxidation only after hydrogen is depleted. In the presence of hydrogen, ammonia conversion remains below 20%, indicating that hydrogen availability suppresses ammonia oxidation
Danghyan, Vardan, Becker, Jan Martin, Hünnekes, Edgar, Patchett, Joseph
The Effects of Ethanol on Combustion in a Super-Lean-Burn Engine2026-01-03034/7/2026
To mitigate global warming, many countries are working toward carbon neutrality. Reducing CO₂ emissions from vehicles requires electrification technologies in hybrid and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs, PHEVs) and improving thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines (ICEs). Lean-burn combustion is one approach to improving ICE thermal efficiency. Biofuels and synthetic fuels can also reduce CO₂ emissions in existing vehicles. Ethanol, a bio-derived fuel, is widely used in varying contents worldwide, and its further utilization is anticipated. This study examines the effects of ethanol blending on emissions, thermal efficiency, knocking, and combustion speed in a super-lean-burn engine. Gasoline surrogates with varying ethanol contents were tested at an excess air ratio (λ) of 2.5. Higher ethanol content reduced nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions due to lower adiabatic flame temperature. Total hydrocarbon (THC) emissions measured by a Flame Ionization Detector (FID) showed a
Sugata, Kenji, Matsubara, Naoyoshi, Yamada, Ryota, Kitano, Koji
A Comparative Study of Combustion Stability Improvement via Prolonged Discharge Duration under Engine Idling Conditions2026-01-03084/7/2026
Proper control over combustion and emission characteristics under engine idling conditions remains to be challenging, especially when engine block temperature is low. A specially designed common-coil pack was demonstrated to improve engine idling stability in previous SAE congress. In this paper, the progress on further development of the ignition system was reported with improved system stability and enhanced ignition performances. The impact of the prolonged discharge duration on the combustion stability was investigated on a turbocharged 4-cylinder production engine, with special attention to cylinder-by-cylinder variation under cold and hot engine block temperatures. It is observed that a prolonged discharge duration can reduce both cycle-to-cycle and cylinder-to-cylinder variations significantly. Especially under cold engine block temperature conditions, prolonged discharge duration together with advanced spark timing can increase engine load and reduce carbon monoxide emissions
Yu, Xiao, Jin, Long, Leblanc, Simon, Ting, David, Zheng, Ming
Persistent Elevated Soot Emissions Induced by Clustered Stochastic Preignition Events2026-01-03144/7/2026
Stochastic Preignition (SPI) is an abnormal combustion phenomenon that can occur in spark-ignition engines particularly under high-load operation. SPI is characterized by uncontrolled initiation of combustion prior to spark discharge, an abnormal combustion process that can lead to severe knock events and significant engine damage. SPI has been associated with fuel properties, lubricant composition, and engine design and operation. In this work, a single-cylinder test engine with a dry-sump oil system was utilized to study the SPI response of E10 and E25 fuels with a range of Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP). An automated test procedure was employed, consisting of ten square-waved load profile segments, with each segment composed of 5 min of low-load operation followed by 25 min of sustained high-load operation. These tests were replicated across multiple days of testing including a lubricant triple flush between tests, and an online Fuel in Oil diagnostic measurement. Exhaust particulate
Splitter, Derek, Jatana, Gurneesh, DelVescovo, Dan, Douvry-Rabjeau, Julien, Fioroni, Gina, Chapman, Elana, Salyers, John
A Quantitative Approach for Mapping and Assessing Diesel Particulate Filter Regeneration Events in Diesel Engines2026-01-03774/7/2026
Regeneration of diesel particulate filters (DPFs) is crucial for maintaining the performance of diesel engines and minimizing harmful particulate matter (PM) emissions from exhaust. However, conventional regeneration strategies often suffer from incomplete soot removal and inefficient monitoring. These issues lead to increased exhaust back pressure, reducing engine efficiency, and potentially damaging the particulate filter. In this paper, an approach is proposed for mapping and quantifying the real-world DPF regeneration process for diesel engines complying with the stringent emission standards. We introduce a novel metric, the differential pressure drop percentage (DPDP), to detect regeneration events and quantify soot burn quality. The proposed method utilizes real-time sensor data obtained through the vehicle’s On-Board Diagnostics (OBD) system. The algorithm processes sensor data and robustly maps the regeneration quality. The performance of regeneration event detection and soot
Bagga, Harleen Kaur, Nagare, Mukund B., Patil, Bhushan D., Ravishankar, Hariharan, Melapudi, Vikram, Vanderheide, Craig, Patil, Abhijit
Effect of Passive Pre-Chamber Geometry on Performance and Emissions of a Single-Cylinder Natural Gas Large Bore Engine2026-01-03334/7/2026
The maritime industry is one of the most energy-intensive sectors, characterized by high fuel consumption and significant environmental impact. As global trade relies on shipping, the challenge of reducing pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions becomes ever more pressing. Natural gas (NG) is considered as a transitional fuel, capable of lowering CO₂ emissions by 20–30% compared to conventional marine fuels. However, to fully harness this potential, significant advances in combustion technology are necessary, particularly with ultra-lean combustion strategies. One of the most promising pathways is pre-chamber combustion, a solution that can simultaneously improve the efficiency and sustainability of NG marine engines. In this scenario, the passive pre-chamber geometry plays a key role, as it directly influences ignition behavior, combustion stability, and exhaust emissions. This work presents an experimental study conducted on a single-cylinder marine engine prototype, retrofitted from
Marchitto, Luca, Tornatore, Cinzia, Pennino, Vincenzo, Mariani PhD, Antonio, Beatrice, Carlo, Accurso, Francesco, Gorietti, Valentina, Pesce, Francesco, Giardino, Angelo, Vitti, Luciano
Impact of Hydrogen on Methane and Pollutant Emissions over Three-Way Catalysts with Natural Gas–Hydrogen Blends2026-01-03574/7/2026
Blending natural gas (NG) with hydrogen (H₂) can improve combustion and engine performance while potentially facilitating the catalytic conversion of methane and other pollutants, resulting in cleaner tailpipe emissions. This study evaluates the impact of H2 on the conversion of methane, CO, and NOx emissions on a commercial three-way catalyst (TWC) in a flow reactor using synthetic gas mixtures that simulate stoichiometric engine exhausts with NG or NG+H₂ combustion. The work examines whether, and how, the additional amount of H₂ in the exhaust stream affects the conversion efficiency of methane and other pollutants. Experiments were conducted with both degreened and aged catalysts under controlled conditions, systematically varying temperature, the air-to-fuel equivalence ratio (λ), and λ modulation. Test conditions covered λ values from 0.996 to 1.000 to represent nominally stoichiometric engine operation with different λ modulation amplitudes, as well as a range of temperatures to
Prikhodko, Vitaly, Wang, Min, Park, Yeonshil, Chen, Hai-Ying, Pihl, Josh
Sensorless Estimation of In-Cabin CO 2 Concentration for Model-Based Air Recirculation Control2026-01-01304/7/2026
This paper introduces a sensorless approach for data-driven modeling of in-cabin CO2 concentration to optimize air recirculation flap control without the need for a dedicated CO2 sensor. Elevated CO2 concentrations, resulting from passenger exhalation, can impair occupants’ cognitive function and comfort. Current state-of-the-art solutions rely either on time-based control strategies, which lack responsiveness to actual cabin conditions, or on direct CO2 measurements via sensors, which increase system complexity and costs. In contrast, the proposed approach aims to replicate the benefits of sensor-based control without requiring physical sensors. In this study, a model-based methodology is presented, utilizing empirical CO2 measurement data collected from real-world test drives at varying occupancies, fan stages, vehicle speeds, and flap positions. Data acquisition involves a multi-gas analyzer positioned within the passengers’ breathing zone under controlled operation of the vehicle’s
Stürmer, Michael, Geier, Bertram, Hofstetter, Martin, Hirz, Mario
A Pathway to Exceed 50% Indicated Thermal Efficiency for Gasoline Engines with Active Pre-Chamber2026-01-03004/7/2026
Research on high efficiency and low emission control strategies are crucial for addressing energy security and pollution challenges for combustion engines of vehicles. This paper investigates the effects of increasing the compression ratio and excess air coefficient (λ) in naturally aspirated engines via active pre-chamber technology, and further enhancing λ through the synergy of active pre-chamber with intake boosting and Miller cycle technology, on combustion efficiency and pollutant emissions. Experiments were conducted on a high-compression-ratio (up to 16.6) single-cylinder gasoline engine. Under natural aspiration, the effective compression ratio was raised via valve timing, while λ was increased using integrated passive and active pre-chamber systems. Under boosted conditions, intake flow was controlled via a flow meter, and λ was controlled via an active pre-chamber to analyze the λ distribution and thermal efficiency at high-efficiency operating points. Results indicate that
Deng, Jun, Li, Xiaoliang, Miao, Xinke, Xu, Bingxin, Zhang, JianQi, Li, Liguang
Technical Outlook on the Potential of HVO and Biodiesel Blends for Cleaner Combustion2026-01-03164/7/2026
The increasing need to decarbonize the transport sector is accelerating the adoption of renewable and low-carbon fuels such as Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) and biodiesel as sustainable substitutes for fossil diesel. These fuels are evaluated as drop-in solutions requiring no engine recalibration, enabling immediate GHG emission reduction in existing diesel fleets. This study experimentally investigates the combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of a turbocharged common-rail two-cylinder diesel engine (Kohler LWD 442 CRS) operated with conventional fossil Diesel, pure HVO (Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil), and an HVOB20 blend (80% HVO and 20% biodiesel produced from waste cooking oil and animal fats). Tests were carried out under steady-state conditions at the DIIEM Engine Laboratory of Roma Tre University. The analysis focused on in-cylinder pressure evolution, brake power, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), and both regulated and unregulated emissions. Regulated
Zaccai, Martina, Chiavola, Ornella, Palmieri, Fulvio, Verdoliva, Francesco
Effect of Renewable Fuel Blends on Particulate Emissions in Warm-Up Conditions in a GDI Engine2026-01-03044/7/2026
Renewable gasoline offers significant benefits in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In this study, five gasolines with different renewable hydrocarbon classes and varying distillation curves were taken to investigate their effect on particle number (PN) emissions in a spark-ignition GDI engine at 10 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) and 2000 rpm. The engine coolant temperature was varied from 90°C to 35°C to investigate the effect of fuel evaporation on soot formation. Injectors with various spray plume targets and start of injection (SOI) timing (300° and 260° bTDC) were used to assess how different gasolines affect engine performance and to determine engine calibration requirements. A simplified transient cycle examines how engine motoring influences PN emissions for test gasolines. A high-speed camera and endoscope were used to identify the sources of soot during fuel combustion. Simulations were done to assess the quality of fuel-air mixing in support of the
Muniappan, Krishnamoorthi, Dahlander, Petter, Helmantel, Ayolt, Alemahdi, Nika, Lehto, Kalle
CuSCR Catalysts Under H 2 -ICE Exhaust Gas Conditions2026-01-03614/7/2026
In the near to mid-term, hydrogen internal combustion engines (H2-ICE) can be a bridge technology for reducing carbon emissions. A few challenges anticipated under lean-burn H2-ICE operation are the significant drop in turbo-out temperatures, combined with higher water content, and the possible presence of unburned hydrogen in the exhaust, which could have a potential impact on performance and durability of the downstream exhaust aftertreatment system, particularly oxidation and SCR catalysts, as these conditions can suppress low-temperature oxidation activity, perturb Cu-site speciation and redox cycling in SCR catalysts, and exacerbate hydrothermal aging under sustained wet operation. This study examines the impact of excess water and residual hydrogen on Cu-SCR durability, active site chemistry, and stability for the case with and without an upstream oxidation catalyst, through aging tests at 450 °C and 550 °C. Changes in Cu redox cycles were assessed through site quantification
Kim, Mi-Young, Daya, Rohil, Kamasamudram, Krishna
Challenges to Ranking Diesel Fuels for NO x Emissions Using a Constant-Volume Combustion Chamber2026-01-03484/7/2026
The market is witnessing an unprecedented proliferation of low-emission fuel components. To effectively evaluate the suitability of these novel fuels for engine applications, fuel blenders and original equipment manufacturers require rapid and reliable assessment methodologies. Traditionally, such evaluations rely on comprehensive engine testing, which, while thorough, is both time-intensive and costly. In response to the growing diversity of emerging fuel options, this work aims to establish a streamlined screening approach capable of effectively replicating the outcomes of full-scale engine testing. We examined the use of a constant volume combustion chamber for the measurement of fuel effects on NOx emissions, with the goal of developing a method to rapidly screen or rank fuels in a small - volume experiment. A small amount of fuel was injected into air at 650°C and 20 bar, where it ignited and burned. The chamber was sampled post-combustion using a chemiluminescence NOx analyzer
Luecke, Jon, Rahimi, Mohammad, Mohamed, Samah, Naser, Nimal, Chausalkar, Abhijeet, McCormick, Robert
Optimal Vehicle Sampling for Fleet-Wide Emissions Monitoring using Submodular Maximization2026-01-02834/7/2026
This article addresses the problem of optimal vehicle sampling for fleet-wide in-use emissions monitoring, a necessity driven by the absence of direct emissions sensors in modern production vehicles and the variable impact of in-use changes and operational factors (mileage, time-in-service, workload) on emissions performance across a fleet. Recognizing that comprehensive fleet testing is impractical due to significant downtime and cost, we propose a novel approach to identify a small, yet optimally informative subset of vehicles for sampling. The proposed approach leverages submodular function maximization, a technique rooted in optimal experimental design, specifically D-optimal design, to maximize the determinant of the information matrix (e.g., of XTX, where X is the regressor/design matrix in the case of a linear in parameters model). This approach ensures that the collected data yields maximum information for refining and building accurate models for emissions changes. We compare
Zhang, Jiadi, Li, Xiao, Kolmanovsky, Ilya, Tsutsumi, Munecika, Nakada, Hayato
Comparison of Ammonia Emission Characteristics Between Different Gasoline Vehicles Equipped with Three-Way Catalysts2026-01-03744/7/2026
In recent years, the tightening of vehicle emission regulations has led to a decreasing trend in regulated pollutants such as NOₓ and CO. However, the emission of ammonia (NH₃), which is unintentionally generated during the purification process in three-way catalyst of gasoline vehicles, has become a growing concern. NH₃ emissions from vehicles can serve as a precursor to PM2.5 and have been reported to cause local roadside pollution. Therefore, there is a growing need for on-road testing to identify conditions under which NH₃ is likely to be emitted. Furthermore, since engine control strategies vary among vehicle types, it is desirable to consider differences in emission behavior across different models. In this study, on-road NH₃ emissions were measured for multiple vehicle models with different powertrains, and the effects of engine behaviors and engine operating duration across vehicles on NH₃ emissions were investigated. To analyze differences in NH₃ emission behavior among
Ashizawa, Keigo, Fukunaga, Chisato, Gao, Tianyi, Sato, Susumu
Enhancing LiDAR Performance under Fog with Adaptive Multi-Echo and Feature-Based Filtering2026-01-00114/7/2026
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) systems are essential for autonomous driving (AD) and advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS), providing accurate 3D perception of the surrounding environment. However, their performance significantly deteriorates under adverse weather conditions such as fog, where laser pulses are scattered by airborne particles, resulting in substantial noise and reduced ranging accuracy. This scattering effect makes it difficult to detect objects within or behind particulate matter, posing a serious challenge for reliable perception in real-world driving scenarios. To address this issue, we propose an algorithm that combines adaptive multi-echo signal processing with a feature-integrated, rule-based denoising framework to enhance LiDAR performance in noisy environments. The multi-echo approach selectively utilizes meaningful signal returns by evaluating both intensity and relative echo positions. Based on predefined rules, the algorithm identifies the echo most
Kaito, Seiya, Zheng, Shengchao, Fujioka, Ibuki, Beppu, Taro
Effect of Renewable Fuel Blends on Particulate Emissions under Medium Engine Load and Injector Coking Conditions in a GDI Engine2026-01-03014/7/2026
Renewable gasoline is blended with fossil gasoline as part of the effort to achieve zero net carbon emissions. This study examined how five gasoline fuels with different hydrocarbon compositions affect engine-out gaseous and particle number (PN) emissions. Gasolines F3 and F4 reduce GHG emissions by 54% and 35%, compared with fossil gasoline. The other three gasolines reduce GHG emissions by 4-9%. Tests were conducted on a single-cylinder GDI engine at 10-14 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) and 2000 rpm. The injector-tip coking behavior of the test fuels and the resulting PN emissions were also investigated at 10 bar IMEP. Spray plume targets and start-of-injection (SOI) timing were adjusted to examine how the test fuels affected PN emissions. An endoscope was used to identify the sources of soot during fuel combustion. The experimental results show that PN varies with gasoline composition and engine operating conditions. Aromatics and olefins contribute more to injector
Muniappan, Krishnamoorthi, Dahlander, Petter, Helmantel, Ayolt, Alemahdi, Nika, Lehto, Kalle
Passive Soot Regeneration Observations on a GPF Equipped Vehicle for PM Exhaust Emission Control2026-01-03664/7/2026
An on-road study has been conducted where a modern vehicle with a 3L turbocharged, PFDI gasoline engine was upfitted with appropriately sized uncoated GPFs for soot capture in a dual-bank exhaust line. The tested GPFs, whether clean or pre-loaded, were weighed to track their soot-load trends between representative real-world driving routes, where sensor data and exhaust temperature data was recorded. Thus, characterization of the passive soot regeneration process in the uncoated GPF was linked to elevated temperatures and vehicle drive cycles speeds.
Craig, Angus, Warkins, Jason
Characterisation of Particle Number and Size from a DI SI Engine Operating on Hydrogen versus Gasoline: Operating Sensitivities and Filtration Effects2026-01-03784/7/2026
Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines (H₂ICEs) offer the potential for near-zero carbon emissions. However, while nitrogen oxide (NOₓ) emissions have been extensively studied, particulate emissions, specifically particle number (PN), which are widely attributed to in the literature to lubricant oil pyrolysis and exacerbated by hydrogen’s short quenching distance, remain less well understood. This study investigates exhaust-gas particle emission characteristics from a spark-ignition, single-cylinder research engine based on MAHLE Powertrain’s downsizing engine combustion system. The work was carried out at Brunel University of London and compares gasoline and hydrogen direct-injection strategies (central versus side injection) across a wide range of operating conditions, including variations in engine speed, load, air–fuel ratio (λ), rail pressure, and spark timing. While previous studies have investigated hydrogen particle formation mechanisms under isolated operating conditions, the
Harrington, Anthony, Zaman, Zayne, Nickolaus, Chris, Zhao, Hua, Wang, Xinyan, Hall, Jonathan
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