Direct water injection inside the cylinder is a promising technique to enhance the upper load limit and reduce nitrogen oxides emissions. The advantage of water injection depends on the percentage of water evaporated inside the cylinder. The percentage of water evaporation depends upon the water injection parameters. Hence, a computational fluid dynamics analysis is done to determine the effect of water injection temperature, water spray cone angle, nozzle hole diameter, and number of nozzle holes on in-cylinder distribution and percentage of water evaporation, engine performance, and emissions of a homogeneous charge compression ignition engine. This analysis considers water injection temperature from 295 K to 385 K, water spray cone angle from 8° to 24°, nozzle hole diameter from 0.14 mm to 0.205 mm, and number of nozzle holes from 4 to 7. The computational fluid dynamics models used are validated from the available experimental data in the literature for the engine considered. Here

Naik, Bharat, Mallikarjuna, J. M.

Individual Inflatable Life Preserver

AS1354 (Current)

11/21/2024

This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) provides the minimum design and performance requirements for individual, inflatable life preservers, divided into six categories: “Adult,” “Adult-Child,” “Child,” “Infant-Small Child,” “Adult-Child-Infant-Small Child,” and “Demonstration

S-9A Safety Equipment and Survival Systems Committee

Development of a Non-Catalytic JP-8 Reformer

2024-01-3708

11/15/2024

ABSTRACT Advanced Cooling Technologies, Inc. (ACT) has been developing a Swiss-roll type, non-catalytic, thermal partial oxidation JP-8 reformer. The principle is using effective heat recirculation to increase the partial oxidation reaction temperature, which maximizes the H2 and CO yield without using catalyst. The gas phase reaction eliminates catalyst-associated issues, such as poisoning, coking, degradation, etc. Since the process uses only air and JP-8 fuel as the reactants, and is self-sustained (no external energy input), minimum balance-of-plant is required. One challenge of this reforming technology is the “out-of-center” reaction. Due to being highly preheated, the fuel and air mixture from the inlet is auto-ignited before entering the designed center reaction zone. The out-of-center reaction causes low reforming efficiency and potentially damages the inlet channel walls. In the previous study, direct injection of JP-8 fuel into the center reaction zone is able to avoid the

Chen, Chien-Hua, Crawmer, Joel, Richard, Brad, Pearlman, Howard, Ronney, Paul

Ultra-High Power Density Hybrid Power Systems and APUs

2024-01-3271

11/15/2024

Abstract Military vehicles need prime power and auxiliary power systems with ever-increasing power density and specific power, as well as greater fuel economy, lower noise, lower exhaust emissions and greater stealth. D-STAR technologies, funded by the Army, DARPA, Marine Corps / Navy and others, are enabling a new generation of modified-HCCI (homogenous charge compression ignition) engines that simultaneously offer power density and specific power of racing-quality gasoline engines, operation on JP-8 and other heavy fuels, as well as the other desirable qualities mentioned above. D-STAR Engineering has recently developed a prototype for a 1 kW man-portable heavy-fuel hybrid power system, that has been successfully tested by the ONR / USMC, and has demonstrated the power core for a 2 kW hybrid power system (for Army TARDEC). D-STAR is also developing, based on funding from the Army, a 500 Watt hybrid power system, and has designs for hybrid heavy fuel power systems and APUs for 10 and

Dev, S. Paul

Rapid Production of Hydrogen-Rich Syngas Using a Non-Thermal Plasma Fuel Reformer

2024-01-3706

11/15/2024

ABSTRACT Non-thermal plasma-assisted partial oxidation of hydrocarbon fuels (including military logistic fuels) is considered with the intent to rapidly produce hydrogen-rich syngas with the least amount of electrical power. The syngas produced can be used to fuel quiet solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) auxiliary generators, be added to engines or combustors to extend lean operation (decrease NOx and increase efficiency) or be further reformed to increase hydrogen yield (via water-gas shift and gas cleanup) for low-temperature fuel cells. Unlike catalytic fuel reformers that suffer from adverse issues involving catalyst deactivation (coking and tolerance to sulfur) and require a warmup period dependent on the thermal mass of the catalyst, plasma reforming offers a non-catalytic approach for rapid “on-demand” hydrogen-rich syngas production (quick startup). Plasma fuel reforming is also fuel flexible and can be applied to applications needing dynamic control of a varying amount of syngas

Pearlman, Howard, Schwartz, Brian, Demydovych, Max, Chen, Chien-Hua, Rabinovich, Alexander, Shenoy, Shridhar, Fridman, Alexander

Sensitivity Studies on Particle Emissions and Transport Around a Moving Vehicle

2024-01-3299

11/15/2024

Abstract The paper will provide representative simulations of particle transport around a vehicle in order to investigate some of the issues related to the accurate prediction of emission and transport of particles induced by a moving vehicle with a transverse blowing wind. Special treatments in boundary conditions and wall law function are discussed and applied to maintain the shape of atmospheric boundary layer wind velocity profile. For the vehicle, we adopt the geometry of a Nissan Pathfinder SUV to study the effects of vehicle emission and transport around a moving vehicle. We perform a set of simulations to better understand the modeling requirements for dust emissions including a sensitivity study to determine the modeling parameters that are most important for accurate modeling of dust generation and transport. In particular, we study the effects of location, size distribution, and initial velocity distributions of the modeled dust emissions on predicted downwind atmospheric

Tong, Xiaoling, Luke, Edward A., Smith, Robert E.

Tailoring of Acoustic, Smoke and Thermal Signatures from Diesel-Powered Unmanned Ground Vehicles

2024-01-3274

11/15/2024

ABSTRACT This work investigates non-traditional operating modes of a diesel engine that allow the tailoring of acoustic, smoke and thermal signatures for unique unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) military applications. A production, air-cooled single-cylinder diesel engine having a mechanical fuel injection system has been retrofit with a flexible common-rail injection and electronic control system. The experimental domain explores the effects of the injection timing and pressure on the engine’s acoustic, smoke and heat signatures through analysis of the in-cylinder combustion processes. Surface maps of loudness, exhaust temperature and exhaust smoke density over the range of fuel injection strategies are presented, illustrating the degree to which each signature may be controlled. Trade-offs between the signature modes are presented and discussed. The results demonstrate the possibility of providing military UGVs the capability to tailor their acoustic, infrared and smoke signatures

Jansons, Marcis, Khaira, Sukhbir, Bryzik, Walter

The Effect Mechanism of Grain Size with Nanoscale and Microscale on Physical and Chemical Properties of Cu/SSZ-13 SCR Catalyst

2024-01-4305

11/05/2024

Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technology is currently one of the most effective methods to reduce NOx emissions for engine. NH3-SCR technology is also considered to be the most promising hydrogen engine after-treatment device. This paper used Cu-SSZ-13, which is widely commercially available, as the research object, and explored the relationship between micron and nanoscale grain sizes through experimental methods such as BET, XRD, NH3-TPD, UV-vis-DRS and activity testing, the influence mechanism of micron-scale and nano-scale grain size on the morphology and properties of Cu/SSZ-13 catalyst was explored. The results show that the fresh nanoscale 900F sample has higher low-temperature NOx conversion efficiency, while the micron-scale 1800F sample has poor low-temperature activity and better high-temperature activity. This is closely related to its morphological characteristics, adsorption and desorption characteristics and dual-site properties. The specific surface area and total

Chen, Yajuan, Lou, Diming, Zhang, Yunhua, Tan, Piqiang, Fang, Liang, Hu, Zhiyuan

Experimental and Numerical Investigations on the Effect of Urea Pulse Injection Strategies to Reduce NOx Emission in Urea-SCR Catalysts

2024-01-4304

11/05/2024

A major challenge for auto industries is reducing NOx and other exhaust gas emissions to meet stringent Euro 7 emission regulations. A urea Selective Catalyst Reduction (SCR) after-treatment system (ATS) commonly uses upstream urea water injection to reduce NOx from the engine exhaust gas. The NOx emission conversion rate in ATSs is high for high exhaust gas temperatures but substantially low for temperatures below 200°C. This study aims to improve the NOx conversion rate using urea pulse injection in a mass-production 2.2 L diesel engine equipped with an SCR ATS operated under low exhaust gas temperature. The engine experimental results show that, under 200°C exhaust temperature and 3.73x104 h-1 gross hourly space velocity (SV), the NOx conversion rate can be improved by 5% using 5-sec ON and 12-sec OFF (denoted as 5/12 s) urea pulse supply compared to the constant supply under time-averaged 1.0 urea equivalence ratio. It is experimentally observed that the urea pulse supply’s

Yoshida, Fuka, Takahashi, Hideaki, Kotani, Yuya, Zu, Qiuyue, Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin

Quantifying Environmental and Health Impacts of Conventional Diesel and Methane Diesel RCCI Engine Emissions: A Numerical Analysis

2024-01-4307

11/05/2024

A reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI) engine offers ultralow soot and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission in addition to higher thermal efficiency than diesel or compression ignition (CI) engines. However, the higher emissions of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) from RCCI engines pose a significant challenge that hinders their adoption in the future automotive sector. Additionally, HC includes several hydrocarbons that harm human health and the environment. This study aims to minimize HC and CO formation and emissions by implementing different injection strategies, including adjustments to spray angle configuration, injection timing, and fuel premixing ratio. Additionally, the study examines how different injection strategies affect the spatial and temporal distribution of HC and CO inside the combustion chamber. To achieve this objective, a numerical investigation is conducted on a single-cylinder diesel engine modified to operate in RCCI mode, utilizing a

Yadav, Neeraj Kumar, Chandel, Amit Singh, Maurya, Rakesh Kumar, Padhee, Srikant Sekhar

Effect of Fuel Chemical Structure on Soot Formation in Sustainable Aviation Fuels

2024-01-4310

11/05/2024

Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs) offer great promises towards decarbonizing the aviation sector. Due to the high safety standards and global scale of the aviation industry, SAFs pose challenges to aircraft engines and combustion processes, which must be thoroughly understood. Soot emissions from aircrafts play a crucial role, acting as ice nuclei and contributing to the formation of contrail cirrus clouds, which, in turn, may account for a substantial portion of the net radiative climate forcing. This study focuses on utilizing detailed kinetic simulations and soot modeling to investigate soot particle generation in aero-engines operating on SAFs. Differences in soot yield were investigated for different fuel components, including n-alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatics. A 0-D simulation framework was developed and utilized in conjunction with advanced soot models to predict and assess soot processes under conditions relevant to aero-engine combustion. The simulations

Yi, Junghwa, Manin, Julien, Wan, Kevin, Lopez Pintor, Dario, Nguyen, Tuan, Dempsey, Adam

Experimental Investigation on Combustion Strategy of Light Duty GCI Fueled High Reactivity Gasoline Fuel

2024-01-4282

11/05/2024

Diesel engines are largely used as power units with high fuel efficiency. Conversely, they have an adverse impact on the environment and human health as they emit high NOx and particulate matter emissions. As more stringent regulations for emissions are introduced, low temperature combustion strategy such as Gasoline Compression Ignition evolved and demonstrated the potential to reduce the particulate matter and NOx emissions by operating engines under a Partially Premixed Combustion mode. Therefore, a 0.55 mm single cylinder engine (Gasoline Direct Injection), was tested over range of engine loads with constant speed (1500 rpm) using RON80 without oxygenates. Different operating parameters such as injection, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) etc. were used to control combustion phasing and mixture stratifications. At low loads, rebreathing of hot exhaust gas produced low levels of NOx and smoke emissions. It reduced NOx by 60% and smoke levels below 0.20 FSN when it is coupled with low

Qahtani, Yasser Al, Sellnau, Mark, Yu, Xin

Effects of Fuel Distillation Characteristics on the Performance of Catalyst-Heating Operation in a Medium-Duty Off-Road Diesel Engine

2024-01-4278

11/05/2024

Catalyst heating operation in compression-ignition engines is critical to ensure rapid light-off of exhaust catalysts during cold-start. This is typically achieved by using late post injections for increased exhaust enthalpy, which retardability is constrained by acceptable CO and unburned hydrocarbons emissions, since they are directly emitted through the tailpipe due to the inactivity of the oxidation catalyst at these conditions. Post-injection retardability has shown to be affected by the cetane number of the fuel, but it is unclear how other fuel properties affect the ability to retard the combustion. This study aims to understand the impact of the distillation characteristics of the fuel on the performance of catalyst heating operation and on post-injection retardability. In this study, experiments are performed in a single-cylinder medium-duty diesel engine fueled with three full boiling-range diesel fuels with different distillation curves using a five-injection strategy (two

Lee, Sanguk, Lopez Pintor, Dario, Cho, Seokwon, Busch, Stephen

Effects of Fuels Properties on Combustion and Emissions Characteristics of Light Duty GCI Engine

2024-01-4279

11/05/2024

Our research group developed Gasoline Compression Ignition (GCI) fuel matrix based on the fuel properties, specifications and fuel sources in an effort to standardize the GCI fuel. This study attempts to experimentally validate the standardized GCI fuels to comply with the operational regimes of GCI engine. Two of the formulated GCI fuels (GCI7 and GCI8) with varying physical and chemical properties, and composition were investigated in a single cylinder compression ignition (CI) engine. In addition to fuel effects, the engine variables were parametrically varied at low (3 bar IMEP) and medium (7 bar IMEP) load conditions. At low loads, the fuel chemical effects played a crucial role in governing the combustion while physical effect had a negligible impact. Due to lower cetane number of GCI8 fuel, combustion is predominantly premixed for GCI8 fuel but GCI7 fuel shows a more pronounced diffusion combustion phase. The low temperature heat release (LTHR) is evident only for GCI8 fuel due

Qahtani, Yasser Al, Raman, Vallinayagam, Viollet, Yoann, Alhajhouje, Abdullah, Cenker, Emre, AlRamadan, Abdullah

Ionization Based Sensor for Early Detection of Thermal Runaway Events in Lithium-Ion Batteries

2024-01-4326

11/05/2024

Lithium-ion and lithium-metal battery cells are susceptible to a phenomenon known as thermal runaway under failure conditions. Given their widespread use in applications such as electric vehicles, portable electronics, and energy storage systems, early detection of thermal runaway is crucial for ensuring the safety of these battery systems. Thermal runaway entails a rapid escalation in battery cell temperature accompanied by the emission of flammable lithium ions, particulates, electrons, hydrocarbons, and hydrogen gases. These gases pose a significant ignition risk, potentially leading to fires and endangering occupants and bystanders. Therefore, the timely detection of thermal runaway is paramount for ensuring safety in proximity to such battery systems. Traditionally, thermal runaway sensors comprise intricate assemblies of pressure, temperature, and gas sensors, strategically positioned at the pressure relief valve of battery modules. Calibration of all sensors is essential to

Mansour, Youssef

Combustion and Emissions Comparison between a Diesel and a Dimethyl Ether (DME) Off-Highway Compression Ignition Engine

2024-01-2700

11/05/2024

Dimethyl ether (DME) is a promising substitute for diesel as a fuel in heavy-duty engines. This article presents the comparison between a diesel- and a DME-powered compression ignition engine. The diesel-powered version was initially characterised at a range of operating points before being converted to operate on DME. This was achieved by replacing fuel system components with bespoke DME-compatible engine parts. An off-board fuel pressurisation and conditioning system was designed to replace the existing high-pressure fuel pump, while maintaining all other engine hardware and components. Engine behaviour, in terms of combustion and emissions on both fuels was examined. Firstly, the effect of varying recirculated exhaust gas (EGR) concentration at constant excess air ratio, combustion phasing (CA50) and equal fuel delivery rate (by energy input) was interrogated. DME combustion was significantly faster, as combustion duration was reduced by around 30%, in some cases, when comparing to

Apostolou, Christos, Elliott, Thomas, Rutledge, John, Butcher, Daniel, Long, Edward, Spencer, Adrian

Emissions Analysis for a Hydrogen-Fueled Low-Pressure-Ratio Split-Cycle Engine

2024-01-4312

11/05/2024

Recuperated low-pressure-ratio split-cycle engines represent a promising engine configuration for applications like transportation and stand-alone power generation by offering a potential efficiency as high as 60%. However, it can be challenging to achieve the stringent NOx emission standard, such as Euro 6 limit of 0.4 gNOx/kWh, due to the exhaust cylinder high intake temperature. This paper presents experimental investigation of hydrogen-air combustion NOx emissions for such engines for the first time. Experiments are carried out using a simplified constant-volume combustion chamber with glow-plug ignition. Two fuel injection techniques are performed: direct injection and injection via a novel convergent-divergent injector. For the direct injection scenario, NOx levels are unsatisfactory with respect to the Euro 6 standards over a range of operating temperatures from 200 °C to 550 °C. Recorded NOx levels can reach twice the permissible limit which necessitates the implementation of

Eldakamawy, Mohamed Hossam, Picard, Mathieu

Prediction of WLTC Mode Drive Fuel Consumption for Vehicles Running on Blended Gasoline

2024-01-4291

11/05/2024

It is becoming increasingly clear that research into alternative fuels, including drop-in fuels, is essential for the continued survival of the internal combustion engine. In this study, the authors have evaluated olefinic and oxygenated fuels as drop-in fuels using a single-cylinder engine and considering fuel characteristic parameters. The authors have assessed thermal efficiency by adding the EGR amount from 0 to the maximum value that allows stable combustion at the theoretical air-fuel ratio. Next, we attempted to predict fuel efficiency for three types of passenger cars (Japanese small K-car N/A, K-car T/C, and Series-HV) by changing the fuels. We created a model in OpenModelica to estimate fuel efficiency during WLTC driving. The results indicated that fuel economy could potentially be improved by adding an olefin fuel that burns stably even with a large amount of EGR and an oxygen fuel whose octane number increases. It was observed that the fuel economy improvement rate was

Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Kuboyama, Tatsuya, Kawakami, Sota, Wang, Zhiyuan

Emission Characteristics of TCR Diesel Fuels in Comparison to Diesel Fuels Derived from other Sources

2024-01-4289

11/05/2024

In this work we demonstrate the influence of different refined TCR refining diesel fuels on emission, power and efficiency in comparison to reference Diesel fuel (homologation fuel for Euro 6 emission testing), hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) and a blend of poly(oxymethylene)dimethyl ether (OME3) with reference Diesel. The emission characteristics of such TCR fuels used in a production type Diesel engine with modern common rail system has up to now not been tested. The comparison was performed at an engine test bench equipped with a Hatz 4H50 TIC direct injection common rail Diesel engine. For different engine operation points exhaust gas emissions and particulate matters were measured and the results analyzed

Seeger, Jan, Taschek, Marco

The Effect on Soot Handling and Friction of Selected Dispersant Additives for Next Generation Transportation Sector Oils

2024-01-4301

11/05/2024

Next generation lubricating oils for transportation sector require higher durability in operation, compatibility with new engine technologies and aftertreatment devices as well as high fuel economy (FE), thus contributing to the reduction of CO2 emissions, both in passenger cars and heavy-duty vehicles. The current paper aims to highlight the impact of dispersant main properties in preventing sludge and deposits formation on engine surfaces. The effect on frictional properties of lubricating oils through a multi-step activity was evaluated. Oil contamination by soot is a big concern not only for diesel but also for new generation of direct injection gasoline (GDI) engines. The presence of soot leads to oil thickening that heavily impacts on friction coefficient thus enhancing the role of dispersant in controlling soot and related viscosity increase and, indirectly, fuel consumption for long running periods. After an introduction on dispersant technologies, the focus of the paper moves

Lattuada, Marco, Manni, Massimo, Notari, Marcello, Ferraro, Giovanni, Fratini, Emiliano

Catalyzed Gasoline Particulate Filter Performance from Fresh to Full Useful Life

2024-01-4311

11/05/2024

The gasoline particulate filter (GPF) represents a durable solution for particulate emissions control in light-duty gasoline-fueled vehicles. It is also seen as a viable technology in North America to meet the upcoming US EPA tailpipe emission regulation, the proposed “Multipollutant Rule for Model Year 2027”. The goal of this study was to track the evolution of tailpipe particulate emissions of a modern GTDI light duty vehicle under typical North American mileage accumulation; from a fresh state to 4000-mile, and finally to its full useful life of 150,000-miles. For this purpose, a production TWC + GPF after-treatment system was installed in place of the T3B85 TWC-only system. Chassis dyno emissions testing was performed at the pre-determined mileage points with on-road driving conducted for the necessary mileage accumulation. This report will show the outstanding filtration durability and enhanced particulate control and of the current GPF technology all the way to 150,000 miles for

Craig, Angus, Warkins, Jason, Beattie, James, Nipunage, Sanket, Moser, David, Day, Ryan, Banker, Vonda

Ensemble Machine Learning Techniques for Particulate Emissions Estimation from a Highly Boosted GDI Engine Fuelled by Different Gasoline Blends

2024-01-4306

11/05/2024

Light-duty vehicle emissions regulations worldwide impose stringent limits on particulate matter (PM) emissions, necessitating accurate modelling and prediction of particulate emissions across a range of sizes (as low as 10 nm). It has been shown that the decision tree-based ensemble machine learning technique known as Random Forest can accurately predict particle size, concentration, and accumulation mode geometric standard deviation (GSD) for particulate emission diameters as low as 23 nm from a highly boosted gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine operating on a single fuel, while also offering insights into the underlying factors of emissions production because of the interpretable nature of decision trees. This work builds on the prior Random Forest research as its basis and further investigates the relative performance of five decision tree-based machine learning techniques in predicting these particulate emission parameters and extends the work to 10 nm particles. In addition to

Stangierska, Marta, Bajwa, Abdullah, Lewis, Andrew, Akehurst, Sam, Turner, James, Leach, Felix

Effect of Premixing Ratio on the Deterministic Characteristics of Combustion Dynamics Butanol-Diesel RCCI Engine

2024-01-4292

11/05/2024

The rising demand for vehicles has increased CO and HC emissions, worsening air quality and contributing to climate change, key issues under the clean development mechanism and UN SDG 13: Climate Action. Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition (RCCI) offers a promising solution to reduce PM and NOx while maintaining fuel efficiency. However, the cyclic variation of the RCCI engine remains an underexplored area in control strategies, necessitating further research for optimization in line with sustainable development goals. This study explores the impact of premixing ratios on RCCI engines fueled with butanol and the nature of cyclic variation to know the controllability. Tests were conducted on a single-cylinder diesel engine at 1500 rpm and constant engine load. The experiments reveal that increasing the premixing ratio from 45% to 60% decreases the heat release rate by 15%, Pmax by 10%, and IMEP by 12%. Recurrence Quantitative Analysis (RQA) confirmed strong deterministic

Yadav, Ratnesh Kumar, Mohite, Avadhoot Abaso, Maurya, Rakesh Kumar

Operation of a Compression-Ignition Kerosene Aviation Engine with Sustainable Aviation Fuel: An Experimental Study

2024-01-6005

10/28/2024

The aviation industry is undergoing environmental scrutiny due to its significant greenhouse gas emissions. Sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) are a vital solution for reducing carbon emissions and pollutants, aligning with global efforts for carbon-neutral aviation growth. SAFs can be produced via multiple production routes from different feedstock, resulting in significantly different physical and chemical fuel properties. Their suitability in a compression-ignition (CI) aircraft engine was evaluated through test bench investigations at TU Wien - Institute of Powertrain and Automotive Technology in partnership with Austro Engine. ASTM D7566-certified fuels like Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO), Fischer–Tropsch–Kerosene (FTK) or Alcohol to Jet (AtJ), but also an oxygen containing biodiesel have been tested extensively. Gaseous emissions, soot emissions, indication measurement data, efficiencies, and the like were acquired and comprehensively analyzed for engine operation with different

Kleissner, Florian, Hofmann, Peter

Critical Mass: The One Thing You Need to Know About Green Cars

R-57510/23/2024

In an era where climate change dominates global discourse, Felix Leach and Nick Molden dive deep into the complexity of vehicle emissions in their groundbreaking new book. Building on the insights from Felix's previous work, Racing Toward Zero, this new release confronts the bewildering landscape of automotive pollution with a clear, rigorous approach: what one piece of information can best describe the environmental impact of cars? Our digital age bombards us with information, yet meaningful understanding often eludes us, particularly when it comes to climate issues like road vehicle emissions. As simple solutions to such a complex problem remain elusive, Leach and Molden advocate for a sophisticated, yet accessible perspective. They propose a radical simplification of how we consider the environmental impact of cars and explore the multifaceted impacts of various vehicle powertrains, pushing beyond CO2 emissions to address broader environmental and societal concerns. The authors

Leach, Felix, Molden, Nick

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