The aviation industry is undergoing environmental scrutiny due to its significant greenhouse gas emissions. Sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) are a vital solution for reducing carbon emissions and pollutants, aligning with global efforts for carbon-neutral aviation growth. SAFs can be produced via multiple production routes from different feedstock, resulting in significantly different physical and chemical fuel properties. Their suitability in a compression-ignition (CI) aircraft engine was evaluated through test bench investigations at TU Wien - Institute of Powertrain and Automotive Technology in partnership with Austro Engine. ASTM D7566-certified fuels like Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO), Fischer–Tropsch–Kerosene (FTK) or Alcohol to Jet (AtJ), but also an oxygen containing biodiesel have been tested extensively. Gaseous emissions, soot emissions, indication measurement data, efficiencies, and the like were acquired and comprehensively analyzed for engine operation with different

Kleissner, Florian, Hofmann, Peter

Fiber Optic Cleaning

AIR6031 (Current)

10/08/2024

This document is intended for connectors typically found on aerospace platforms and ground support equipment. The document provides the reasons for proper fiber optic cleaning, an in-depth discussion of available cleaning methods, materials, packaging, safety, and environmental concerns. Applicable personnel include: Managers Designers Engineers Technicians Trainers/Instructors Third Party Maintenance Agencies Quality Personnel Purchasing Shipping/Receiving Production

AS-3 Fiber Optics and Applied Photonics Committee

In-Service Fiber Optic Inspection, Evaluation and Cleaning, Best Practices, Physical Contact Termini

ARP6283 (Current)

10/07/2024

This document provides recommended best practice methods and processes for the in-service inspection, evaluation and cleaning of all physical contact (PC) fiber optic interconnect components (termini, alignment sleeves and connectors), test equipment and test leads for maintainers qualified to the approved aerospace fiber optic training courses developed in accordance with ARP5602 or ARINC807. This document also provides a decision-making disposition flowchart to determine whether the fiber optic components are acceptable for operation. For definitions of individual component parts refer to ARP5061

AS-3 Fiber Optics and Applied Photonics Committee

Influence of Lube Oil and Fuel Additives on the Particulate Raw Emission Behavior of Gasoline Engines

04-18-01-0004

10/03/2024

The aim of this work was to investigate the influence of different combinations of engine oil and oil additive as well as additivated and unadditivated fuel on particulate emissions in gasoline engines. To accomplish this, load, speed, and type of oil injection were varied on a single-cylinder engine, and the influence on particle number concentration and size distribution were evaluated. The tests were supplemented by an optical investigation of their in-cylinder soot formation. The investigation of fuel additives showed no significant differences compared to the reference fuel without additives. However, in the case of oil additives, detergents led to a significant increase in the number of particles in the <20 nm range. This effect occurred when used as both a single additive and a component in the standard engine oil. While viscosity improvers also lead to a measurable, but less pronounced, increase in the particle number concentration, no significant influence can be determined

Böhmeke, Christian, Heinz, Lukas, Wagner, Uwe, Koch, Thomas

Investigation of Plug-In Hybrid Light Duty Commercial Vehicle in Real-World Conditions by Simulation

2024-24-0016

09/18/2024

Light commercial vehicles are an indispensable element for the transport of people and the delivery of goods, especially on extra-urban and long-distance routes. With a view to sustainable mobility, it is necessary to think about hybridizing these vehicles to reduce the fuel consumption as well as greenhouse gas emissions and particulate matter. These types of vehicles are generally powered by diesel and travel many kilometers a day. On the other hand, the use of light commercial vehicles in battery electric vehicle (BEV) configuration has already been started but is not receiving widespread recognition. In this panorama, starting from a study already developed for the hybridization of a plug-in light commercial vehicle in Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) condition, the simulation analysis has been extended to the plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) operating in real driving emission conditions (RDE). In particular, using Advisor software, a vehicle has been simulated in

Mancaruso, Ezio, Meccariello, Giovanni, Rossetti, Salvatore

Study of Particle Emissions Due to Brake Wear: Impact of Braking Profiles and Transport Efficiency of the Test System

2024-24-0041

09/18/2024

Vehicular emissions represent the main responsible of the deterioration of air quality in the urban area. In the attempt to reduce both gaseous emissions and particulates from internal combustion engines, increasingly stricter regulations were introduced from European Union in the last years. These limits have led to the improvement of emissions-reduction technologies as well as the vehicle hybridization and electrification. In this scenario, vehicle emissions due to other sources rather than the propulsion systems, such as brakes and tires, have taken a significant weight. In this regard, European Commission has proposed the introduction in the next EURO 7 standard of the first-ever limit on the particles emitted by vehicle brakes. This study is devoted to improving the knowledge on the particle characteristics due to the brake wear by means of laboratory experiments thus providing support to the definition of the new standards. An experimental layout was realized consisting in a box

Catapano, Francesco, Di Iorio, Silvana, Magno, Agnese, Vaglieco, Bianca Maria

Procedure for the Calculation of Non-Volatile Particulate Matter Sampling and Measurement System Losses and System Loss Correction Factors

ARP6481A (Current)

09/09/2024

This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) details the recommended process for correcting measured non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) mass and number data for particle losses in the sampling and measurement system specified in ARP6320B. This technique is only recommended for conditions where both nvPM mass and number concentration measurements are in the valid measurement ranges of the instruments that are discussed in the tool limitations section. This ARP also supplies an Excel software tool with documentation to automate the process. The body of this ARP details the recommended calculation method, uncertainties, and limitations of the system loss correction factors. It explains, in detail, the required inputs and outputs from the supplied Excel software tool (developed on Windows 7, Excel 2016). Also included are: The Excel correction tools (refer to Attachments I and V). Installation instructions for a Windows-based computer (refer to Attachment II). A user technical manual

E-31P Particulate Matter Committee

Investigation on Brake-Drag-Optimization on Vehicle-Level

2024-01-3037

09/08/2024

Brake drag in disc brakes occurs during the off-brake-phase, when the brake is not applied but friction contacts between brake disc and pads persist. First and foremost, the resulting drag torque increases energy consumption, where a few Newton meters can have a significant impact on the crucial factor – range – of battery-electric-vehicles. Moreover, brake wear is accelerated in conjunction with enlarged taper-wear of the pads. Additional wear can also imply increased brake particle emissions which are going to be limited by upcoming regulations due to their potential health risk. In this light different countermeasures aim to create and maintain a sufficient air gap between brake disc and pads when the brake is released to avoid residual friction contacts. Among others these include optimization of piston retraction by adjusting the seal-grooves and integrating pad springs into the caliper to push the pads back. State of the art to analyze the effectiveness of countermeasures are

Huchtkoetter, Philipp, Neubeck, Jens, Wagner, Andreas

Enhancing Brake Performance: FNC-Smart-ONC® Technology to Address Corrosion Challenges and Extend the Durability of GCI Rotors

2024-01-3044

09/08/2024

The most used rotor material is gray cast iron (GCI), known for its susceptibility to corrosion. The impact of corrosion on the braking system is paramount, affecting both braking performance and the emission of particulate matter. The issue becomes more severe, especially when the brakes are left stationary or unused for extended durations in humid conditions, as seen with electric vehicles (EVs). Brake disc corrosion amplifies the risk of corrosion adhesion between contacting surfaces, leading to substantial damage, increased quantity and mass of non-exhaust particulate emissions, and decreased braking effectiveness. In addition, brake pads' friction material plays a crucial role in generating the necessary stopping force, creating friction that transforms kinetic energy into heat. However, heightened pressure during braking elevates rotor temperatures, contributing to the degradation of the friction material. This degradation manifests in decreased mechanical strength, heightened

Nousir, Saadia, Winter, Karl-Michael

Time for a Model Change - Inorganic Friction Materials

2024-01-3042

09/08/2024

This paper’s aim is to explain alternative friction lining formulations based on inorganic polymer binders for the production of new, future-proof brake friction materials. The aspects of high-temperature stability in the fading tests of the AKM- and AMS tests, as well as the reduction in PM10 emissions compared to classic organic friction materials, make these materials particularly fascinating for future use. Additionally, the energy savings potential of this type of friction lining could be of particular importance when sustainability considerations further influence our development activities in friction brake related applications

Milczarek, Roman Paul, Wittig, Niels

Brake Particle Emission Influenced by Grooved Disc Friction Surfaces with or without a Hard Coating

2024-01-3030

09/08/2024

Many performance sport passenger vehicles use drilled or grooved cast iron brake rotors for a better braking performance or a cosmetic reason. Such brake rotors would unfortunately cause more brake dust emission, appearing with dirty wheel rims. To better understand the effects of such brake rotors on particle emission, a pin-on-disc tribometer with two particle emission measurement devices was used to monitor and collect the emitted airborne particles. The first device was an aerodynamic particle sizer, which is capable of measuring particles ranging from 0.5 to 20 μm. The second device was a condensation particle counter, which measures and collects particles from 4 nm to 3 μm. The testing samples were scaled-down brake discs (100 mm in diameter) against low-metallic brake pads. Two machined surface conditions (plain and grooved) with uncoated or ceramic-coated friction surfaces were selected for the investigation. The results showed that the grooved friction surface led to a higher

Cai, Ran, Nie, Xueyuan, Lyu, Yezhe, Wahlstrom, Jens

Influences of Lubricant Viscosity and Metallic Content on Diesel Soot Oxidation Reactivity

2024-01-5084

08/23/2024

This study examined the effects of lubricant viscosity and metallic content on the oxidation reactivity of diesel particles. In the first part, the factors affecting thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) experiments was discussed and confirmed. The influences of initial soot mass, heating rate, and airflow rate on soot oxidation rate and experimental reproducibility were investigated to develop an optimized TGA method. On the basis of these experiments, an initial soot mass of 2.0 mg, airflow rate of 4.8 L/h, and heating rate of 2.5°C/h were used for all subsequent TGA tests. It could be found that the TGA experiments had high repeatability, and the differences were less than 0.1%. In the second part, a four-cylinder diesel engine was lubricated with seven kinds of lubricant with different viscosity and metallic content by the use of viscosity index improver (VII), antioxidant and corrosion inhibitor (ACI), and ashless dispersant (AD). Particle samples were subjected to TGA to test their

Meng, Hao, Yang, He, Zhang, Weili, Xing, Jianqiang, Xu, Yan, Wang, Yajun

Comparing Physical and Chemical Properties of Soot from Laboratory Tests and Heavy-Duty Engines Used in Field Operations

04-18-01-0002

08/02/2024

Morphology, nanostructure, and composition of soot extracted from the oil sump of different heavy-duty engines operated under dynamometer and field conditions were investigated. Soot characteristics were then compared to a carbon black sample. Soot was extracted from used oil for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis. Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses were also performed to assess soot composition. Two soot classes, I and II, can be identified based on their appearance under the TEM. Carbon black and class I particles have graphitic structures, while class II samples have a more sludge-like appearance. Similar aggregate sizes were observed among the samples. In all samples, the primary particle size distribution ranges from 16 nm to 22 nm in terms of mean diameter. Differences in the length and tortuosity of the graphitic fringes between the samples were observed. The findings suggest a greater degree of interaction between

Pacino, Andrea, La Rocca, Antonino, Cairns, Alasdair, Fay, Michael W., Smith, Joshua, Berryman, Jacqueline, Fowell, Mark

Procedure for the Continuous Sampling and Measurement of Nonvolatile Particulate Matter Emissions from Aircraft Turbine Engines

ARP6320B (Current)

07/10/2024

This ARP describes recommended sampling conditions, instrumentation, and procedures for the measurement of nonvolatile particle number and mass concentrations from the exhaust of aircraft gas turbine engines. Procedures are included to estimate sampling system loss performance. This ARP is not intended for in-flight testing, nor does it apply to engines operating in the afterburning mode. This ARP is intended as a guide toward standard practice and is subject to change to keep pace with experience and technical advances

E-31P Particulate Matter Committee

Experimental Assessment of Drop-In Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) in a Medium-Duty B7 Diesel Engine for Low-Emissions Marine Applications

2024-37-0023

06/12/2024

Nowadays, the push for more ecological low-carbon propulsion systems is high in all mobility sectors, including the recreational or light-commercial boating, where propulsion is usually provided by internal combustion engines derived from road applications. In this work, the effects of replacing conventional fossil-derived B7 diesel with Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) were experimentally investigated in a modern Medium-Duty Diesel Engine, using the advanced biofuel as ‘drop-in’ and testing according to the ISO 8178 marine standard. The compounded results showed significant benefits in terms of NOx, Particulate Matter, mass fuel consumption and especially Well-to-Wake (WtW) CO2 thanks to the inner properties of the aromatic-free, hydrogen-rich renewable fuel, with no impact on the engine power and minimal deterioration of the volumetric fuel economy

Cosseddu, Cinzia, Spedicato, Tonio, Pennazio, Davide, Vassallo, Alberto, Fittavolini, Corrado

Effects of Renewable Fuels on the Performance and Emissions of a Small Displacement Diesel Engine for Urban Mobility

2024-37-0019

06/12/2024

In the frame of growing concerns over climate change and health, renewable fuels can make an important contribution to decarbonizing the transport sector. The current work presents the results of an investigation into the impact of renewable fuels on the combustion and emissions of a turbocharged compression-ignition internal combustion engine. An experimental study was undertaken and the engine settings were not modified to account for the fuel's chemical and physical properties, to analyze the performance of the fuel as a potential drop-in alternative fuel. Three fuels were tested: mineral diesel, a blend of it with waste cooking oil biodiesel and a hydrogenated diesel. The analysis of the emissions at engine exhaust highlights that hydrogenated fuel is cleaner, reducing CO, total hydrocarbon emissions, particulate matter and NOx

Chiavola, Ornella, Matijošius, Jonas, Palmieri, Fulvio, Recco, Erasmo

Effect of Injector Type and Intake Boosting on Combustion, Performance, and Emission Characteristics of a Spray-Guided Gasoline Direct Injection Engine—A Computational Fluid Dynamics Study

03-17-06-0044

06/06/2024

In general, GDI engines operate with stratified mixtures at part-load conditions enabling increased fuel economy with high power output, however, with a compensation of increased soot emissions at part-load conditions. This is mainly due to improper in-cylinder mixing of air and fuel leading to a sharp decrease in gradient of reactant destruction term and heat release rate (HRR), resulting in flame quenching. The type of fuel injector and engine operating conditions play a significant role in the in-cylinder mixture formation. Therefore, in this study, a CFD analysis is utilized to compare the effect of stratified mixture combustion with multi-hole solid-cone and hollow-cone injectors on the performance and emission characteristics of a spray-guided GDI engine. The equivalence ratio (ϕ) from 0.6 to 0.8 with the constant engine speed of 2000 rev/min is considered. For both injectors, the fuel injection pressure of 200 bar is used with 60° spray-cone angles. For lean boosting conditions

Kumar, Rahul, Bhaduri, Sreetam, Mallikarjuna, J.M.

Exploring the Mechanical Properties of Modified Pistachio Shell Particulate Composites through Experimental Investigation

2024-01-5052

04/29/2024

The present study focuses on the impacts of pistachio shell particles (2–10 wt.%) on the mechanical and microstructures properties of Al–Cu–Mg/pistachio shell particulate composites. To inspect the impact of the pistachio shell powder content with Al–Cu–Mg alloys, the experimentation was carried out with different alloy samples with constant copper (Cu) and magnesium (Mg) content. Parameters such as hardness, tensile strength with yield strength and % elongation, impact energy, and microstructure were analyzed. The outcomes demonstrated that the uniform dissemination of the pistachio shell particles with the microstructure of Al–Cu–Mg/pistachio shell composite particulates is the central point liable for the enhancement of the mechanical properties. Incorporating pistachio shell particles, up to 10 wt.%, is a cost-effective reinforcement in the production of metal matrix composites for various manufacturing applications

Om Prakash, S., Srinivasan, V., Selvaraj, Dinesh Kirupha, Nandhakumar, S., Dharmaraj, T.B.

Catalytic Converter—An Integrated Approach to Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emission

2024-01-5047

04/22/2024

Vehicle emissions, which are rising alarmingly quickly, are a significant contributor to the air pollution that results. Incomplete combustion, which results in the release of chemicals including carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter, is the main cause of pollutants from vehicle emissions. However, CO2 contributes more than the aforementioned pollutants combined. Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas that vehicles emit. For every liter of gasoline burned by vehicles, around 2,347 grams of carbon dioxide are released. Therefore, it’s important to reduce vehicle emissions of carbon dioxide. The ability of materials like zeolite and silicon dioxide to absorb CO2 is outstanding. These substances transform CO2 into their own non-polluting carbonate molecules. Zeolite, silicon dioxide, and calcium oxide are combined to form the scrubbing material in a ratio based on their increasing adsorption propensities, along with enough bentonite sand to bind the mixture

Saravanakumar, L., Arunprasad, S.

Enhancing Ducted Fuel Injection Simulations: Assessment of RANS Turbulence Models Using LES Data

2024-01-2689

04/09/2024

Compression ignition engine-based transportation is nowadays looking for cleaner combustion solutions. Among them, ducted fuel injection (DFI) is emerging as a cutting-edge technology due to its potential to drastically curtail engine-out soot emissions. Although the DFI capability to abate soot formation has been demonstrated both in constant-volume and optical engine conditions, its optimization and understanding is still needed for its exploitation on series production engines. For this purpose, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) coupled with low-cost turbulence models, like RANS, can be a powerful tool, especially in the industrial context. However, it is often challenging to obtain reliable RANS-based CFD simulations, especially due to the high dependence of the various state-of-the-art turbulence models on the case study. In this scenario, the present work proposes a comparative analysis of the outcome of several RANS turbulence models against high-fidelity large eddy simulation

Segatori, Cristiano, Piano, Andrea, Peiretti Paradisi, Benedetta, Millo, Federico, Bianco, Andrea

Improved Coated Gasoline Particulate Filters for China 7 and US Tier 4 Legislations

2024-01-2387

04/09/2024

The impending emission regulations in both China (CN7) and the United States (Tier 4) are set to impose more stringent emission limits on hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM). CN7 places particular emphasis on reducing particulate number (PN) thresholds, while the forthcoming United States Tier 4 legislation is primarily concerned with reducing the allowable particulate matter (PM) to an assumed limit of 0.5 mg/mile. Given the more stringent constraints on both PN and PM emissions, the development of enhanced aftertreatment solutions becomes imperative to comply with these new regulatory demands. Coated Gasoline Particulate Filters (cGPFs) play a pivotal role as essential components for effective PN and PM abatement. These filters are typically deployed in one of two configurations: close-coupled to the turbocharger positioned downstream of a primary three-way catalyst (TWC) or located further downstream of the exhaust system in an

Schoenhaber, Jan, Kawashima, Shota, Gotthardt, Meike, Schühle, Johannes

Effect of Residence Time on Morphology and Nanostructure of Soot in Laminar Ethylene and Ammonia-Ethylene Flames

2024-01-2385

04/09/2024

As one of the pollutants that cannot be ignored, soot has a great impact on human health, environment, and energy conversion. In this investigation, the effect of residence time (25ms, 35ms, and 45ms) and ammonia on morphology and nanostructure of soot in laminar ethylene flames has been studied under atmospheric conditions and different flame heights (15 mm and 30 mm). The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) are used to obtain morphology of aggregates and nanostructure of primary particles, respectively. In addition, to analyze the nanostructure of the particles, an analysis program is built based on MATLAB software, which is able to obtain the fringe separation distance, fringe length, and fringe tortuosity parameters of primary particles, and has been verified by the multilayer graphene interlayer distance. It is found that soot is mainly composed of tens of primary particles in the form of tree-like at HAB (height

Qian, Weiwei, Shi, Xiuyong, Li, Song

NH ₃ and H ₂ Impact on Combustion and Emission Characteristics of i-C ₈ H ₁₈ Flame under Premixed and Diffusion Conditions

2024-01-2370

04/09/2024

Soot and carbon dioxide released from internal combustion engines became the key issues when using fossil fuels. Ammonia and hydrogen having zero-carbon species can reduce carbon-related emissions and enhance the reliance on renewable fuels. A comparative study of ammonia and hydrogen impact on combustion and emission characteristics of iso-octane flame was performed under different combustion conditions. Arrhenius equation, soot surface reactions, and modified kinetic mechanism were used to study the flame growth, soot nucleation, and surface growth rates. The results show that hydrogen increased the temperature about 20.74 K and 59.30 K, whereas ammonia reduced it about 82.17 K and 66.03 K at premixed and counterflow conditions, respectively. The flame speed of iso-octane was increased 43.83 cm/s by hydrogen and decreased 34.36 cm/s by ammonia. A reduction in CH2O caused a reduction in CO and CO2 emissions. Ammonia impact on CO reduction was stronger than hydrogen under premixed and

Akram, M. Zuhaib, Rashid, Haroon, Deng, Yangbo, Aziz, Muhammad, Zhu, Qiao, Akram, M. Waqar

Life Cycle Assessment of a State-of-the-Art Diesel powered Engine and Preliminary Evaluation of its Conversion into a Novel Hydrogen powered Engine

2024-01-2442

04/09/2024

This paper is part of a broader research project aiming at studying, designing, and prototyping a hydrogen-powered internal combustion engine to achieve fast market implementation, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and sustainable costs. The ability to provide a fast market implementation is linked to the fact that the technological solution would exploit the existing production chain of internal combustion engines. Regarding the technological point of view, the hydrogen engine will be a monofuel engine re-designed based on a diesel-powered engine. The redesign involves specific modifications to critical subsystems, including combustion systems, injection, ignition, exhaust gas recirculation, and exhaust gas aftertreatment. Notably, adaptations include the customization of the cylinder head for controlled ignition, optimization of camshaft profiles, and evaluation of the intake system. The implementation incorporates additive manufacturing for the production of new intake manifolds and

Malagrinò, Gianfranco, Accardo, Antonella, Costantino, Trentalessandro, Pensato, Michele, Spessa, Ezio

Investigation of Injection Strategy on Combustion and Emission Characteristics in a GDI Engine with a 50 MPa Injection System

2024-01-2381

04/09/2024

A DMS500 engine exhaust particle size spectrometer was employed to characterize the effects of injection strategies on particulate emissions from a turbocharged gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine. The effects of operating parameters (injection pressure, secondary injection ratio and secondary injection end time) on particle diameter distribution and particle number density of emission were investigated. The experimental result indicates that the split injection can suppress the knocking tendency at higher engine loads. The combustion is improved, and the fuel consumption is significantly reduced, avoiding the increase in fuel pump energy consumption caused by the 50 MPa fuel injection system, but the delayed injection increases particulate matter emissions. In terms of particulate matter emissions, increasing the excess air ratio, advancing direct fuel injection, increasing fuel injection pressure, and delaying ignition timing will all lead to the reduction of the particulate

Wang, Tong, Lou, Diming, Zhao, Yinghua, Zhang, Yunhua, Tan, Piqiang, Hu, Zhiyuan, Fang, Liang

Kinetic Model Development for Selective Catalytic Converter Integrated Particulate Filters

2024-01-2631

04/09/2024

To meet the stringent NOx and particulate emissions requirements of Euro 6 and China 6 standard, Selective Catalyst Reduction (SCR) catalyst integrated with wall flow particulate filter (SCR-DPF) has been found to be an effective solution for the exhaust aftertreatment systems of diesel engines. NOx is reduced by ammonia generated from urea injection while the filter effectively traps and burns the particulate matter periodically in a process called regeneration. The engine control unit (ECU) effectively manages urea injection quantity, timing and soot burning frequency for the stable functioning of the SCR-DPF without impacting drivability. To control the NOx reduction and particulate regeneration process, the control unit uses lookup tables generated from extensive hardware testing to get the current soot load and NOx slip information of SCR-DPF as a function of main exhaust state variables. In the current work, engine dynamometer tests were conducted on a SCR-DPF at different

Kannan, Rajesh, Paramadhayalan, Thiyagarajan, Mital, Rahul, Gustafson, Erik, Edwards, David

Methanol Mixing-Controlled Compression Ignition with Ignition Enhancer for Off-Road Engine Operation

2024-01-2701

04/09/2024

Methanol is one of the most promising fuels for the decarbonization of the off-road and transportation sectors. Although methanol is typically seen as an alternative fuel for spark ignition engines, mixing-controlled compression ignition (MCCI) combustion is typically preferred in most off-road and medium-and heavy-duty applications due to its high reliability, durability and high-efficiency. In this paper, the potential of using ignition enhancers to enable methanol MCCI combustion was investigated. Methanol was blended with 2-ethylhexyl nitrate (EHN) and experiments were performed in a single-cylinder production-like diesel research engine, which has a displacement volume of 0.83 L and compression ratio of 16:1. The effect of EHN has been evaluated with three different levels (3%vol, 5%vol, and 7%vol) under low- and part-load conditions. The injection timing has been swept to find the stable injection window for each EHN level and load. With the highest EHN level, better combustion

Lee, Sanguk, Lopez Pintor, Dario, Cho, Seokwon

Impact of Deposit Control Additives on Particulate Emissions and Fuel Consumption in Pre-used Vehicles with Gasoline Direct Injection Engines

2024-01-2127

04/09/2024

Injector nozzle deposits can have a profound effect on particulate emissions from vehicles fitted with Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) engines. Several recent publications acknowledge the benefits of using Deposit Control Additives (DCA) to maintain or restore injector cleanliness and in turn minimise particulates, but others claim that high levels of DCA could have detrimental effects due to the direct contribution of DCA to particulates, that outweigh the benefits of injector cleanliness. Much of the aforementioned work was conducted in laboratory scenarios with model fuels. In this investigation a fleet of 7 used GDI vehicles were taken from the field to determine the net impact of DCAs on particulates in real-world scenarios. The vehicles tested comprised a range of vehicles from different manufacturers that were certified to Euro 5 and Euro 6 emissions standards. In a first phase, the vehicles were fuelled on EN228 compliant gasoline treated with a high dose of DCA and were driven

Mitchell, Benji, Krueger-Venus, Jens, Chahal, Jasprit, Buttery, Ian, Williams, Rod, Cracknell, Roger, Pery, Luke, Aradi, Allen

Ducted Fuel Injection: Confirmed Re-entrainment Hypothesis

2024-01-2885

04/09/2024

Testing of ducted fuel injection (DFI) in a single-cylinder engine with production-like hardware previously showed that adding a duct structure increased soot emissions at the full load, rated speed operating point [1]. The authors hypothesized that the DFI flame, which travels faster than a conventional diesel combustion (CDC) flame, and has a shorter distance to travel, was being re-entrained into the on-going fuel injection around the lift-off length (LOL), thus reducing air entrainment into the on-going injection. The engine operating condition and the engine combustion chamber geometry were duplicated in a constant pressure vessel. The experimental setup used a 3D piston section combined with a glass fire deck allowing for a comparison between a CDC flame and a DFI flame via high-speed imaging. CH* imaging of the 3D piston profile view clearly confirmed the re-entrainment hypothesis presented in the previous engine work. This finding suggests that a DFI retrofit for this

Svensson, Kenth, Fitzgerald, Russell, Martin, Glen

From Idle to 7.5 Bar IMEPg – Using Fuel Stratification to Control LTGC with Next-Cycle Capability

2024-01-2821

04/09/2024

Low-temperature gasoline combustion (LTGC) engines can provide high efficiencies with very low NOx and soot emissions, but rapid control of the combustion timing remains a challenge. Partial Fuel Stratification (PFS) was demonstrated to be an effective approach to control combustion in LTGC engines. PFS is produced by a double-direct injection (DI) strategy with most of the fuel injected early in the cycle and the remainder of the fuel supplied by a second injection at a variable time during the compression stroke to vary the amount of stratification. Adjusting the stratification changes the combustion phasing, and this can be done on cycle-to-cycle basis by adjusting the injection timing. In this paper, the ability of PFS to control the combustion during wide engine load sweeps is assessed for regular gasoline and gasoline doped with 2-ethylhexyl nitrate (EHN). For PFS, the load control range is limited by combustion instability and poor combustion efficiency at low loads. However

Lopez Pintor, Dario, MacDonald, James, Lee, Sanguk

Evaluation of Uncoated Gasoline Particulate Filter Performance for US EPA MY27+ Particulate Mass Emissions Regulation

2024-01-2383

04/09/2024

The gasoline particulate filter (GPF) represents a practical solution for particulate emissions control in light-duty gasoline-fueled vehicles. It is also seen as an essential technology in North America to meet the upcoming US EPA tailpipe emission regulation, as proposed in the “Multi-pollutant Rule for Model Year 2027”. The goal of this study was to introduce advanced, uncoated GPF products and measure their particulate mass (PM) reduction performance within the existing US EPA FTP vehicle testing procedures, as detailed in Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) part 1066. Various state-of-the-art GPF products were characterized for their microstructure properties with lab-bench checks for pressure drop and filtration efficiency, then pre-conditioned with an EPA-recommended 1500 mile on-road break-in, and finally were tested on an AWD vehicle chassis-dyno emissions test cell at both 25°C and -7°C ambient conditions. A modern, T3B70, GTDI light-duty truck served as the test vehicle

Craig, Angus, Warkins, Jason, Wassouf, Bassel, Beall, Douglas, Banker, Vonda, Madaffari Jr, Dominick

Next Generations of Gasoline Particulate Filters for Catalyzed Applications

2024-01-2384

04/09/2024

Gasoline particulate filters (GPF) have become a standard aftertreatment component in Europe, China, and since recently, India, where particulate emissions are based on a particle number (PN) standard. The anticipated evolution of regulations in these regions towards future EU7, CN7, and BS7 standards further enhances the needs with respect to the filtration capabilities of the GPFs used. Emission performance has to be met over a broader range in particle size, counting particles down to 10nm, and over a broader range of boundary conditions. The requirements with respect to pressure drop, aiming for as low as possible, and durability remain similar or are also enhanced further. To address these future needs new filter technologies have been developed. New technologies for uncatalyzed GPF applications have been introduced in our previous publications. In this contribution we will describe novel Generation 2 and 3 technologies of Corning’s high porosity Corning® DuraTrap® GC HP filters

Boger, Thorsten, Rose, Dominik, Li, Chunbo, Chijiiwa, Ryoko, Remy, Christophe, Alam, Rabeka

Analysis of Dual Fuel Hydrogen/Diesel Combustion Varying Diesel and Hydrogen Injection Parameters in a Single Cylinder Research Engine

2024-01-2363

04/09/2024

In the perspective of a reduction of emissions and a rapid decarbonisation, especially for compression ignition engines, hydrogen plays a decisive role. The dual fuel technology is perfectly suited to the use of hydrogen, a fuel characterized by great energy potential. In fact, replacing, at the same energy content, the fossil fuel with a totally carbon free one, a significant reduction of the greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and total hydrocarbon, as well as of the particulate matter can be obtained. The dual fuel with indirect injection of gaseous fuel in the intake manifold, involves the problem of hydrogen autoignition. In order to avoid this difficulty, the optimal conditions for the injection of the incoming mixture into the cylinder were experimentally investigated. All combustion processes are carried out on a research engine with optical access. The engine speed has is set at 1500 rpm, while the EGR valve is deactivated. The purpose of this work is to research the minimum

Mancaruso, Ezio, Rossetti, Salvatore, Vaglieco, Bianca Maria

Simulation Study of Sparked-Spray Induced Combustion at Ultra-Lean Conditions in a GDI Engine

2024-01-2107

04/09/2024

Ultra-lean combustion of GDI engine could achieve higher thermal efficiency and lower NOx emissions, but it also faces challenges such as ignition difficulties and low-speed flame propagation. In this paper, the sparked-spray is proposed as a novel ignition method, which employs the spark to ignite the fuel spray by the cooperative timing control of in-cylinder fuel injection and spark ignition and form a jet flame. Then the jet flame fronts propagate in the ultra-lean premixed mixture in the cylinder. This combustion mode is named Sparked-Spray Induced Combustion (SSIC) in this paper. Based on a 3-cylinder 1.0L GDI engine, a 3D simulation model is established in the CONVERGE to study the effects of ignition strategy, compression ratio, and injection timing on SSIC with a global equivalence ratio of 0.50. The results show it is easier to form the jet flame when sparking at the spray front because the fuel has better atomization and lower turbulent kinetic energy at the spray front. The

Li, Minglong, Long, Quan, Yu, Wangchao, Hu, Zongjie, Yin, Yong, Qin, Xiongjie, Li, Liguang

Investigation on Combustion Stability, Unregulated and Particle Emissions in RCCI Engine

2024-01-2088

04/09/2024

This study experimentally investigates the combustion stability in RCCI engines along with the gaseous (regulated and unregulated) and particle emissions. Multifractal analysis is used to characterize the cyclic combustion variations in the combustion parameters (such as IMEP, CA50, and THR). This analysis aims to investigate the multifractal characteristics of the RCCI combustion mode near the misfiring limit. The investigation is carried out on a modified single-cylinder diesel engine to operate in RCCI combustion mode.The RCCI combustion mode is tested for different diesel injection timing (SOI) at fixed engine speed (1500rpm) and load (1.5 bar BMEP). The particle number characteristics and gaseous emissions are measured using a differential mobility spectrometer (DMS500) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) along with Flame Ionizing Detector (FID), respectively. The results indicate that the NOx emissions decrease with advanced SOI while the Total Hydro-Carbon (THC

Yadav, Ratnesh Kumar, Saxena, Mohit Raj, Maurya, Rakesh Kumar

Cost-Effective D-DPF Design of Aftertreatment System for Non-Road Mobile Machinery China Stage IV

2024-01-2136

04/09/2024

Since Non-Road Mobile Machinery (NRMM) China stage IV legislation has been implemented from 2022, some engines within maximum rated power between 37 to 560 kW are required for gaseous emissions, particulate matter (PM) and particulate number (PN) control, evaluated over testing cycle of Non-Road Transient Cycle (NRTC) and Non-Road Steady Cycle (NRSC). The pollutants from diesel engines, widely used in NRMM applications, can be controlled using aftertreatment systems which are comprised of a diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) and a diesel particulate filter (DPF), or optionally a selective catalytic reduction (SCR). In this paper, a compact D-DPF design is introduced and discussed on application in harvesters, tractors, and forklifts. Because harvesters have higher exhaust gas temperature than other applications, more passive regeneration behaviors were observed. Subsequently, a compact design of DOC catalyst on DPF (D-DPF) was studied, in other words is to coat DOC catalyst on DPF. For a

Chen, Jian, He, Chiyi, Wang, Xuhua, Liu, Yi, Yu, Lei

Performance Comparison Analysis between Biodiesel and Diesel over a Commercial DOC Catalyst

2024-01-2707

04/09/2024

Biodiesel is a promising alternative to traditional diesel fuel due to its similar combustion properties to diesel and lower carbon emissions on a well-to-wheel basis. However, combusting biodiesel still generates hydrocarbon (HC), CO, NOx and particulate matter (PM) emissions, similar to those from traditional diesel fuel usage. Therefore, aftertreatment systems will be required to reduce these emissions to meet increasingly stringent emission regulations to minimize the impact to the environment. Diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC) are widely used in modern aftertreatment systems to convert unburned HC and CO, to partially convert NO to NO2 to enhance downstream selective catalytic reaction (SCR) catalyst efficiency via fast SCR and to periodically clean-up DPF via controlled soot oxidation. In this work, we focus on the performance difference between biodiesel and diesel over a commercial DOC catalyst to identify the knowledge gap during the transition from diesel fuel to biodiesel

Xi, Yuanzhou, Ottinger, Nathan, Liu, Z. Gerald

Diesel Fuel-Fired Heater Emissions from a Battery Electric Transit Bus in Real-World Conditions

2024-01-5011

02/01/2024

Battery electric transit buses sold in Canada generally include a fuel-fired diesel auxiliary heater for cabin heating in cold weather. This report details a test project, performed in collaboration with OC Transpo, to capture and quantify the emissions from such a fuel-fired heater (FFH) installed on a New Flyer XE40 battery electric transit bus from OC Transpo’s fleet in Ottawa, Canada. The FFH was tested while the bus was both stationary and being driven on-road in cold conditions. The results include the emissions rates of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and methane, and soot. Additionally, total particulate matter results were obtained during stationary testing. The results of stationary testing were compared to the California Air Resources Board and European Union standards for FFH emissions, even though these standards do not apply directly to buses operated outside of these jurisdictions. During stationary testing, average emissions of carbon

Humphries, Kieran, Rashid, Hussein, Araji, Fadi

Machine Learning-Based Modeling and Predictive Control of Combustion Phasing and Load in a Dual-Fuel Low-Temperature Combustion Engine

03-17-04-0030

01/18/2024

Reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI) engine is an innovative dual-fuel strategy, which uses two fuels with different reactivity and physical properties to achieve low-temperature combustion, resulting in reduced emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx), particulate matter, and improved fuel efficiency at part-load engine operating conditions compared to conventional diesel engines. However, RCCI operation at high loads poses challenges due to the premixed nature of RCCI combustion. Furthermore, precise controls of indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) and CA50 combustion phasing (crank angle corresponding to 50% of cumulative heat release) are crucial for drivability, fuel conversion efficiency, and combustion stability of an RCCI engine. Real-time manipulation of fuel injection timing and premix ratio (PR) can maintain optimal combustion conditions to track the desired load and combustion phasing while keeping maximum pressure rise rate (MPRR) within acceptable limits. In

Punasiya, Mohit, Sarangi, Asish Kumar

Optimized Soot Monitoring by Ammonia Injection in a sDPF System for BS6.2 Application

2024-26-0141

01/16/2024

The BS6 norms (phase 1) were implemented in India from April 1, 2020 and replaced the previous BS4 norms. Phase 2 of the BS6 norms, which came into effect on April 1, 2023. In accordance with the regulation requirement, effective performance of after treatment systems like DPF and SCR demands critical hardware implementation and robust monitoring strategies in the extended operating zone. Effective OBD monitoring of DPF, which is common to all BSVI certified vehicles, such that the defined strategy detects the presence or absence of the component is imperative. A robust monitoring strategy is developed to detect the presence of the DPF in the real world incorporating the worst possible driving conditions including idling, and irrespective of other environmental factors subject to a location or terrain. The differential pressure sensor across the DPF is used to study the actual pressure drop across the DPF. Additional for BS 6 (phase 2) PM sensor becomes an important part to keep the

Sharma, Prashant, Hareesh, Sangaraju, V, Suryanarayanan, Palanisamy, Krishnaraj, P, Jagdesan, Rathiya, Akash

A Predictive Approach to Estimate Tyre Wear Characteristics

2024-26-0313

01/16/2024

Tyre wear is of significant concern for the automotive industry due to multiple reasons including vehicle performance, safety, economy, environmental (particulate matter emission) aspects, etc. Therefore, ensuring enhanced tyre tread wear resistance is one of the most important criteria while developing a new tyre. Tyre wear phenomenon is influenced by various factors, such as road conditions, driving habits, maintenance practices and tyre design parameters (construction, geometry and material). The wear assessment through the classical field-testing approach consumes significant time and resources. Therefore, digital predictive tools are very useful in predicting wear characteristics at the early stage of the tyre development process. In this study, an attempt has been made to capture the impact of tread geometry, tread material, vehicle geometry, vehicle speed, test track geometry, etc. on tyre wear. A commercial finite element code, Abaqus was utilized for tyre structural simulation

Bedi, Vinay Kumar, Rana, Kashif, Mahata, Pundarik, Ghosh, Prasenjit, Mukhopadhyay, Rabindra

A Holistic Approach of DPF Calibration to Address Various Off Highway Field Implements

2024-26-0069

01/16/2024

Off-highway segment (OHW) is to meet the new emission norms of CEV BS V/Trem-V legislations. For new emission norms numerous development and validation activities need to be carried out to achieve the results with in a very short development time. The conventional Mechanical Fuel Injection system is being replaced with Common Rail Injection system and with advanced Exhaust Gas after treatment system like DOC, DPF & SCR etc. The development approach of all work package at engine/vehicle level requires huge efforts in terms of calibration and validation to meet the emission standards of various end implements specific to the Indian market. Diesel Particulate Filter has become a necessary After treatment system in OHW segments to meet new emission legislation especially for the reduction of particulate matter, wherein DPF helps in accumulation of the particulate matter. At a certain period of engine running, Particulate matter will be loaded in the DPF to its maximum extent which in turn

Thavasu, RajKumar, C, Mohana, N, Ramprasad, My, Raghu, Madhukar, Prahlad

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