Browse Topic: Hydrocarbons

Items (2,971)

Effect of Fuel Chemical Structure on Soot Formation in Sustainable Aviation Fuels

2024-01-4310

11/05/2024

Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs) offer great promises towards decarbonizing the aviation sector. Due to the high safety standards and global scale of the aviation industry, SAFs pose challenges to aircraft engines and combustion processes, which must be thoroughly understood. Soot emissions from aircrafts play a crucial role, acting as ice nuclei and contributing to the formation of contrail cirrus clouds, which, in turn, may account for a substantial portion of the net radiative climate forcing. This study focuses on utilizing detailed kinetic simulations and soot modeling to investigate soot particle generation in aero-engines operating on SAFs. Differences in soot yield were investigated for different fuel components, including n-alkanes, iso-alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatics. A 0-D simulation framework was developed and utilized in conjunction with advanced soot models to predict and assess soot processes under conditions relevant to aero-engine combustion. The simulations

Yi, Junghwa, Manin, Julien, Wan, Kevin, Lopez Pintor, Dario, Nguyen, Tuan, Dempsey, Adam

Effects of Fuel Distillation Characteristics on the Performance of Catalyst-Heating Operation in a Medium-Duty Off-Road Diesel Engine

2024-01-4278

11/05/2024

Catalyst heating operation in compression-ignition engines is critical to ensure rapid light-off of exhaust catalysts during cold-start. This is typically achieved by using late post injections for increased exhaust enthalpy, which retardability is constrained by acceptable CO and unburned hydrocarbons emissions, since they are directly emitted through the tailpipe due to the inactivity of the oxidation catalyst at these conditions. Post-injection retardability has shown to be affected by the cetane number of the fuel, but it is unclear how other fuel properties affect the ability to retard the combustion. This study aims to understand the impact of the distillation characteristics of the fuel on the performance of catalyst heating operation and on post-injection retardability. In this study, experiments are performed in a single-cylinder medium-duty diesel engine fueled with three full boiling-range diesel fuels with different distillation curves using a five-injection strategy (two

Lee, Sanguk, Lopez Pintor, Dario, Cho, Seokwon, Busch, Stephen

Ionization Based Sensor for Early Detection of Thermal Runaway Events in Lithium-Ion Batteries

2024-01-4326

11/05/2024

Lithium-ion and lithium-metal battery cells are susceptible to a phenomenon known as thermal runaway under failure conditions. Given their widespread use in applications such as electric vehicles, portable electronics, and energy storage systems, early detection of thermal runaway is crucial for ensuring the safety of these battery systems. Thermal runaway entails a rapid escalation in battery cell temperature accompanied by the emission of flammable lithium ions, particulates, electrons, hydrocarbons, and hydrogen gases. These gases pose a significant ignition risk, potentially leading to fires and endangering occupants and bystanders. Therefore, the timely detection of thermal runaway is paramount for ensuring safety in proximity to such battery systems. Traditionally, thermal runaway sensors comprise intricate assemblies of pressure, temperature, and gas sensors, strategically positioned at the pressure relief valve of battery modules. Calibration of all sensors is essential to

Mansour, Youssef

HYPERFIRE: A Sub-Scale Non-Reacting Flow Test System

TBMG-51750

10/01/2024

Engineers at NASAs Stennis Space Center have developed the HYdrocarbon Propellants Enabling Reproduction of Flows in Rocket Engines (HYPERFIRE), a sub-scale, non-reacting flow test system. HYPERFIRE uses heated ethane to enable physical simulation of rocket engines powered by a broad range of propellants in an inexpensive, accurate, and simple fashion

Aerospace - General Requirements for Hydraulic Fuse - Quantity Measuring

AS5466 (Current)

06/24/2024

This specification establishes the design, performance, and test requirements for hydraulic quantity measuring fuses intended to be used for hydraulic circuit protection

A-6C5 Components Committee

Engine Behavior Analysis on a Conventional Diesel Engine Powered with Blends of Lemon Grass Oil Biodiesel–Diesel Blends

03-17-08-0058

06/14/2024

Fossil fuel usage causes environmental pollution, and fuel depletion, further affecting a country’s economy. Biofuels and diesel-blended fuels are practical alternatives to sustain fossil fuels. This experimental study analyses lemongrass oil’s performance, emissions, and combustion characteristics after blending with diesel. Lemongrass oil is mixed with diesel at 10 (B10), 15 (B15), and 25% (B25) and evaluated using a 5.20 kW direct injection diesel engine. B10 brake thermal efficiency is 36.47%, which is higher than other blends. The B10 displays an 8.73% decrease in brake-specific fuel consumption compared to diesel. An increase in exhaust gas temperature for B10 than diesel is 4.5%. It indicates that higher lemongrass oil blends decrease exhaust gas temperature. The decrease in average carbon monoxide emissions in B10 to diesel is 22.19%. The decrease in hydrocarbon emissions for B10 to diesel is 7.14%. Biodiesel with lemongrass oil increases nitrogen oxide (NOx) because of

Swami Punniakodi, Banumathi Munuswamy, Arumugam, Chelliah, Suyambazhahan, Sivalingam, Senthil, Ramalingam, Balasubramanian, Dhinesh, Papla Venugopal, Inbanaathan, Nguyen, Van Nhanh, Cao, Dao Nam

Effects of Renewable Fuels on the Performance and Emissions of a Small Displacement Diesel Engine for Urban Mobility

2024-37-0019

06/12/2024

In the frame of growing concerns over climate change and health, renewable fuels can make an important contribution to decarbonizing the transport sector. The current work presents the results of an investigation into the impact of renewable fuels on the combustion and emissions of a turbocharged compression-ignition internal combustion engine. An experimental study was undertaken and the engine settings were not modified to account for the fuel's chemical and physical properties, to analyze the performance of the fuel as a potential drop-in alternative fuel. Three fuels were tested: mineral diesel, a blend of it with waste cooking oil biodiesel and a hydrogenated diesel. The analysis of the emissions at engine exhaust highlights that hydrogenated fuel is cleaner, reducing CO, total hydrocarbon emissions, particulate matter and NOx

Chiavola, Ornella, Matijošius, Jonas, Palmieri, Fulvio, Recco, Erasmo

Catalytic Converter—An Integrated Approach to Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emission

2024-01-5047

04/22/2024

Vehicle emissions, which are rising alarmingly quickly, are a significant contributor to the air pollution that results. Incomplete combustion, which results in the release of chemicals including carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter, is the main cause of pollutants from vehicle emissions. However, CO2 contributes more than the aforementioned pollutants combined. Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas that vehicles emit. For every liter of gasoline burned by vehicles, around 2,347 grams of carbon dioxide are released. Therefore, it’s important to reduce vehicle emissions of carbon dioxide. The ability of materials like zeolite and silicon dioxide to absorb CO2 is outstanding. These substances transform CO2 into their own non-polluting carbonate molecules. Zeolite, silicon dioxide, and calcium oxide are combined to form the scrubbing material in a ratio based on their increasing adsorption propensities, along with enough bentonite sand to bind the mixture

Saravanakumar, L., Arunprasad, S.

Improved Coated Gasoline Particulate Filters for China 7 and US Tier 4 Legislations

2024-01-2387

04/09/2024

The impending emission regulations in both China (CN7) and the United States (Tier 4) are set to impose more stringent emission limits on hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM). CN7 places particular emphasis on reducing particulate number (PN) thresholds, while the forthcoming United States Tier 4 legislation is primarily concerned with reducing the allowable particulate matter (PM) to an assumed limit of 0.5 mg/mile. Given the more stringent constraints on both PN and PM emissions, the development of enhanced aftertreatment solutions becomes imperative to comply with these new regulatory demands. Coated Gasoline Particulate Filters (cGPFs) play a pivotal role as essential components for effective PN and PM abatement. These filters are typically deployed in one of two configurations: close-coupled to the turbocharger positioned downstream of a primary three-way catalyst (TWC) or located further downstream of the exhaust system in an

Schoenhaber, Jan, Kawashima, Shota, Gotthardt, Meike, Schühle, Johannes

NH ₃ and H ₂ Impact on Combustion and Emission Characteristics of i-C ₈ H ₁₈ Flame under Premixed and Diffusion Conditions

2024-01-2370

04/09/2024

Soot and carbon dioxide released from internal combustion engines became the key issues when using fossil fuels. Ammonia and hydrogen having zero-carbon species can reduce carbon-related emissions and enhance the reliance on renewable fuels. A comparative study of ammonia and hydrogen impact on combustion and emission characteristics of iso-octane flame was performed under different combustion conditions. Arrhenius equation, soot surface reactions, and modified kinetic mechanism were used to study the flame growth, soot nucleation, and surface growth rates. The results show that hydrogen increased the temperature about 20.74 K and 59.30 K, whereas ammonia reduced it about 82.17 K and 66.03 K at premixed and counterflow conditions, respectively. The flame speed of iso-octane was increased 43.83 cm/s by hydrogen and decreased 34.36 cm/s by ammonia. A reduction in CH2O caused a reduction in CO and CO2 emissions. Ammonia impact on CO reduction was stronger than hydrogen under premixed and

Akram, M. Zuhaib, Rashid, Haroon, Deng, Yangbo, Aziz, Muhammad, Zhu, Qiao, Akram, M. Waqar

Methane Conversion in Stoichiometric Natural Gas Engine Exhaust

2024-01-2632

04/09/2024

Stoichiometric natural gas (CNG) engines are an attractive solution for heavy-duty vehicles considering their inherent advantage in emitting lower CO2 emissions compared to their Diesel counterparts. Additionally, their aftertreatment system can be simpler and less costly as NOx reduction is handled simultaneously with CO/HC oxidation by a Three-Way Catalyst (TWC). The conversion of methane over a TWC shows a complex behavior, significantly different than non-methane hydrocarbons in stoichiometric gasoline engines. Its performance is maximized in a narrow A/F window and is strongly affected by the lean/rich cycling frequency. Experimental and simulation results indicate that lean-mode efficiency is governed by the palladium’s oxidation state while rich conversion is governed by the gradual formation of carbonaceous compounds which temporarily deactivate the active materials. Lean/rich cycling around stoichiometry enables a higher CH4 oxidation as the oxygen storage seems to balance the

Karamitros, Dimitrios, Ibraimova, Adjer, Konstantinidis, Konstantinos, Koltsakis, Grigorios, Choi, Sungmu, Cho, Jiho

Highway Exhaust Emissions of a Natural Gas-Diesel Dual-Fuel Heavy-Duty Truck

2024-01-2120

04/09/2024

Diesel-fueled heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) can be retrofitted with conversion kits to operate as dual-fuel vehicles in which partial diesel usage is offset by a gaseous fuel such as compressed natural gas (CNG). The main purpose of installing such a conversion kit is to reduce the operating cost of HDVs. Additionally, replacing diesel partially with a low-carbon fuel such as CNG can potentially lead to lower carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the tail-pipe. The main issue of CNG-diesel dual-fuel vehicles is the methane (CH4, the primary component of CNG) slip. CH4 is difficult to oxidize in the exhaust after-treatment (EAT) system and its slip may offset the advantage of lower CO2 emissions of natural gas combustion as CH4 is a strong greenhouse gas (GHG). The objective of this study is to compare the emissions of an HDV with a CNG conversion kit operating in diesel and dual-fuel mode during highway operation. Road tests were conducted on a three-axle Class-8 highway semi-trailer tractor

Dev, Shouvik, Qi, Aidu, Anderson, Andrew, Dahlseide, Austin, Smith, Brett, Lussier, Simon-Alexandre, Guo, Hongsheng, Rosenblatt, Deborah

Modeling of Vent Gas Composition during Battery Thermal Runaway

2024-01-2199

04/09/2024

The growing global adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) emphasizes the pressing need for a comprehensive understanding of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries. Prevention of the onset of thermal runaway and its subsequent propagation throughout the entire battery pack is one of the pressing challenges of lithium-ion batteries. In addition to generating excess heat, thermal runaway of batteries also releases hazardous flammable gases, posing risks of external combustion and fires. Most existing thermal runaway models in literature primarily focus on predicting heat release or the total amount of vent gas. In this study, we present a model capable of predicting both heat release and the transient composition of emitted gases, including CO, H2, CO2, and hydrocarbons, during thermal runaway events. We calibrated the model using experimental data obtained from an 18650 cell from the literature, ensuring the accuracy of reaction parameters. We employ this developed model to investigate

Hariharan, Deivanayagam, Gundlapally, Santhosh

Diesel Fuel-Fired Heater Emissions from a Battery Electric Transit Bus in Real-World Conditions

2024-01-5011

02/01/2024

Battery electric transit buses sold in Canada generally include a fuel-fired diesel auxiliary heater for cabin heating in cold weather. This report details a test project, performed in collaboration with OC Transpo, to capture and quantify the emissions from such a fuel-fired heater (FFH) installed on a New Flyer XE40 battery electric transit bus from OC Transpo’s fleet in Ottawa, Canada. The FFH was tested while the bus was both stationary and being driven on-road in cold conditions. The results include the emissions rates of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and methane, and soot. Additionally, total particulate matter results were obtained during stationary testing. The results of stationary testing were compared to the California Air Resources Board and European Union standards for FFH emissions, even though these standards do not apply directly to buses operated outside of these jurisdictions. During stationary testing, average emissions of carbon

Humphries, Kieran, Rashid, Hussein, Araji, Fadi

Oil Aerosol Emission Optimization Using Deflectors in Turbo Charger Oil Drain Circuit

2024-26-0047

01/16/2024

Closed crankcase ventilation prevent harmful gases from entering atmosphere thereby reducing hydrocarbon emissions. Ventilation system usually carries blowby gases along with oil mist generated from Engine to Air intake system. Major sources of blowby occurs from leak in combustion chamber through piston rings, leakage from turbocharger shafts & leakage from valve guides. Oil mist carried by these blowby gases gets separated using separation media before passing to Air Intake. Fleece separation media has high separation efficiency with lower pressure loss for oil aerosol particles having size above 10 microns. However, efficiency of fleece media drops drastically if size of aerosol particles are below 10 microns. Aerosol mist of lower particle size (>10 microns) generally forms due to flash boiling on piston under crown area and from shafts of turbo charger due to high speeds combined with elevated temperatures. High power density diesel engine is taken for our study. It produces

M, Velshankar, Dharan R, Bharani, Dhadse, Ashish, Permude, Ashok, Loganathan, Sekar

Environmental and Cancer Risk Potential Assessment of Unregulated Emissions from Methanol-Diesel Dual Fuel RCCI Engine

2024-26-0152

01/16/2024

The influence of engine load and fuel premixing ratio (PMR) on unregulated emission from a methanol-diesel dual-fuel RCCI (MD-RCCI) engine is examined in this study. The study focuses on assessing the adverse effects of unregulated emissions (saturated HC, unsaturated HC, carbonyl compounds, aromatic hydrocarbon, NH3, and SO2) on the health of human beings and the environment. To quantify the effect on the environment, the greenhouse gas potential (GWPs), Eutrophication potential (EP), Acidification potential (AP), and Ozone forming potential (OFP) are calculated and presented. The cancer risk potential (CRP) of the carbonyl compounds (HCHO and CH3CHO) is calculated and presented to see the effect on human health. The results demonstrate that at lower engine load, with an increase in PMR, the OFP and CRP for MD-RCCI operation increase significantly, whereas AP, EP, and GWPs decrease. Additionally, with a rise in the load at a constant PMR, the AP, EP and OFP decrease significantly. The

Yadav, Neeraj Kumar, Saxena, Mohit Raj, Maurya, Rakesh Kumar

SAE TOMORROW TODAY: The Problem(s) with Replacing Fossil Fuels

1343001/10/2024

Don't miss 2023's most-watched episode of SAE Tomorrow Today! From geopolitical pressures to the shunning of fossil fuels, there is no question the current state of energy in the US and globally is a mess. One possible answer? An "all of the above" approach. For candid insight into this topic, we sat down with Mark P. Mills, senior fellow at the Manhattan Institute and a faculty fellow at Northwestern University's McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science. Mark served in the White House Science Office under President Reagan and subsequently provided science and technology policy counsel to a variety of private-sector firms, the Department of Energy, and U.S. research laboratories. He began his career as an experimental physicist and development engineer in microprocessors and fiber optics. As part of this wide-ranging discussion, Mark shares his views on the need for hydrocarbon, the instability of the grid, energy's relationship to inflation, the US dependence on China, and

Hineman, Marcie

Add-On Device Makes Home Furnaces Cleaner and Safer

TBMG-49819

01/01/2024

Natural gas furnaces not only heat your home, they also produce a lot of pollution. Even modern high-efficiency condensing furnaces produce significant amounts of corrosive acidic condensation and unhealthy levels of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and methane. These emissions are typically vented into the atmosphere and end up polluting our soil, water, and air

Performance Investigation of Direct Injection Diesel Engine Characteristics Fuelled with Ternary Blends and Additive as Ethanol

2023-28-0125

11/10/2023

This study aims to examine the effectiveness and environmental impact of using linseed and jatropha oil as biodiesels in combination with diesel. These oils were transformed through a process called trans-esterification, and three blends of ethanol, biodiesel, and diesel were prepared in E10-B20, E15-B20, and E20-B20 configurations. Ethanol was added to improve the combustion properties. The performance of these novel blends was tested in a computerized single-cylinder water-cooled diesel engine to measure brake power and emissions. It was found that the ternary biodiesel mixtures produced lower NOx and CO emissions than regular diesel fuel. In terms of performance, the E10-B20 blend reduced brake-specific fuel consumption and increased brake thermal efficiency by 6.1% to diesel. The E15-B20 blend showed a significant reduction of about 50% in unburnt hydrocarbons when compared to regular diesel at heavy load conditions. Additionally, the NOx value also decreased by 28.15% compared to

P, Selvan, Kandasamy, Sudalaiyandi, Dharmaraj, Jones Joseph Jebaraj

Experimental and Modeling Study of NH ₃ -SCR on a Hydrocarbon-Poisoned Cu-CHA Catalyst

2023-01-1659

10/31/2023

A urea-selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system is used for the reduction of NOx emitted from diesel engines. Although this SCR catalyst can reduce NOx over a wide temperature range, improvements in NOx conversion at relatively low temperatures, such as under cold-start or low-load engine conditions, are necessary. A close-coupled SCR (cc-SCR), which was set just after the engine exhaust manifold, was developed to address this issue. The temperature of the SCR catalyst increases rapidly owing to the higher exhaust temperatures, and NOx conversion is then enhanced under cold-start conditions. However, since the diesel oxidation catalyst is not installed before the SCR catalyst, hydrocarbon (HC) emissions pass directly through the SCR catalyst and poison it, leading to lower NOx conversion. Therefore, the mechanism of NOx conversion reduction on HC-poisoned SCR catalysts are required to be studied. In this study, the effects of HC poisoning on the NOx conversion of Cu-CHA catalysts

Tanaka, Kotaro, Dobashi, Ibuki, Sakaida, Satoshi, Konno, Mitsuru

Design Development and Testing of the Fuel Supply System with Metalized Fuels for Power Plants of Vehicles

2023-01-1640

10/31/2023

The demand for multi-environmental modes of transportation is driven by the overall trend of increasing mobility and the necessity of movement across various alternating environments (land, water, underwater, aerial, and airspace). However, the specific energy density of hydrocarbon fuels cannot ensure efficient operation of power systems for such multi-environmental vehicles. A promising solution to this problem involves the utilization of boron-containing metallized fuels through the creation of specialized fuel supply systems. Based on a general method of optimization synthesis for technical objects, new fuel supply systems were synthesized with different levels of process control and degrees of automation, as well as an adjustable hybrid fuel delivery system that allows the application of components in varying aggregate states. During testing, operational characteristics were determined primarily for the implemented metallic hybrid transformer fuel delivery system. In our view, it

Dudukalov, Yuri, Ternyuk, Mykola, Hlushkova, Diana, Bushnov, Valery, Sorokin, Volodymyr, Kholodov, Mykhailo

Experimental Study of Low Thermal Inertia Thermal Barrier Coating in a Spark Ignited Multicylinder Production Engine

2023-01-1617

10/31/2023

Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) have long been studied as a potential pathway to achieve higher thermal efficiency in spark ignition engines. Researchers have studied coatings with different thicknesses and thermophysical properties to counteract the volumetric efficiency penalty associated with TBCs in spark ignition. To achieve an efficiency benefit with minimal charge heating during the intake stroke, low thermal inertia coatings characterized by their larger temperature swings are required. To study the impact of low thermal inertia coatings in spark ignition, coatings were applied to the cylinder head, piston crown, intake and exhaust valve faces, and intake and exhaust valve backsides. Tier III EEE E10 certification gasoline was used to keep the experiments relevant to the present on-road vehicles. This study is aimed at analyzing durability of the coatings as well as efficiency and emissions improvements. Thus, a 100-hr. durability test was conducted to assess the durability of

Bhatt, Ankur, Gandolfo, John, Vedpathak, Kunal, Jiang, Chen, Jordan, Eric, Lawler, Benjamin, Gainey, Brian

Emissions of Aerospace Fuels F-24 and Jet-A in a Jet Engine and Correlation with Combustion Characteristics from a Constant Volume Combustion Chamber

2023-01-1666

10/31/2023

An investigation into emissions differences and their correlations with differing combustion characteristics between F24 and Jet-A was conducted. Raw emissions data was taken from a single stage jet engine by a FTIR gas analyzer. Measurements of H2O, CO2, CO, NOx, and total hydrocarbon emissions (THC) were taken at 60K, 65K, and 70K RPM. At 70K RPM Jet-A and F-24 the emissions were similar at approx.: 4% H2O, 3% CO2, 970 PPM CO, 28 PPM NOx. Jet-A THC emissions were approx.: 1200 PPM THC, F24 THC emissions were lower by over 60%. The significantly lower amount of THC emissions for F24 suggests more complete combustion compared to Jet-A

Soloiu, Valentin, Rowell, Aidan, Weaver, Amanda, Mcafee, John, Willis, James, O'Brien, Brandon

Experimental Comparison of a Rotary Valvetrain on the Performance and Emissions of a Light Duty Spark Ignition Engine

2023-01-1613

10/31/2023

Rotary valve technology can provide increased flow area and higher discharge coefficients than conventional poppet valves for internal combustion engines. This increase in intake charging efficiency can improve the power density of four-stroke internal combustion engines, particularly at high engine speeds, where flow is choked through conventional poppet valves. In this work, the valvetrain of a light duty single cylinder spark ignition engine was replaced with a rotary valve train. The impact of this valvetrain conversion on performance and emissions was evaluated by comparing spark timing sweeps with lambda ranging from 0.8 to 1.1 at wide open throttle. The results indicated that the rotary valvetrain increased the amount of air trapped at intake valve closing and resulted in a significantly faster burn duration than the conventional valvetrain. Additionally, the spark to CA10 burn duration of the rotary valvetrain was highly sensitive to spark timing, which was not true of the

Gainey, Brian, Vaseleniuck, Darrick, Cordier, Dan, Garrett, Norman

Methanol (M85) Port Fuel-Injected Spark Ignition Motorcycle Engine Development—Part 1: Combustion Optimization for Efficiency Improvement and Emission Reduction

03-17-03-0018

10/27/2023

Limited fossil fuel resources and carbonaceous greenhouse gas emissions are two major problems the world faces today. Alternative fuels can effectively power internal combustion engines to address these issues. Methanol can be an alternative to conventional fuels, particularly to displace gasoline in spark ignition engines. The physicochemical properties of methanol are significantly different than baseline gasoline and fuel mixture-aim lambda; hence methanol-fueled engines require modifications in the fuel injection parameters. This study optimized the fuel injection quantity, spark timing, and air–fuel ratio for M85 (85% v/v methanol + 15% v/v gasoline) fueling of a port fuel-injected single-cylinder 500 cc motorcycle test engine. Comparative engine performance, combustion, and emissions analyses were performed for M85 and baseline gasoline. M85-fueled engine exhibited improved combustion characteristics such as higher peak in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate, and cumulative heat

Agarwal, Avinash, Yadav, Omkar, Valera, Hardikk

Measurement of Liquid Fuel Film Attached to the Wall in a Port Fueled SI Gasoline Engine

2023-01-1818

10/24/2023

Liquid fuel attached to the wall surface of the intake port, the piston and the combustion chamber is one of the main causes of the unburned hydrocarbon emissions from a port fueled SI engine, especially during transient operations. To investigate the liquid fuel film formation process and fuel film behavior during transient operation is essential to reduce exhaust emissions in real driving operations, including cold start operations. Optical techniques have been often applied to measure the fuel film in conventional reports, however, it is difficult to apply those previous techniques to actual engines during transient operations. In this study, using MEMS technique, a novel capacitance sensor has been developed to detect liquid fuel film formation and evaporation processes in actual engines. A resistance temperature detector (RTD) was also constructed on the MEMS sensor with the capacitance sensor to measure the sensor surface temperature. The response and the sensitivity of the

Kuboyama, Tatsuya, Yoshihashi, Tsukasa, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Nakabeppu, Osamu, Takayama, Satoshi

Impacts of eFuels on Solid and Gaseous Emissions of Powersport Two-Wheelers

2023-01-1838

10/24/2023

As alternative to electrification or carbon free fuels such as hydrogen, CO2-neutral fuels have been researched aiming to decrease the impact of fossil energy sources on the environment. Despite the potential benefit of capturing CO2 emission after combustion for own fuel production, the so-called eFuels also benefit by using a green source of energy during their fabrication. Among all the possibilities for eFuels, alcohols, ethers (such as MTBE and ETBE) and alternative hydrocarbons have shown positive impacts regarding emission reduction and performance when compared to standard gasoline. Previously in [1] and [2], synthetic fuels and methanol blends were tested at steady state conditions in order to verify advantages and drawbacks relative to gasoline, for power-sport motorcycles. However, for real-world operation, transient behavior must be investigated addressing critical topics such as emissions during engine / aftertreatment warm-up, catalyst light-off and its interaction with

Batalha, Guilherme Pellizzaro, Schurl, Sebastian, Schmidt, Stephan, Bonifer, Marcus

Use of Detailed Hydrocarbon Emission Analysis to Identify Synergistic Effects in Renewable Gasoline Fuel Blends for Significant Reduction of Aromatic Hydrocarbon As Well As Total Hydrocarbon Emissions of a Small Gasoline-Powered ICE

2023-01-1840

10/24/2023

With rising awareness of man-made climate change the interest in measures to reduce CO2 and other greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions increases. The use of renewable liquid fuels is one way to achieve reduction of GHG emissions. Due to their different chemical composition, gasoline fuels containing significant shares of renewable components also produce different pollutant emissions including hydrocarbon (HC) emissions amongst others such as particular matter, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides. In this study the effects of renewable fuel components on amount and type of individual hydrocarbon components in exhaust emissions of a small gasoline-powered internal combustion engine were investigated via gas chromatographic analyses. Therefore, three different gasoline fuels with varying degrees of sustainable components and their respective HC exhaust emissions were investigated in single compound resolution. HC emissions could be categorized into combustion side products and unburned fuel

Pfleger, Georg Stefan, Schober, Sigurd

Study on Influences of Hydrogen addition and Turbulence on Ignition Characteristics of Hydrocarbon Mixtures

2023-32-0147

09/29/2023

This study is performed to experimentally examine the effects of hydrogen addition and turbulence on the ignition and the flame-kernel development characteristics in isotropic and homogeneous turbulence for methane or propane mixtures. First, in order to investigate the ignition and flame-kernel development in quiescence, the minimum ignition energy MIE and the relationship between the flame radius and the burning velocity of meso-scale laminar flames are examined by using sequential schlieren photography in a constant volume vessel. Then, the properties of MIE are examined for three turbulence level. Additionally, the transition region of MIE could be summarized by using the proposed turbulent Karlovitz number based on the burning velocity of the meso-scale flame in quiescence

Nakahara, Masaya, Matsushita, Yuki, Kishiura, Kensuke, Abe, Fumiaki, Tokunaga, Kenichi

Comparison of the effect of diesel and hydrogen addition on ammonia combustion characteristics in a marine engine

2023-32-0065

09/29/2023

Ammonia, as a carbon-free fuel, is a promising alternative fuel source for decarbonization of the shipping industry. Nevertheless, the poor flammability and low flame speed restrict its potential application as marine engine fuel. In order to explore the ammonia application feasibility and methods in marine engines, the effects of two combustion promoters, including n-heptane and hydrogen, on improving the ammonia combustion characteristics were compared and discussed theoretically in this study, in terms of flammable intake boundary conditions and laminar flame speed under engine operating conditions. A new detailed reaction mechanism of ammonia/n-heptane dual fuel was developed and validated to characterize the combustion of ammonia and diesel. The results demonstrate that the flammability of ammonia is more sensitive to intake temperature as compared to equivalence ratio and intake pressure. The introduction of n-heptane or hydrogen has been observed to have a noteworthy impact on

Liu, Long, Wu, Yue, Wang, Yang, Wu, Jie, Wang, Xiqing

Impact from a variety of E10 and E20 gasoline formulations on PN10 and PN23 emissions evaluated in combination with advanced GPF technology generations

2023-32-0028

09/29/2023

The study was aimed at assessing the impact of fuel quality on the PN10 and PN23 emissions. A total of 6 fuels having different level of ethanol, renewable components, additives, and aromatic hydrocarbons were tested on the test vehicle. In the first phase of the study, the emission tests were conducted removing the GPF present in the original aftertreatment system to measure the direct impact of different fuels on the tailpipe particle emissions. The emission results showed that heavy aromatics components lead to a significant increase in particle emissions while the fuel with renewable components and E20 emit less PN comparing to the E10 reference fuel. However, those fuel impacts became very small with a GPF present due to a high filtration efficiency independent of fuel type

Chijiiwa, Ryoko, Rose, Dominik, Boger, Thorsten, Krueger-Venus, Jens, Cracknell, Roger, Williams, Rod

Numerical Investigation for Carcinogenicity and Mutagenicity Potential of PAHs Emitted from Hydrogen/diesel Dual-fuel Engine

2023-32-0049

09/29/2023

This study numerically investigates the toxicity potential of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) emitted from conventional diesel and hydrogen–diesel dual-fuel combustion engine. The simulations are performed on ANSYS Forte using a detailed chemical reaction mechanism of diesel surrogate (66.8% n − decane/33.2% alpha − methylnaphthalene). The used reaction mechanism consists of 189 species and 1392 reactions. The study numerically predicts the concentration of eight toxic PAHs (naphthalene, phenanthrene, acenaphthene, pyrene, chrysene, benzo[a]pyrene, benzo perylene, and benzo [g, h, i] perylene) emission for which carcinogenicity and mutagenicity potential is determined. Results demonstrate that hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel engine has lower carcinogenicity and mutagenicity potential than the conventional diesel engine

Yadav, Neeraj Kumar, Saxena, Mohit Raj, Maurya, Rakesh Kumar

Effects of pre-chamber specifications on lean burn operation in a pre-chamber engine with fuel reformed gas

2023-32-0007

09/29/2023

Lean combustion has been well known to be an effective method to improve the thermal efficiency. However, leaner mixture is prone to cause the unstable combustion and poorer unburned hydrocarbon (UTHC) emissions. Pre-chamber turbulent jet combustion has been proved to enhance the combustion stability under ultra-lean conditions. However, more NOx is formed during the combustion, resulting in the fact that the tailpipe NOx emission is too high to be still not available for the real application. In this report, in order to achieve a higher air excess ratio while keeping lower UTHC emissions, and especially NOx emission, a new combustion technique which combined pre-chamber jet combustion with fuel reforming was proposed and experimentally demonstrated on a pre-chamber engine

SHEN, Fuchao, TOTSUKA, Masaya, KUBOYAMA, Tatsuya, MORIYOSHI, Yasuo, YAMADA, Toshio, SHIMIZU, Kenichi, YOSHIDA, Takashi

Developing a numerical method for simulating physical and chemical processes that lead to LSPI

2023-32-0082

09/29/2023

Low speed pre-ignition (LSPI) is a limiting phenomenon for several of the technologies being pursued as part of the low carbon agenda. To achieve maximum power density and efficiency engines are being downsized and turbocharged, while Direct- injection technologies are becoming ever more prominent. All changes that increase the propensity of LSPI. The low speed-high load operation envelope is limited due to LSPI. Hydrogen engines are also being explored, however, with such a low minimum enthalpy of ignition, LSPI is a major limitation to thermal efficiency. Several techniques are utilized in this study to investigate physical and physio-chemical aspects of lubricant initiated LSPI. Where possible attempts have been to validate methodologies or directional alignment with published data. The basis of the methodologies used is a validated 1D predictive combustion model of a single cylinder GTDI engine, that was used to provide simulation boundary conditions. The study comprises of two

Mahmood, Adnan, Hellier, Paul

Research of Fuel Components to Expand Lean-limit in Super Lean Burn Condition (Part III

2023-32-0002

09/29/2023

In this research, we investigated the improvement of combustion and anti-knocking properties as factors that affect the lean limit in order to reflect in fuel design. First, as a basic study, characteristics such as the Laminar burning velocity and Ignition energy of hydrocarbons, which are highly effective in improving combustion speed, were examined. In addition, using the knowledge obtained in the basic study, several concept fuels were created by blending the blend- stocks of the refinery aiming to meet or exceed the current standards in Japan. Their lean limits, thermal efficiencies, and effects on CO2 emission were investigated

Naiki, Taketora, Yasutake, Yuki, Watanabe, Manabu, Obata, Ken

A Numerical Methodology to Test the Lubricant Oil Evaporation and Its Thermal Management-Related Properties Derating in Hydrogen-Fueled Engines

03-17-02-0015

09/15/2023

Due to the incoming phase out of fossil fuels from the market in order to reduce the carbon footprint of the automotive sector, hydrogen-fueled engines are candidate mid-term solution. Thanks to its properties, hydrogen promotes flames that poorly suffer from the quenching effects toward the engine walls. Thus, emphasis must be posed on the heat-up of the oil layer that wets the cylinder liner in hydrogen-fueled engines. It is known that motor oils are complex mixtures of a number of mainly heavy hydrocarbons (HCs); however, their composition is not known a priori. Simulation tools that can support the early development steps of those engines must be provided with oil composition and properties at operation-like conditions. The authors propose a statistical inference-based optimization approach for identifying oil surrogate multicomponent mixtures. The algorithm is implemented in Python and relies on the Bayesian optimization technique. As a benchmark, the surrogate for the SAE5W30

De Renzis, Edoardo, Mariani, Valerio, Bianchi, Gian Marco, Cazzoli, Giulio, Falfari, Stefania

Development of a 5-Component Diesel Surrogate Chemical Kinetic Mechanism Coupled with a Semi-Detailed Soot Model with Application to Engine Combustion and Emissions Modeling

2023-24-0030

08/28/2023

In the present work, five surrogate components (n-Hexadecane, n-Tetradecane, Heptamethylnonane, Decalin, 1-Methylnaphthalene) are proposed to represent liquid phase of diesel fuel, and another different five surrogate components (n-Decane, n-Heptane, iso-Octane, MCH (methylcyclohexane), Toluene) are proposed to represent vapor phase of diesel fuel. For the vapor phase, a 5-component surrogate chemical kinetic mechanism has been developed and validated. In the mechanism, a recently updated H2/O2/CO/C1 detailed sub-mechanism is adopted for accurately predicting the laminar flame speeds over a wide range of operating conditions, also a recently updated C2-C3 detailed sub-mechanism is used due to its potential benefit on accurate flame propagation simulation. For each of the five diesel vapor surrogate components, a skeletal sub-mechanism, which determines the simulation of ignition delay times, is constructed for species C4-Cn. The five skeletal sub-mechanisms are coupled with the new C2

Yang, Shiyou, Yang, Ruicheng

Predictive 3D-CFD Model for the Analysis of the Development of Soot Deposition Layer on Sensor Surfaces

2023-24-0012

08/28/2023

After-treatment sensors are used in the ECU feedback control to calibrate the engine operating parameters. Due to their contact with exhaust gases, especially NOx sensors are prone to soot deposition with a consequent decay of their performance. Several phenomena occur at the same time leading to sensor contamination: thermophoresis, unburnt hydrocarbons condensation and eddy diffusion of submicron particles. Conversely, soot combustion and shear forces may act in reducing soot deposition. This study proposes a predictive 3D-CFD model for the analysis of the development of soot deposition layer on the sensor surfaces. Alongside with the implementation of deposit and removal mechanisms, the effects on both thermal properties and shape of the surfaces are taken in account. The latter leads to obtain a more accurate and complete modelling of the phenomenon influencing the sensor overall performance. The evolution of the fouling thickness is evaluated by means of the implementation of a

D'Orrico, Fabrizio, Cicalese, Giuseppe, Breda, Sebastiano, Fontanesi, Stefano, Cozza, Ivan, Tosi, Sergio, Gopalakrishnan, Venkatesh

Investigation into Various Strategies to Achieve Stable Ammonia Combustion in a Spark-Ignition Engine

2023-24-0040

08/28/2023

Ammonia (NH3) is a carbon-free fuel, which could partially or completely eliminate hydrocarbon (HC) fuel demand. Using ammonia directly as a fuel has some challenges due to its low burning speed and low flammability range, which generates unstable combustion inside the combustion chamber. This study investigated the effect of two different compression ratios (CRs) of 10.5 and 12.5 on the performance of ammonia combustion by using a conventional single spark-ignition (SI) approach. It was found that at a lower CR of 10.5, the combustion was unstable even at advanced spark timing (ST) due to poor combustion characteristics of ammonia. However, increasing the CR to 12.5 improved the engine performance significantly with lower cyclic variations. In addition, this research work also observed the effect of multiple spark ignition strategies on pure ammonia combustion and compared it with the conventional SI approach for the same operating conditions. Multiple flames were generated by four

Uddeen, Kalim, Almatrafi, Fahad, Shi, Hao, Tang, Qinglong, Parnell, Jamie, Peckham, Mark, Turner, James

Analyzing the Usage of Wankel Engine Technology in Future Automotive Powertrains

13-05-02-0009

08/04/2023

The Wankel engine is an eccentric rotary internal combustion engine known for its simplicity, compactness, reliability, and efficiency. However, issues related to sealing, efficiency, and emissions have hindered its widespread use. Recent advancements in sealing technology, novel designs, material coatings, and alternative fuels have addressed some of these problems, leading to improvements in Wankel engine performance. This study examines these advancements in Wankel engine technology and proposes three potential applications for future automotive use. The first application involves utilizing a Wankel engine with a continuously variable transmission to replace the powertrain in conventional vehicles. The second application suggests replacing the engine in a series-parallel electric-hybrid architecture with a Wankel engine. Lastly, the third application explores using a Wankel engine as a range extender for electric vehicles. To evaluate the benefits in terms of fuel consumption for

Mittal, Vikram, Shah, Rajesh, Przyborowski, Alexandra

OBD evolves for ICE and zero-emission propulsion systems

23TOFHP08_06

08/01/2023

On-board diagnostics (OBD) systems support the protection of the environment against harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx), hydrocarbons (HC) and particulate matters (PM) emitted by combustion engines. OBD regulations require passenger cars and light-, medium- and heavy-duty trucks to support a minimum set of diagnostic information to external (off-board) “generic” test equipment. For the purpose of communication, both the test equipment and the vehicle must support the same communication protocol stack. The communication protocol SAE J1979, also known as ISO 15031, that has been in use for decades will be replaced by SAE J1979-2 for vehicles with combustion engines and by SAE J1979-3 for zero-emission-vehicle (ZEV) propulsion systems

Procedure for the Continuous Sampling and Measurement of Gaseous Emissions from Aircraft Turbine Engines

ARP1256E (Current)

04/12/2023

This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) describes the continuous sampling and analysis of gaseous emissions from aircraft gas turbine engines. The measured gas species include carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), hydrocarbons (HC), and water vapor (H2O). This ARP excludes engine operating procedures and test modes, and is not intended for in-flight testing, nor does it apply to engines operating in the afterburning mode. It is recognized that there will probably be major advances in the gas analysis measurement technology. It is not the intent of this ARP to exclude other analysis techniques, but to form the basis of the minimum amount of conventional instruments (those in common industry usage over the last fifteen years) required for the analysis of aircraft engine exhaust. It is the responsibility of the analyst to demonstrate the alternative measurement technology has comparable (or better) performance than the techniques

E-31G Gaseous Committee

The Influences of Testing Conditions on DOC Light-Off Experiments

2023-01-0372

04/11/2023

Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) is one of the critical catalyst components in modern diesel aftertreatment systems. It mainly converts unburned hydrocarbon (HC) and CO to CO2 and H2O before they are released to the environment. In addition, it also oxidizes a portion of NO to NO2, which improves the NOx conversion efficiency via fast SCR over the downstream selective catalytic reduction (SCR) catalyst. HC light-off tests, with or without the presence of NOx, has been typically used for DOC evaluation in laboratory. In this work, we aim to understand the influences of DOC light-off experimental conditions, such as initial temperature, initial holding time, HC species, with or without the presence of NOx, on the DOC HC light-off behavior. The results indicate that light-off test with lower initial temperature and longer initial holding time (at its initial temperature) leads to higher DOC light-off temperature. Depending on the types of HC used, the presence of NOx can also influence HC

Xi, Yuanzhou, Ottinger, Nathan, Kiani, Daniyal, Liu, Z. Gerald

Understanding Hydrocarbon Emissions to Improve the Performance of Catalyst-Heating Operation in a Medium-Duty Diesel Engine

2023-01-0262

04/11/2023

To cope with regulatory standards, minimizing tailpipe emissions with rapid catalyst light-off during cold-start is critical. This requires catalyst-heating operation with increased exhaust enthalpy, typically by using late post injections for retarded combustion and, therefore, increased exhaust temperature. However, retardability of post injection(s) is constrained by acceptable pollutant emissions such as unburned hydrocarbon (UHC). This study provides further insight into the mechanisms that control the formation of UHC under catalyst-heating operation in a medium-duty diesel engine, and based on the understanding, develops combustion strategies to simultaneously improve exhaust enthalpy and reduce harmful emissions. Experiments were performed with a full boiling-range diesel fuel (cetane number of 45) using an optimized five-injections strategy (2 pilots, 1 main, and 2 posts) as baseline condition. Time-resolved UHC measurements in the exhaust port with varying injection timings

Cho, Seokwon, Wu, Angela, Lopez Pintor, Dario

Injector Deposition and Behavior Change of Diesel Engine Fueled with Calophyllum Oil Biodiesel Blend under 150 Hrs Endurance Test

2023-01-0947

04/11/2023

This experimental investigation was carried out for 150 hours endurance test in the time interval of 50 hours each, with test fuel neat diesel, Calophyllum oil biodiesel blend B25 and water in Calophyllum (WIC) 10 vol. % to blend B25-WIC in a single cylinder diesel engine. The experiment was conducted at constant conditions of engine load 3.0 kW and speed of 1500 rpm. The impact of 150 hours endurance test on injector nozzle deposition and engine parameters like Brake specific fuel consumption, Brake thermal efficiency, Brake specific energy consumption, Exhaust gas temperature, Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide, Hydrocarbon, and Oxides of nitrogen were investigated. The findings revealed that water inclusion (10 vol. %) in Calophyllum oil biodiesel blend B25-WIC has a positive impact on diesel engine performance and emission characteristics as compared to biodiesel blends without water inclusion. Gummy and heavy deposition accumulation was observed with biodiesel blend B25 which was

Bawane, Rahul Krishnaji, Gadge, Nilima, Shelke, Gajanan N, Bawane, Dinesh

Effect of Split-Injection Strategies on Engine Performance and Emissions under Cold-Start Operation

2023-01-0236

04/11/2023

The recently concluded partnership for advancing combustion engines (PACE) was a US Department of Energy consortium involving multiple national laboratories focused on addressing key efficiency and emission barriers in light-duty engines. Generation of detailed experimental data and modeling capabilities to understand and predict cold-start behavior was a major pillar in this program. Cold-start, as defined by the time between first engine crank and three-way catalyst light-off, is responsible for a large percentage of NOx, unburned hydrocarbon, and particulate matter emissions in light-duty engines. Minimizing emissions during cold-start is a trade-off between achieving faster three-way catalyst light-off, and engine out emissions during that period. In this study, engine performance, emissions, and catalyst warmup potential were monitored while the engine was operated using a single direct injection (baseline case) as well as a two-way-equal-split direct injection strategy. These

Jatana, Gurneesh S., Dal Forno Chuahy, Flavio, Szybist, James

Preheated Liquid Fuel Injection Concept for Lean Pre-chamber Combustion

2023-01-0259

04/11/2023

The pre-chamber combustion (PCC) concept is a proven lean or diluted combustion technique for internal combustion engines with benefits in engine efficiency and reduced NOx emissions. The engine lean operation limit can be extended by supplying auxiliary fuel into the pre-chamber and thereby, achieving mixture stratification inside the pre-chamber over the main chamber. Introducing liquid fuels into the pre-chambers is challenging owing to the small form factor of the pre-chamber. With a conventional injector, the fuel penetrates in liquid form and impinges on the pre-chamber walls, which leads to increased unburned hydrocarbon emissions from the pre-chamber. In this study, a prototype liquid fuel injector is introduced which preheats the fuel within a heated chamber fitted with an electrical heating element before injecting an effervescently atomized spray into the pre-chamber. The experiments were conducted in a heavy-duty pre-chamber research engine using ethanol as the primary fuel

Hlaing, Ponnya, Ravenhill, Paul, Larsson, Peter, Cenker, Emre, AlRamadan, Abdullah, Im, Hong, Turner, James

Development of Three-Way Catalysts with Enhanced Cold Performance

2023-01-0358

04/11/2023

Global focus on CO2 reduction and environmental protection is increasing. To comply with stricter exhaust gas regulations and reduce real world emissions, it is becoming increasingly important to improve the performance of three-way catalysts. Therefore, highly efficient conversion of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen oxides (NOx) is required. In general, the more active the precious metals used, the better the conversion performance. However, precious metals have supply risks, such as price fluctuation and the uneven distribution of production areas. Therefore, it is necessary to lower emissions while also lowering the amount of precious metals used. This paper focuses on how catalysts are used and describes the development of a new three-way catalyst for the purpose of strengthening cold conversion and decreasing the usage of precious metals

Tojo, Takumi, Shirakawa, Shogo, Nakahigashi, Seiji, Hoshino, Sho, Onozuka, Takashi, Noguchi, Takahiro, Aikawa, Tomomasa

Influence of Intake Air Temperature, Nozzle Opening Pressure and Fuel Injection Timing on the performance of Variable Compression Ratio Engine fueled with Biobutanol and Pyrolised Waste Plastic Oil

2023-01-0322

04/11/2023

Disposal of waste plastic materials is a challenge in today's scenario and disposal of waste vegetables and fruits are costing very high. This work is to use biobutanol from the waste vegetables and fruits along with pyrolyzed waste plastic oil to replace diesel. Various proportions of biobutanol (0-50%) and plastic oil (0-50%) are prepared and tested for solubility and properties. The obtained properties are compared with diesel engine fuel base properties to select a blend that possesses closer properties. The chosen blend is tested for performance in various intake air temperatures (50, 75 and 100°C); one of the temperatures among the three which is producing higher thermal efficiency is considered for further testing. Other parameters nozzle opening pressure (190, 200 and 210 bar), Fuel Injection Timing (23, 26 and 29° before top dead centre) and Compression Ratios (16: 1, 17.5:1 and 19:1) are tabulated with respect to L9 Orthogonal array cum Taguchi method to arrive at optimal

B, Prabakaran

NH ₃ Impact on Combustion and Emission Characteristics of N-Heptane Flame

2023-01-0329

04/11/2023

Soot and carbon dioxide released from internal combustion engines became the key issues when using fossil fuels. The use of zero-carbon fuel, ammonia, with hydrocarbon fuels may play an important role in reducing the exhaust effect on the environment and mitigating the reliance on nonrenewable energy resources. However, ammonia reduces the flame speed of hydrocarbon fuels. A numerical approach was executed to study the ammonia impact on n-heptane, a diesel surrogate, flame. A kinetic mechanism was prepared by adding the sub-mechanism of ammonia, NO2 and NO3 emissions, and soot precursors to the n-heptane kinetic mechanism. The modified Arrhenius equation and soot surface reactions were used to study the soot formation with NOx emissions. The results showed that ammonia decreased the fractions of carbon-related species and raised the concentration of non-carbon-related species. Therefore, CO and CO2 emission species reduced, whereas the fraction of non-emission species, H2O, increased

Akram, M. Zuhaib, Deng, Yangbo, Aziz, Muhammad, Ge, Bingquan, Jiang, Hao

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