A large number of research studies have raised global concerns about the rapid depletion of traditional energy sources like petroleum. These fuels, being largely non-renewable, are being consumed at a rate much faster than they can be replenished. This growing imbalance between demand and supply has led to fears that, in the near future, the world could face a serious energy crisis if alternative sources are not developed and adopted in time. The use of alternative fuels plays an important role in lowering harmful emissions, including those that contribute to ozone formation and other toxic pollutants. It is a well-established scientific understanding that the continued combustion of fossil fuels is a key driver of global atmospheric warming. As environmental awareness grows, many individuals across the globe believe that shifting toward cleaner and more sustainable fuel sources is essential for protecting and improving the health of our planet. Extensive research is being conducted to

G, Manikandan, Subbaiyan, Gunasekharan, Saminathan, Sathiskumar, T, Karthi, S, Gokul, J, Sanmuganathan

Onboard Exhaust Capture and Carbon Sequestration for Off-Highway Vehicles: A Sustainable Approach to Emission Reduction

2025-28-0215

11/06/2025

Off-highway vehicles (OHVs) in sectors such as mining, construction, and agriculture contribute significantly to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ). Despite the growth of alternative fuels and electrification, diesel engines remain dominant due to their superior torque, reliability, and adaptability in harsh environments. This paper introduces a novel onboard exhaust capture and carbon sequestration system tailored for diesel-powered OHVs. The system integrates nano-porous filters, solid-state CO₂ adsorbents, and a modular storage unit to selectively capture CO₂ and NOₓ from exhaust gases in real time. Captured CO₂ is then compressed for onboard storage and potential downstream utilization—such as fuel synthesis, carbonation processes, or industrial sequestration. Key innovations include: A dual-function capture mechanism targeting both CO₂ and NOₓ Lightweight thermal-regenerative adsorption materials Integration with

Vashisht, Shruti

Optimizing Heavy-Duty Mining Operations with LNG Powertrains: Boosting Efficiency and Minimizing Environmental Impact

2025-28-0236

11/06/2025

Heavy-duty mining is a highly demanding sector within the trucking industry. Mining companies are allocated coal mine sites, and fleet operators are responsible for efficiently extracting ore within the given timeframe. To achieve this, companies deploy dumper trucks that operate in three shifts daily to transport payloads out of the site. Consequently, uptime is crucial, necessitating trucks with exceptionally robust powertrains. The profitability of mining operations hinges on the efficient utilization of these dumper trucks. Fuel consumption in these mines constitutes a significant portion of total expenses. Utilizing LNG as a fuel can help reduce operational fuel costs, thereby enhancing customer profitability. Additionally, employing LNG offers the potential to lower the CO2 footprint of mining operations. This paper outlines the creation of a data-driven duty cycle for mining vehicles and the simulation methodology used to accurately size LNG powertrain components, with a focus

John, Ann Veena, Pendharkar, Koustubh

Effect of Hydrogen Injection Timing in a Compression Ignition Engine Operating in Hydrogen Diesel Dual Fuel Mode

2025-32-0051

11/03/2025

Stringent European carbon dioxide (CO2) emission regulations have stimulated the development of alternative technologies such as Dual Fuel (DF), which involves partially replacing fossil fuel with a low-carbon alternative. Hydrogen represents an ideal candidate for DF due to its properties, including the absence of carbon, high flame propagation speed, and high diffusivity. This study analyzes the combustion and performance of a 1.0L, naturally aspirated, three-cylinder in-line compression ignition off-road engine with a 17.5:1 compression ratio, originally equipped with a conventional diesel system and modified for diesel-hydrogen dual fuel operation. Three Port Fuel Injectors (PFI) are installed in the intake manifold for hydrogen injection. Additionally, they are strategically positioned to minimize the volume between the intake valve and injector tip. Tests were conducted at a fixed engine speed of 2000 rpm, varying the engine load from 30% to 85% of maximum torque. The diesel

Rossetti, Salvatore, Mancaruso, Ezio

On Board Monitoring of Water Injection Inducement System and Particulate Filter for 3-Wheeler BS VI OBD II B Diesel Vehicle Norms

2025-32-0086

11/03/2025

To mitigate greenhouse emissions such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxides (CO2), oxide of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter reduction Government of India implemented Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) norms from year 2020. Moving to more stringent emission norms poses challenges for automakers in several ways such as meeting exhaust emissions, on board diagnostic, drivers’ inducement, and particulate filter monitoring on vehicle. It is imperative to upgrade engine management system for on-board diagnostics (OBD) that refers to a vehicles self-diagnostic and reporting ability. On board diagnostics systems enables owner of vehicle to gain access of the various vehicle sub-systems. OBD-II standards were made more rigid, requiring the malfunction indicator lamp (MIL) to be activated if emission-related components fail. Also, vehicle emissions carbon monoxide (CO), oxide of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter not to exceed OBD thresholds. Consequently, the use of specific oxide of nitrogen

Jagtap, Pranjal, Syed, Kaleemuddin, Chaudhari, Sandip, Khairnar, Girish, Bhoite, Vikram, Reddy, Kameswar

Ca Additive and In-Cylinder Condition on Promotion of Abnormal Combustion in Supercharged SI Engine

2025-32-0004

11/03/2025

Recently, global warming is becoming seriously. In the field of internal combustion engine, the thermal efficiency has to improve in the practical use. One of the current trends with spark ignition engine (SI engine) is “downsizing” which is equipped supercharger with the downsized displacement. The downsizing engine is popular in the field of the SI engine. However, one of the problems is the abnormal combustion so called Low Speed Pre-Ignition (LSPI) [1]. The LSPI occurs the engine operation which is low speed and high load condition. It has to be avoided, because the SI engine is broken and the improvement of thermal efficiency is obstructed. A lot of researchers have been reported about the mechanism of LSPI [2, 3]. One of the sources of LSPI would be the lubricating oil droplets in cylinder. One of the methods to avoid LSPI, it has been adjusted the ingredients of oil additive in lubricating oil. The state of the art of lubricating oil standard has been established anti-LSPI

kitano, Kaito, Tanaka, Junya

Experimental Study on Hydrogen-Methane Co-Combustion in Small Gas Engines

2025-32-0055

11/03/2025

Hydrogen fuel has garnered significant attention as a key method for adapting internal combustion engines to a carbon-neutral society. Hydrogen is a carbon-free fuel that does not produce CO2 emissions during combustion. However, its wide flammability range and extremely low ignition energy present technical challenges when applied to internal combustion engines, such as the frequent occurrence of abnormal combustion phenomena like pre-ignition and knocking. Furthermore, the low energy density of hydrogen makes it difficult to achieve high power output. Additionally, hydrogen’s high adiabatic flame temperature and short quenching distance result in increased NOx emissions and cooling loss, which are further obstacles to its use. To address these issues, this study focuses on methane blending as a remedial approach. Experiments were conducted using a naturally aspirated engine with a premixed intake method to investigate the effects of methane-hydrogen blending. The following key

Tanaka, Kenta, Tani, Toshihiro, Sako, Takahiro

Assessment of Electrification Potential for Hand-Held Powertools and Two-Wheelers

2025-32-0094

11/03/2025

The reduction of the CO2 footprint of transport vehicles is a major challenge to minimize the harmful impact of technology on the environment. Beside passenger cars and light and heavy-duty vehicles, this affects also the two-wheeler category and the non-road mobile machinery (NRMM). One promising path for the de-carbonization is the transition from fossil-fuel powered ICE powertrains to electric powertrains. Several examples of electrified powertrains showcase possibilities for small hand-held power-tools or small mopeds and scooters. As the powertrain categories two-wheeler and NRMM are very diversified and consist of various sub-categories and sub-classes with many different applications, the feasibility of electrification for the whole category cannot be judged by few examples. In this publication, a methodology for assessing the electrification potential of hand-held power tools and two-wheelers is shown. The method uses 4 different factors, which determine the feasibility for

Schmidt, Stephan, Schacht, Hans-Juergen, Weller, Konstantin, Absenger, Johann Friedrich

Analysis of Flame Propagation Characteristics in a Hydrogen Engine using an Optically Accessible Engine

2025-32-0061

11/03/2025

This study focused on the effects of hydrogen on the flame propagation characteristics and combustion characteristics of a small spark-ignition engine. The combustion flame in the cylinder was observed using a side-valve engine that allowed optical access. The fundamental characteristics of hydrogen combustion were investigated based on combustion images photographed in the cylinder with a high-speed camera and measured cylinder pressure waveforms. Experiments were conducted under various ignition timings and equivalence ratios and comparisons were made with the characteristics of an existing hydrocarbon liquid fuel. The hydrogen flame was successfully photographed, although it has been regarded as being difficult to visualize, thus enabling calculation of the flame propagation speed. As a result, it was found that the flame propagation speed of hydrogen was much faster than that of the existing hydrocarbon fuel. On the other hand, it was difficult to photograph the hydrogen flame

Arai, Yuto, Ueno, Takamori, Suda, Ryosuke, Sato, Ryoichi, Nakao, Yoshinori, Ninomiya, Yoshinari, Matsushita, Koichiro, Kamio, Tomohiko, Iijima, Akira

Study on CO ₂ Absorption via Atomization Utilizing Surface Texturing and Surface Energy for Small Engine Applications

2025-32-0076

11/03/2025

In response to the stringent CO2 regulations set to be enforced in Europe in 2030, there is a global demand for innovative technologies to significantly reduce CO2 emissions from internal combustion engines used in trucks, ships, and other applications. For this reason, future power sources are anticipated to adopt a three-pronged approach: electrification; hydrogen fuel used in fuel cells or internal combustion engines; and synthetic fuels (e-fuels) produced from renewable energy-sourced hydrogen, as approved by the European Commission (EC), and from raw materials that capture CO₂ directly from the atmosphere via the Direct Air Capture (DAC) method, combined with internal combustion engines. In this study, we aimed to absorb and capture “Green” CO₂ emissions from e-fuel and carbon-neutral (CN) fuels combined with internal combustion engines by investigating a method that atomizes a CO₂-absorbing solution. This approach involved spraying the solution and impingement the droplets within

Nohara, Tetsuo, Nara, Shotaro, Kawamoto, Yuki, Fukushima, Naoya, Ochiai, Masayuki

Clean Cuts, Clear Conscience: Advanced Engines, Optimized Tools, Eco-Friendly Fuels

2025-32-0087

11/03/2025

Handheld outdoor power equipment is utilized globally to shape and maintain the environment, serving as daily assistants in forestry under demanding conditions. In the power tool sector, the transition from petrol to battery-powered products is already well underway, particularly for consumer applications. However, internal combustion engines will continue to be indispensable for professional users of power tools, who place the highest demands on their equipment in terms of performance and energy density. These power tools are often used in remote locations and thus far away from a possible charging infrastructure. To contribute to climate protection, biofuels and RFNBOs are crucial. The continuous optimization of engine technology and its overall system, including cutting tools (such as saw chains and cutting wheels), is a key development goal for STIHL. The optimized interaction between the saw chain, guide bar, and power train is necessary for efficient work progress and ergonomic

Beck, Kai W., Maier, Georg, Müller, Matthias, Lux, Thomas, Kölmel, Armin, Lochmann, Holger, Melder, Jens

Higher-Strength, Higher-Toughness Die Cast Wheel Material using Recycled Aluminum

2025-32-0007

11/03/2025

In an attempt to reduce CO2 release from alloy wheel production, we have developed an aluminum alloy for casting that satisfies necessary property requirements using recycled aluminum, but without heat treatment. The wheel is a critical safety feature of any vehicle, and it should have toughness and strength .In many wheels, virgin aluminum containing small amounts of impurities is used to maintain toughness, and heat treatment (T6), which is post-casting quick heating and quenching, is applied to provide strength. At the start of this project, we focused on two wheel-manufacturing processes, production of virgin aluminum and heat treatment, from which a large amount of CO2 is released. By switching to recycled aluminum, CO2 was reduced to one-ninth the original amount. The issue with recycled material is that impurities grow in the metal structures as intermetallic compounds and this reduces toughness. To deal with this issue, we have chosen high-pressure die casting (HPDC), in which

Suzuki, Noritaka

Exhaust emissions tests of small gasoline engines used as drives for power generators and handheld machinery

2025-32-007211/03/2025

The paper presents the results of the investigations on the exhaust emissions carried out under real operating conditions of gasoline small engines. During the operation of these devices the authors measured the exhaust emissions: CO, HC, NOx and CO2. For the measurements the authors used a portable exhaust emission analyzer (PEMS). The presented method is a new solution in determining of the exhaust emissions from such engines. In the paper the results of exhaust emissions measurement has been presented. Moreover, some remarks according to measurement method has been presented. The obtained results were compared with the applicable emission requirements. Besides, based on the performed investigations, the authors attempted an evaluation of the possibilities of the use of the measurement method for development works and legislation related to the reduction of the emission from small gasoline engines.

Lijewski, Piotr, Markiewicz, Filip, Fuc, Pawel, Dobrzynski, Michał

Research and Calculation Method of Road Maintenance Carbon Emission in Expressway Operation Period

2025-99-0067

10/17/2025

In recent years, the greenhouse effect has become a major challenge for sustainable development, with carbon dioxide emissions playing a significant role. In 2022, China’s carbon dioxide emissions reached 12,667,430 tons [1], the highest globally, with the transportation sector contributing about 8% of this, and road transportation accounting for 90% of the sector’s emissions. To promote green development, the Chinese government emphasizes efficient resource use, energy conservation, and emissions reduction, aiming to build a strong transport system by 2035. Understanding carbon emissions in expressway construction is crucial for green development. Studies on highway carbon emissions focus on emissions from road construction and vehicle operation. For example, Chen et al. used a “bottom-up” method to account for emissions during construction, while Tu et al. created a vehicle carbon emission model during operation. With the expanding highway network, maintenance has become essential

You, Shuting, Xu, Ziheng, Gao, Yihan, Zhang, Zhishuo, Li, Zihao

The Analysis of Community Entrance Openness on Transportation and Emission: A Comparison of Different Automobiles

2025-99-0081

10/17/2025

With the escalating rate of urbanization in China, the urban construction sector is encountering numerous challenges, including issues such as traffic congestion and environmental pollution. To enhance traffic efficiency and offer planning guidance for urban development, this study focuses on the fully or partial opening of community entrances. VISSIM is utilized to examine the community opening and simulate the internal road network, while also employing the SPSS data analysis tool for supplementary analysis. The objective of this method is to compare and analyze the traffic conditions and environmental impact of the community before and after its opening with different automobiles. Through the establishment of a comprehensive evaluation system, the study calculates and analyzes the average vehicle speed, noise levels, energy consumption, and carbon dioxide emissions before and after the opening of the community. Finally, several recommendations are proposed to enhance community

Li, Mengyuan, Zhuo, Chenxu, Xiong, Simin, Xu, Lihao

Equivalent Power Consumption Minimization Strategy Based Controller for a Novel Dedicated Hybrid Engine Powertrain for a Light-Duty Application

2025-01-0416

10/07/2025

Due to strengthened CO2 regulations, the automotive industry is facing the challenge of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In response, the industry has focused on developing various technologies that enhance fuel economy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Hybrid electric powertrains have demonstrated significant potential to improve fuel economy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The improvements resulting from hybrid electric powertrains depend on the degree of electrification, which is closely related to the sizing of the motor and battery. However, hybridization increases the complexity of the powertrain. As multiple power sources are involved, complex control algorithms must be developed to allocate power usage among various driving scenarios while fulfilling driver requests. One way to simplify hybrid power management control is to implement optimization strategies that determine the operating states for each component during different driving scenarios, aiming to minimize

Echeverri Marquez, Manuel, Bhoge, Mahesh, Lago, Rafael, Engineer, Nayan, Bhadra, Kaustav, Whitney, Christopher, Baur, Andrew

Impact of Range Extender Engine Configuration on Powertrain Performance and Vehicle Integration

2025-01-0386

10/07/2025

The light-duty transportation sector is experiencing a worldwide push towards reduced carbon intensity. One pathway that has been developed focuses on replacing internal combustion engine (ICE)-based vehicles with full-electric battery electric vehicles (BEV), which offer local carbon dioxide (CO2)-free mobility. However, batteries offer a limited mobility range and can require long recharging times, leading to a limited range perception among some vehicle operators. A range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) utilizes a small ICE to mitigate the range concerns of BEVs, while also enabling a battery size reduction with its associated improvements in cost, weight, and manufacturing-related CO2 intensity. A previous study by the authors discussed evaluation criteria for range extender engines (REx) and compared additive technology options to enable cost-, efficiency, or power-optimized REEV applications using a modular approach. This study contrasts the dedicated REx with associated modular

Hoth, Alexander, Marion, Joshua, Silvano, Peter, Peters, Nathan, Pothuraju Subramanyam, Sai Krishna, Bunce, Mike

Effect of Casting Microstructure on the Mechanical Performance of Recycled EN AC-43200 Al-Si Alloy

2025-01-0357

09/15/2025

This work investigates the influence of casting microstructure on the mechanical performance of ad hoc samples of recycled EN AC-43200 Al-Si alloy. Three batches are produced by modifying the casting process parameters (i.e., molten alloy temperature and in-mold cooling conditions) to obtain different casting microstructures. Room temperature tensile and high-cycle fatigue tests, coupled with metallography, X-ray tomography, and fatigue fracture surface analysis, are performed to elucidate the relationship between microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of the investigated alloy. The findings indicate that casting pores and intermetallic precipitates play a pivotal role in influencing the mechanical behavior and performance of cast, recycled EN AC-43200 Al-Si alloy. Additionally, an inverse correlation between secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS) and both tensile properties and fatigue life is established.

Pavesi, Arianna, Barella, Silvia, D'Errico, Fabrizio, Bonfanti, Andrea, Bertasi, Federico

Methodology for the Study of Hydrogen Combustion in an Optical Spark Ignition Engine

2025-24-0062

09/07/2025

The use of hydrogen as a fuel in internal combustion engines represents a promising alternative for reducing CO2 emissions. To optimize its efficiency and better understand the phenomena associated with its combustion, it is essential to have advanced visualization techniques for a better understanding of the processes involved. This paper presents the methodology used in the development of an optical engine for the study of hydrogen combustion, designed from a 454cc single-cylinder engine. The configuration of the optical system is described, which includes the use of high-speed cameras to capture the spark plug activation as well as the flame propagation in the combustion chamber. The engine has two optical accesses, one through the piston and one at the top of the cylinder that allows side viewing of the combustion chamber. In addition, the experimental procedure that alternates combustion cycles with motoring cycles, the determination of the air-hydrogen ratio with which the engine

Pastor, Jose V., Novella, Ricardo, Tejada, Francisco J., Cáceres-Carías, José

The Effect of the Initial Battery State of Charge on the Performance of a Soft Actor-Critic Energy Management System

2025-24-0104

09/07/2025

Reinforcement Learning (RL) approaches have gained significant popularity for solving complex optimization problems, such as the design of Energy Management Systems (EMSs) in electrified powertrains, thanks to their adaptability and model-free nature. Therefore, this study investigates, through numerical simulations, the performance of an EMS, driven by a Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) RL agent targeting the reduction of CO2 emissions in a plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (pHEV). The SAC agent stands out with its stochastic policy, which accelerates the training process, boosts controller performance, and effectively handles the inherent uncertainties of vehicle dynamics. To improve generalization, the proposed controller was trained and validated across a wide set of driving scenarios. The robustness of the SAC policy was further demonstrated in charge-depleting mode across various initial and final battery energy levels. Performance was then benchmarked against the Dynamic Programming (DP

Tresca, Luigi, Pulvirenti, Luca, Rolando, Luciano

On a NMPC-Based Supervisory Control Logic for Energy Management Purposes in Aeronautical Hybrid Propulsion Systems

2025-24-0102

09/07/2025

Eco-sustainability is one of the main aspects focused on motor industries, including those related to air transport, which work to realize alternative propulsion systems, such as Hybrid Electric Propulsion Systems, for reducing CO2 emissions. Despite the minor CO2 emission produced by Hybrid Electric Propulsion Systems, these categories of propulsors require a proper control architecture for managing combustion and electric energies based on driver decisions and the flight mission set. A supervisory control logic, based on a Nonlinear Model Predictive Control (NMPC), is presented in this work to guarantee a specific State of Charge level of batteries coupled with the minimization of fuel consumption of an aeronautical Hybrid Propulsion System. These two goals are achieved by the designed NMPC, which provides the best amount of torque between the propulsors belonging to the analysed aeronautical powertrain, consisting of an Internal Combustion Engine and an Electric Machine. The

Tordela, Ciro, Fornaro, Enrico

Toward Sustainable Heavy-Duty Transport: Evaluating Charge Dilution and Advanced Corona Ignition System Effects on SI Natural Gas Engine Efficiency and Combustion Characteristics

2025-24-0024

09/07/2025

Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transportation sector is a significant challenge. A multi-technology approach is the most practical and sustainable solution for minimizing the environmental impact of road transport. Alternative gaseous fuels derivable from bio sources have the potential to significantly cut equivalent carbon dioxide (CO2eq) emissions from a Well-to-Wheel (WtW) perspective, and the development of technologies that allow to improve the efficiency of natural gas-powered Heavy Duty (HD) Spark Ignition (SI) engines is of strategic importance. In such applications, charge dilution strategies might have the potential to increase engine efficiency at a relatively low implementation cost. Diluting the in-cylinder charge can reduce fuel consumption by decreasing wall and pumping losses, and increasing the Heat Capacity Ratio (γ). The coupling with innovative technologies aimed at enhancing ignition energy, influencing combustion development, could be a promising

Di Domenico, Davide, Napolitano, Pierpaolo, Papi, Stefano, Ricci, Federico, Golini, Stefano, Rapetto, Nicola, Giordana, Sergio, Beatrice, Carlo

Using Turbogenerators for Energy Recovery in Turbocharged Hybrid Powertrains

2025-24-0100

09/07/2025

The widespread adoption of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is progressing more slowly than anticipated, making hybridization crucial for improving efficiency through load point shifting, running the engine at its most efficient operating points and kinetic energy recovery. As the world continues to use fossil fuels, enhancing powertrain efficiency is critical to reducing CO2 emissions. Improved efficiency will also increase the share of renewable e-fuels in the energy mix, supporting the transition to low-carbon mobility. A significant portion of energy in ICEs is lost through exhaust heat, which is a high-grate energy source that can be converted into electricity in hybrid systems. Conventional turbochargers, widely used to enhance volumetric efficiency and drivability, typically incorporate a wastegate (WG) to regulate boost pressure. However, this results in the intentional dumping of excess valuable exhaust energy leading to energy loss. This paper investigates the replacement of

Kodaboina, Raghu Vamsi, Vorraro, Giovanni, Turner, James W. G.

Experimental and Numerical Study on the Performance and Exhaust Emissions of a Single-Cylinder Natural Gas Large Bore Engine Equipped with Passive Pre-Chamber

2025-24-0022

09/07/2025

The maritime industry is among the most energy-intensive sectors, and achieving fleet decarbonization is crucial to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. As a transitional fuel, natural gas (NG) presents a viable short-to-midterm solution. Compared to conventional marine fuels, NG has the potential to lower carbon dioxide emissions by approximately 20–30%. However, to fully leverage this potential on carbon footprint reduction, substantial advancements in combustion technologies are required. One promising approach to enhance the efficiency of SI NG engines is the implementation of Passive Pre-Chamber (PPC) technology. This strategy enables leaner combustion, improving thermal efficiency, mitigating the occurrence of knocking, and reducing NOx emissions. This study presents both experimental and numerical investigations to analyze the impact of charge dilution and ignition timing on the performance and emissions of a single-cylinder prototype NG PPC SI engine for marine

Marchitto, Luca, Pesce, Francesco, Accurso, Francesco, Tornatore, Cinzia, Gorietti, Valentina, Buzzi, Luca, Grosso, Alessandro, Luci, Matteo, Napolitano, Pierpaolo, Pennino, Vincenzo, Beatrice, CARLO, Di Domenico, Davide, Giardino, Angelo

Characterization of Exhaust Gas Recirculation Effects in a Hydrogen-Fueled 4-Cylinder Engine with Direct Injection

2025-24-0052

09/07/2025

The increasing importance of hydrogen as alternative energy source to reduce CO2 emissions in the transport sector makes its adoption in spark-ignited engines an attractive and cost-efficient alternative to fuel cell-powered vehicles. Lean combustion is the preferred operating strategy for H2-engines in order to achieve performance targets, enhance efficiency and at the same time avoid critical knocking and pre-ignition phenomena. Additionally, an effective approach to lower cylinder temperatures, relevant engine-out NOx emissions and boost pressure requirements at the same time, is an external exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system. The aim of this work is to analyze and compare the effects of exhaust gas recirculation on the combustion of a lean hydrogen mixture in a turbocharged 4-cylinder H2-ICE with direct injection. For this investigation a load point at 18 bar BMEP and 4000 rpm is selected with and without the utilization of additional external EGR. In this case, a BTE of 38

Schmelcher, Robin, Kulzer, Andre Casal, Gal, Thomas, Vacca, Antonino, Chiodi, Marco, Grabner, Peter, Gschiel, Kevin

Optimization of the Injection Strategy to Enhance Mixture Formation in a 4-Cylinder Methanol Engine by Means of a 3D-CFD Virtual Engine Test Bench

2025-24-0077

09/07/2025

Emissions reduction and carbon neutrality are two obligations to fulfil in order to ensure a clean and bearable planet for the future. The diversification of energy carriers is one of the keys to achieving a concrete and time-effective solution, and methanol can be one of the possible ways to reach carbon neutrality, showing many positive characteristics to be used as fuel for internal combustion engines (ICEs). Using methanol as a fuel or in a blend can greatly reduce exhaust gases composition, with a great impact on CO2 emissions. Nevertheless, some challenges have to be overcome to exploit the whole potential of methanol as a fuel. The aim of this work is to investigate which aspects can improve the mixture formation using a 4-cylinder gasoline engine fuelled with methanol. The study was conducted numerically, by means of a virtual engine test bench, considering two different operating points, the former at high engine speed and load, the latter in a lower load region of the engine

Tortorella, Cristian, Rossi, Edoardo, Vacca, Antonino, Chiodi, Marco, Kulzer, Andre Casal

Active Temperature Control Strategies with Liquid Cooling Thermal Management System for Li-Ion Batteries

2025-24-0148

09/07/2025

Nowadays, electric vehicles (EVs) are considered one of the most promising solutions for reducing pollutant emissions related to the road transportation sector. Although these vehicles have achieved a high level of reliability, various challenges about Li-ion storage systems and their thermal management systems remain unresolved. This work proposes a numerical and experimental study of a lithium-ion storage cell with a scaled battery thermal management system (BTMS). In particular, a channel plate for liquid cooling is specifically designed and manufactured for the cell under test. The BTMS is based on the development of an indirect liquid cooling system with optimal control of the coolant flow rate to fulfill the thermal requirements of the system. A lumped parameters approach is used to simulate the electro-thermal behavior of the system and to analyze the effects of real-time control strategies on the temperature of the cell under test. An ad-hoc experimental test rig is set up for

Capasso, Clemente, Castiglione, Teresa, Perrone, Diego, Sequino, Luigi

Development of a Compact Hydrogen Engine for Commercial Applications

2025-24-0060

09/07/2025

As the individual and commercial vehicle industries seek sustainable alternatives to conventional internal combustion engines (ICEs), hydrogen-fueled rotary engines are emerging as a promising solution for several applications. This paper presents an innovative approach for the development of a hydrogen rotary engine that is integrated within a hybrid system. By exploiting the unique characteristics of rotary engines, such as compact size and high power-to-weight ratio, the electric machine, the battery and the rotary engine can be accommodated in the installation space of a conventional ICE with comparable power, despite the reduced power density of hydrogen as a fuel in ICEs. As a first step, the hydrogen engine is naturally aspirated and equipped with direct injection. To develop a suitable calibration for the engine’s application, the influence of calibration parameters such as ignition and injection are investigated. The study examines the influence of these on operating behavior

Endres, Jonas, Beidl, Christian, Hofmann, Silas

Comparison of Ignition Modes to Enable Ammonia Combustion Engines: Dual Fuel, Multi-Spark and Pre-Chamber

2025-24-0005

09/07/2025

This study presents a CFD-based evaluation of ignition strategies for enabling ammonia combustion in a light-duty internal combustion engine. The model was first validated against experimental data for both pure ammonia spark ignition and dual-fuel ammonia-diesel compression ignition cases. Upon validation, three ignition strategies were investigated: dual-fuel compression ignition with sixty percent ammonia energy fraction, and multi-spark and passive pre-chamber ignition under stoichiometric conditions. Simulations were used to assess combustion phasing, efficiency, and emissions characteristics. The dual-fuel mode enabled stable ignition but resulted in incomplete combustion, with three-dimensional contours revealing that central regions of the chamber remained largely unburned, contributing to high ammonia slip and highlighting the need for further optimization of spray targeting and combustion chamber design. The multi-spark strategy achieved the highest efficiency through rapid

Shafiq, Omar, Menaca, Rafael, Liu, Xinlei, Uddeen, Kalim, Tang, Qinglong, Turner, James, Im, Hong G.

Lifting the Key Functional Figures Concerning Performance and Efficiency for 2nd Gen. H ₂ Engines for On- and Off-Highway Installations by Tailored Engineering Measures

2025-24-0049

09/07/2025

To curb global warming and meet stricter greenhouse gas emission standards all over the globe, it is essential to minimize the carbon footprint of applications in the mobility and transport segment. The demands on mobility, transportation and services are constantly increasing in line with worldwide population growth and the corresponding need for economic prosperity. This ongoing trend will lead to a significant increase in energy requirements for mobility-related applications in the upcoming time, despite all efficiency improvements. The timely introduction and accelerated spread of low-carbon/carbon-neutral energy sources is therefore of crucial importance. In addition to the switch to electric propulsion systems, particularly in the light-duty vehicle sector, the use of advanced and optimized hydrogen (H2)-powered internal combustion engines (ICE) represents a parallel, compatible technical option, as these applications will also meet the most stringent requirements in terms of

Koerfer, Thomas, Zimmer, Pascal, Li, Zhengling, Pischinger, Stefan, Lückerath, Moritz

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