This paper introduces a sensorless approach for data-driven modeling of in-cabin CO2 concentration to optimize air recirculation flap control without the need for a dedicated CO2 sensor. Elevated CO2 concentrations, resulting from passenger exhalation, can impair occupants’ cognitive function and comfort. Current state-of-the-art solutions rely either on time-based control strategies, which lack responsiveness to actual cabin conditions, or on direct CO2 measurements via sensors, which increase system complexity and costs. In contrast, the proposed approach aims to replicate the benefits of sensor-based control without requiring physical sensors. In this study, a model-based methodology is presented, utilizing empirical CO2 measurement data collected from real-world test drives at varying occupancies, fan stages, vehicle speeds, and flap positions. Data acquisition involves a multi-gas analyzer positioned within the passengers’ breathing zone under controlled operation of the vehicle’s

Stürmer, Michael, Geier, Bertram, Hofstetter, Martin, Hirz, Mario

Effect of Renewable Fuel Blends on Particulate Emissions under Medium Engine Load and Injector Coking Conditions in a GDI Engine

2026-01-0301

4/7/2026

Renewable gasoline is blended with fossil gasoline as part of the effort to achieve zero net carbon emissions. This study examined how five gasoline fuels with different hydrocarbon compositions affect engine-out gaseous and particle number (PN) emissions. Gasolines F3 and F4 reduce GHG emissions by 54% and 35%, compared with fossil gasoline. The other three gasolines reduce GHG emissions by 4-9%. Tests were conducted on a single-cylinder GDI engine at 10-14 bar indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) and 2000 rpm. The injector-tip coking behavior of the test fuels and the resulting PN emissions were also investigated at 10 bar IMEP. Spray plume targets and start-of-injection (SOI) timing were adjusted to examine how the test fuels affected PN emissions. An endoscope was used to identify the sources of soot during fuel combustion. The experimental results show that PN varies with gasoline composition and engine operating conditions. Aromatics and olefins contribute more to injector

Muniappan, Krishnamoorthi, Dahlander, Petter, Helmantel, Ayolt, Alemahdi, Nika, Lehto, Kalle

Beyond PFAS: Unlocking the Potential of R290 and R744 for EV Efficiency

2026-01-0127

4/7/2026

The anticipated PFAS ban in the US by 2029 has created a need to evaluate alternative refrigerant solutions for automotive thermal management systems. This work compares three candidates—Propane (R290), Carbon Dioxide (R744), and R1234yf—through system-level testing and demonstration projects. R1234yf remains the current industry baseline. Test results show that Propane (R290) delivers comparable efficiency while offering a significantly lower global warming potential. However, its flammability presents integration challenges, not present with R1234yf or R744. CO₂ (R744) demonstrated promising performance as well. To address safety concerns with Propane, AVL developed mitigation measures including rapid leak detection, robust containment strategies, and optimized circuit layouts designed to reduce ignition risks. These countermeasures were validated in practice through the European Commission’s QUIET project. Within this program, a Honda B-segment electric vehicle was equipped with a

bires, Michael, Possegger, Jonathan

The Influence of Split Injection Ratio on Efficiency and NO _x Emissions in a Pilot Diesel-Ignited Hydrogen Direct Injection Engine

2026-01-0329

4/7/2026

This study investigates the impact of the hydrogen split injection ratio on the combustion of pilot diesel-ignited hydrogen direct-injection engines, which is expected to affect hydrogen-air mixture conditions and thus flame propagation and diffusion flame developments. Experiments were conducted on a 1-litre single-cylinder diesel engine equipped with an additional hydrogen injector operating at 35 MPa. Hydrogen accounting for 95% of total input energy was injected at 150 and 60 °CA bTDC for the first and second pulses, which were selected as high-efficiency injection timings from previous equal-split injection tests. The 5% diesel energy was injected near TDC to control CA50 at 10 °CA aTDC. While varying the split ratio between the two hydrogen injections, in-cylinder pressure/aHRR profiles, engine efficiency/power output and engine-out emissions of NOx and CO2 were evaluated. Results showed that the hydrogen split ratio does not significantly affect IMEP/efficiency, which

Zhao, Yifan, Chan, Qing Nian, Kook, Sanghoon

Study of Deposit Control Additive Efficacy in Gasoline Direct Injection Engines

2026-01-0349

4/7/2026

There is an increasing adoption of Direct-Injection Spark-Ignition (DISI) engines in the market, which per 2024 US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Automotive Trends Report represents 73% of new vehicles sold in the US. And while it is well accepted that DISI offers advantages over Port Fuel Injection (PFI) technology in meeting stringent CO2 emissions and fuel economy requirements set by the EPA, DISI engines are also associated with increased formation of injector deposits. These deposits may foul injectors and accumulate on the injector tip causing distorted spray patterns and diffusive combustion. Ultimately, this leads to engine performance deterioration and increased harmful emissions. To control deposit formation, detergent-type chemistries are added to the fuel in small amounts. Deposit Control Additives (DCAs) function by preventing the formation of deleterious injector deposits as well as removing existing ones. This study used standardized protocols describing the

Soriano, Nestor, Williams, Rod, Cracknell, Roger, Lang, Wendy, Chahal, Jasprit

A New Approach for SI Combustion Modeling to Address the Upcoming Fuel Diversity Scenario

2026-01-0276

4/7/2026

Climate change concerns demand a drastic reduction in CO2 emissions, tending to what is called carbon neutrality. Even if political guidelines promote electrification, considering the transportation sector, not all applications have the same requirements and boundary conditions, and hence, their optimal solution is not necessarily the same. In this context, in parallel with pure electric powertrains, the internal combustion engine (ICE) still has a relevant role to play, mainly in hybrid powertrains, working together with an electrical motor. In this hybridization context, the spark-ignition (SI) engine uses to be the most adopted solution because of its lower cost and complexity. Consequently, it can be concluded that the SI engine will still play a significant role in the near future. However, when ICEs are considered, the search for carbon neutrality requires the use of fuels other than fossil fuels. At this point, many alternatives arise, from biofuels to synthetic e-fuels, or even

Robayo-Rueda, Daniel, Lopez, J. Javier, Martin, Jaime, Novella, Ricardo

Model-Based Development of a Heavy-Duty H ₂ -ICE and Integrated, Turbogeneration, Electrification, and Supercharging (ITES) System

2026-01-0426

4/7/2026

Changing global economic conditions and efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are driving the need to develop efficient, near-term, alternative propulsion system technologies for heavy-duty vehicles. This study combines a hydrogen internal combustion engine (H2-ICE) with electrically assisted turbocharging, exhaust energy recovery, and mild hybridization to maximize propulsion system efficiency and reduce NOx emissions. To reduce cost and packaging impact of integration of these technologies on an engine, the study presents a model-based development and optimization of an Integrated Turbogeneration, Electrification, and Supercharging (ITES) system that combines the enabling components into a single compact unit. In the first phase of this study, a H2-ICE and aftertreatment concept for a MY2027 7.7L medium heavy-duty on-road engine was developed and evaluated through 1D simulation. The concept was to convert a diesel engine by changing the cylinder head to implement a port fuel

Bustamante, Oscar, Correia Garcia, Bruno, Joshi, Satyum, Franke, Michael

Real-Time Observations of the Effect of Fuel Dilution in an Engine Transient Friction Rig. Along with Real-Time Observations of Fuel Entering and Leaving Internal Combustion Engine Oil, over Both Standard Engine, ICE and Plug-In Hybrid, PHEV Dynamic Drive Cycles

2026-01-0351

4/7/2026

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) with an increasing level of electrification, are becoming a major part of the global energy transition. To achieve lower engine tailpipe exhaust emissions and improve total fuel consumption, typically the HEV control system expertly and frequently switches between the internal combustion engine and electric motor drive, with multiple stops and restarts of the internal combustion engine (ICE). As a consequential result of this switching, are typically slower or even incomplete engine warm-up times, depending on the engine speed, load pattern and run time of the vehicle drive cycle. Along with the speed and load transient control, the engine stop and start processes are also challenging to control, with respect to cold start fuel and combustion by-products entering the oil. Consequently, contamination enters the engine oil but may not completely leave. These effects are highly transient over the drive cycle. Contaminants and in particular, fuel dilution

Butcher, Richard, Bradley, Nathan, Thedering, Dennis

Achieving Euro 7 WHSC NOx Emission Targets from a Spark Ignited Engine Using Methanol-Hydrogen Co-Fuelling

2026-01-0321

4/7/2026

E-methanol is increasingly seen as a promising clean fuel because its chemical makeup is close to fossil fuels, making it easier to use in existing engines. It offers a carbon-neutral option to help reduce greenhouse gases in sectors where cutting emissions is especially difficult, such as transportation. However, while e-methanol avoids adding new carbon dioxide, burning it in internal combustion engines still releases harmful gases like oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and other toxic by-products like formaldehyde and formic acid that damage both health and the environment. This report explores a new strategy that combines methanol with hydrogen to run engines under “ultra-lean” conditions and its impact on emissions, performance and efficiency. Experiments were carried out on a single-cylinder spark ignition engine, with directly injected methanol and port fuelled injection of hydrogen. The findings show that adding about 10% hydrogen (energy basis) at low engine loads can extend the lean

Ambalakatte, Ajith, Geng, Sikai, Cairns, Alasdair, Varaei, Amirata, Harrington, Anthony, Hall, Jonathan, Bassett, Mike, Cracknell, Roger

Analysis of In-Cylinder Flow for Hybrid Gasoline Engine using High-Speed Particle Image Velocimetry

2026-01-0298

4/7/2026

To increase the thermal efficiency of a hybrid inline 4-cylinder direct injection engine, combustion promotion was carried out by enhancing the in-cylinder flow. The intake port and piston top shape were optimized using CFD. In-cylinder flow analysis in steady flow showed that the mean steady flow tumble ratio with the in-cylinder flow enhancement specification increased to 1.7 compared to 1.0 with the previous model and 1.4 with the early development specification. The limit engine speed, which is the engine speed at when the mean flow coefficient decreases due to the choke, and the mean steady flow tumble ratio with the in-cylinder flow enhancement specification were positioned on the trade-off line between the NA and the TC engine. In-cylinder flow analysis on the single-cylinder optical engine showed that the in-cylinder flow entering the cylinder smoothly flowed to the exhaust side, and the in-cylinder flow descending on the exhaust side was smoothly converted to the upward flow

Okura, Yasuhiro, Urata, Yasuhiro

BEV Incremental CO ₂ Emissions in a Ranked Order Electric Grid

2026-01-0424

4/7/2026

Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) have been sold as ‘Zero Emissions Vehicles’ (ZEV) by governments to reduce transportation CO2. While they are not ZEV because they run on grid electricity, they could be ‘effectively ZEV’ if the incremental CO2 is ‘very small’. At the national level, this is estimated using following metrics: (1) Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle (ICEV) fuel consumption, from the total US gasoline consumption divided by the total fleet miles driven, 25 mpg or 350 g CO2/mi, (2) Strong Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) about one third less, 240 g CO2/mi. (3) BEV energy consumption, using data from systematic on-road testing of a wide range of vehicles, estimated at 40 kWh/100 mi for a US sales mix. (4) Electricity marginal CO2: in a ranked order grid, zero-CO2 sources are prioritized and supplemented by fossil sources. IEA hourly data show that the US 48 contiguous states are self-contained, with zero-CO2 sources providing a third of total demand. The response to hourly

Phlips, Patrick

Predicting of Transport Carbon Dioxide Emission of Light-Duty Gasoline Vehicles Based on Driving Behavior with Machine Learning Algorithm

2026-01-5012

2/20/2026

Driving behavior is a significant factor influencing vehicle emissions, and it must be carefully considered when modeling emissions for real road transportation vehicles. This study aims to contribute to this field by improving the intelligence and accuracy of distinguishing driving behavior volatility through the use of clustering algorithm. The research begins by processing raw emissions data collected from light-duty gasoline vehicle during real-driving emissions (RDE) test, which are used as input features for the clustering algorithm. Subsequently, a driving behavior classification method based on the gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering algorithm is proposed. The results show that aggressive driving has a significantly higher CO2 emission rate compared to normal and calm driving. Specifically, the average CO2 emission rate for aggressive driving is 5.61 g/s, which is substantially higher than that of calm driving (2.40 g/s) and normal driving (2.91 g/s). Following this, the

Yu, Hao, Ma, Yi, Tan, Jianxun, Wang, Jing, Zhang, Honghao, Hu, Wei, Chen, Hao, Yu, Wenbin

Enhancing Combustion, Performance and Emission Profiles Using Kapok Methyl Ester Blends with Hydrogen

2026-28-0058

2/12/2026

This study investigates the potential of using a dual green alternative fuel combination, the one is hydrogen fuel and another one is biodiesel for enhancing the Performance, combustion and emission profile of a compression ignition engine. The kapok oil biodiesel was blended with Diesel in proportions of 20% (K20) and 40% (K40) by volume. The hydrogen gas was supplied at a constant flow of 4 liter per minute (LPM). The experimental fuels are neat diesel D100, K20 (80% Diesel and 20 % kapok methyl ester), K40 (60% Diesel + 40 % Kapok methyl ester), K20 + H4L (K20 with 4 LPM hydrogen) and K40+H4L (K40 with 4 LPM hydrogen). These test blends are investigated in a single cylinder direct injection CI engine under 0% to 100% load conditions at a fixed speed of 1500 rpm combustion, and emissions characteristic were evaluated and compared with base fuel. The outcomes indicated that the use of B20 and B40 blends without hydrogen led to reduced BTE because of their lower cetane number and

Anbarasan, B, M, Kumaresan, Balamurugan, S, Rajesh, Munnusamy

New Material Significantly Enhances Green Hydrogen Production Efficiency

TBMG-54561

2/1/2026

Green hydrogen, produced through water electrolysis, is a next-generation eco-friendly energy source as it does not generate pollutants like carbon dioxide during production. Catalysts play a crucial role in the water electrolysis process, splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen. The efficiency of green hydrogen production largely depends on the performance of these catalysts. Therefore, the commercialization of green hydrogen hinges on the development of cost-effective catalysts capable of maintaining high performance over extended periods.

Optimizing Hydrogen Engine Performance a Comparative Study of Lean & Stoichiometric Calibration Approach

2026-26-0261

1/16/2026

Hydrogen combustion in internal combustion engines offers numerous advantages, such as zero CO2 emissions and high flame speed, which make it a promising alternative fuel for green vehicle solutions. In order to maximize the engine performance with hydrogen, however, meticulous calibration of the air-fuel mixture must be performed, particularly when lean and stoichiometric combustion conditions are considered. Lean burning, i.e., excess air, offers better thermal efficiency and lower NOx emissions but can cause lower engine power and combustion instability. Stoichiometric combustion, however, ensures complete combustion of the fuel-air mixture, but at the cost of higher combustion temperatures and consequently, high NOx emissions. Calibration strategies for hydrogen engines are presented in this paper by comparing the lean and stoichiometric strategies and their implications on engine power output, efficiency, and emissions. Test data from several hydrogen engine configurations

Jadhav, Ajinkya, Bandyopadhyay, Debjyoti, Sutar, Prasanna S, Sonawane, Shailesh Balkrishna, Rairikar, Sandeep D, Thipse, Sukrut S

Study of Drive Trace Indices and Their Correlation with CO ₂ in Chassis Dynamometer

2026-26-0517

1/16/2026

With introduction of Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency norms (hereafter referred as CAFÉ norms) in India, the manufacturers of all M1 Category vehicles (not exceeding 3,500kg GVW) must ensure that they comply with Annual Corporate average CO2 target as defined in regulation. Moreover, this target will become stricter at various stages in the coming years. Hence CO2 emissions are becoming one of the major focus parameters during vehicle development. There are several factors that can impact CO2 emissions during measurement in laboratory-based test cycles such as MIDC or WLTC. One such major factor is driving variations. Although speed and time tolerances are provided during the test (as part of AIS 137/AIS 175) to limit the variation, even within these tolerances, drive-related effects make significant contribution to test results variability. Monitoring and control of such variations is important to understand the true fuel economy potential of the vehicle. Drive Trace indices are

ER, Shivram, Rawat, Vijaypal, Khandelwal, Vineet, Kumar, Arun, Malhotra, Jitendra

Testing Methodology to Calculate the Fuel Economy in Km/Kg of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) based on Current (Ampere) Method and Flow Method

2026-26-0248

1/16/2026

The globe is looking headlong to set up new benchmarks for the reduction of GHG (Green House Gases) considering short-term and long-term strategies. Efforts in the Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) domain have been accelerating to find an alternative way to reduce harmful emissions. Hydrogen is considered as a promising fuel to leapfrog this transition. Hydrogen fuel can be categorized into vast mobility areas viz. ICE and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV). Hydrogen fuel has attracted global attention from engine researchers due to the crude oil crisis and its rise in prices in recent years. This will serve the nation's goal towards carbon neutrality. Hydrogen has a few advantages such as less fueling time, higher heating value and more efficiency making it an eye-touching fuel for the automotive industry. In the contemporary FCEV segment, many fuel cell technologies have evolved, wherein the development of Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell technology has taken a new height for

Joshi, Ashish Rajendra, Kandalgaonkar, Siddhesh, Sontakke, Rushikesh

Evaluating the Environmental Footprint of Electric Vehicles: A Life Cycle Assessment Approach for Sustainable Mobility in India

2026-26-0235

1/16/2026

Road transport contributes 12% of India’s energy-related Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions. It is one of the major source of air pollution in urban area. These vehicle related emissions has increased more than three times since 2000 which is mainly driven by rapid urbanization and the growing demand for private vehicles. If there is no shift away from fossil to renewables, climate change intensity and air quality challenges will increase. Among sustainable alternatives, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a promising solution. However, a comprehensive understanding of their environmental performance, particularly in the Indian context, is essential for informed decision-making. This study employs a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method to evaluate the environmental consequences of typical passenger vehicle with an gasoline/diesel powered vehicle compared to its EV powertrain covering Cradle-to-Grave life cycle phases. Key life cycle stages—manufacturing, transportation, distribution

Sonawane, Nayan, Sathaye, Asmita, Gode, Abhishek, Deshpande, Ashish, Shinde, Harshavardhan, Kothe, Anjali

Extreme Learning Machines for Fast Instantaneous Prediction of Emission Level of an Automobile

2026-26-0226

1/16/2026

Addressing climate issues is a key aspect of good global governance today. A key aspect of managing the threats caused to the environment around is to ensure a sustainable transportation system so that humans exist in peace with nature. According to sources, in 2020 alone, cars accounted for approximately 23% of global CO2 emissions. In addition, they also emit dangerous pollutants thus damaging the ecosystem. To keep pollutants in check there are emission level testing strategies in place in each country. However, we can do better for a sustainable future. On one hand, the huge volume of vehicles around the world makes it an excellent choice and source for a vast emission level dataset comprising of input features as well as the target variable representing the emission band of the vehicle. In addition to the big data available as mentioned above, major advancements in the machine learning algorithms are done today. The advent of algorithms such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) has

Sridhar, Sriram, Aswani, Shelendra

Hybrid Topology Selection & Optimization of a Compact SUV to Meet Future CO ₂ Norms – an Indian Case Study

2026-26-0077

1/16/2026

Rising environmental concerns and stringent emissions norms are pushing automakers to adopt more sustainable technologies. There is no single perfect solution for any market and there are solutions ranging from biofuels, green hydrogen to electric vehicles. For Indian market, especially in the passenger car segment, hybrid vehicles are favoured when it comes to manufacturers as well as with consumer because of multiple reasons such as reliability, performance, fuel efficiency and lower long-term cost of ownership. For automakers planning to upgrade their fleets in the context of upcoming CAFE III (91.7 g CO2 / km) & CAFE IV (70 g CO2/km) norms, hybridization emerges as the next natural step for passenger cars. Lately, various state governments have also promoted hybrid vehicle sales by offering certain targeted tax breaks which were previously reserved for EVs exclusively. Current study focuses on various parallel hybrid topologies for an Indian compact SUV, which is the highest

Warkhede, Pawan, Keizer, Ruben, Sandhu, Rouble, Emran, Ashraf

Technologies and Strategies for High Brake Thermal Efficiency Gasoline Engine to Meet the Future CO ₂ Emission Targets in India

2026-26-0072

1/16/2026

The Indian automobile industry is experiencing a significant shift, propelled by environmental necessities and national climate obligations set at the CoP26 summit, aiming for a 45% decrease in CO₂ emissions by 2030 and reaching carbon neutrality by 2070 [1]. Transportation continues to be a significant source of air pollution; consequently, India is enhancing its regulatory frameworks with BS VI Stage 2 regulations, CAFE Phase III norms set for 2027, and CAFE Phase IV by 2032 [2]. Furthermore, the transition from MIDC to WLTP driving cycle is meant to increase the accuracy of the efficiency and emissions assessments [2]. To comply to these upcoming regulations, the automotive industry is moving toward producing high efficiency engines in India. A naturally aspirated (NA) 1.5L, 4-cylinder inline gasoline engine was selected from Indian market for this study. Maximum Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) of this engine is around 37%. Assessment of new technologies were performed by

Garg, Shivam, Fischer, Marcus, Emran, Ashraf, Jagodzinski, Bartosch, Franzke, Bjoern

The Aerodynamic Development of a Compact SUV for FE Improvement Compliance with CAFE Norms

2026-26-0595

1/16/2026

The Mahindra XUV 3XO is a compact SUV, the first-generation of which was introduced in 2018. This paper explores some of the challenges entailed in developing the subsequent generation of this successful product, maintaining exterior design cues while at the same time improving its aerodynamic efficiency. A development approach is outlined that made use of both CFD simulation and Coastdown testing at MSPT (Mahindra SUV proving track). Drag coefficient improvement of 40 counts (1 count = 0.001 Cd) can be obtained for the best vehicle exterior configuration by paying particular attention to: AGS development to limit the drag due to cooling airflow into the engine compartment Front wheel deflector optimization Mid underbody cover development (beside the LH & RH side skirting) Wheel Rim optimization In this paper we have analyzed the impact of these design changes on the aerodynamic flow field, Pressure plots and consequently drag development over the vehicle length is highlighted. An

Vihan, Nikhil

3D CFD Combustion Evaluation of Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) as a Potential Alternate Fuel for the Future CI Engines

2026-26-0113

1/16/2026

Transportation industry is facing a growing challenge to reduce its carbon footprint and utilize the carbon neutral, more environmentally sustainable fuels to comply with the goal of carbon neutrality. Implementation of carbon free fuels such as Hydrogen, Ammonia and low carbon fuels such as Methanol, Ethanol can significantly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions, but these fuels are suitable for SI engine architecture due to their high-octane ratings. Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO) is one of the few fuel solutions available today with a high Cetane rating (70-80), that can be used as a drop-in fuel in the existing CI engines, with minimal modifications. The main constituent of HVO is pure alkane and it can be produced from feedstocks such as vegetable oils, animal fats, various wastes and by-products. A closed cycle 3-D CFD combustion simulation using a detailed chemistry-based solver has been conducted with the HVO, on a three cylinder, naturally aspirated water-cooled CI engine at

Tripathi, Ayush, Mukherjee, Nalini, Nene, Devendra

Powertrain Optimization of Indian City Electric Bus Using Active Learning Simulation Methodology

2026-26-0657

1/16/2026

Public transport electrification is going to play a massive role in India’s COP26 pledge to achieve net zero emissions by 2070. India plans to electrify 800,000 buses in a push towards 30% EV penetration by 2030. Further encouraged by government incentives under National Electric Bus Program (NEBP), e-Bus market is expected to grow at a CAGR of ~86% annually over the next 5 years. With most OEMs going for fleet electrification for reducing CO2 emissions and to cater to growing demand in Indian cities for cleaner public transport, improving powertrain efficiency and performance of state-of-the-art e-Buses is a natural progression of e-mobility sector development in India. The first step in designing powertrain for an electric city bus is to determine the motor(s) size and transmission specifications (number of gears, gear ratios etc.). Complications arise due to a wider and non-linear operation range of eBus. This study focuses on powertrain optimization for a medium duty electric city

Sandhu, Rouble, Chen, Bicheng, Emran, Ashraf, Xia, Feihong, Lin, Xiao, Berry, Sushil

A Thermoelectric System for Emission Control Optimization in Two-Wheeler Automotive Applications

2026-26-0218

1/16/2026

Environmental pollution is one of the growing concerns of our society. As vehicle emissions are a major contributor to air pollution, emission control is a primary goal of the Automotive industry. Vehicle emissions are higher due to improper combustion, which leads to toxic gases being generated from the exhaust system. Unburnt fuel is one of the leading causes of toxic pollutants such as Carbon Monoxide, Nitric Oxides (NOx) and Hydrocarbons. The catalytic converter converts these gases into less toxic substances such as Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen, and water vapor. The catalytic converter performs efficiently after reaching its “Light Off” temperature, after which the catalyst becomes active. Hence, elevated temperature of the exhaust gases aids in efficient conversion. Presently, the gases from the exhaust system are approximately at a temperature of 300°C-600°C. This paper outlines the concept of a Peltier (Thermoelectric) Module - based system, which helps maintain the high

Venkateshwaran, Aishwarya, Soodlu, Shashikiran, M, Mathaiyan

Prediction of REESS Factor for SOC Correction in Hybrid Vehicles

2026-26-0471

1/16/2026

The regulatory mechanisms to measure emissions from automobiles have evolved drastically over the years. Certification of CO2 emissions is one of them. It is not only critical for environmental protection but can also invite heavy fines to OEMs, if not complied with. In homologation test of a Hybrid Vehicle, it is necessary to correct the measured CO2 to account for deviations in measurement from failed Start-Stop phase and difference between start and end State of Charge (SOC) of battery. The correction methodology is also applicable for vehicle simulation in Software-in-Loop environment and for analyzing vehicle test data for CO2 emissions with programmed digital tools. The focus of this paper is on the correction of CO2 derived from SOC delta in the WLTP homologation drive cycle. The battery energy delta due to difference in SOC between start and end of drive cycle should be converted to corresponding CO2 expended from Internal Combustion Engine. The resulting correction factor is

Gopinath, Shravanthi Poorigali, Khatod, Krishna

Replacing Diesel Engines with CNG Engines – Impact on Emissions, Based on Chassis Dynamometer Tests of Medium and Heavy-Duty Buses

2026-26-0127

1/16/2026

This paper compares carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, and oxides of nitrogen emissions from medium and heavy-duty buses using diesel, diesel-hybrid, and CNG powertrains. Comparisons are made using results from chassis dynamometer-based tests with driving cycles intended to simulate a wide range of operating conditions. Tail pipe emissions are measured by diluting the vehicle’s exhaust in a full-scale dilution tunnel by mixing with conditioned air. Samples are drawn through probes of raw exhaust, diluted exhaust and measured using laboratory grade emission analyzers. Fuel consumption of diesel is measured using a weighing scale, while a gas flow meter is used for measuring CNG consumption. Experimental data from 19 buses tested on a chassis dynamometer over the last 8 years has been analyzed and a comparison of results from similar buses with the differently fueled powertrains is presented. Based on these test results, it is shown that replacing diesel engines with CNG engines

Iyer, Suresh

Migration from MIDC to WLTP in India: Challenges & Solutions for a Small Commercial Vehicle

2026-26-0215

1/16/2026

In line with global peers (EU, Japan, etc.), the Automotive Industry Standard (AIS) Committee in India has decided to adopt “World harmonized Light vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP)” for M2 and N1 category vehicles not exceeding 3500 kg and for all M1 category vehicles. As a result, “World harmonized Light-duty vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC)” is set to replace currently applicable “Modified Indian Drive Cycle (MIDC)” in the next couple of years. The draft Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) III & CAFE IV norms for CO2 emission limits, which are set to be implemented in year 2027 and 2032 respectively refer to a shift to WLTP from MIDC. The latest draft of Central Motor Vehicle Rules (CMVR) for BS-VI emissions is also being revised to use WLTC as test cycle. This migration to WLTC is in sync with the demand for test procedures to replicate real driving conditions more appropriately. Further, the move to WLTC along with stricter emission norms is a major step towards realizing India’s COP26

Pawar, Bhushan, Ehrly, Markus, Sandhu, Rouble, Emran, Ashraf, Berry, Sushil

Development of High BMEP Natural Gas Engine with Knock Mitigation

2026-26-0121

1/16/2026

The stringent emission norms over the past few years have driven the need to use low-carbon fuels and after treatment technology. Natural gas is a suitable alternative to diesel heavy-duty engines for power generation and transportation sectors. Stoichiometric combustion offers the advantages of complete combustion and low carbon dioxide emissions. Turbocharging and cooled exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) technology enhances the power density along with reduced exhaust emissions. However, there are several constraints in the operation of natural gas spark ignition engine such as exhaust gas temperature limit of 780 °C, sufficient before turbine pressure for EGR drivability, boost pressure, peak cylinder pressure limit and knocking. These limits coulld restrict the engine BMEP (brake mean effective pressure). In the present study, tests were conducted on a V12, 24 liters, heavy duty natural gas fuelled spark ignition engine (600 HP) with different EGR and turbocharger configurations to

Khaladkar, Omkar, Marwaha, Akshey

Unveiling the Dynamics of Methanol-Diesel Dual Direct Injection Compression Ignition Combustion: A Synergistic Experimental and Numerical Study

2026-26-0110

1/16/2026

The pressing global need for de-fossilization of the transport sector, especially within the heavy-duty segment, has intensified the exploration of alternative clean fuels. In this context, methanol gained traction due to their renewable production pathways, carbon-neutrality, and are being highly promoted by the Indian government to reduce CO2 emissions. Dual direct injection compression ignition (DDICI) is an effective combustion strategy to use methanol in heavy-duty engines, which combines the advantage of high-efficiency compression ignition with the clean-burning potential of methanol. In contrast to spark-ignited premixed methanol engines, this strategy involves a diffusion combustion of the methanol flame, thereby eliminating knocking and enabling running with high compression ratios. This experimental and numerical study presents a comprehensive investigation into the DDICI strategy using methanol as primary fuel and diesel as a pilot for ignition assistance. The work

Singh, Inderpal, Dhongde, Avnish, Raut, Ankit, Güdden, Arne, Emran, Ashraf, Berry, Sushil

Effect of Ultra-High Fuel Injection Pressure on Combustion Characteristics, Engine Performance and Pollutant Emissions of a Multi-Cylinder Engine

2025-36-0212

12/18/2025

The concern about CO2 emissions from commercial vehicles powered with internal combustion engines has been motivating research and development projects to reduce the transportation sector carbon footprint. One of the promising alternatives is the use of biofuels associated with high-efficient internal combustion engines, taking advantage of the current infrastructure of car manufacturers and automotive suppliers, as well as of the potential growth in biofuel production. With the stringent emissions regulations, the use of downsized SI engines for passenger cars has driven the adoption of direct injection technology, enabling the use of different fuel injection strategies such as stratified mixtures and multiple injection events, as well as the increase of the compression ratio as a way to improve engine thermal efficiency. This path also led to a gradual increase in injection pressure, aiming to improve spray formation and reduce the formation of particulate matter. In this sense, the

Antolini, Jácson, Zabeu, Clayton Barcelos, Pires, Gustavo Cassares, Polizio, Yuri

Development of a Localized Heat Treatment Route for Stamped Automotive Parts

2025-36-0089

12/18/2025

The increasing demand for sustainable and space-efficient manufacturing solutions in the automotive industry has driven the search for alternative processes to conventional hot stamping. This study proposes a novel localized heat treatment technique based on Joule heating, aiming to reduce the physical footprint of production equipment, simplify the thermal processing of structural components, and minimize the carbon footprint of the process. The method consists of cold stamping followed by localized austenitization of 22MnB5 steel using electrically powered copper electrodes, eliminating the need for large-scale gas-fired furnaces. The process is particularly advantageous in the Brazilian context, where the electric energy matrix is predominantly hydroelectric, contributing to lower CO2 emissions. Experimental trials were conducted using a Gleeble® thermomechanical simulator to optimize thermal cycle parameters (heating rate, austenitization temperature, and soaking time) ensuring the

Santana, Jessica, Curti, Gustavo, Lima, Tiago, Sarmento, Matheus, Callegari, Bruna, Folle, Luis

Alternative to PFAS Ban: Impact on the Systems and Implementation Challenges

2025-36-0102

12/18/2025

In early of 2023 the European Union began the process of banning the so-called Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, with a total elimination forecast for 2035. Currently, the refrigerant gas used by automakers is the R1234yf, a substitute for the R134a as a refrigerant with zero degree of ozone layer destruction, developed to meet the European directive 2006/40/EC that came into force in 2011. It requires all new car platforms for sale on the continent to use a refrigerant in their air-conditioning system with a Global Warming Potential below 150. The alternatives studies for the replacement of R1234yf are R744 (CO2) and R290 (Propane). The first is characterized by being a non-flammable gas and has a working pressure of 6 to 12 times higher than the current one. The second has the characteristic of having working pressure similar to R1234yf, but it is a highly flammable gas. This work focuses on the analysis of the two alternative gases to R1234yf, exploring their characteristics

Ariza, Valquíria Rezende, Erberelli, Diego Pivatto, Silva, Pedro Henrique Moraes da, Miyauchi, Edison Tsutomu

Investigation of the Performance and Emissions of a Compression Ignition Mechanical Engine Operating in a Dual-Fuel Mode with Diesel and CNG

2025-36-0127

12/18/2025

This study investigates the impact of adding compressed natural gas (CNG) to diesel on the performance of a compression ignition engine. In diesel dual-fuel systems, CNG is used to replace part of the energy originally supplied by diesel. The objective is to evaluate the performance of an Agrale BX6110 agricultural tractor engine operating in dual-fuel mode, with simple adaptations that allow it to function in its original mode as well, ensuring easy reversibility. Additionally, CNG can represent a cost-effective and environmentally advantageous alternative for farmers, significantly reducing their operational costs. Tests were conducted with four different CNG injection cases and three diesel injection cases, using an AW Dynamometer NEB 200 test bench. The maximum diesel substitution by CNG was 45.20%. In dual-fuel mode, the engine achieved maximum torque and power values of 665 N·m and 37.3 kW, respectively, representing a 20.45% loss compared to diesel-only operation. A reduction of

Oliveira, Lucas, Alvarez, Carlos Eduardo Castilla, Cesar, Felipe

Refrigerants Selection for Automotive Air Conditioning System in Tropical Climates

2025-36-0143

12/18/2025

Automotive air conditioning systems are essential for ensuring thermal comfort for passengers. However, these systems require the elimination of refrigerants with high Global Warming Potential (GWP) and a transition toward more environmentally friendly alternatives. For many years, R134a has been the industry standard in automotive applications, following the phase-out of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) such as R12. This study evaluates the energy efficiency and environmental impact of several refrigerants in automotive air conditioning systems in tropical climates. A comprehensive literature review is conducted to select the refrigerants to be compared with R134a. The following is chosen: R1234yf, R744 (CO2), R290, R600a and R152a. Then a mathematical model is prepared and validated. The deviation between the results presented by the mathematical model and those in the literature varies from -1.21% to 8.33%. The simulation results suggest that the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of R152a

Oliveira Dias, Vinícius José de, Barbieri, Paulo Eduardo Lopes, Moreira, Thiago Augusto Araújo, Santos, Alex Henrique, Freitas Paulino, Tiago de

Calculation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in CO ₂ Equivalent per Hectare of Sugarcane Cultivated for Brazilian Ethanol Production

2025-36-0191

12/18/2025

This study aims to quantify, through Monte Carlo simulation (100,000 iterations), the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with the complete production cycle of ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil, expressed in kg CO2eq/ha, and to project these emissions over a 20-year horizon. To achieve this, the production cycle was segmented into distinct stages - land use change, soil management and preparation, fertilization, harvesting and straw management, soil carbon sequestration, and industrial processing - and the parameters for each stage were defined based on recent. Three representative scenarios were considered: Worst-case (unsustainable practices involving conversion of native vegetation, high fertilizer dosages, and complete burning of the straw), Typical (conventional practices, with conversion of degraded pastures and sustainable management), and Ideal (best practices, characterized by reduced input dosages, the use of nitrification inhibitors, and high straw retention). The

Assis, Marcelo Suman Silva, Paula Araújo, Gabriel Heleno de, Baeta, José Guilherme Coelho, Abreu, Pedro Blaso Barbosa de, Filho, Fernando Antonio Rodrigues

Study of the Performance, Consumption and Range of a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Powered by Green Hydrogen

2025-36-0007

12/18/2025

Ethanol is a hydrogen-rich liquid and has a specific energy of 8.0 kWh/kg. In a vehicle, hydrogen storage is done in high-pressure cylinders. The same fundamental technology is used at other fuel cell systems in vehicles such as Toyota Mirai and Honda Clarity. Hydrogen is also introduced into the cell to generate electricity, which will power an electric motor that drives the vehicle. Excess electricity is stored in batteries. The main characteristic of the system described here is that hydrogen can be generated through an additional process in a reformer, installed at a fixed station. The reformer transforms the ethanol stored in the fuel station tank into hydrogen, which can then fuel a vehicle equipped with high-pressure cylinders and fed into the fuel cell. The system, however, emits water vapor, heat, and CO2. This is because carbon dioxide is a byproduct resulting from the transformation of ethanol into hydrogen. According to studies, despite this the system is carbon neutral

Fontana, Romeu

Research on Optimization Method for Railway Route Schemes in the Western Mountainous Area Considering the “Dual-Carbon” Strategy

2025-99-0304

12/17/2025

Building a green and ecological railway transportation system that incorporates the “Dual-Carbon” Strategy is a central focus and challenge in current industry research. In the western mountainous regions with complex engineering geological conditions and fragile ecosystems, it is particularly important to explore the optimal railway route under the framework of the “Dual-Carbon” strategy. By analyzing the characteristics of the geographic environment of the western mountainous areas and the trend of low-carbon railroad construction, and referring to the relevant principles of railroad line selection, the method of quantifying the carbon emissions during the construction phase of the railroad and the carbon sequestration capacity of the land lost as a result of the railroad project’s land occupation is proposed by selecting 23 indicators from the five aspects of engineering adaptability, low-carbon adaptability, economic adaptability, environmental adaptability, and social adaptability

Wang, Yibo

Development of a Comprehensive Predictive QD Knock Simulation Model for Hydrogen, Methanol, and an Ammonia–Hydrogen Blend

2025-01-0528

11/25/2025

To support the transition toward climate-neutral mobility and power generation, internal combustion engines (ICEs) must operate efficiently on renewable, carbon-neutral fuels. Hydrogen, methanol, and ammonia-hydrogen blends are promising candidates due to their favorable production pathways and combustion properties. However, their knock behavior differs significantly from conventional fuels, requiring dedicated simulation tools. This work presents a modeling framework based on quasi-dimensional (QD) engine simulation, including two separate knock prediction models. The first model predicts the knock boundary of a given operating point and combines an auto-ignition model with a knock criterion. The overall methodology was originally developed for gasoline and is here adapted to hydrogen, methanol, and ammonia-hydrogen blends. For this purpose, the relevant fuel properties were incorporated into the auto-ignition model, and a suitable knock criterion was identified that applies to all

Benzinger, Steffen, Yang, Qirui, Grill, Michael, Kulzer, Andre Casal, Plum, Lukas, Hermsen, Philipp, Günther, Marco, Pischinger, Stefan, Hurault, Florian, Foucher, Fabrice, Rousselle, Christine

Multi-Objective Optimization of Oxyfuel Gas Engine Using Stochastic Engine Model and Detailed Chemistry

2025-01-0529

11/25/2025

The energy transition initiatives in Germany’s renown coal mining region Lusatia have driven research into Power-to-X-to-Power technologies, where synthetic fuel is produced from renewably sourced hydrogen and captured CO2, and converted to electricity and heat through oxyfuel combustion. This work investigates the multi-objective optimization of oxyfuel gas engine using a stochastic engine model and detailed chemistry. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rate, initial cylinder temperature and pressure, spark timing, piston bowl radius and depth are selected as design parameters to minimize the exhaust temperature at exhaust valve opening and indicated specific fuel consumption (ISFC) corresponding to oxyfuel operation with different dry and wet EGR rates. The optimization problem is solved for a dry EGR and four wet EGR cases with various CO2/H2O fractions, aiming to achieve comparable performance as in conventional natural gas / air operation, and energy-efficient carbon capture. The

Asgarzade, Rufat, Franken, Tim, Mauss, Fabian

Optimizing Heavy-Duty Mining Operations with LNG Powertrains: Boosting Efficiency and Minimizing Environmental Impact

2025-28-0236

11/6/2025

Heavy-duty mining is a highly demanding sector within the trucking industry. Mining companies are allocated coal mine sites, and fleet operators are responsible for efficiently extracting ore within the given timeframe. To achieve this, companies deploy dumper trucks that operate in three shifts daily to transport payloads out of the site. Consequently, uptime is crucial, necessitating trucks with exceptionally robust powertrains. The profitability of mining operations hinges on the efficient utilization of these dumper trucks. Fuel consumption in these mines constitutes a significant portion of total expenses. Utilizing LNG as a fuel can help reduce operational fuel costs, thereby enhancing customer profitability. Additionally, employing LNG offers the potential to lower the CO2 footprint of mining operations. This paper outlines the creation of a data-driven duty cycle for mining vehicles and the simulation methodology used to accurately size LNG powertrain components, with a focus

John, Ann Veena, Pendharkar, Koustubh

Onboard Exhaust Capture and Carbon Sequestration for Off-Highway Vehicles: A Sustainable Approach to Emission Reduction

2025-28-0215

11/6/2025

Off-highway vehicles (OHVs) in sectors such as mining, construction, and agriculture contribute significantly to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, particularly carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ). Despite the growth of alternative fuels and electrification, diesel engines remain dominant due to their superior torque, reliability, and adaptability in harsh environments. This paper introduces a novel onboard exhaust capture and carbon sequestration system tailored for diesel-powered OHVs. The system integrates nano-porous filters, solid-state CO₂ adsorbents, and a modular storage unit to selectively capture CO₂ and NOₓ from exhaust gases in real time. Captured CO₂ is then compressed for onboard storage and potential downstream utilization—such as fuel synthesis, carbonation processes, or industrial sequestration. Key innovations include: A dual-function capture mechanism targeting both CO₂ and NOₓ Lightweight thermal-regenerative adsorption materials Integration with

Vashisht, Shruti

Performance and Emission Characteristics of Diesel Engines Fueled with Watermelon Seed Oil Biodiesel Enhanced with Ferrous Oxide Nanoparticles

2025-28-0218

11/6/2025

A large number of research studies have raised global concerns about the rapid depletion of traditional energy sources like petroleum. These fuels, being largely non-renewable, are being consumed at a rate much faster than they can be replenished. This growing imbalance between demand and supply has led to fears that, in the near future, the world could face a serious energy crisis if alternative sources are not developed and adopted in time. The use of alternative fuels plays an important role in lowering harmful emissions, including those that contribute to ozone formation and other toxic pollutants. It is a well-established scientific understanding that the continued combustion of fossil fuels is a key driver of global atmospheric warming. As environmental awareness grows, many individuals across the globe believe that shifting toward cleaner and more sustainable fuel sources is essential for protecting and improving the health of our planet. Extensive research is being conducted to

G, Manikandan, Subbaiyan, Gunasekharan, Saminathan, Sathiskumar, T, Karthi, S, Gokul, J, Sanmuganathan

Assessment of Electrification Potential for Hand-Held Powertools and Two-Wheelers

2025-32-0094

11/3/2025

The reduction of the CO2 footprint of transport vehicles is a major challenge to minimize the harmful impact of technology on the environment. Beside passenger cars and light and heavy-duty vehicles, this affects also the two-wheeler category and the non-road mobile machinery (NRMM). One promising path for the de-carbonization is the transition from fossil-fuel powered ICE powertrains to electric powertrains. Several examples of electrified powertrains showcase possibilities for small hand-held power-tools or small mopeds and scooters. As the powertrain categories two-wheeler and NRMM are very diversified and consist of various sub-categories and sub-classes with many different applications, the feasibility of electrification for the whole category cannot be judged by few examples. In this publication, a methodology for assessing the electrification potential of hand-held power tools and two-wheelers is shown. The method uses 4 different factors, which determine the feasibility for

Schmidt, Stephan, Schacht, Hans-Juergen, Weller, Konstantin, Absenger, Johann Friedrich

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