Journal Articles - SAE Mobilus

SAE journals provide rigorously peer-reviewed, archival research by subject matter experts--basic and applied research that is valuable to both academia and industry.

Items (11,129)

Optimizing Ride Comfort and Stability in In-Wheel Motor Drive Electric Vehicles: A Correlated Semi-Active Suspension System with Kalman Filter and Spring-Type Analysis

10-10-04-0030

4/24/2026

This research provides a unique contribution to the field of in-wheel motor drive (IWMD) electric vehicles (EVs) by addressing the challenges associated with the use of permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) for traction. These motors, integrated into the unsprung masses, increase the wheels’ rotational inertia, reducing ride smoothness on uneven roads. To mitigate this issue, we present an optimal Kalman filter for a magnetorheological (MR) control suspension system that correlates road inputs between the front and rear wheels. This filter significantly improves the estimation accuracy of state variables by incorporating the motor’s vertical motion, along with potential enhancements from wheelbase preview. To determine the most suitable coil spring types for use with MR dampers, we used the WDW-600 computer-controlled electronic universal testing machine to evaluate three coil spring types: constant-pitch (model A), variable-pitch (model B), and conical (model C). To assess the

Gad, Ahmed Shehata, Jabeen, Syeda Darakhshan, El-Zomor, Haytham M., Tolba, Mohamed, Elamy, Mamdouh I.

Recent Advances in Multivalent-Ion Batteries for Next-Generation Energy Storage

14-15-02-0010

4/24/2026

As global demand for sustainable energy solutions increases, there is a push to develop alternatives to lithium-ion batteries, which face limitations in cost, resource availability, and safety. In particular, multivalent-ion batteries based on magnesium, calcium, zinc, and aluminum have emerged as promising candidates due to their ability to transfer multiple electrons per ion, offering higher volumetric energy density and greater material abundance. This review examines recent advances in electrode and electrolyte development for these systems, highlighting cathode innovations such as cobalt sulfides for magnesium, NASICON-type and redox-coupled materials for calcium, molybdenum trioxide frameworks for zinc, and organic and composite electrodes for aluminum. Electrolyte research has produced improved ionic transport and stability through solvation tuning, hybrid and polymer systems, and deep eutectic solvents. Interfacial engineering is identified as a key enabler for enhancing

Mittal, Vikram, Shah, Rajesh, Li, Ivy

Directional Stiffness Decoupling in Meta-Wheels via Three-Dimensional Discrete Curved Spokes

15-19-01-0005

4/22/2026

Meta-wheels—non-pneumatic wheels whose performance is governed by structural geometry rather than internal pressure—offer new opportunities for directional stiffness control. Yet achieving independent tuning of longitudinal, lateral, and vertical stiffness within a single wheel architecture has remained challenging due to the inherent coupling in conventional radial and planar curved spokes. In this study, we introduce a three-dimensional (3D) discrete curved-spoke design that provides explicit geometric control through two independent parameters: the in-plane curvature angle (α) and the out-of-plane inclination angle (β). Using spoke-level and full-wheel finite-element (FE) simulations, supported by a simplified cantilever-beam analytical model, we show that these two geometric parameters govern stiffness in fundamentally different ways. The curvature angle α serves primarily as a geometric softener, reducing stiffness in all directions while maintaining a high top-loading ratio (TLR

Han, Heeseung, Liu, Zhipeng, Ju, Jaehyung

A Review of Data-Driven Approaches and Datasets for Battery State of Health Estimation

14-15-02-0009

4/22/2026

This article surveys the most recent data-driven methods of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery state of health (SOH) estimation methods and dataset resources utilized in electrified vehicles (EV) and their potential adoption for automotive battery management systems. These include regression-based models, ensemble learners, deep neural networks, and physics-informed hybrid methods. The review describes estimation methods found in articles published between 2023 and 2025, and investigates their differences in terms of estimation accuracy, data requirement, interpretability, and real-time deployment ability. The article traverses the dataset space, focusing on laboratory aging datasets, vehicle field–based datasets, telematics-derived records, and synthetic or augmented datasets, to underline that model performance in the estimation of SOH cannot be disentangled from the quality of the data, the operating coverage, and the transfer conditions. Apart from the model design, this work reviews the

Nyachionjeka, Kumbirayi, Bayoumi, Ehab H.E.

Research on Trajectory Tracking of Test Target Vehicles Based on an Improved Model Predictive Control Algorithm

13-07-01-0002

4/17/2026

To address the performance testing requirements of autonomous vehicles (AVs), this study proposes a model predictive control (MPC) algorithm specifically designed for low-ground-clearance test target vehicles (TTVs) to achieve trajectory tracking control. First, the kinematic model of the TTV is established, and its state-space equations are derived. An objective optimization function incorporating both error weighting and control weighting is designed. Simulation analysis reveals the influence of the control error weighting ratio (CEWR) on both straight-line and curved trajectory tracking performance: For straight-line tracking, increasing the CEWR from 10 to 25 reduces the overshoot, but increases the distance required to reach the target trajectory by 4.7%. A similar pattern is observed in curved trajectory tracking. To overcome the limitations of the fixed CEWR, an improved MPC algorithm integrating fuzzy control is proposed. This algorithm dynamically adjusts the CEWR in real time

Ji, Shaobo, Lu, Yueqi, Liao, Guoliang, Chen, Zhongyan, Li, Meng, Lyu, Chengju, Zhang, Zhipeng

Battery Cooling System Airborne Noise Correlation Using Statistical Based

14-15-02-0008

4/16/2026

In a traditional electric vehicle, managing its battery thermal performance is of prime importance. A well-designed battery thermal management system helps in extending its life and avoids safety-related issues like thermal runaways. A critical part of this thermal management is the battery cooling system (BCS), which can be air- or liquid-cooled. Based on the vehicle battery pack size, location, and its design complexity, the original equipment manufacturer can opt for either of the previous two methods. An air-cooled type of BCS system usually involves an active ventilation fan to dissipate the battery heat in the surroundings, which brings symbiotic noise into the picture. In an air-cooled BCS system, the primary source of noise is the cooling airflow over the heat exchanger caused by the fan. The airflow and noise performance characteristics of this fan are typically measured by the supplier in a standalone condition. These performance parameters deviate greatly when the fan is

Nomani, Mustafa, Dupatti, Darshan, Nikam, Krishna, Sasikumar, R., Kajagar, Suresh, Panchare, Dattaji, Agalawe, Kiran

TOC

99-08-02-0TOC

4/13/2026

TOC

Tobolski, Sue

Investigation of Metallurgical and Mechanical Behaviors of AA6061-AA2017 Joints Produced by Single- and Double-Pass Friction Stir Welding: Influence of Base Material Position and Post-Weld Shot Peening Technique

05-19-04-0026

4/13/2026

The growing demand for lightweight, high-strength materials in marine and aerospace structures has promoted the use of friction stir welding (FSW) for welding dissimilar aluminum alloys. However, tensile residual stresses and microstructural heterogeneities often degrade weld integrity. This study investigates the combined impact of base material positioning, single- and double-pass FSW, and post-weld shot peening (SP) on the metallurgical and mechanical properties of AA6061–AA2017 joints. Five welding configurations were examined to evaluate how varying base material positions on the advancing and retreating sides affect material flow and mechanical behavior. Post-weld SP effectively presented compressive residual stresses, reduced surface defects, and refined surface grains. The average grain size in the stir zone was reduced from 5.2 μm (single-pass) to 2.0 μm (double-pass U-turn) after SP, confirming significant grain refinement through dynamic recrystallization. Mechanical testing

Nukathoti, Raja Sekhar, Battina, N. Malleswara Rao, Vanthala, Varaha Siva Prasad, Chirala, Hari Krishna, Maloth, Balu

Experimental Study of Knock Resistance Offered by Direct Water Injections in a Single-Cylinder Spark Ignition Engine

03-19-02-0011

4/11/2026

Stochastic end-gas autoignition in spark ignition (SI) engines, commonly called “knock,” limits attainable engine efficiencies. Multiple pathways to extend SI engine operation into knock-limited regions have been studied, including direct water injection (DWI). This study employs single-cylinder engine experiments with a centrally mounted water injector to investigate the knock resistance offered by compression stroke water injections, which, through incomplete mixing, can thermally stratify the cylinder. In SI, thermally stratifying injections are expected to forcibly widen the cylinder temperature distribution by preferentially cooling the cylinder periphery. The end-gas is in the cylinder periphery. A cooler end-gas would result in longer ignition delays, thus providing knock resistance. The difference between intake temperature required to match knock-limited CA50 and a baseline intake temperature at the load of 8 bar IMEPg (gross indicated mean effective pressure) was used to

Datar, Aditya, Vedpathak, Kunal, Gainey, Brian, Lawler , Benjamin

Hierarchical Control Strategy Evaluation and Migration for a Four-Degree-of-Freedom Quarter Commercial Vehicle

02-19-03-0014

4/9/2026

In order to improve the comfort performance in commercial vehicles, this study proposes a hierarchical control strategy that integrates the evaluation and migration of control algorithms. First, a quarter-vehicle model with four-degree-of-freedom (4-DOF) is constructed, incorporating the dynamics of the wheel, frame, driver’s cab, and seat. The key modal characteristics of the model are then verified through amplitude–frequency analysis, confirming their consistency with the typical vibration patterns observed in actual commercial vehicles, which provides the foundation for subsequent control strategy evaluation and migration. Then, based on a standard two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) suspension model, a weighted comprehensive evaluation function is developed to account for comfort, structural safety, handling stability, and both time- and frequency-domain performance indicators. Using this evaluation function, various control algorithms—including Skyhook control (SH), acceleration-based

Pan, Ting, Pang, Jianzhong, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Jiuxiang, Kang, Gong, Zhang, Yunqing

Dynamic Programming–Based Fuel-Saving Predictive Cruise Control

12-09-03-0022

4/2/2026

This article investigates the optimization problem of fuel economy for heavy-duty commercial vehicles. A Dynamic Programming–Based Fuel-Saving Predictive Cruise Control (DP-FSPCC) method is proposed, which is based on the Bellman optimality principle and uses the cost function to evaluate the optimal feedback control gain, thereby improving the fuel economy of heavy-duty commercial vehicles on complex roads with varying slopes. To address the issues of low accuracy in road feature representation and poor adaptability to different driving conditions in existing slope reconstruction algorithms, the road ahead is dynamically segmented for high-precision processing by integrating ADASIS (Advanced Driver Assistance Systems Interface Specifications) map information with significant turning point detection and dynamic sensitivity analysis. An engine fuel consumption mapping model based on local gradient information is established to provide an accurate cost function for dynamic programming

Jin, Dapeng, Shuai, Yue, Wu, Xin, Jia, Tong, Qiao, Zhiyuan, Chang, Shiwei, Mu, Tong

Effect of Key Operating Parameters on Homogenous Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition Concept with Renewable Fuels

03-19-02-0009

4/1/2026

As part of the dTEC MORE project, sustainable powertrain technologies are being explored, including an alternative combustion concept tailored for engines in serial hybrid powertrains. Among the low-temperature combustion strategies, Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition (RCCI) is a prominent approach, offering significant reductions in NOx and soot emissions while enhancing combustion efficiency. The dual-fuel nature of RCCI enables improved control over combustion by utilizing fuels of differing reactivities. In this study, a premixed RCCI strategy was implemented using ethanol as a port-injected low-reactivity fuel and octanol as a directly injected high-reactivity fuel. The experimental work was conducted on a single-cylinder research engine with design features that are found in a gasoline passenger car application. Key combustion parameters such as the start of injection (SOI) of the high-reactivity fuel, injection pressure, intake temperature, lambda, premixed fuel ratio

Sundaram, Pravin Kumar, Grundl, Larissa Michaela, Trapp, Christian Thorsten, Tinschmann, Georg

Development and Testing of a Concentric Tube Camshaft for Continuous Adjustment of Intake Valve Duration and Timing in Otto and Miller Cycle Operations

03-19-02-0010

4/1/2026

The development of technologies capable of expanding the operational flexibility of internal combustion engines—particularly through advanced valve actuation strategies—has become essential for improving energy efficiency and reducing exhaust emissions. This work presents the design, manufacturing, and experimental evaluation of a novel, mechanically simple, and low-cost valve control system intended for spark-ignition engines originally designed to operate under the Otto cycle. The proposed innovation, designated VVT-D (Variable Valve Timing—Duration), introduces continuous and independent control of intake valve opening duration using a concentric tube camshaft architecture. Unlike conventional variable valve timing systems limited to phase control, the VVT-D concept enables continuous transition between Otto- and Miller-equivalent operating conditions by modulating intake valve duration as a function of engine load. This approach allows engine load control via Late Intake Valve

Alvares, Gabriel Coelho Rodrigues, Woiski, Emanuel Rocha, dos Santos, Paulo Sergio Barbosa, Kashani, Masoud Ghanbari, Gasche, José Luiz

From Stoplights to On-Ramps: A Comprehensive Set of Crash Rate Benchmarks for Freeway and Surface Street ADS Evaluation

09-14-02-0003

3/31/2026

This paper presents crash rate benchmarks for evaluating US-based automated driving systems (ADSs) for multiple urban areas, distinguishing between freeway and surface street crash rates, and breaking them down by crash severity and type. The purpose of this study was to extend prior benchmarks focused only on surface streets to additionally capture freeway crash risk for future ADS safety performance assessments. Using publicly available police-reported crash and vehicle miles traveled (VMT) data from Arizona, California, Georgia, and Texas, the methodology details the isolation of in-transport passenger vehicles, road type classification, and crash typology. Key findings revealed that freeway crash rates exhibit large geographic dependence variations with any-injury-reported crash rates being approximately three times higher in Atlanta (2.3 IPMM; the highest) when compared to San Diego (0.7 IPMM; the lowest). The results show the critical need for location-specific benchmarks to

Scanlon, John M., McMurry, Timothy L., Chen, Yin-Hsiu, Kusano, Kristofer D., Victor, Trent

A Comprehensive Review of Aerodynamics and Safety of Sports Cars

10-10-03-0020

3/31/2026

As motorsports evolve with technological advancements, aerodynamics plays a crucial role in race car performance. This review examines the impact of aerodynamics on car design and its evolution, presenting a statistical analysis of existing sports cars. We highlight key performance factors like engine power, top speed, drag, and weight. The key contribution of this review is the critical synthesis of the safety-performance trade-off, especially linking aerodynamic optimizations to the stability and safety of sports cars. Furthermore, we explore mathematical modeling of vehicle aerodynamics to enhance the understanding of performance aspects such as top speed, acceleration, cornering, and braking. This article also provides a review of recent active and passive aerodynamic devices to assist researchers in selecting designs, with an emphasis on the importance of ground effect. We also present recent numerical methods, particularly 3D simulations. The statistical data can help researchers

Eftekhari, Hesam, Al-Obaidi, Abdulkareem Sh. Mahdi, Eftekhari, Shahrooz

Advancing Steel Joining: A Critical Review of Adhesives and Sealants for High-Performance Automotive and Construction Applications

05-19-04-0025

3/31/2026

For centuries, steel has been a cornerstone material for structural construction; by contrast, adhesive joining is a relatively nascent technology, particularly in heavy structural applications. The present article aims to provide the reader a review of the applications of adhesive joining in steel-based applications. Steel being a popular material in many industries due to its excellent mechanical properties, but traditional joining methods might have certain limitations viz. ability to withstand vibrations or movement, distortion, difficult to repair, and the like. Adhesive joining provides an alternative approach that offers advantages like reduced weight, improved corrosion resistance, enhanced aesthetics, ability to join multi-materials, ability to resist vibrations to a certain limit, and the like. This article examines the use of steel within the automotive and construction industries, intentionally narrowing its scope from steel’s broader range of applications. This article

S., Shrray, Arora, Kanwer Singh

Analysis and Determination the Time to Rollover of Tractor Semi-Trailer Vehicle Based on Multi-body System Analysis and Newton–Euler Equations

02-19-03-0013

3/27/2026

This article aims to determine the time to rollover (TTR) of a tractor semi-trailer vehicle (TSTV). It uses a full dynamics model for assessment, specifically applying multi-body system analysis and Newton–Euler Equations with a nonlinear tire model. The model is applied to investigate velocities ranging from 40 km/h to 80 km/h and magnitude of steering angles ranging from 12.5° to 300°. The times at which the Load Transfer Ratio (LTR), Roll Safety Factor (RSF), and lateral acceleration reach their maximum values are evaluated. The survey results demonstrate the impact of velocity and steering wheel angle on the time it takes for the LTR, RSF, and lateral acceleration to reach their maximum values. The time interval between the RSF reaching 1 and the LTR reaching 1 range from 0.144 s to 0.655 s. Similarly, the time it takes for the tractor body’s lateral acceleration to peak and the LTR to reach 1 varies between 0.228 s and 1.555 s. Additionally, the time interval from when the semi

Hung, Ta Tuan, Khanh, Duong Ngoc

Control Strategy Optimization to Improve Energy Efficiency of Electric Wheel Loader Wheel Drive System

02-19-02-0011

3/27/2026

Driven by the dual-carbon goals of “peak carbon emissions” and “carbon neutrality,” improving energy efficiency in electric construction machinery has become a key focus. This study proposes an energy-saving torque control strategy for the traction motor of electric wheel loaders, aiming to reduce drive system energy consumption. The innovation lies in coupling parameter optimization of the pedal–torque mapping and regenerative braking to enhance overall efficiency. An electric model was built using Cruise and validated against real-world V-cycle test data, showing good agreement with an average relative error of 4.08%. Based on the model, two optimized control strategies were developed and evaluated through simulations and field tests. The results showed energy savings of 7.08% and 16.18% in simulation, and 6.83% and 15.51% in tests, respectively, demonstrating the effectiveness and practical value of the proposed method.

Ming, Qiaohong, Wang, Yangyang, Wang, Feng

Design and Performance Analysis of a Modular Transporter Based on Reconfigurable Wheel-Legged Corner Module

10-10-04-0031

3/25/2026

Performing transportation and exploration tasks on rugged terrain requires both high load-bearing capacity and large suspension stroke. However, the corner module configurations applied to challenging terrain have rarely been explored. This article proposes an integrated framework that combines bionic principles with topology graph–based type synthesis. This framework leads to the creation of a reconfigurable wheel-legged mechanism capable of switching between wheeled locomotion and legged gait modes, which is then implemented as a corner module system. First, inspired by the skeletal–muscular system of the equine leg, a structure–function mapping relationship between the biological system and the mechanical system is established. Second, a multi-loop closed-chain mechanism with biomimetic morphology is represented in the form of graph theory. A configuration atlas of the wheel-legged hybrid mechanism is generated based on the contracted graph and open-loop kinematic chains, and

Gao, Zhenhai, Zhang, Hanying, Chen, Guoying, Zhang, Sumin, Han, Zongzhi

New Graphite-Based Catalyst in Biodiesel Production

04-19-02-0009

3/20/2026

Climate change and the depletion of fossil fuels have increased the need for renewable energy sources such as biodiesel. Biodiesel is an environmentally friendly fuel derived from various vegetable oils through a process known as transesterification. In this study, a new graphite-based heterogeneous catalyst was developed by modifying it Na2CO3, K2CO3, Al2O3 and was used for biodiesel production from linseed, cottonseed, sunflower, olive oils. Catalyst activity gradually decreased from 90.0 to 76.7% for cottonseed oil, from 93.0 to 76.0% for olive oil, from 95.0 to 77.0% for sunflower oil, and from 89.0 to 69.0% for linseed oil after the fourth operation. The fuel properties of the obtained biodiesel samples were investigated and the most favorable characteristics of cottonseed oil–based biodiesel were found to be d 4 20 = 0.8448, ν 40 = 3.3820, flash point of 93°C. Based on the X-ray broad peaks at 22.8° and 26.4°, we can note that after the four-time reaction cycle, the structure of

Mamedov, Ibrahim, Mamedova, Gulben, Mamedova, Yegana

Economic Feasibility Analysis of Second-Life Batteries in Electric Bus Charging Station at Stanford

14-15-02-0007

3/16/2026

Currently, a persistent concern arises regarding the management of retired Li-ion batteries from electric vehicles (EVs). A potential solution is to repurpose these batteries for less demanding applications, such as energy storage systems. Such repurposed batteries are commonly referred to as second-life batteries (SLBs). In this work, we explore the economic feasibility of implementing SLBs in Stanford University’s EV bus charging station via previously developed technoeconomic decision support model. The model simulates battery aging behaviors across various usage conditions, optimizing the operational parameters of SLBs. The estimated lifetime is expected to be 10 years in an optimal using condition. In addition, an economic sensitivity analysis explores the influences of various factors. Furthermore, we calculate the cost savings of total $82,500 over its second lifetime, which is derived from the adoption of SLB instead of new batteries.

Zhuang, Jihan, Chueh, William, Onori, Simona, Benson, Sally M.

Time-Step Analysis of Sliding Mesh Rotation Modeling

15-19-01-0004

3/13/2026

The current work analyzes the effect of time-step size on the predictive capability and computational cost of the Sliding Mesh (SM) method for modeling flows around the rotating wheels of a mass-production luxury sport utility vehicle (SUV). Two unsteady turbulence models [Unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (URANS) and Delayed Detached Eddy Simulations (DDES)] were tested using time-step sizes ranging from the current recommended time-step size of 1 degree of rotation per time-step (1 D/TS) up to 50 degrees of rotation per time-step (50 D/TS). The flow field predictions compare favorably to the 1 D/TS case for a time-step size as large as 5 D/TS. Using this time-step size leads to a reduction in computational cost of approximately 80% for both unsteady methods. At a time-step of 5 D/TS, the computational cost of the SM method is comparable to the more commonly used Moving Reference Frame (MRF) method. However, drag and flow field predictions by the SM method at this larger time

Struk, Michael, Aultman, Matthew, Disotell, Kevin, Duan, Lian, Bianco, Antonello, Metka, Matthew, Khasdeo, Nitin

System-Level Performance of Torque Vectoring Controllers for Electric Vehicles with In-Wheel Motors

10-10-04-0029

3/13/2026

Torque Vectoring (TV) is a critical control technology for enhancing the vehicle dynamics and stability of electric vehicles equipped with four-wheel-independent-drive (4WID) systems. A central challenge in TV design is managing the trade-off between maximizing handling performance and minimizing energy consumption, a crucial factor for EV range. While numerous advanced TV control strategies have been proposed, a comprehensive and comparative benchmark of foundational controllers evaluated on a platform that captures this trade-off is notably absent from the literature. Among the numerous TV control strategies proposed in literature, they are typically evaluated using simplified vehicle models that neglect the detailed dynamics and efficiency losses of the electric powertrain. This study addresses this gap by presenting a comprehensive comparison of six distinct TV control strategies—PID, LQR, two first-order Sliding Mode Controls (SMC), and two second-order SMCs. The controllers are

de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Carello, Massimiliana

Accuracy Requirements for the Road Friction Coefficient Estimation of a Friction-Adaptive Automatic Emergency Braking System as a Software Solution for Integrated Chassis Control Systems

10-10-02-0016

3/10/2026

As part of this work, the accuracy requirements for the road friction coefficient estimation of a friction-adaptive automatic emergency braking (AEB) system are determined using a complex, nonlinear vehicle model. The AEB system varies its trigger distance depending on an estimated value of the road friction coefficient. The accuracy requirements are determined at a driving speed of 40 km/h depending on the severity classification of ISO 26262 in the statistically relevant Euro NCAP test scenario with a stationary target vehicle. MATLAB/Simulink is used as simulation software. The permissible estimation error (difference between estimated value and road friction coefficient) is determined by the severity classification S1 (light and moderate injuries). The results show that the positive permissible estimation error (road friction coefficient is overestimated) must not exceed about 30% of the road friction coefficient to comply with the severity classification S1 of ISO 26262.

Ahrenhold, Tim, Wielitzka, Mark, Binnewies, Tomas, Henze, Roman

Optimal Placement and Sizing of Electric Vehicle Charging Stations and Renewable Distributed Generation on Radial Distribution Network in India Using DIgSILENT Power Factory Software

14-15-01-0006

3/6/2026

The integration of electric vehicle charging station (EVCS) and renewable distribution generation (RDG) in the grid affects the grid voltage, power losses, and system instability in the distribution system, therefore the article presents an approach for optimal placement and sizing of EVCS and RDG using an optimization approach named as modified particle swarm optimization (MOPSO) in radial distribution network (RDN). The efficacy of the optimization approach is demonstrated under both balanced and unbalanced dynamic load conditions in the IEEE 33-bus system. The influence of EVs and RDG on the RDN is analyzed by considering the maximum possible cases, e.g., 13 different scenarios, which replicate real-world scenarios. These results are validated using DIgSILENT Power Factory Software. The proposed research also covers Techno-Economic Assessment using HOMER software, which may enhance visibility of the renewable distribution generation importance in the current scenario.

Kumar, Sonu, Agarwal, Ruchi

Environmental Impact Analysis of a Multi-Material Body Shell

15-19-01-0003

2/28/2026

In recent times, energy conservation and environmental protection have attracted more and more attention. This research presents a comparative study on the quantitative analysis and comprehensive ranking of the cradle-to-grave environmental benefits of a multi-material body shell across 18 countries. For quantitative analysis of the cradle-to-grave environmental impact of the body shell, life cycle assessment (LCA) was adopted to assess the process of interactions between the environment and human activity. For a comprehensive ranking of the environmental impacts across 18 nations, two modified techniques were used for order preferences by similarity to the ideal solution (TOPSIS) methods, which are improved by the fuzzy analytic hierarchy process (FAHP) and entropy method (EM). The outcomes from these three methodologies; FAHP&EM-TOPSIS, FAHP-TOPSIS, and conventional TOPSIS revealed that the comprehensive environmental benefit rankings of TOPSIS are highly different from the two

Li, Shuhua, Wu, Zongyang, Ji, Xiaoyuan, Tang, Zheng, Wu, Bofu, Rokhsun, Hossain Rahman

Eco-Driving Control for Electric Vehicles with Multi-Speed Transmission: Optimizing Vehicle Speed and Powertrain Operation in Dynamic Environments

12-09-03-0021

2/28/2026

This article presents an eco-driving algorithm for electric vehicles featuring multi-speed transmissions. The proposed controller is formulated as a co-optimization problem, simultaneously optimizing both vehicle longitudinal speed and powertrain operation to maximize energy efficiency. Constraints derived from a connected vehicle–based traffic prediction algorithm are used to ensure traffic safety and smooth traffic flow in dynamic environments with multiple signalized intersections and mixed traffic. By simplifying the complex, nonlinear mixed-integer problem, the proposed controller achieves computational efficiency, enabling real-time implementation. To evaluate its performance, traffic scenarios from both Simulation of Urban MObility (SUMO) and real-world road tests are employed. The results demonstrate a notable reduction in energy consumption by up to 11.36% over an 18 km drive.

He, Suiyi, Sun, Zongxuan

Optimization of Combustion Stability and Fuel Economy for Dedicated Hybrid Engines with High Exhaust Gas Recirculation Rate

03-19-02-0008

2/26/2026

In recent years, the rapid growth of hybrid vehicles has driven the development of dedicated hybrid engines (DHEs) as a key powertrain technology for achieving high thermal efficiency and low emissions. Driven by stringent emissions regulations and demand for improved fuel economy, enhancing thermal efficiency in gasoline engines remains a critical industry challenge. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) technology dilutes oxygen in the intake charge, suppresses knock, and optimizes combustion phasing. However, excessive EGR rates compromise combustion stability by inducing elevated cyclic variability and potential misfire, posing challenges in maintaining stable combustion and improving fuel efficiency at high EGR levels. Thus, combustion stability and fuel efficiency optimization in Geely’s DHEs under high EGR conditions was investigated in this article. In this study, a high tumble combustion system was designed to enhance charge motion and promote stable flame propagation. Furthermore

Li, Qiang, Deng, Xiaorong, Ren, Siming, Zhang, Peiyi, Zhu, Yunfeng, Li, Hongzhou, Yan, Pingtao, Gu, Xiangsheng

Detecting Fuel Adulteration for Otto-Cycle Vehicle Using Onboard Diagnostics Data and Supervised Machine Learning

04-19-02-0008

2/26/2026

Fuel adulteration affects operating costs, vehicle efficiency, and air pollution. Published estimates suggest it accounts for at least 10% of global sales. The Brazilian National Petroleum Agency (ANP) reported noncompliance in about 23% of inspections in 2023, including 4.3% confirmed adulteration. Quality verification requires laboratory equipment, and sensor-based approaches are often inaccessible to end consumers. This article proposes a sensorless (software-only) method that detects water adulteration in hydrated ethanol from standard Onboard Diagnostics (OBD) data using supervised machine learning, enabling on-vehicle fuel quality monitoring without additional hardware. The proposed approach is evaluated on real-world driving data from two production vehicles with three water adulteration levels in hydrated ethanol (0.0%, 2.5%, and 5.0%), achieving 84.85%–95.85% multiclass classification accuracy. These results indicate that software-only, OBD-based monitoring can provide a

Marchezan, Andre Ricardo, Giesbrecht, Mateus

Human-Like Automatic Braking Algorithm Based on Kinematic Cue: Yield Behavior Analysis and Fuzzy Controller Design

10-10-03-0019

2/25/2026

Pedestrians are among the most vulnerable participants in traffic, particularly when crossing the road. Extensive research has been conducted globally on the yielding behavior analysis of vehicle–pedestrian interaction and the design of automatic vehicle braking systems to mitigate pedestrian casualties. However, few studies have comprehensively addressed lateral risks using implicit kinematic cues in pedestrian–vehicle interactions. Moreover, the design of collision avoidance systems has rarely taken into account driving behavior, along with the pedestrian’s kinematics and crossing behavior. This article presents a human-like automatic braking fuzzy control strategy for pedestrian–vehicle collision avoidance, combining the advantages of professional driver emergency braking behavior and kinematic interaction cues. First, a high-fidelity driving simulator is used to investigate the yielding behavior of pedestrian–vehicle interaction when pedestrians cross the road. Second, the

Zhang, Wenyan, Huang, Xiaorong, Sun, Shulei, Fu, Kairong, Xiong, Qing, Huang, Haibo

Development of BYD Flat Engine for Luxury Hybrid Vehicles

03-19-02-0007

2/24/2026

To meet the requirements of luxury hybrid vehicles regarding engine power, torque, size, and NVH performance, BYD independently developed a 2.0 T flat engine. Designs such as increased intake valve lift, widened intake valve profile, swept piston bowl, and extended exhaust backflow region optimized in-cylinder airflow, enabling the BYD flat engine to achieve a maximum power of 180 kW and a peak torque of 380 N·m. This engine is 820 mm in length, 430 mm in width, and 420 mm in height, saving approximately 45% in volume compared to a competitor engine. The lubrication challenges of the flat engine were addressed through the coordinated implementation of a dry sump system, a multifunctional oil pump, and piston ring orientation design. A novel parameterized modal analysis methodology (considering phase and amplitude) was used for optimizing NVH performance. In synergy with the sandwich-type soundproof plates and four-sided acoustic encapsulation, the noise level (1-m sound pressure level

Pan, Shiyi, Zhang, Nan, Wang, Qiang, Liu, Jun, Liu, Jing, Xu, Zhiqin, Zheng, Junli, Li , Cunshuo

Anti-Rollover Strategy for Six-Axis Semi-Trailer Based on Lateral Force Balance

02-19-04-0024

2/24/2026

To address the rollover risk of six-axle semi-trailers due to their large mass, high center of gravity, and multi-axle articulation, a lateral force balance anti-rollover strategy based on the Ackermann steering principle is proposed. By establishing the wheel angle constraint equations for the full-wheel steering system of the six-axle semi-trailer, a rigid-body dynamic model considering the articulation characteristics is developed. The key control and observation parameters are included in the wheel angles, center of gravity lateral offset, yaw angular velocity, sideslip angle, and lateral load transfer rate. An SMC-PID joint controller is designed, in which the third axle steering angle of the tractor is optimized by the SMC controller, and the trailer’s three-axle steering angle tracking control is achieved by the PID controller. The nonlinear accumulation of centrifugal force and dynamic load transfer under high-speed emergency lane change conditions is suppressed by a

Zhang, Qiyuan, Zhang, Lei, Liao, Shengkun, Sun, Jinxu, He, Jing

Experimental Vibroacoustic Measurement of Thin Steel Panels Coated with Different Liquid-Applied Spray Damping Layer Thickness

10-10-02-0017

2/23/2026

This study investigates the effect of liquid-applied spray damping (LASD) thickness on the vibration and sound radiation of thin steel panels. Although LASD is widely used to enhance structural damping, its influence on radiated sound and the role of coating thickness have not been systematically studied. Five steel panels with varying LASD thicknesses were evaluated using two experimental approaches. An impact-based method in a hemi-anechoic chamber measured the structural mobility and noise transfer functions, while a reciprocal method in a reverberation chamber under acoustic excitation measured the radiated sound power transfer function. A thickness ratio was found beyond which additional LASD thickness yielded diminishing improvements in noise and vibration reductions. The effect of LASD thickness on radiation efficiency was also assessed in both narrowband and one-third octave bands.

Neihguk, David, Suh, Sam, Herrin, David W.

Yaw Coordinated Control Based on Fuzzy Control and Stability Region Theory

10-10-03-0018

2/23/2026

Electric vehicle chassis integration control aims to improve vehicle handling and comfort. Previous studies encountered significant practical limitations, such as computational overhead in real-time execution scenarios. Designing effective and efficient algorithms for actuator coordination remains challenging. This article presents a synergetic controller for chassis coordination, combining fuzzy logic and stability region theory. First, the controller targets are the yaw rate and side slip angle, which are obtained from a highly accurate multi-body dynamic model. In addition, based on the generated fuzzy rules, the system calculates the required additional yaw moments for each actuator and optimizes their output. Then, the designed controller can distribute control effort optimally in real-time between braking and rear-wheel steering based on the stability status of the vehicle. Furthermore, a stability factor approach is used to formulate a dynamic safety strategy executed by the

Liao, Yinsheng, Hu, Zhiming, Cheng, Yuanshu, Lin, Ruya, Sun, Yue, Gao, Sixiao, Zhang, Junzhi

Chinese Drivers’ Preference for In-Vehicle Information Display: Insights from a Large-Scale Online Survey

12-09-03-0020

2/20/2026

Integrating intelligent and connected technologies in vehicles has significantly enriched the information environment for drivers, aiding them in making comprehensive driving decisions. However, inadequate information display may lead drivers to miss crucial information or increase their cognitive load, thereby affecting driving safety and user experience. It is essential to study drivers’ preferences for in-vehicle information display, the factors influencing these preferences, and to present information through appropriate modalities and carriers. Drawing on 695 valid questionnaire responses, this study investigates drivers’ preferences for recommendatory, explanatory, alerting, and warning information across three display modalities and six display carriers. A multivariate ordered probability model was further developed to examine the influence of user characteristics on these preferences. The results showed that drivers preferred visual cues over auditory ones, with a selection

He, Gang, Diao, Kai, Luo, Longfei, Xie, Bingjun, Zhong, Yixin, Qi, Jianping

Cumulative Prospect Theory Coupled with Multi-Attribute Decision-Making for Path Selection in Hazardous Materials Road Transportation

09-14-02-0002

2/20/2026

Path selection for the transport of hazardous materials (Hazmats) is a multi-facet decision problem that needs to account for multiple factors such as accident risk as well as transportation cost. Most existing literature has modeled the risk of Hazmats transportation as the product of accident loss, and its probability-based expected utility theory, however, could be problematic since such a risk definition does not necessarily reflect the real perceived risk by the decision-maker. This article proposes a novel approach to the path selection of Hazmats transportation based on the cumulative prospect theory (CPT). Specific steps in the decision of path selection are first laid out in the framework of CPT. Value (Loss) functions of accident in Hazmats transportation are then derived, together with the decision weighting function reflecting accident probabilities. For illustration, a case study is conducted using transportation data from a Hazmats transportation firm in Shanghai

Wang, Xulei, Sun, Chunwei

Four-Wheel Independent Steering Vehicle Control under Wheel-Corner Brake Faults

10-10-04-0028

2/18/2026

Wheel-corner brake failures can significantly deteriorate vehicle stability and safety, since unbalanced braking forces may introduce an undesired yaw moment. This work investigates a fault-tolerant control strategy for Active Wheel-Corner Systems, exploiting Four-Wheel Independent Steering (4WIS) to mitigate such effects and preserve vehicle stability when brake actuator malfunctions occur. Unlike many existing approaches, the proposed framework does not require explicit fault detection or quantification as a prerequisite for corrective action, eliminating potential delays and uncertainties associated with fault-diagnosis schemes. A reference model for yaw rate and sideslip angle, incorporating combined longitudinal and lateral dynamics, is proposed, and a Weighted Pseudo-Inverse Control Allocation (WPCA) scheme is employed to distribute corrective actions among the four steering angles according to each tire’s capability, compensating for yaw moment imbalances caused by degraded

Sonnino, Samuel, Melzi, Stefano, Caresia, Pietro, Manzoni, Alessandro, Vaini, Gianluca

On the Modal Characteristics of Motor Stators under Different Interlaminate Fastening Conditions

14-15-01-0005

2/14/2026

The increasing demand for quiet and efficient electric vehicles has highlighted the importance of understanding vibration and noise characteristics of motor stators. Previous studies have extensively modeled electromagnetic excitation and laminated structures, but there has been little experimental evidence clarifying how different interlaminate fastening methods affect vibration modes under comparable conditions. This knowledge gap limits the ability to optimize fastening strategies for noise and vibration control in practical motor design. In this study, laminated stator cores were fabricated with different fastening conditions—bolting, clinching, and welding—and subjected to vibration testing and experimental modal analysis. Natural frequencies, damping ratios, and mode shapes were identified for torsional, circumferential, and breathing modes. The results revealed that the in-plane torsional natural frequencies increase with bolt axial force, while clinching provides additional

Matsubara, Masami, Saito, Akira, Shimada, Shogo, Oishi, Taizan, Furuya, Kohei, Kawamura, Shozo, Tajiri, Daiki

Thoracic Responses of Rear-Seated Midsized Male Surrogates during Frontal Sled Tests

2025-22-0011

2/13/2026

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the thoracic responses of the 50th-percenitle male Hybrid III, THOR, and post mortem human surrogates (PMHS) in the rear seat during frontal sled tests using conventional and advanced restraints in multiple vehicle environments. Twenty-one sled tests were conducted using the Hybrid III and THOR in seven vehicle bucks, and 12 PMHS sled tests were performed using four vehicle bucks. Trends in chest deflections between vehicles and restraint conditions were compared between surrogates. The Hybrid III and THOR thoracic injury risk predictions were compared to the thoracic skeletal damage observed during the PMHS tests. The Hybrid III chest deflections were statistically significantly greater for vehicles equipped with conventional restraints compared to those equipped with advanced restraints. The THOR chest deflections generally followed this trend, but the differences between restraint types were not statistically significant. Hence, the THOR

Albert, Devon L., Bianco, Samuel T., Guettler, Allison J., Boyle, David M., Kemper, Andrew R., Hardy, Warren N.

Optimized Design and Economic Evaluation of a Renewable Hydrogen Refueling Station for Public Transport on Elba Island

14-15-01-0004

2/13/2026

The aim of this study is to develop a methodology to significantly reduce emissions in bus fleet renewal scenarios by investigating both technical and economic aspects. This work presents a case study based on Elba Island, Italy, which investigates optimal solutions for replacing existing Diesel buses through a total cost of ownership analysis. The investigation is carried out for four different potential scenarios: renewing the fleet with Diesel buses, renewing the fleet with electric buses, adopting fuel cell buses, and implementing a hybrid solution. The latter represents a synergistic solution that integrates fuel cell buses with the development of a hydrogen refueling station driven by a proton exchange membrane electrolyzer, unlocking the techno-economic potential of self-producing green hydrogen for bus refueling. The novelty of this study is its integrated methodology that combines a total cost of ownership analysis with a tailored design of a green hydrogen production network

Bove, Giovanni, Sorrentino, Marco, Baldinelli, Arianna, Desideri, Umberto

The Membrane Engine: Concept, Model, and First Results

03-19-01-0003

2/12/2026

This study investigates the feasibility of a novel internal combustion engine (ICE) architecture, termed the membrane engine, in which the conventional piston is replaced by a flexible elastic membrane. Although the concept appears in several patent documents proposing reduced friction, improved sealing, and lower heat losses, no empirical data has been published to support these claims. To the authors’ knowledge, this work presents the first membrane engine built and experimentally tested. The primary aim is to verify whether such an engine can operate as a functional ICE, regardless of its current efficiency or performance level. To support concept validation, a simplified mathematical model was developed to describe the membrane’s deformation and its effect on combustion chamber volume. Unlike conventional piston engines, the membrane introduces a pressure-dependent geometry, enabling a variable compression ratio. The model is not intended to predict performance but to assist in

Allmägi, Roland, Ilves, Risto

Research on Online Learning Architecture for Engine Combustion Prediction on Multi-Platform Simulation

03-19-01-0005

2/11/2026

To address the limitations of conventional offline data-driven models for engine parameter prediction in HIL testing, including poor generalization and inefficient use of supplementary data, this study develops an innovative cross-platform online learning architecture that integrates a pre-trained Python-based Wiebe parameter prediction model with high-fidelity MATLAB/Simulink engine simulation. The proposed framework incorporates five key functional modules (real-time data processing, online regression prediction, performance evaluation, incremental learning optimization, and engine simulation) to enable dynamic adaptation to varying engine conditions through seamless integration of Python’s incremental learning algorithms with Simulink’s simulation environment. By implementing a kth order polynomial decay learning rate strategy, the architecture significantly improves model convergence under limited training conditions while enhancing real-time performance and reliability in HIL

Wei, Mingxin, Shuai, Xiuyun, Wang, Zhaoyu, Zhao, Feiyang, Yu, Wenbin

TOC

99-08-01-0TOC

2/11/2026

TOC

Tobolski, Sue

Measurement of Light Truck Tire Operating Deflection Shapes Using Scanning Doppler Laser Vibrometry: Issues and Insights

10-10-02-0010

2/10/2026

As internal combustion engines are replaced by quieter electric motors in ground vehicles, noise and vibration sources aside from the powertrain have become relatively more important. This is especially true of tires. Measurement of the dynamic vibratory characteristics of tires is critical to understanding their influence on the noise and vibration performance of vehicles, both outside the vehicle body and inside of it. In this work, the normal modes and operating deflection shapes of a Yokohama Geolander A/T light truck tire are measured using traditional modal analysis techniques as well as a non-contact Scanning Laser Doppler Vibrometry (SLDV) approach. Boundary conditions including free, fixed, loaded, and rotating are implemented to the tire and investigated. Rotating conditions are accomplished in a physical chassis dynamometer environment, with the measured tire mounted on the front axle of a Chevrolet Silverado 1500 pickup truck. Modes of vibration and associated natural

Bastiaan, Jennifer M., Chauda, Gaurav, Baqersad, Javad, Gupta, Arjun, Dhami, Kevalya

Experimental Study of Entrainment by Hydrogen-Like Impinging Jets of Various Types in a Confined Compartment

03-19-01-0006

2/9/2026

Recent literature has highlighted significant heat transfer losses and elevated particle formation in direct-injection hydrogen engines, particularly when compared to hydrocarbon fuels such as methane. These challenges are attributed to hydrogen’s unique physicochemical properties, notably its short flame quenching distance and high diffusivity, as well as the interaction between the hydrogen jet and lubricated cylinder surfaces, which promotes lubricant entrainment into the combustion chamber. Consequently, a fundamental understanding of these entrainment mechanisms is a prerequisite for developing engineering strategies to enhance thermal efficiency and mitigate particle formation. The reported study investigates gaseous jet–air interaction in a confined volume to elucidate the influence of injector geometry on jet propagation and air entrainment. Three distinct jet configurations were examined: the wide hollow-cone, the narrow hollow-cone, and the round jets. The jet evolution and

Ben David Holtzer, Ben Binyamin, Tartakovsky, Leonid

Research on Active Predictive Speed Control of Dual-Fuel Engine for Hardware Real-Time Applications

03-19-01-0004

2/9/2026

The present article proposes an active observation speed prediction control algorithm architecture for embedded applications, with the aim of addressing the problems of complex operating conditions, strong perturbations, and high control real-time requirements of high-pressure direct injection (HPDI) dual-fuel engines. A nonlinear speed prediction model with diesel and natural gas injection mass as inputs has been established, and the nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) method is used to realize the optimized control of engine speed. In order to enhance the operational efficiency of the algorithm on the embedded platform, a system has been developed that includes an event triggering mechanism and a warm-start strategy. These mechanisms work in tandem to dynamically adjust the computation cycle. Additionally, a torque reduced-order expansion state observer (RESO) has been integrated to improve the accuracy of perturbation estimation and computational efficiency. The model-level

Yang, Xinda, Li, Yunhua, Chen, Dongdong, Li, Yao, Zhang, Shutao, Zhao, Feiyang, Yu, Wenbin

Vibration Dynamics of a Half-Car Model Considering Tire–Road Separation

02-19-04-0021

2/9/2026

The vibrating half-car model is used to represent the dynamic behavior of a truck’s dependent suspension system, capturing four degrees of freedom. This research investigates time and frequency responses of vibration behavior of half-car model with possible tire–road separation. This investigation is significant because all previously reported analyses based on the tire-road attachment were incorrect, particularly regarding the tire-road separation phenomenon. The differential equations are extended to enhance the accuracy of the model, incorporating tire–road separation conditions for both wheels. A numerical approach is applied to simulate the vertical and roll dynamics of the system under the separation assumption. The simulation results are validated through experiments conducted using ADAMS View software. Integrating the tire–road separation into the model results in dynamic responses that closely reflect real-world behavior. These findings provide valuable guidance for designing

Nguyen, Quy Dang, Jazar, Reza

TwinAV: Valve Timing Strategy for Divided Exhaust Periods in Turbocharged Spark-Ignition Engines: A Simulation-Based Evaluation

03-19-01-0002

2/6/2026

Turbocharging is a common and simple method to utilize the exhaust heat of an internal combustion engine. However, conventional turbocharging exhibits the drawback of exhaust gas backpressure and thus increased residual gas mass in the cylinder. A promising concept to increase optimum efficiency is found in the TwinAV concept, which assigns divided exhaust valve cam timing and exhaust manifold configuration. This concept is hypothesized to reduce the static backpressure in the gas exchange loop and the residual exhaust gas amount in the gas exchange phase. In this article, a 1D simulation model was adapted to an existing 4-cylinder gasoline TC engine. Subsequently, the engine concept was applied to this engine model, whereas the focus was to achieve an engine layout for the entire engine speed range applicable for use in passenger vehicles. The results were compared at the full RPM range. Also, a load variation was conducted and benchmarked. The found results show an additional

Gotter, Andreas, Gotter, Alexander

A Data-Driven Method for Typical Landing Gear Structure Optimization Based on Neural Networks

01-19-01-0002

2/6/2026

The landing gear, as a crucial component of an aircraft, is pivotal for maintaining the safety and reliability of air travel. This study introduces a data-driven structural optimization method aimed at mitigating the peak strain on the landing gear’s rocker arm. The initial phase involves selecting nine design variables for parametric modeling to generate an initial dataset. Subsequently, the Maximum Information Coefficient (MIC) technique is used to conduct a parameter sensitivity analysis, enabling the identification and elimination of variables with minimal influence. A comparative analysis between the Genetic Algorithm–Backpropagation Neural Network (GA-BPNN) and BPNN reveals that GA-BPNN has a superior fitting capability on the enhanced dataset. By applying Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO), the optimal solution for GA-BPNN is identified. The implementation of this optimized method results in a 38.16% reduction in peak strain, validating its feasibility and reliability in

Chen, Hu, Shi, Shi, Wang, Meng, Fang, Xingbo, Wei, Xiaohui, Nie, Hong

Understanding Prevailing Physics in Automotive Aerodynamics Applications—Detached Eddy Simulation vs Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes Approach

02-19-04-0023

2/6/2026

This study presents a structured approach to the aerodynamic evaluation of commercial heavy-duty vehicles by categorizing the underlying flow physics into three primary phenomena: pressure-induced separation, geometry-induced separation, and flow diffusion. Furthermore, the study gives insights into the benefits of Detached Eddy Simulations (DES) over traditional Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) approaches by analyzing the flow behavior in cases that correspond to these phenomena. Fundamental insights on pressure and geometry-induced separation were developed through simulations of flow over a sphere and a rectangular cylinder at a Reynolds number of 2.8 × 106. Additionally, flow diffusion was investigated using a coaxial jet interacting with surrounding fluid at a Reynolds number of 2.1 × 104. These cases were analyzed using three turbulence modeling techniques: k-ε, k-ω SST, and DES. To demonstrate the practical relevance of these phenomena, a comprehensive aerodynamic

Sankar, Hari, Holay, Sarang, Ikeda, Masami, Singh, Ramanand

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