Journal Articles - SAE Mobilus

SAE journals provide rigorously peer-reviewed, archival research by subject matter experts--basic and applied research that is valuable to both academia and industry.

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TOC99-07-05-0TOC10/23/2025
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Tobolski, Sue
A Hybrid Framework for Kinematic Vehicle Prediction: YOLOv11 with Unscented Kalman Filter12-09-02-001310/22/2025
In the context of intelligent transportation systems and applications such as autonomous driving, it is essential to predict a vehicle’s immediate future states to enable precise and timely prediction of vehicles’ movements. This article proposes a hybrid short-term kinematic vehicle prediction framework that integrates a novel object detection model, You Only Look Once version 11 (YOLOv11), with an unscented Kalman filter (UKF), a reliable state estimation technique. This study provides a unique method for real-time detection of vehicles in traffic scenes, tracking and predicting their short-term kinematics. Locating the vehicle accurately and classifying it in a range of dynamic scenarios is achievable by the enhanced detection capabilities of YOLOv11. These detections are used as inputs by the UKF to estimate and predict the future positions of the vehicles while considering measurement noise and dynamic model errors. The focus of this work is on individual vehicle motion prediction
Pahal, Sudesh, Nandal, Priyanka
Characterization of High-Power Cold-Start Emissions Part 1: Analysis of a Modern Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Tailpipe Emissions03-18-06-003810/22/2025
The California Air Resources Board (CARB) and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) have recently introduced targets for tailpipe emissions during high-power cold-start conditions for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). However, the performance characteristics of hybrid powertrains and the effectiveness of cold-start strategies in PHEVs are not well known. In this two-part study, the performance of a production PHEV is examined with the objective of quantifying the impact of high-power cold-start events on overall tailpipe emissions. High temporal fidelity data of powertrain performance and tailpipe emissions generated during cold-start events for various driving conditions are presented for the first time. The selected P2 hybrid vehicle was tested using (i) the European Real Driving Emissions (RDE) test, (ii) the US06 (Supplemental Federal Test Procedure), and (iii) a custom drive cycle developed for this study. Results show that driving conditions leading
Chakrapani, Varun, O’Donnell, Ryan, Fatouraie, Mohammad, Wooldridge, Margaret
First Investigation of Ducted Fuel Injection on a Retrofitted Heavy-Duty Multi-Cylinder Production Engine04-19-01-000510/22/2025
Ducted fuel injection (DFI) was tested for the first time on a production multi-cylinder engine. Design-of-experiments (DoE) testing was carried out for DFI with a baseline ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel as well as three fuels with lower lifecycle carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions: renewable diesel, neat biodiesel (from soy), and a 50/50 blend by volume of biodiesel with renewable diesel denoted B50R50. For all fuels tested, DFI enabled simultaneous reductions of engine-out emissions of soot and nitrogen oxides (NOx) with late injection timings. DoE data were used to develop individual calibrations for steady-state testing with each fuel using the ISO 8178 eight-mode off-road test cycle. Over the ISO 8178 test, DFI with a five-duct configuration and B50R50 fuel reduced soot and NOx by 87% and 42%, respectively, relative to the production engine calibration. Soot reductions generally decreased with increasing engine load. Hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions tended to increase
Ogren, Ryan M., Baumgard, Kirby J., Radhakrishna, Vishnu, Kempin, Robert C., Mueller, Charles J.
On Optimal Tire Usage in the Path-Tracking Control of Four-Wheel Independent Steering Four-Wheel Independent Drive Electric Vehicles12-09-02-001410/22/2025
Four-wheel independent steering four-wheel independent drive electric vehicles have an independent steering motor and an independent driving motor for each wheel, for a total of eight motors. About 28 works in this emerging field have shown path-tracking control algorithms for these vehicles, 18 of them explicitly or implicitly aspire for a condition known as optimal tire usage. This article first defines this optimality condition and explains its significance. Second, this article identifies three indicators of tire usage that aid in assessing the existing algorithms. Third, this article performs block diagram examination of four of the 18 works, revealing significant commonalities across the 28 works and identifying areas for improvement in three of the four algorithms. Lastly, this article suggests motor control systems to fill these gaps. Furthermore, it employs these motor control systems in one of the four algorithms, and illustrates path-tracking and achievement of the
Kumar, Dileep, Potluri, Ramprasad
Characterization of High-Power Cold-Start Emissions Part 2: Impact of Hybrid Topologies and Powertrain Sizing on Tailpipe Emissions Performance03-18-06-003910/22/2025
The current work is the second installment of a two-part study designed to understand the impact of high-power cold-start events for plug-in electric vehicles (PHEVs) on tailpipe emissions. In part 1, tailpipe emissions and powertrain signals of a modern PHEV measured over three drive cycles identified that high-power cold-start events generated the highest amounts of gaseous and particulate emissions. The trends in emissions data and powertrain performance were specific to the P2-type hybrid topology used in the study. In this second part of the study, the effects of different PHEV hardware configurations are determined. Specifically, the tailpipe emissions of three production plug-in hybrid vehicles, operated over the US06 drive cycle, are characterized. The approach compared the tailpipe emissions of the test vehicles on the basis of the hybrid topologies and corresponding engine operational characteristics during a high-power cold-start event. Analysis of test results showed
Chakrapani, Varun, O’Donnell, Ryan, Fataouraie, Mohammad, Wooldridge, Margaret
Comparative Analysis on the Characteristics of a Palm Biodiesel–Diesel Blend–Powered Compression Ignition Engine Using Novel Dimensionless Index04-19-02-000710/17/2025
In this study, a Kirloskar TV1 compression ignition engine is put to test using diesel, palm biodiesel (B100), and palm biodiesel–diesel blend (B40D60). Among the tested fuels, engine performance at 75% loading condition with reference fuel diesel showed the highest brake thermal efficiency, brake specific energy consumption, and exhaust gas temperature at 27.78%, 12.96 MJ/kWh, and 335.88°C, respectively. While B100 and B40D60 were observed to give a lower value for the same parameters due to their inferior physiochemical properties. In terms of combustion pressure, mean gas temperature, rate of heat release, and rate of pressure rise, the values observed with B40D60 at 67.39 bar, 1397.76 K, 68.83 J/CAD, and 4.34 bar/CAD, correspondingly are better than B100 due to the presence of diesel. Yet for the same combustion parameters, the values for both the aforementioned fuels are still lower than the results seen with pure diesel fueling. Owing to higher cetane number in comparison to
Balakrishnan, Navaneetha Krishnan, Chelladorai, Prabhu, Muhammad, Syahidah Akmal
2024–2025 Reviewers01-18-03-001710/16/2025
2024–2025 Reviewers
Rajamani, Ravi
2024–2025 Reviewers05-18-04-003410/16/2025
2024–2025 Reviewers
Barkey, Mark
A Microstructural Comparison of NiCoCrAlY Superalloy Coatings Manufactured by Combustion Flame Spray and High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel Processes05-19-03-001710/15/2025
NiCoCrAlY powders were thermally sprayed by combustion flame spray (CFS) and high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) processes on IN 718 alloy substrates. Experimental parameters were fixed to manufacture coatings with a thickness about 200 μm. Microscopy and X-ray diffraction analyses were performed to reveal microstructural characteristics of both developed CFS and HVOF coatings, and it was observed that they were formed by a lamellar morphology composed of β and γ phases. The analyses also revealed lower porosity in the coatings produced by HVOF process while was compared with CFS process. While a microstructure composed of like-deformed powder was developed in HVOF process, in the case of CFS a building layer-by-layer was characteristic. Vickers hardness tests were also performed, and it was found that coating developed by HVOF process showed quite higher hardness values compared with those measured on the coatings developed with the CFS process, nonetheless this difference was small
Juarez-Lopez, Fernando, Mendoza, Melquisedec Vicente, Meléndez, Rubén Cuamatzi, Ramírez, Ángel de Jesús Morales
2024–2025 Reviewers10-09-04-003810/14/2025
2024–2025 Reviewers
Xu, Peijun
Coordinated Strategy of Trajectory Tracking and Stability Control for Autonomous Vehicles with Switched Envelope and Composite Evaluation10-10-01-000310/13/2025
Trajectory tracking and lateral stability under extreme conditions are critical yet conflicting control objectives due to nonlinear tire dynamics and road adhesion limitation, where accurate characterization of vehicle dynamics for each objective is essential to enable coordinated performance. This article proposes a coordinated control strategy based on switched envelope and composite evaluation to improve both tracking accuracy and stability. Unlike previous stability envelope methods that rely solely on the vehicle’s rear tire saturation boundary to prevent instability, the switched envelope approach incorporates both front and rear tire saturation boundaries to simultaneously mitigate steering loss and instability in trajectory tracking. A critical steering angle, derived from tire slip dynamics and phase plane stability analysis, is formulated as the switching criterion. Additionally, a composite stability evaluation is developed by combining a future disturbance resistance index
Shi, Wenbo, Wang, Junlong, Ding, Haitao, Xu, Nan
Investigation of Traffic Oscillation Suppression by Periodic-Configuration Vehicular Platoon12-09-02-001210/11/2025
To mitigate traffic oscillation in mixed traffic flow environments, which reduces road capacity and may lead to traffic accidents, this article innovatively proposes a periodic-configuration vehicular platoon to enhance traffic stability, inspired by the vibration attenuation properties of periodic structures. First, the vehicular platoon model is developed based on the periodic structure principle, and the lumped mass method is applied to derive the platoon spacing transfer matrix. Second, the band gap range is calculated based on the common traffic oscillation frequency by appropriately designing the period parameters in the periodic-configuration vehicular platoon. Additionally, the influence of these period parameters on the band gap range is analyzed. Finally, simulation experiments are conducted to analyze the propagation characteristics of traffic oscillations within the platoon, and the relative position diagrams of vehicles in the platoon are obtained. To validate the
Yang, Xiujian, Zhuang, Qingyuan, Wang, Shenyi
Find Optimal Suspension Kinematics Targets for Vehicle Dynamics Using Reinforcement Learning10-10-01-000210/11/2025
Setting up suspension kinematics targets has been a challenging task for vehicle engineers. The challenges involve a high-dimensional search space, nonlinear relationships between the suspension kinematics and vehicle dynamics, exploration and exploitation trade-offs, and the need for domain-specific knowledge. Traditional multi-objective optimization methods are time-consuming, sensitive to initial conditions, and rarely converge to the global optimum in high-dimensional spaces. This article explores how reinforcement learning can be used to automate the design of suspension kinematics targets, addressing a longstanding challenge in vehicle dynamics design: the inverse problem of satisfying high-level handling objectives through low-level subsystem parameters. The method is based on the accumulation of knowledge through the interaction between an intelligent agent and a simulation environment. The agent optimizes suspension kinematics targets by receiving rewards tied to vehicle
Huang, Yansong, Boerboom, Max, Wolff, Krister, Jacobson, Bengt
Review of Bio-Inspired Actuators and Their Potential for Adaptive Vehicle Control12-09-02-001110/10/2025
Adaptive vehicle control systems are crucial for enhancing safety, performance, and efficiency in modern transportation, particularly as vehicles become increasingly automated and responsive to dynamic environments. This review explores the advancements in bio-inspired actuators and their potential applications in adaptive vehicle control systems. Bio-inspired actuators, which mimic natural mechanisms such as muscle movement and plant tropism, offer unique advantages such as flexibility, adaptability, and energy efficiency. The article categorizes these actuators based on their mechanisms, including shape memory alloys, dielectric elastomers, ionic polymer–metal composites, and soft pneumatic actuators. The review highlights the properties, operating principles, technical maturity, and potential applications for each mechanism in automotive systems. Additionally, it investigates current uses of these actuators in adaptive suspension, active steering, braking systems, and human–machine
Mittal, Vikram, Shah, Rajesh, Roshan, Mathew
Impact of Oil Composition on Pre-Ignition in a Hydrogen Engine04-18-03-001810/10/2025
Pre-ignition (PI) is a common issue in internal combustion engines (ICE) with spark ignition. While the various causes have been identified with conventional fuels (such as gasoline or gasoline blends), the causes with hydrogen in ICE are not yet fully understood. This article presents the results of investigations into the influence of seven different lubricating oils on PI in a single-cylinder hydrogen research engine. The variation of two different parameters at two engine speeds were investigated: load and air/fuel mixture. For both variations, the tests start at the same conditions and run until the operating limit of the engine is reached (peak firing pressure, or maximum intake manifold pressure). The PI and knocking PI are investigated, while classifying them according to the peak cylinder pressure. It has been observed that enleanment above λ = 2.4 can lead to higher PI rates, while simultaneously reducing the knocking PI. During the load sweep at 2000 1/min, the highest
Pehlivanlar, Benjamin, Torkler, Michael, Fischer, Marcus, Göbel, Christoph, Pischinger, Stefan, Maulbetsch, Theo, Nübling, Fritz, Neumann, Stephan
Deep Reinforcement Learning with Behavioral Cloning for Path Tracking of Four-Wheel Steering Vehicles10-10-01-000110/09/2025
When the vehicle system performs trajectory tracking control, it presents relatively complex nonlinear coupling dynamics characteristics. The traditional coordination algorithm relying on a simplified linear model is mostly unable to deal well with the actual nonlinear dynamic behaviors. In contrast, reinforcement learning (RL) method will derive the optimal strategy by means of interaction with the environment. This eliminates the need for accurate vehicle modeling. These methods use all of the nonlinear approximation capabilities of deep neural networks and can effectively reflect the complex relationship between vehicle state and control actions. The framework itself supports multidimensional input processing and continuous operation space optimization because of the development of parallel processing architectures. In order to reduce the motion jitter caused by the direct generation of front and rear wheel angles by the network, this article uses steering angle increments as
Ren, Gaotian, Wang, Yangyang
An Investigation into the Impact of Cylinder Count on the Efficiency of Opposed Piston Two-Stroke Compression Ignition Engines03-18-06-003710/09/2025
The gas exchange process of opposed piston two-stroke (OP2S) diesel engines is primarily driven by the pressure differential between the intake and exhaust, making them susceptible to cylinder-to-cylinder crosstalk, and therefore to cylinder count. This study examined how cylinder count influences brake efficiency in OP2S engines. Using an experimentally validated 1D engine model, three architectures, ranging from two to four cylinders, were created and simulated across their full operating ranges. To isolate the impact of cylinder count, all configurations employed identical cylinder and port geometries, and identical but scaled electrically assisted turbocharger based airpaths. The engines were also controlled to consistent trapped conditions at a given operating condition, resulting in comparable closed-cycle efficiencies. Comparisons were then made using both scaled electrified airpaths and by assuming isentropic airpath work, to assess the impact of airpath efficiency on the
Vorwerk, Erik Scott, Prucka, Robert, Lawler, Benjamin, Huo, Ming
Influence of Microtexture’s Parameters on Improving the Lubrication Performance of Crankpin Bearings in Engine04-19-02-000610/09/2025
The force of the solid contact (Fsc ) between the bearing surface and the shaft surface and the friction force (Ffri ) generated in the crankpin bearing have a great influence on the lubrication performance of the crankpin bearing in the engine. Therefore, the micro-circular texture (MCT) has been proposed and designed on the bearing surface of the crankpin bearing for ameliorating its lubrication performance. To evaluate the effectiveness of MCT in detail, based on the lubricating model of the crankpin bearing under the impaction of external load F 0, the influence of the density, depth (hMCT ), and radius (rMCT ) of MCT on the characteristics of the pressure (p) of oil film, thickness of oil film (h), force of solid contacts, and force of the friction in the crankpin bearing are also investigated, respectively. An algorithmic program written in a MATLAB environment is then applied to simulate the lubrication equations of the crankpin bearing and MCT. Some outstanding results of the
Jiao, Renqiang, Nguyen, Vanliem
Reconstruction of Density Fields of Category L-Vehicles’ Exhaust Plumes for Optimizing Remote Emission Sensing and Engine Performance03-18-06-003610/07/2025
Air pollution is a significant long-term public health issue, with on-road traffic emissions being a primary contributor, especially in urban areas. Remote emission sensing (RES) is an innovative method for large-scale monitoring of vehicle emissions. It not only enables accurate detection of pollutants from vehicles under real-world driving conditions but also offers actionable insights to optimize engine performance. The point sampling-based RES technique involves sampling the vehicle exhaust plume along the roadside with a sampling line and using exhaust analyzers. In this method, the sampling line is placed alongside the road for sample extraction. Thus, the sampling position and knowledge regarding the spread of the exhaust plumes are crucial. Other modern RES systems utilize laser absorption spectroscopy to measure the pollutants in vehicle exhaust. For accurate absorption measurements, the laser’s height must align with the height of the exhaust plume, and the absorption length
Imtiaz, Hafiz Hashim, Liu, Yingjie, Schaffer, Paul, Kupper, Martin, Bergmann, Alexander
Role of Charging Rate on Internal Short-Circuit Characteristics of Lithium-Ion Battery14-14-03-002010/07/2025
Lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles (EVs) are facing issues owing to internal short-circuit (ISC), leading to thermal runaway. In this study, a pseudo-two-dimensional (P2D) model is employed to numerically investigate the effects of charging rate (C-rate) and separator electrical conductivity on the ISC behavior of a lithium-ion cell. The results reveal that as C-rate increases, both the voltage and capacity decrease more rapidly marked by higher solid potential gradient indicating increased internal resistance. These effects further intensified at higher separator conductivity, which facilitates greater ISC current and accelerates cell degradation. Also, the variations in current density and solid-phase lithium concentration become more pronounced at higher C-rates, particularly near the anode–separator interface, indicating increased non-uniformity during ISC conditions. Furthermore, the electrolyte voltage drop intensifies with rising C-rate, contributing to additional
Ch, Narendra Babu, Paramane, Ashish, Randive, Pitambar
Injury Patterns in Road Traffic Collisions: A Visual Investigation of Affected Body Parts09-13-02-001010/07/2025
Background. Road safety is a major public concern, as road traffic accidents result in numerous casualties and significant economic losses. In traffic collisions, the pattern of injuries sustained by drivers often varies depending on various accident factors. The interactions between safety device use, alcohol consumption status, and injury locations can reveal important association patterns and insights. Therefore, we examine patterns in injury locations, accounting for safety device use and alcohol consumption. Method. In this study, we applied two complementary graphical approaches, including multiple correspondence (MCA) analyses and mosaic plots (MPs). Results. The MPs reveal the existence of meaningful patterns between injury location, alcohol consumption, and safety device. Likewise, the MCA reveals that head/neck injuries are more likely to be associated with alcohol impairment. In particular, sober status and safety device used tend to be associated with all injury locations
Chen, Ching-Fu, Wa Lukusa, Martin Tshishimbi
Improving the Performance of Asphalt Paver Machine Based on the Experiment Analysis and Control of Excitation Forces02-19-02-000809/30/2025
The excitation forces of the tamper pairs in the vibrational screed system not only affect the road density but also affect the road surface quality. Thus, to enhance the performance of the asphalt paver machine, an experimental study of an asphalt paver machine is carried out to evaluate in detail the effect of the excitation frequencies of the tamper pairs and vibrator screed on the density and quality of the road surface. From the actual structure of the vibrational screed system of the asphalt paver machine used in the experiment, its mathematical model is then built to calculate the vibration equations. The fuzzy controller is then applied to control the deflection angles between the tamper pairs to enhance the working performance of the vibrational screed system. The study result shows that both the excitation frequencies of the tamper pairs (ftp ) and vibrator screed (fvs ) greatly affect the density and quality of the road surface. To increase the compression density of the
Song, Fengxiang, Ren, Shage, Nguyen, Vanliem
Analyzing and Simulating Energy Consumption of Battery Electric Transit Buses in Real-Driving Conditions02-19-02-000709/29/2025
Analyzing and accurately estimating the energy consumption of battery electric buses (BEBs) is essential as it directly impacts battery aging. As fleet electrification of transit agencies (TAs) is on the rise, they must take into account battery aging, since the battery accounts for nearly a quarter of the total bus cost. Understanding the strain placed on batteries during day-to-day operations will allow TAs to implement best-use practices, continue successful fleet electrification, and prolong battery life. The main objective of this research is to estimate and analyze the energy consumption of BEBs based on ambient conditions, geographical location, and driver behavior. This article presents a model for estimating the battery energy consumption of BEBs, which is validated using the data on federal transit bus performance tests performed by Penn State University and experimental aggregated trip data provided by the Central Ohio Transit Authority (COTA). The developed simulator aims
Shiledar, Ankur, Shanker, Anirudh, Pulvirenti, Luca, Di Luca, Giuseppe, Akintade, Rebeccah, Rizzoni, Giorgio
Fault Tree Analysis Generation Using Generative Artificial Intelligence with an Autonomy Sensor Usecase12-09-02-001009/25/2025
Functional safety forms an important aspect in the design of systems. Its emphasis on the automotive industry has evolved significantly over the years. Till date many methods have been developed to get appropriate fault tree analysis (FTA) for various scenarios and features pertaining to autonomous driving. This article is an attempt to explore the scope of using generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) FTA with the use case of malfunction for the LIDAR sensor in mind. We explore various available open source large language models (LLM) models and then dive deep into one of them to study its responses and provide our analysis. Although the article does not solve the entire problem but has given some guidance or thoughts/results to explore the possibility to train existing LLM through prompt engineering for FTA for any autonomy use case aided with PlantUML tool.
Shetiya, Sneha Sudhir, Garikapati, Divya, Sohoni, Veeraja
Investigation of the Effect of Rotation Speed and Post-Weld Heat Treatment on Mechanical Properties and Structure of Friction Stir Welding AA6061 Joints05-19-02-001609/25/2025
This study aims at examining the effect of tool rotational speed on the microstructural and mechanical properties of friction stir welded joints of AA6061 aluminum alloy, both pre- and post-heat treatment. The quality of the joints was assessed initially through tensile, hardness, and charpy impact tests, as well as microscopic observations. During the second stage, solid solution heat treatments were conducted at 535°C, followed by aging on additional specimens welded at identical speeds. The latter underwent hardness tensile tests and microscopic examinations. A comprehensive assessment of the outcomes from various tests validated the influence of metallurgical phenomena, including recrystallization, precipitation, and structural defects on overall resistance. The results showed an improvement in strength, ductility, and impact energy was observed in the case of welding at high rotation speed (1400 rpm). At the same speed, ductility almost doubled after post-weld heat treatment
Bouchelouche, Fatima, Debih, Ali, Ouakdi, Elhadj
Efficient Construction of Multi-Parameter Driving Cycles for Heavy-Duty Vehicles Through Monte Carlo Tree Search Heuristics02-19-02-000609/18/2025
Assessing the effect of road grade on the performance evaluation and testing of heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs) requires the efficient construction of a high-quality multi-parameter driving cycle of HDVs. However, existing pure random heuristic methods fail to preserve the driving characteristics of the original driving cycles, resulting in poor-quality outputs. In addition, the randomness inherent in multiple heuristic approaches limits the search efficiency. To address these issues, this study proposes a novel Monte Carlo tree search heuristic method (MCTSHM) for efficiently constructing multi-parameter driving cycles of HDVs. First, a satisfactory criterion model was used to design the objective function for the multi-parameter driving cycle, ensuring the evaluation indices satisfy given constraints. Next, heuristics were designed to maintain the dynamic transition characteristics of driving cycles. An improved Monte Carlo tree search was conducted to efficiently select heuristics more
Zhang, Man, Pei, Zhenlong, He, Siyuan, Qian, Xueming
COMVEC 2025 Reviewers02-18-03-002609/11/2025
COMVEC 2025 Reviewers
Sandu, Corina
Letter from the Guest Editors02-18-03-001509/11/2025
Letter from the Guest Editors
Patki, Amrut A., Khuntia, Satvik, Kehs, Joshua, Bharath, Anand Nageswaran, Duprey, Ben
Instability Prediction of Onboard Power Electronic Systems in Hybrid Electric Tractors under Large Power Disturbances14-14-03-001909/11/2025
In recent years, the powertrains of agricultural tractors have been transitioning toward hybrid electric configurations, paving the way for a greener future agricultural machinery. However, stability challenges arise in hybrid electric tractors due to the relative small capacity to perform power-intensive tasks, such as plowing and harvesting. These operations demand significant power, which are supplied by the electric power take-off system. The substantial disturbances introduced by the electric power take-off system during these tasks render conventional small-signal analysis methods inadequate for ensuring system stability. In this article, we first develop a large-signal model of the onboard power electronic systems, which includes components such as the diesel engine–generator set, batteries, in-wheel motors, and electric power take-off system. By employing mixed potential theory, we conduct a thorough analysis of this model and derive a stability criterion for the onboard power
Li, Fangyuan, Li, Chenhui, Gao, Lefei, Ma, Qichao, Liu, Yanhong
Review on Compatibility Considerations of Fuel System Elastomers with Paraffinic Fuels04-18-03-001709/10/2025
The possibility of reducing CO2 emissions through sustainable paraffinic fuels opens opportunities for the continued use of existing infrastructure and combustion systems. At the same time, fuel switching also presents challenges in terms of the materials used. The changing composition of paraffinic fuels and their impact on plastic materials is a frequent topic of discussion. Compared to distillate diesel, neat paraffinic fuels contain almost no aromatics, which are known to cause swelling in plastics, especially elastomers. This literature review aims to examine and summarize studies on the influence of paraffinic fuels compared to distillate diesel on elastomers. On the fuel side, attention will be given to fuels with different total aromatics content and neat paraffinic fuels. In the field of elastomers, materials used for sealing applications and hoses are analyzed in detail. Special attention will be paid to NBR, FKM, and EPDM. The review aims to answer three questions. The first
Conen, Tobias, Häfele, Benjamin, Dahlmann, Rainer
Evaluation of Switching Effect on Acoustic Noise of an Interior Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor for a Traction Application14-14-03-001809/09/2025
In recent years, the automotive industry has shown growing interest in the vibroacoustic characteristics of electric propulsion motors. Investigation of such characteristics can open avenues for motor design optimization and refined control strategies to mitigate vibration and acoustic noise in an electric motor. This article presents a comprehensive vibroacoustic analysis of a propulsion interior permanent magnet synchronous motor (IPMSM) under various current excitations generated by the power converter in combination with three different modulation schemes. To evaluate the switching effect from the inverter drive on motor noise, different simulations and processes are performed in ANSYS Workbench and MATLAB/Simulink. The multi-physics noise and vibration workflow, and sampling requirements used for the study are also presented. The simulation results, presented as equivalent radiated power (ERP) waterfall diagrams, show diverse acoustic noise signatures for the different types of
Juarez-Leon, Francisco Alejandro, Sahu, Ashish Kumar, Haddad, Reemon Z., Al-Ani, Dhafar, Bilgin, Berker
Impacts of Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil as Renewable Diesel Fuel on Engine Performance and Emissions in a Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine03-18-06-003509/08/2025
As the pressure increases to move to renewable carbon-neutral fuel sources, especially in heavy-duty diesel engine applications, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO) has shown to be an attractive alternative fuel to fossil diesel. Therefore, this study investigated the impacts of HVO used as a drop-in fuel on performance and emissions of a nonroad heavy-duty diesel engine by running back-to-back D2 ISO 8178 cycles with ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) and HVO. The measurement results showed that brake specific fuel consumption with respect to mass reduced by 1.1%–3.6% switching from ULSD to HVO due to greater heating values of HVO, which is supported by 0.7%–3.5% lower CO2 emissions recorded with HVO. Conversely, brake specific fuel consumption with respect to volume increased by 0.3%–2.9% with HVO because of its smaller density. Combustion analysis revealed that combustion of both fuels is comparable at high loads while HVO ignites earlier at low power. Thus, lesser reductions in NOx
Duva, Berk Can, Abat, Bryan, Engelhardt, Jens
A Novel Mechanical Model Simulating a Pavement Deflection Measuring System for Non-Invasive Pavement Monitoring Based on a Reliability-Based Optimization Algorithm02-18-03-002509/04/2025
This article presents a novel mechanical model for simulating the behavior of pavement deflection measuring systems (PDMS). The accuracy of the model was validated by comparing the acceleration of the new model with the data achieved through experimental tests fusing a deflection measurement system mounted on a Ford F-150 truck. The experimental test for the PDMS is carried out on a random road profile, generated by an inertial profiler, over a 7.4-mile (12 km) loop around a lake near Austin, Texas. Integrating a reliability-based optimization (RBO) algorithm in a PDMS aims to optimize system parameters and reduce vibrations effectively. The PDMS noises and uncertainties make it crucial to use a robust system to ensure the stability of the system. This article presents a robust algorithm for considering the uncertainties of PDMS parameters, including the damping coefficients and spring stiffness of the supporting brackets. Moreover, it considers the variation of system parameters, such
Yarmohammadisatri, Sadegh, Sandu, Corina, Claudel, Christian
A Life Cycle Assessment of Potential Pathways to Increase Sustainable Aviation Fuel Yields through CO 2 Upgrading Co-located with Corn Ethanol Production13-06-03-002309/04/2025
Alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) upcycling of ethanol to sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is an attractive emerging pathway for SAF production, especially in the US Midwest with large-scale corn ethanol production. Only 39% of the corn carbon is converted to ethanol, 20% is emitted as CO2. Capturing the CO2 to produce additional ethanol or SAF directly can increase the carbon yield. To guide technology selection, this work used life cycle assessment for several CO2-to-SAF production pathways. Additionally, improvements for corn ethanol production were explored by replacing natural gas burners with heat pumps for corn drying, which reduced the carbon intensity of corn ethanol by nearly 16%. But subsequent upgrading of the ethanol to SAF is only 4.5–20% better than conventional aviation fuel. By contrast, CO2-based alternative routes to SAF fared better, reducing carbon intensities between 83% and 90%. Gas fermentation of CO2 to ethanol with subsequent ATJ upcycling to SAF was contrasted to Fischer
McCord, Stephen, Talsma, Sam, Bouchard, Jessey, Zavaleta, Victor Gordillo, He, Xin, Sick, Volker
Experimental and Numerical Insights on Emissions Control with a Diesel Oxidation Catalyst in Reactivity-Controlled Compression Ignition Combustion Conditions03-18-05-003409/01/2025
Reactivity-controlled compression ignition (RCCI), a low-temperature combustion strategy, reduces oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and soot simultaneously; however, high concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO) and total hydrocarbons (THC) and low exhaust gas temperatures pose a significant challenge for the catalytic control of tailpipe CO and THC. Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) is generally used in compression ignition (CI) engines for CO, THC, and nitric oxide (NO) oxidation. This work provides a new understanding of the performance characteristics of a DOC in the RCCI combustion strategy with various gasoline–diesel fuel premix ratios ranging from ~46% to ~70% at steady-state operating conditions. Experimental insights from the RCCI strategy prompt considerations of both CO and THC oxidations and THC trap functionalities in the 1D transient model of the DOC. It is observed that an increase in the fuel premix ratio from 50% to 70% in RCCI shifts the CO and THC oxidation characteristics
Suman, Abhishek, Sarangi, Asish Kumar, Herreros, Jose Martin
High-Pressure Hydrogen Flows through Single- and Multi-Hole Nozzles: A Computational Study13-06-03-002409/01/2025
Efficient propulsion technologies that utilize alternative fuels are becoming increasingly critical to achieve high efficiency at the vehicle scale while fulfilling global regulations in terms of emissions and criteria pollutants. In this scenario, hydrogen (H2) represents an important and appealing part of the solution due to its molecular composition and unique physical and chemical properties. With reference to internal combustion engines, much research is needed to overcome technical challenges that make H2 use not yet viable at the industrial scale. This work focuses on the computational modeling of some of the fundamental aspects of H2’s physical behavior, which can be useful to the development of high-pressure H2 injection systems. Computational fluid dynamics simulations are discussed with the goal of understanding the near- and far-nozzle behavior of H2 using single- and multi-hole nozzles. This study presents the validation of the computational framework against literature
Torelli, Roberto, Park, Ji-Woong, Pei, Yuanjiang
High Lambda Boosting for Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine02-18-03-002308/29/2025
The commercial vehicle industry continues to move in the direction of lower emissions while reducing its carbon footprint. This study focuses on hydrogen internal combustion engines (H2-ICE) since it offers a zero-carbon solution to the industry while showing very low NOx emissions when coupled to a conventionally sized aftertreatment SCR system. This work highlights modeling efforts for analyzing key boosting configurations to operate a hydrogen engine at high lambda (relative air–fuel ratio) for lowering NOx, maintain the aftertreatment system reasonable in size, and improving brake thermal efficiency (BTE). GT-Power was used to model H2-ICE engines from 13L to 19L in displacement with different boosting architectures. Key configurations include a variable geometry turbine (VGT) turbocharger coupled with a supercharger (SC), a VGT with higher engine displacement, and a VGT coupled in series with a fixed geometry turbine (FGT) turbocharger. An exhaustive study comparing these boosting
Gurjar, Shubham, McCarthy, Jr., James E., Manickavasagan, Thirumoolan, Chaudhari, Amol S., Nimeshkumar, Parmar, Bachu, Pruthvi, Bitsis, Christopher
Energy Prediction for Hotel Loads in Mild-Hybrid Heavy-Duty Vehicle02-18-03-002008/29/2025
Long-haul truck drivers are mandated to take off-duty time of 10 h (a.k.a. hoteling) before driving. During the hotel phase, drivers spend time inside their trucks (sleeper cabs) and idle the internal combustion engine for comfort by utilizing the heating, ventilation, air-conditioning (HVAC), and other onboard appliances. For one 10-h period, the average cost is about $40, which can be a lot when considering a million truck drivers idling overnight. SuperTruck II is a 48 V mild-hybrid heavy-duty truck with auxiliary loads powered by an onboard battery pack. An optimal control algorithm is developed to charge the battery pack during the drive phase up to a certain state-of-charge (SOC) level, sufficient to meet the power demands of the auxiliary load during the hotel phase. This article captures the research done to predict energy consumption in a mild-hybrid heavy-duty sleeper truck during hoteling. Physics-based gray box models are developed to estimate the power consumption of an
Khuntia, Satvik, Hanif, Athar, Ahmed, Qadeer, Lahti, John, Jorgensen, Iner
Validation of Wind Noise for Class-8 Truck Using Lattice Boltzmann Method02-18-03-002108/29/2025
The transportation and mobility industry trend toward electrification is rapidly evolving and in this specific scenario, wind noise aeroacoustics becomes one of the major concerns for OEMs, as new propulsion systems are notably quieter than traditional ones. There is, however, very limited references available in the literature regarding validation of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations applied to the prediction of aeroacoustics contribution to the noise generated by large commercial trucks. Thus, in this work, high-fidelity CFD simulations are performed using lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), which uses very large eddy simulation (VLES) turbulence model and compared to on-road physical tests of a heavy-duty truck to validate the approach. Furthermore, the effect of realistic wind conditions is also analyzed. Two different truck configurations are considered: one with side mirror (Case A) and the other without (Case B) side mirrors. The main focus of this work is to assess the
Guleria, Abhishek, Novacek, Justin, Ihi, Rafael, Fougere, Nicolas, Dasarathan, Devaraj
Optimizing Hybrid Powertrains for Off-Highway Vehicles02-18-03-002408/23/2025
This article details the development of a plug-in hybrid electric powertrain system for a wheel loader. The work included both computer modeling and fired engine testing. A methodical approach was utilized, which included identifying system requirements, an architecture study, component sizing, and cost analysis. After the optimal system was designed, the engine and hybrid motor were installed in a powertrain test cell and evaluated over an in-use duty cycle. A bespoke utility factor, relevant for wheel loader operation, was developed to enable realistic fuel economy and emissions weighting between charge depleting and charge sustaining operation. Finally, an exhaust heater was used to ensure rapid warmup of the aftertreatment system. Compared to an internal combustion engine–only baseline, the hybrid powertrain system resulted in a 48% reduction in CO2 and an 84% reduction in NOX emissions when operated over an 8-h shift, with daily recharging.
Bachu, Pruthvi, Michlberger, Alexander, Meruva, Prathik, Bitsis, Daniel Christopher
Hydrogen Crankcase Slip Phenomena: Experimental Study of Forced Ventilation Effects on Hydrogen Engine Performance and Emissions03-18-05-003308/22/2025
Hydrogen internal combustion engines (H2 ICE) are showing impressive potential to replace fossil fuel–based ICE platforms with zero-carbon engine-out emissions. However, adopting 100% hydrogen has its challenges due to its unique properties, such as the rapid flame velocity, the minimum igniting energy, and the lowest density. These unique properties of hydrogen impose an increased risk of ignition and combustion of hydrogen in the engine system due to leakage or inadequate ventilation. One of such scenarios is the hydrogen gas in the crankcase as a result of hydrogen slip through the piston rings. In this study, an experimental investigation was conducted on a single-cylinder hydrogen direct injection spark ignition engine, which was originally designed for boosted DI gasoline engine operation. A crankcase-forced ventilation system was designed and adopted with a hydrogen sensor in the closed feedback loop. The hydrogen concentrations in the exhaust gases and crankcase were measured
Mohamed, Mohamed Ali, Wang, Xinyan, Zhao, Hua
A Control Strategy of Path Tracking for Unmanned Mining Truck Based on Model Predictive Control and Considering Steering Delay10-09-04-003708/22/2025
To achieve accurate and stable path tracking for unmanned mining trucks in the face of changing paths and response delays in steering, this study raised a lateral control strategy for unmanned mining trucks based on MPC and considering steering delay response characteristics. Under the basis of deriving the state space equation from the commonly used two degrees of freedom truck dynamics model, this method introduces the dynamic relationship between steering angle issuance and actual response to form an augmented form of state vector to overcome the control instability caused by steering response delay. Then, based on the MPC method, a constrained objective function is constructed to solve for the optimal control law. In response to the problem of inaccurate selection of prediction and control time domains, this article proposes an adaptive selection method for prediction and control time horizon based on a modified particle swarm optimization (MPSO) algorithm, which obtains the
Mao, Libo, Wu, Guangqiang, Gui, Yuhui
Active–Passive Torsional Vibration Suppression Method for Electromechanical Coupling System of Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicles10-09-04-003408/21/2025
The diversity of excitation sources and operating modes in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) exacerbates the torsional vibration issues, presenting significant challenges to the vehicle’s overall noise, vibration, and harshness performance. To address the complex torsional vibration challenges of the HEVs, this study proposed an active–passive collaborative vibration suppression approach. In terms of passive suppression, a multi-condition parameter optimization scheme for the torsional vibration dampers is designed. In terms of active suppression, a fuzzy control–based electronically controlled damper is proposed, and a hybrid feedforward–feedback motor torque compensation strategy is developed. Simulation results demonstrated that the proposed method reduces the root mean square value of the angular acceleration by over 65% under acceleration and idle conditions and the maximum transient vibration value by 55% during the engine starting condition.
Yan, Zhengfeng, Liu, Shaofei, Huang, Tianyu, Zhong, Biqing, Bai, Xianxu, Huang, Yin
Design of a Fault-Tolerant Control Algorithm for Four-Wheel Steering Vehicle Steering Locking Based on Dynamic Model Reconstruction10-09-04-003608/21/2025
The motion control system, as the core executive component of the automatic hierarchical framework, directly determines whether autonomous vehicles can reliably and stably follow planned trajectories, making it crucial for driving safety. This article focuses on steering lock faults and proposes a cross-system fault-tolerant control (C-FTC) algorithm based on dynamic model reconstruction. The algorithm uses a classic hierarchical collaborative architecture: the upper-level controller employs an MPC algorithm to solve lateral velocity and yaw rate reference values in real-time, while the lower-level controller, designed based on the reconstructed dynamic model, uses an MPC algorithm to adaptively adjust actuator control quantities. In cases where four-wheel steering vehicles lose steering ability due to locked steering axles, the locked axle’s steering angle is treated as a state variable, and healthy actuator outputs are used as control variables to dynamically reconstruct the vehicle
Hu, Hongyu, Tang, Minghong, Chen, Guoying, Gao, Zhenhai, Wang, Xinyu, Gao, Fei
Optimization of Window Glass Parameters on Vehicle Weight and Wind Noise15-18-03-001808/20/2025
In this article, a three-dimensional transient CFD simulation method is used to simulate the wind noise of a vehicle model’s external flow field. The transient noise excitation of external noise sources outside each window glass are analyzed, and the statistical energy analysis method is used to calculate the articulation index of the front and rear passenger inside the vehicle. Then, the variation range of the thickness of each window glass is set, and the side window glass is also divided into two types: single-layer glass and laminated glass. After the design parameters are defined, the design space is established. The articulation index of the front and rear passengers and the total weight of the glass are the three design objectives for multi-objective optimization simulation, based on the results of optimization simulation, the change trend of each design parameter and design objective is analyzed; the sensitivity of the design objective to each design parameter is studied; the
Xiong, Zhenfeng, Zhang, Xiao, Liu, Ping, Li, Bo, Yuan, Qingpeng, Chen, Shiwen, To, Chi Hin
TOC99-07-04-0TOC08/19/2025
TOC
Tobolski, Sue
Adaptive Path Planning and Control of Autonomous Sweeping Vehicle Considering the Error of Perception10-09-04-003508/19/2025
This article presents a path planning and control method for a cost-effective autonomous sweeping vehicle operating in enclosed campus. First, to address the challenges from perception, an effective obstacle filtering algorithm is proposed, considering the elimination of false detection and correction of object position. Based on it, the adaptive sampling–based path planner and pure pursuit controller are developed. Not only an adaptive cost-weighting mechanism is introduced by TOPSIS algorithm to determine the desired trajectory as a multi-objective optimization problem, but also the adaptive preview distance is designed according to the trajectory curvature and vehicle state. The real-vehicle tests are implemented in typical scenario. The results show that the 87.8% effective edge-following rate is achieved in curved paths, and 22.93% cleaning coverage is improved for cleaning coverage. Therefore, the proposed method is effective and reliable for cost-effective autonomous sweeping
Lei, WuKun, Yang, Bo, Pei, Xiaofei, Zhang, Yang, Zhou, HongLong
Methods for Estimating Coasting Resistance of Heavy-Duty Commercial Vehicles under Various Loads02-19-01-000508/19/2025
This research primarily addresses the issue of resistance model setting for chassis dynamometers or EIL (engine-hardware-in-the-loop) systems under various loads. Based on the data available from the heavy-duty commercial vehicle coast-down test reports, this article proposes three methods for estimating coasting resistance. For heavy-duty commercial vehicles that have not undergone the coast-down test, this article proposes the GA-GRNN (AC) model to predict coasting resistance. Compared to the GA-BPNN model proposed by previous studies, the new model, which achieves 93% prediction accuracy, demonstrates higher estimation accuracy. For heavy-duty commercial vehicles that have undergone the coast-down test, the coasting equal power method proposed in this article can estimate the coasting resistance under various loads. The accuracy and stability of the new method are verified by several coast-down tests. Compared to the existing method proposed by existing scholars, the new method has
Liang, Xingyu, Sun, Shangfeng, Li, Tengteng, Zhao, Jianfu
Optimizing Rear Spoiler Angle for Enhanced Vehicle Braking Performance10-09-04-003308/14/2025
The recent advancements in vehicle powertrain and aerodynamics have led to an increase in the production of faster passenger cars, where high-speed driving scenarios demand equally efficient and safe braking systems to ensure the safety of both passengers and surrounding vehicles and pedestrians. At high speeds, aerodynamics can significantly impact overall vehicle braking performance due to the interaction between downforces and lift forces, which, in turn, affects the vehicle’s overall dynamic weight, directly contributing to the maximum attainable deceleration or braking force. Accordingly, the braking performance can be maximized by generating more downforce by means of rear spoilers, while taking into consideration their inevitable drag, which adds to the total vehicle motion resistance. Therefore, this proposed work aims to investigate the effectiveness of employing an active rear spoiler to enhance the vehicle’s braking performance, without introducing remarkable drag that could
Abidou, Diaa, Abdellah, Ahmed Helmy, Haggag, Salem
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