Journal Articles - SAE Mobilus

SAE journals provide rigorously peer-reviewed, archival research by subject matter experts--basic and applied research that is valuable to both academia and industry.

Items (10,749)

An Artificial Neural Network–Assisted Hybrid Design Approach for Induction Motors in Vehicular Application

14-14-03-0017

08/06/2025

This article presents an artificial neural network (ANN)–based hybrid design methodology for motors used in electric vehicle applications. The proposed method uses ANN to achieve a semi-optimized motor geometry, followed by the drive cycle analysis for the desired vehicle. For this, a large pool of motor design data is used as a training set for the ANN. The semi-optimized motor geometry is further processed for power factor improvement, overall motor efficiency, and electromagnetic noise reduction. The proposed method reduces the overall complexity of the iterative motor design and optimization process. The implementation of the method is demonstrated with a case study wherein a 110 kW three-phase induction motor is designed for an electric bus using the NREL drive cycle. The performance of the motor is verified using a finite element analysis motor using Maxwell ANSYS. The work described in this article was motivated by the complexities of the iterative motor design process, which

Makkar, Yash, Kumar, Rajendra, Sah, Bikash, Kumar, Praveen

Impact of Battery Electric Conversion on Rollover Safety of Large Passenger Buses per UN ECE R66

09-13-02-0009

08/01/2025

The electric conversion of a large passenger vehicle was investigated, in which the internal combustion engine and associated components were replaced by electric powertrain components. As this will have an influence on the rollover safety performance of the vehicle, compliance to the requirements of UN ECE Regulation No.66 was assessed. The vehicle geometry was captured through physical inspection. The unladen kerb mass of the vehicle was experimentally determined as 10660 kg. This mass excludes the mass of occupants as the vehicle is not fitted with occupant restraints. The location of the center of gravity was estimated using a representative CAD model. The center of gravity is located at a distance of 3580 mm behind the front axle and at a height of 1195 mm above the ground. An implicit nonlinear finite element (FE) analysis was conducted to quantify the energy absorption capability of a rollover hoop. This value was calculated as 5.65 kJ for a single rollover hoop and 67.80 kJ for

Raats, Daniel James, Venter, Gerhard, Bredell, Johann

Research on Charging Cables Temperature Field Prediction Based on Finite Element Method and Machine Learning

05-18-04-0033

08/01/2025

With the rapid development of new energy vehicles, high-power charging technology has become an effective way to meet the fast-charging needs of electric vehicles. Temperature control of charging cables is crucial for the safety and efficiency of charging. This article aims to develop finite element method (FEM)-ML to predict the temperature field of the charging cable. First, the initial ambient temperature and maximum current were set as the main influencing factors, and a dataset including various charging parameters and cable temperature fields was built by FEM based on a two-factor, four-level orthogonal design. Then, surrogate models based on the Bayesian optimization (BO) algorithm, multilayer perceptron (MLP) model, and extreme gradient boosting (XGB) model were established to predict the temperature field distribution of high-power charging cables. The results indicated that the XGB model had better prediction performance than the MLP model, with average values of MSE, RMSE

Li, Xilin, Zhan, Zhenfei, Fan, Fuhao, Fu, Yunyou, Shen, Yunlong, Pu, Liangxi, Zhou, Qi, Tang, Weiqin

Comprehensive Analysis of Aero-Thermal Flow Characteristics in an Agricultural Tractor Using Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation

05-19-02-0014

08/01/2025

This study employs computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to analyze airflow and thermal characteristics within an agricultural tractor, focusing on operator comfort and component safety. Initial simulations identified hotspots, such as the brake pedals, operator platform, and hand throttle, where temperatures exceeded acceptable limits (rise over ambient, ROA). A multi-step approach—including sealing air leaks, adding heat insulation materials, and optimizing the deflector guard—was implemented to mitigate excessive heat. While these modifications significantly improved temperature conditions on the right platform, the left brake pedal remained problematic. Further enhancements, such as sealing an electrical socket and modifying the shroud design, effectively reduced heat exposure. The improved shroud also led to a slight decrease in static pressure (2.21%) and an 8.61% reduction in power consumption, improving airflow efficiency. Although an alternative ring fan design reduced power

Mohan, Anand, Soni, Peeyush, Sethuraman, Sriraman, Govindan, Senthilkumar, Sakthivel, Ananth, Babu, Rathish Maller

Mitigating High Steering Effort in Power Steering Pumps through Manufacturing Process Improvement

02-19-01-0003

08/01/2025

Power steering pumps are the heart of any hydraulic power steering system. They provide the heavy lifting power required in the form of high-pressure fluid flow that is utilized in powered steering gears or steering racks to assist drivers in vehicle maneuvers, specifically in low-speed situations. Failure of the power steering pump will inevitably increase work needed from the driver to steer a vehicle and decrease the driver comfort at the same time. This article covers investigations into a customer return issue, affecting more than 20% of pumps, for one particular failure mode, pump input shaft seal leakage, and how the failure is not caused by failure at the input shaft nor by failure of the input shaft seal. It was found that internal damage to the pump rotating assembly allows high-pressure oil to overcome the input shaft seal sealing effect. The cause of the failure was determined to be rooted in the manufacturing process, which was re-ordered to reduce the failure rate to an

Bari, Praful Rajendra, Kintner, Jason

Self-Controlled Electrically Powered Semitrailer

02-19-01-0002

07/28/2025

In this article, the hybrid drive is discussed of the combination of conventional tractors with electrified trailers, usually referred to as E-trailer. We demonstrate that this approach offers the possibility of achieving fuel savings exceeding 20%. For regional trips, about half of this reduction is achieved without offline charging, i.e., without applying electric energy from the E-trailer battery. For motorway dominant trips, more use is required of the battery energy. A new control strategy is proposed, validated through simulations, in which only three control parameters are required, which can be tuned effectively to achieve maximum fuel reduction under certain trip and loading conditions. This control strategy adjusts the E-trailer torque request, based on the requested power for the tractor diesel engine, being estimated through a smart kingpin sensor. It ensures that the E-trailer supports the tractor propulsion when significant power is required, and recovers energy when the

Pauwelussen, Joop, Kural, Karel, Hetjes, Bas

Design and Analysis of Passive Controlled Plastic Hinge in Two-Post Rollover Protective Structure for Off-Highway Motor Grader Equipment

02-19-01-0001

07/23/2025

Rollover protective structures (ROPS) that absorb energy during vehicle rollovers play a crucial role in providing integrated passive safety for operators restrained by seat belts. These protective structures, integrated into the vehicle frame, are designed to absorb high-impact energy and deform in a controlled manner without intruding into the occupant’s safe zone. This research focuses on the detailed analytical design procedure and performance evaluation criteria of the two-post open ROPS used on motor graders against lateral loads. An experimental test on a standard tubular square hollow section (SHS) column subjected to lateral load has demonstrated a significant correlation between the post-yield behavior of plastic hinge development and energy absorption, compared with results from various formulations adopted in finite element analysis (FEA). To reduce design iteration time and the cost of physical destructive testing, the complete equipment experimental setup is virtually

J., Avinash

Alternative Fuels and Hybridization as Cost-Effective Pathways to Medium-Duty Greenhouse Gas Phase 3 Compliance

02-18-03-0019

07/23/2025

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Phase 3 regulation targets a substantial reduction in GHG emissions across model year (MY) 2027–2032 class 2b-8 vehicles. This article explores the implementation of alternative fuels, such as compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), along with powertrain hybridization as viable pathways for achieving these stringent standards in a cost-effective manner. A detailed analysis is performed on a Class-7 medium–heavy-duty (MHD) truck configuration, featuring an inline 4-cylinder 5.2-L spark-ignited (SI) engine, modeled with both CNG and LPG fuels. The vehicle’s powertrain is simulated to evaluate GHG emissions and fuel efficiency. The study further examines the impact of low rolling resistance (LRR) tires and varying tire rolling resistance coefficients (Crr) on vehicle performance. For further lowering the GHG emissions, a hybrid powertrain sizing study was performed. The simulation

Patil, Shubham V., Smith, Edward M., Bachu, Pruthvi R., Ross, Michael G.

A 3D Visibility Label for Mobility Coatings: Enhancing Traffic Safety Through Color and Sensor Perception

12-09-02-0009

07/22/2025

The mobility industry is rapidly advancing towards more autonomous modes of transportation with the adoption of sophisticated self-driving technologies. However, a critical challenge, being the lack of standardized norms for defining, measuring, and ensuring vehicle visibility across various dynamic traffic environments, remains. This lack of awareness of visibility is hindering the development of new regulations for vehicle visibility and the controlled transition to a fully-integrated autonomous future. While current efforts focus on improving sensing technologies like computer vision, LiDAR systems, and sensor fusion development, two key issues remain unresolved: 1 The absence of a representative and realistic three-dimensional color visibility model for measuring and comparing the visibility of complex shapes with large but varying color coated three-dimensional surface areas. 2 The need for enhanced visibility solutions that improve visibility and vehicle detectability for all

Mijnen, Paul W., Moerenburg, Joost H.

Machine Learning–Based Prediction of Underhood Airflow in Passenger Vehicles

15-18-03-0017

07/22/2025

Engine performance is affected by cooling airflow onto the engine cooling module. During initial design, frontal openings, grills, cooling module size, placement, and location are optimized to ensure sufficient airflow onto the cooling module. Currently, design concepts are validated using 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations performed iteratively on full vehicle models to predict and optimize cooling airflow onto cooling modules. Each design concept iteration consumes significant time and resources. This study introduces a machine learning (ML) model to streamline underhood airflow prediction, reducing reliance on iterative CFD. Previous CFD simulation data is used to create a training dataset, which calibrates the ML model, describing underhood airflow as a function of input parameters. The relevant ML algorithm is used to calibrate the model, perform data fitting of the training values, after which a testing dataset is created to validate the model for a range of design

Ayyar, Eshaan, Kumar, Vivek, Kulkarni, Prasad

Effect of Ce and Cr Additions on the Physical and Mechanical Properties of Materials of Sn-9Zn Solder Alloy

05-19-02-0009

07/22/2025

With rising environmental concerns, developing lead-free solders is crucial for sustainable electronics. Traditional lead-based solders, while effective, pose health and environmental risks, prompt a shift to safer alternatives that retain reliability. Sn-9Zn alloys, when alloyed with elements such as cerium (Ce) and chromium (Cr), show enhanced mechanical and thermal properties suited for modern electronics. This study examines the effects of Ce and Cr, and their combination in Sn-9Zn solder alloy, analyzing improvements in microstructure, thermal, wettability, and hardness properties. Microstructural analysis reveals that Ce and Cr additions refine the alloy’s structure, benefiting performance. Wettability testing shows that Sn-9Zn-0.05Ce achieves the lowest wetting angle, while Sn-9Zn-0.05Ce-0.1Cr displays a balanced angle between Sn-9Zn-0.05Ce and Sn-9Zn-0.1Cr. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results indicate that Sn-9Zn-0.05Ce has the lowest melting temperature, while Sn

Kumar, Niranjan, Maurya, Ambrish

Multivariable Fuzzy Sliding-Mode Torque Control for Internal Combustion Engines

03-18-05-0032

07/21/2025

Internal combustion engine torque control presents a persistent challenge due to pronounced nonlinearities, parametric uncertainties, and time-varying dynamics. While conventional controllers like the proportional–integral derivative (PID) are widely implemented, they often struggle to deliver high-performance results under transient conditions. To address this gap, this work introduces and experimentally validates a novel torque controller with fuzzy sliding-mode controller (FSMC) architecture, a hybrid control not previously applied to the domain of engine torque regulation. The proposed FSMC is specifically engineered to systematically mitigate the effects of system nonlinearities by integrating the robustness of sliding-mode theory with the adaptive, chattering-suppression capabilities of fuzzy logic. This study details the controller’s development, implementation, and rigorous experimental validation on an ethanol-fueled engine via a dynamometer test bench. The controller’s

Silva, Marcos Henrique Carvalho, Maggio, André Vinícius Oliveira, Laganá, Armando Antônio Maria, Pereira, Bruno Silva, Justo, João Francisco

Drop-In Performance of Propyl- and Butyl-Terminated Oxymethylene Ethers in a Compression Ignition Engine

04-19-01-0003

07/16/2025

Oxymethylene ethers (OMEs) have been proposed for use in diesel engines as a high-reactivity fuel with reduced soot emission. Historically, the focus on methyl-terminated OMEs has limited drop-in applicability. In this work, a set of extended-alkyl OMEs with methyl, propyl, and butyl terminations are tested in an unmodified 4.5L Deere diesel engine, neat and in various blends with ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD). Engine operability and emissions data are collected for the various fuel blends. External laboratory testing against the ASTM D975 standard demonstrates that a blend of 30% butyl-terminated OMEs with ULSD meets all ASTM standard requirements except lubricity. It is shown that the OMEs and OME–diesel blends demonstrate shorter combustion durations, as defined by the 10%–90% heat release timing, than the ULSD control. Engine brake efficiency is unaffected by OME usage, while specific fuel consumption increases in proportion to the reduced heating values of OMEs. Particulate

Lucas, Stephen P., Zdanowicz, Andrew, Wolff, Wyatt W., Windom, Bret

Brief Communication: Measurement of Boundary Layer Turbulent Transition Using an Acoustic Microphone Unit

01-18-02-0011

07/16/2025

In this article the transition of a laminar boundary layer (BL) over a flat plate is characterized using an acoustic technique with a pitot probe linked to a microphone unit. The probe was traversed along a BL plate at a fixed wind tunnel flow velocity of 5.5 m/s. A spectral analysis of the acoustic fluctuations showed that this setup can estimate the streamwise location and length of the BL transition region, as well as the BL thickness, by using the intermittency similitude approach. Further work is required to quantify the uncertainty caused by signal attenuation within the data acquisition system.

Lawson, Nicholas John, Zachos, Pavlos K.

Ethanol Fuel as Enabler for High-Efficiency and Low-Soot Combustion in Dual-Fuel and Blend Modes

03-18-04-0028

07/16/2025

Global climate initiatives and government regulations are driving the demand for zero-carbon tailpipe emission vehicles. To ensure a sustainable transition, rapid action strategies are essential. In this context, renewable fuels can reduce lifecycle CO2 emissions and enable low-soot and NOx emissions. This study examines the effects of renewable ethanol in dual-fuel (DF) and blend fueling modes in a compression ignition (CI) engine. The novelty of this research lies in comparing different combustion modes using the same engine test rig. The methodology was designed to evaluate the characteristics of various injection modes and identify the inherent features that define their application ranges. The investigation was conducted on a single-cylinder engine equipped with state-of-the-art combustion technology. The results indicate that the maximum allowable ethanol concentration is 30% in blend mode, due to blend stability and regulatory standards, and 70% in DF mode, due to combustion

Belgiorno, Giacomo, Ianniello, Roberto, Di Blasio, Gabriele

Integrating High-Fidelity Urea–Water Solution—Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulations for Fast Three-Dimensional Selective Catalytic Reactor Modeling Using Artificial Neural Networks

03-18-05-0030

07/12/2025

This article presents a novel approach to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of three-dimensional (3D) selective catalytic reduction (SCR) simulations in monolith reactors by leveraging high-fidelity urea–water solution computational fluid dynamics (UWS-CFD) data. The focus is on estimating the nonuniformity of NH₃ at the SCR inlet, crucial for achieving optimal performance in aftertreatment systems. Due to its high computational cost, a CFD-only approach is not feasible for transient drive cycle simulations aiming to accurately predict SCR NOx conversion and NH₃ slip by accounting for the nonuniform NH₃ distribution at the SCR inlet. Therefore, the development of reduced order or fast models is of prime importance. By employing artificial neural networks (ANNs), we establish a framework that eliminates the need for computationally expensive CFD calculations, allowing for swift and precise 3D SCR simulations under various injection, mixing region, and exhaust conditions. The

Mishra, Rohit, Gundlapally, Santhosh, Wahiduzzaman, Syed

Effect of Water Dilution and Homogenous Lean Operation on Combustion and Detailed Emissions in a Spark Ignited Gasoline Direct Injection Engine

04-19-01-0004

07/10/2025

Twenty-nine percent of the greenhouse gas emissions in the US are produced by the transportation sector according to the US Environmental Protection Agency. The combination of increasingly stringent regulations on emissions and fuel economy, along with the current practical limitations of electrification motivate continued development efforts for improving internal combustion engine efficiency and emissions. Ethanol, an extensive fuel additive or drop-in replacement for gasoline, is already recognized as a promising transition fuel in decarbonization efforts. Furthermore, lean combustion in spark-ignited (SI) engines has been pursued extensively for engine efficiency and emissions improvements. Lean combustion, however, faces the challenges of decreased combustion stability and strong increases to engine-out NOx at conditions where conventional SI engines are stable (ϕ > 0.7). Water dilution, historically used as a knock inhibitor in performance engines, has shown potential for

Voris, Alex, Lundberg, Matt, Puzinauskas, Paulius

Experimental Investigations on the Effects of Injector Design and Operating Parameters on PCCI Combustion in a Light-Duty Diesel Engine

03-18-04-0026

07/09/2025

Due to increasingly stringent emission regulations, advanced combustion strategies, such as premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI), have emerged promising solutions for achieving low NOx and soot emissions. However, challenges such as increased unburned hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, and a restricted engine operating load range remain unsolved. Since conventional diesel engines are not inherently designed for PCCI operation, re-optimizing engine parameters is essential. The primary objective of this work is to investigate the influence of injector orientation and nozzle spray angle on combustion parameters, performance, and emissions in a PCCI diesel engine. Initial parametric studies revealed that early direct injection combined with high fuel injection pressure limited the PCCI load range to 30% and 60% of the rated capacity with diesel, without and with EGR, respectively, accompanied by higher HC and CO emissions. To address these limitations, the injector

Ranjan, Ashish Pratap, Krishnasamy, Anand

Droplet–Wall Interaction Dynamics during Urea Dosing in an Aftertreatment System

03-18-04-0025

07/09/2025

Urea–water solution (UWS) is sprayed during selective catalytic reduction (SCR) in the aftertreatment system of a diesel engine. UWS decomposes to ammonia and reacts with harmful nitrogen oxides present in exhaust gas to convert it to harmless nitrogen and water vapor. The interaction of UWS spray droplets with the hot wall of the aftertreatment system plays a crucial role in the performance and life of the aftertreatment system used in modern diesel engines for emission control. We report here a comprehensive experimental investigation on the normal impact of UWS droplets on the heated wall of stainless steel (SS410), mimicking the droplet–wall interaction in an SCR aftertreatment system. We have built a regime map underlying the possible outcomes under operating conditions encountered in an SCR system. The transition zones are identified, and the complex transition dynamics from one regime to another are discussed. Finally, we investigate and discuss the universality of the non

Singh, Kartikeya K., Deka, Hiranya, Pandey, Vinod, Khot, Ambarish, Basak, Narendranath, Shastry D. M., Channaveera

Investigation of Expansion Characteristics of Convergent–Divergent Nozzles with a Variable Geometry Sudden Expanded Duct

01-18-02-0010

07/09/2025

In recent years, there has been a significant rise in research focused on estimating the base pressure (Pb) characteristics of convergent–divergent nozzles with sudden expansion regions. This study explores the use of geometrical parameters as a control strategy for nozzles experiencing abrupt expansion at supersonic Mach numbers within an axisymmetric duct. It focuses on four distinct novel expansion duct configurations: square nozzle (SN), step square nozzle (SSN), curved nozzle (CN), and double curved nozzle (DCN). In this work, the high-speed compressible flow investigation is carried out numerically using control volume method on the nozzle with a fixed area ratio (AR) and L/D nozzle. Standard k-ε turbulence model is used in the analysis to access the recirculation region formed near the nozzle walls. The recirculation zone directly influences the Pb and shock cell. For NPR range from 2 to 10, SSN and CN shows an increase in Pb, which further increases the thrust and decreases the

Raj, R. Jini, Kumar, P. Deepak, Panchksharayya, D. V., Kousik Kumaar, R., Praveen, N.

Manifold Configuration Effects on Root-Mean-Square Turbulent Velocity in a Spark Ignition Engine

03-18-05-0029

07/09/2025

The present study aims to simulate the non-reacting flow within the cylinder of a two-stroke spark ignition internal combustion engine (SIE) utilizing gasoline direct injection (GDI). A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis was employed to forecast the turbulence levels of the in-cylinder flow, including the root-mean-square (RMS) turbulent velocity. The three-dimensional model was developed using ANSYS-FLUENT. The investigation examined the intake manifold inclination angles of 0°, 10°, 20°, 30°, and 40° for two different types of single-intake port engines (I and II) and a single-type double-intake port engines, that are presented at an engine speed of 1500 rpm. The findings revealed that the highest RMS turbulent velocities occurred at a 30° inclination for the double-intake engine, while the single-intake engines (I) and (II) showed peak velocities at 0° and 10°, respectively. Furthermore, in single-intake engine (I), the RMS turbulent velocity was found to be 38.7% greater

Soliman, Mohab, Elbadawy, Ibrahim

Thermal Interaction Based on Battery Electrochemical Modeling for In-Wheel Hub Motor Electric Vehicles: A Performance Analysis

14-14-03-0016

07/09/2025

As the adoption of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) continues to rise, analyzing their performance under varying environmental conditions that affect energy consumption has become increasingly important. A critical factor influencing the efficiency of BEVs is the heat loss from the operation and interaction between the vehicle components, such as the battery and motor, and the surrounding temperature. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the thermal interaction in BEVs by integrating hub motor vehicle and battery electrochemical model with environmental factors. It explores how ambient temperature variations influence the performance of EV components, particularly the motors and battery systems, in both hot and cold weather conditions. The simulations also consider the passenger comfort inside the cabin as it investigates the effects of operating the air-conditioning system on overall energy consumption, revealing significant energy consumption shifts during extreme ambient

Abdullah, Mohamed, Zhang, Xi

Data-Driven Vehicle Specification of Conventional and Electric Heavy-Duty Commercial Trucks for Improved Energy Consumption

02-18-03-0018

07/09/2025

In the heavy-duty commercial trucks sector, selecting the most energy-efficient vehicle can enable great reductions of the fleet operating costs associated with energy consumption and emissions. Customization and selection of the vehicle design among all possible options, also known as “vehicle specification,” can be formulated as a design space exploration problem where the objective is to find the optimal vehicle configuration in terms of minimum energy consumption for an intended application. A vehicle configuration includes both vehicle characteristics and powertrain components. The design space is the set of all possible vehicle configurations that can be obtained by combining the different powertrain components and vehicle characteristics. This work considers Class 8 heavy-duty trucks (gross combined weight up to 36,000 kg). The driving characteristics, such as the desired speed profile and the road elevation along the route, define the intended application. The objective of the

Villani, Manfredi, Pandolfi, Alfonso, Ahmed, Qadeer, Pianese, Cesare

Deep Reinforcement Learning–Based Control Strategy for Electro-Hydrostatic Active Suspension

15-18-03-0016

07/09/2025

A DRL (deep reinforcement learning) algorithm, DDPG (deep deterministic policy gradient), is proposed to address the problems of slow response speed and nonlinear feature of electro-hydrostatic actuator (EHA), a new type of actuation method for active suspension. The model-free RL (reinforcement learning) and the flexibility of optimizing general reward functions are combined with the ability of neural networks to deal with complex temporal problems through the introduction of a new framework called “actor-critic”. A EHA active suspension model is developed and incorporated into a 7-degrees-of-freedom dynamics model of the vehicle, with a reward function consisting of the vehicle dynamics parameters and the EHA pump–valve control signals. The simulation results show that the strategy proposed in this article can be highly adapted to the nonlinear hydraulic system. Compared with iLQR (iterative linear quadratic regulator), DDPG controller exhibits better control performance, achieves

Wang, Jiawei, Guo, Huiru, Deng, Xiaohe

Noise, Vibration, and Harshness Countermeasures of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor with Viscoelastic Layer Material

10-09-04-0031

06/30/2025

An electric motor exhibits structural dynamic excitation at high frequency, making it particularly prone to noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) problems. To mitigate this effect, this article discusses a novel countermeasure technique to improve NVH performances of electric machines. A viscoelastic rubber layer is applied on the outer surface of a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) as vibration damping treatment. The goal is to assess the countermeasure effectiveness in reducing acoustic emissions at different temperatures, through a combination of numerical modeling and experimental validation. A finite element model of the structure is realized, considering a viscoelastic material model for the rubber material, with frequency-dependent loss factor and storage modulus. The numerical model is validated by means of experimental modal tests performed on a house-built cylindrical structure, designed to mimic the geometry of a typical cooling jacket of a PMSM for automotive

Soresini, Federico, Barri, Dario, Ballo, Federico, Manzoni, Stefano, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Mastinu, Giampiero

An Experimentation of Performance of Compression Ignition Engine Fueled with Nano-alumina–Enhanced Diesel, Diesel–Ethanol, and Diesel–Butanol Blends

03-18-04-0027

06/30/2025

This study is to use the renewable fuels such as bioethanol and biobutanol as performance-improving additives into diesel fuel. Nano-alumina is added in three proportions into diesel, diesel–bioethanol, and diesel–biobutanol blends for further enhancement of performance. The novelty of this study is the utilization of the bio-alcohols manufactured from the waste vegetables and fruits which are reducing the land pollution, disposal cost, and the decrease in the dependency on diesel fuel. Blends of diesel–bioethanol and diesel–biobutanol are prepared and tested for homogeneity at a controlled temperature of 25°C. The blends after the homogeneity test are tested for the required properties and compared with the base of commercial Bharat Stage VI diesel. One blend from three base fuels—diesel, diesel–bioethanol, and diesel–biobutanol—is being chosen and further blended with three proportions of nano-alumina particles (50 mg/l, 75 mg/l, and 100 mg/l) and further tested for efficiencies in

Prabakaran, B., Yasin, Mohd Hafizil Mat

An Investigation into Friction Stir Surfacing of AA 6061-T6 Alloy on Low-Carbon Steel: Microstructural and Mechanical Analysis

05-19-02-0013

06/30/2025

Friction stir surfacing is an advance surface modification technique, which is functionally evolved from the friction stir welding process. However, the fundamental reason behind the joining of Al/steel is difficult due to the formation of hard and brittle intermetallic compounds (IMC). To address the problem of IMC formation, the current study suggested an alternate production technique with solid-state friction surfacing deposition. In this work, the adhesion mechanism and metallurgical properties of solution-treated AA6061-T6 aluminum alloy cladding over a low-carbon steel IS2062 substrate were investigated. Impact procedural factors (axial frictional force, spindle speed, table traverse speed, consumable rod diameter, and substrate roughness) were examined. Push-off and hardness tests were used to inspect the mechanical properties of cladded samples. 67–77± HV hardness is observed at the interface of the cladded cross-section. A push-off strength of 9 kN was achieved, indicating

Badheka, Kedar Hiteshkumar, Sharma, Daulat Kumar, Badheka, Vishvesh

Early Detection of the Loss of Control of Motorsport Vehicles

10-09-03-0029

06/30/2025

The article investigates how to detect as quickly as possible whether the driver will lose control of a vehicle, after a disturbance has occurred. Typical disturbances refer to wind gusts, obstacle avoidance, a sudden steer, traversing a pothole, a kick by another vehicle, and so on. The driver may be either human or non-human. Focus will be devoted to human drivers, but the extension to automated or autonomous cars is straightforward. Since the dynamic behavior of vehicle and driver is described by a saddle-type limit cycle, a proper theory is developed to use the limit cycle as a reference trajectory to forecast the loss of control. The Floquet theory has been used to compute a scalar index to forecast stable or unstable motion. The scalar index, named degree of stability (DoS), is computed very early, in the best case, in a few milliseconds after the disturbance has ended. Investigations have been performed at a dynamic driving simulator. A 14 DoF vehicle model, virtually driven by

Della Rossa, Fabio, Fontana, Matteo, Giacintucci, Samuele, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Mastinu, Giampiero, Previati, Giorgio

Computational Investigation of Advanced Compression Ignition with Wet Ethanol in an OP-2S

04-19-01-0002

06/30/2025

Alcohol fuels have inherent properties that make them suitable candidates to replace conventional fossil fuels in internal combustion engines by reducing the formation of harmful emissions such as lifecycle carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), and particulate matter (PM). There is an increasing amount of work to use fuels such as ethanol or methanol in mixing-controlled compression ignition (MCCI) as a replacement for diesel fuel. However, employing these fuels in a strictly MCCI strategy results in an evaporative cooling penalty that lowers indicated fuel efficiency. This work proposes the use of an advanced compression ignition (ACI) strategy with a high autoignition resistant fuel, where a fraction of the fuel is premixed and autoignited in conjunction with a fraction of fuel that is burned in a mixing-controlled manner to achieve diesel-like efficiencies with significant emission reductions. A computational model for MCCI with diesel and wet ethanol in an opposed piston two

O’Donnell, Patrick Christopher, Gainey, Brian, Bhatt, Ankur, Huo, Ming, Lawler, Benjamin

Lifecycle Assessment of Battery Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Internal Combustion Engine-Powered Cars in India

13-06-02-0012

06/28/2025

Battery electric vehicles have gained popularity in the transport sector of late and are considered to emit lower greenhouse gas emissions than their internal combustion engine-powered counterparts. This study conducted a “cradle-to-grave” lifecycle assessment for two sets of battery electric, hybrid electric, and internal combustion engine vehicles sold in India to assess which powertrain emits lower greenhouse gas emissions during their lifetime. The system boundaries of the “cradle-to-grave” analysis consist of vehicle manufacturing, usage, maintenance, recycling of components, and finally, disposal. The “well-to-wheel” analysis includes oil extraction, feedstock cultivation, transportation, refining, fuel production, blending, and supply. This study considered India’s electricity generation mix from thermal, nuclear, solar, wind, and hydropower plants in different regions for 2020–2021. Greenhouse gas emissions from all three categories of vehicles were calculated for a lifespan of

Agarwal, Avinash Kumar, Singh, Rahul Kumar, Biswas, Srijit

Traumatic Head and Brain Injuries in Helmeted Motorcycle Crashes

2025-22-0006

06/27/2025

This study presents an analysis of 364 motorcycle helmet impact tests, including standard certified full-face, open-face, and half-helmets, as well as non-certified (novelty) helmet designs. Two advanced motorcycle helmet designs that incorporate technologies intended to mitigate the risk of rotational brain injuries (rTBI) were included in this study. Results were compared to 80 unprotected tests using an instrumented 50th percentile Hybrid III head form and neck at impact speeds ranging from 6 to 18 m/s (13 to 40 mph). Results show that, on average, the Head Injury Criterion (HIC) was reduced by 92 percent across certified helmets, compared to the unhelmeted condition, indicating substantial protection against focal head and brain injuries. However, findings indicate that standard motorcycle helmets increase the risk of AIS 2 to 5 rotational brain injuries (rTBI) by an average of 30 percent compared to the unprotected condition, due to the increased rotational inertia generated by

Lloyd, John

Customized Signalized Intersection Control for Pedestrian Safety Enhancement through Computer Vision Technologies

09-13-02-0008

06/26/2025

The escalating complexity at intersections challenges the safety of the interaction between vehicles and pedestrians, especially for those with mobility impairments. Traditional traffic control systems detect pedestrians through costly technologies such as LiDAR and radar, limiting their adoption due to high costs and static programming. Therefore, the article proposes a customized signalized intersection control (CSIC) algorithm for pedestrian safety enhancement. This algorithm integrates advanced computer vision (CV) algorithms to detect, track, and predict pedestrian movements in real time, enhancing safety at a signalized intersection while remaining economically viable and easily integrated into existing infrastructure. Implemented at a key intersection in Bellevue, the CSIC system achieves a 100% pedestrian passing rate while simultaneously minimizing the average remaining walk time after crossings. The algorithm used in this study demonstrates the potential of combining CV with

Xia, Rongjing, Fang, Hongchao, Zhang, Chenyang

A Dynamic Hydroplaning Study: A Fluid–Structure Interaction Model for Road Vehicle Tire Analysis

15-18-03-0015

06/24/2025

Hydroplaning contributes to approximately 20% of traffic accidents during adverse weather conditions, with factors such as velocity, water film thickness, tire inflation, and vehicle weight playing significant roles. This study aims to simulate the hydroplaning phenomenon using a fluid–structure interaction model based on the coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian (CEL) capabilities of ABAQUS. Results reveal that vehicle linear velocity is a key determinant of hydroplaning risk, with a positive correlation observed. The findings suggest maintaining speeds under 50 km/h to mitigate hydroplaning risk, contingent on well-maintained, properly inflated tires. Multiple linear regression analysis further demonstrates correlations among velocity, tire inflation, quarter vehicle load, and water film thickness in predicting the reaction force between the tire and roadway. The proposed scheme provides a predictive mechanism for hydroplaning risk under varying conditions, offering valuable insights into

Aboelsaoud, Mostafa, Taha, Ahmed Abdelsalam, Abo Elazm, Mohamed, Elgamal, Hassan Anwar

Research on Multi-Material Lightweight of Electric Vehicle Battery Box

13-06-02-0013

06/23/2025

To select appropriate lightweight materials and optimize their integration with battery enclosure components for enhanced performance and weight reduction, this study proposes a material selection strategy driven by mechanical property indices combined with the CRITIC-weighted TOPSIS method. Initially, a decision matrix incorporating bending stiffness indices was established based on the deformation characteristics of battery enclosures, focusing on commonly used metallic materials. The CRITIC-weighted TOPSIS method was employed to standardize data dimensions, determine objective weight coefficients, and calculate relative closeness coefficients for candidate material screening. Subsequently, sensitivity analysis identified critical components significantly influencing operational conditions, followed by integrated material and dimensional optimization to determine the optimal solution. The optimized battery enclosure achieved a weight reduction of 15.56 kg, with a reduction rate of

Liu, Junfeng, Kang, Yuanchun

Road Noise Improvement Method for Battery Electric Vehicles Based on Bushing Stiffness Optimization

10-09-04-0032

06/23/2025

The chassis bushing is one of the key components affecting the vibration isolation efficiency of a vehicle, and a comprehensive optimization method combining the experimental process and transmission path analysis (TPA) is proposed to reduce the low- and medium-frequency road noise response in the passenger compartment of a battery electric vehicle (BEV). First, the noise signals were obtained in the vehicle road noise test under two working conditions of 40 and 60 km/h at uniform speeds on rough road surfaces. Then, the excitation transmission path was analyzed based on the structural noise transmission model, and the chassis bushing parts with more considerable vibration isolation contribution were screened out. By matching the stiffness values of the chassis bushings in the optimization problem through experimental methods, the optimization scheme reduces the stiffness of the front swing arm bushing and the rear longitudinal arm bushing by 30%. Additionally, a flexible connection is

Liu, Ke, Liao, Yinghua, Wang, Hongrui, Zhou, Junchao

Study of Processing Parameters and Aging Treatments on Relative Density and Microhardness of Additively Manufactured Maraging Steel

05-19-02-0012

06/23/2025

This research examined maraging steel (C300), which is widely used in the automotive industry. The study investigated how various 3D printing parameters—laser power (P), scanning speed (V), and layer spacing (H)—as well as post-processing heat treatment factors such as time (t) and temperature (T) affect the properties of C300 steel produced via selective laser melting (SLM). The primary properties assessed included relative density, porosity, hardness, and microstructure. The first part of the analysis focused on how processing parameters, time, and temperature influenced porosity types and manufacturing defects. Subsequently, ANOVA was employed to explore the sensitivity of relative density and microhardness to these parameters. The results revealed an optimal combination of parameters that improved both microstructural and mechanical properties. Additionally, the post-processing heat treatment was found to impact microhardness by modifying the microstructure and martensite lath size

Jaballah, Ola, Omidi, Narges, Iltaf, Asim, Barka, Noureddine, El Ouafi, Abderrazak

Increasing Wear Strength and Life Cycle of Tamping Machine Tool by Silicon Carbide Coating for Railway Maintenance

05-19-02-0011

06/19/2025

When a train passes continuously over a section of the track, the track gradually moves away from the intended vertical and horizontal alignment with time and repeated use. Regular maintenance on the track, such as leveling, lifting, lining, and tamping, is necessary to maintain the optimal geometry of the track. Ballast is leveled and squeezed by hydraulic rams in tamping machines. The tamping is a process of ballast packing under railway tracks. In current system a set of tungsten carbide chips are attached either by welding or by coating on tamping tool tip made of EN24 steels. These tungsten carbide chips directly come in contact with the ballasts. After few tamping works, gradually these chips torn out and need to be replaced after certain period. Tungsten carbide is a costly material, therefore this research deals with replacement of tungsten carbide with silicon carbide (easily available cheaper) coating used for tamping tools tip. The study consists of microstructural

Mishra, Mamta, Pandey, Manas, Singh, Shruti, Srivastava, Sanjay, Kumar, Jitendra

A Machine Learning–Based Predictive Modeling for Optimizing the Critical Useful Life of Aeroengines: A Field Maintenance Perspective

01-18-02-0009

06/19/2025

Establishing critical useful life plays a central role to determine aeroengine health status including aeroengine parameter changes from adverse material conditions or metal fatigue. The useful life assessment serves to support maintenance teams by enabling predictive maintenance followed by part replacement or conditions improvement. The proposed research works to improve the ability of turbofan aeroengine useful life estimation while targeting practical deployment during maintenance operations at field locations. A field maintenance–oriented ensemble bagged regression model for aeroengines represents the proposed method within this research. The present study reaches an error index of 7.06 with 98.95% model fitness when applying it to critical useful life training data. The projected model received its validation through experiments on test and field datasets. Field tests revealed that among 25 machine learning models the proposed model delivered optimal results since its error index

Singh, Shaktiyavesh Nandan Pratap, Shringi, Rohitashwa, Chaturvedi, Manish, Kumar, Ajay

Developing Military Light Utility Vehicle Performance Based on Air Semi-Active Suspension System Using Recurrent Neural Network–Based Controller

10-09-04-0030

06/19/2025

This research presents a semi-active suspension system that combines an air spring and a magneto-rheological (MR) fluid damper to produce both active force and variable damping rates based on the road conditions. The suspension system used for the military light utility vehicle (MLUV) has seven degrees of freedom. A nonlinear model predictive control system generates the desired active force for the air spring control signal, while the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) estimates the target tracking of the intended damping force. The recurrent neural network is designed to develop a controller for an identification system. To achieve the optimal voltage for the MR damper without log time, it is used to simultaneously determine the active control force of the air spring by modifying the necessary damping force tracking. The MLUV suspension system is integrated with the traction control system to improve overall vehicle stability. A fuzzy traction controller adjusts the throttle angle

Shehata Gad, Ahmed

Deep Learning–Based Prediction of Suspension Dynamics Performance in Multi-Axle Vehicles

15-18-03-0014

06/19/2025

This article is mainly to present a deep learning–based framework for predicting the dynamic performance of suspension systems for multi-axle vehicles, which emphasizes the integration of machine learning with traditional vehicle dynamics modeling. A multitask deep belief network deep neural network (MTL-DBN-DNN) was developed to capture the relationships between key vehicle parameters and suspension performance. Numerical simulation–generated data were utilized to train the model. This model also showed better prediction accuracy and computational speed compared to traditional deep neural network (DNN) models. Full sensitivity analysis has been performed in order to understand how different vehicle and suspension parameters may affect suspension dynamic performance. Furthermore, we introduce the suspension dynamic performance index (SDPI) in order to measure and quantify overall suspension performance and the effectiveness of multiple parameters. The findings highlight the

Lin, Bo-Yi, Lin, Kai-Chun

Effect of Copper on Extrudability of High-Strength AA6082 Aluminum Alloys

05-19-02-0010

06/19/2025

There is a critical need to understand and optimize the extrudability of AA6xxx alloys, which are widely used in industries such as automotive and aerospace due to their favorable combination of strength, formability, and corrosion resistance. Surface cracking during the extrusion process remains a significant challenge, compromising the material’s mechanical properties and product quality. While previous studies have investigated surface cracking using various techniques, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive, especially regarding the role of important alloying elements such as copper. Therefore, this research provides a thorough investigation of the effect of copper additions on the solidus temperature, hot deformation behavior, and extrudability of AA6xxx alloys. Using experimental and numerical methods, the material’s solidus temperature and constitutive behavior were determined. Extrusion trials were conducted for alloys with different copper levels using a flat die over a

Wang, Xiaoying, Shehryar Khan, Muhammad, Wells, Mary A., Poole, Warren J., Parson, Nick

Learning-Based Predictive Controller for Connected and Automated Hybrid Electric Vehicles

14-14-02-0015

06/19/2025

This article aims at presenting a learning-based predictive control strategy for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) in the presence of uncertainty, where the controller structure and energy efficiency of the HEV is simultaneously optimized. The proposed approach includes development of a Bayesian optimization (BO)–based control structure optimization method, followed by an eco-driving–based hierarchical robust energy management strategy (EMS) development for connected and automated HEVs. To apply the learning-based strategy online, we also introduce an approach with approximate cost function for the BO to reduce training and computation time and improve energy in a given trip. The control structure is described by a parameter vector, which is updated, using BO, in an episodic fashion with the performance of the EMS and the computation time. With the current control structure, the hierarchical EMS includes a high-level powertrain energy manager that takes long-term decisions, and a low

HomChaudhuri, Baisravan, Iranzo Juan, Ignacio

TOC

99-07-03-0TOC

06/17/2025

TOC

Tobolski, Sue

Assessment of the Skull Fracture Prediction Capability of Finite Element Head Models

2025-22-0005

06/16/2025

The development of drones has raised questions about their safety in case of high-speed impacts with the head. This has been recently studied with dummies, postmortem human surrogates and numerical models but questions are still open regarding the transfer of skull fracture tolerance and procedures from road safety to drone impacts. This study aimed to assess the performance of an existing head FE model (GHBMC M50-O v6.0) in terms of response and fracture prediction using a wide range of impact conditions from the literature (low and high-speed, rigid and deformable impactors, drones). The fracture prediction capability was assessed using 156 load cases, including 18 high speed tests and 19 tests for which subject specific models were built. The GHBMC model was found to overpredict peak forces, especially for rigid impactors and fracture cases. However, the model captured the head accelerations tendencies for drone impacts. The formulation of bone elements, the failure representation

Pozzi, Clément, Gardegaront, Marc, Allegre, Lucille, Beillas, Philippe

Assessment of Cooperative Navigation Algorithms for CAVs in Threat Scenarios

12-09-01-0007

06/14/2025

This article introduces a comprehensive cooperative navigation algorithm to improve vehicular system safety and efficiency. The algorithm employs surrogate optimization to prevent collisions with cooperative cruise control and lane-keeping functionalities. These strategies address real-world traffic challenges. The dynamic model supports precise prediction and optimization within the MPC framework, enabling effective real-time decision-making for collision avoidance. The critical component of the algorithm incorporates multiple parameters such as relative vehicle positions, velocities, and safety margins to ensure optimal and safe navigation. In the cybersecurity evaluation, the four scenarios explore the system’s response to different types of cyberattacks, including data manipulation, signal interference, and spoofing. These scenarios test the algorithm’s ability to detect and mitigate the effects of malicious disruptions. Evaluate how well the system can maintain stability and avoid

Khan, Rahan Rasheed, Hanif, Athar, Ahmed, Qadeer

Optimal Onboard Battery Charging Strategy for Hotel Load Management in Mild-Hybrid Heavy-Duty Truck

02-18-03-0017

06/12/2025

Heavy-duty trucks idling during the hotel period consume millions of gallons of diesel/fuel a year, negatively impacting the economy and environment. To avoid engine idling during the hotel period, the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) and auxiliary loads are supplied by a 48 V onboard battery pack. The onboard battery pack is charged during the drive phase of a composite drive cycle, which comprises both drive and hotel phases, using the transmission-mounted electric machine (EM) and battery system. This is accomplished by recapturing energy from the wheels and supplementing it with energy from the engine when wheel energy alone is insufficient to achieve the desired battery state of charge (SOC). This onboard battery pack is charged using the transmission-mounted EM and battery system during the drive phase of a composite drive cycle (i.e., drive phase and hotel phase). This is achieved by recapturing wheel energy and energy from the engine when the wheel energy is

Huang, Ying, Hanif, Athar, Ahmed, Qadeer

Multi-Physics Coupling Analysis of Hybrid Stator Permanent Magnet Vernier Motor for Electric Vehicle Based on Halbach Array

14-14-02-0013

06/11/2025

In order to improve the output torque and power density of the in-wheel motor, a hybrid stator permanent magnet vernier motor (HSPMVM) is proposed based on the traditional single-tooth permanent magnet vernier motor (PMVM-I) and split-tooth permanent magnet vernier motor (PMVM-II). With the help of analytical method and finite element method, the three motors of PMVM-I, PMVM-II, and HSPMVM are compared and analyzed. It is proved that HSPMVM has higher output torque and lower torque ripple, and the amount of permanent magnet is also significantly reduced. In order to further improve the operating performance, the Halbach array is applied to the HSPMVM to form a new hybrid stator Halbach array permanent magnet vernier motor (HSHPMVM). The analysis results show that the HSHPMVM has a significant magnetic concentration effect, the torque is increased by 61.96%, and the torque ripple is reduced by 22.47%. The magneto-thermal two-way coupling analysis of HSHPMVM under rated conditions shows

Xiuping, Wang, Jingquan, Yu, Dong, Xu, Chuqiao, Zhou, Chunyu, Qu

Application of a Chemical Kinetic Modeling Approach within a Fully Coupled Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation of Battery Cells during Thermal Runaway

14-14-02-0014

06/11/2025

The objective of the current study is to systematically evaluate the battery thermal runaway heat release rate through chemical kinetics and then study its effect on battery module and pack level. For this purpose, a chemistry solver has been developed, capable of simultaneously solving the thermal runaway kinetics in multiple battery cells with the cell-specific chemistry model and battery active material compositions. This developed solid body chemistry (SBC) solver assumes a homogeneous system in the specified geometrical selection. A 3D representation can be achieved by setting up multiple solver selections in one solid domain (battery cell) as the SBC solver is capable of handling multiple selections, chemistry models, and battery active material compositions. Further, the SBC solver is fully integrated in a commercial three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (3D-CFD) code. Thus, enabling to simulate the real-life thermal runaway applications covering the battery module and

Chittipotula, Thirumalesha, Eder, Lucas, Uhl, Thomas

Braking Force Distribution Strategy for Brake-by-Wire Systems: Enhancing Safety and Redundancy

10-09-03-0028

06/09/2025

Brake-by-wire (BBW) systems, characterized by fast response, high precision, ease installation, and simplified maintenance, are highly likely to become the future braking systems. However, the reliability of BBW is currently inferior to that of traditional hydraulic braking systems. Considering ECE R13 regulations, actuator reliability, and braking efficiency, this article first proposes a new braking force distribution strategy to prevent braking failure and enhance vehicle safety without modifying the actuator itself. The strategy reduces the operating frequency of rear actuators during low- and medium-intensity braking, thereby extending their service life and operational reliability. Then, the co-simulation model combining Simulink and AMESim was established for simulation validation based on direct drive braking actuator. Additionally, the real-vehicle test platform was built for typical braking scenarios. The simulation and experimental results show that this strategy

Li, Tianle, Gong, Xiaoxiang, He, Chunrong, Deng, Zhenghua, Zhang, Hong, Xu, Rong, He, Haitao, Wang, Xun, Zhang, Huaiyue

Analysis and Evaluation of Roll Safety Thresholds of Tractor Semi-Trailer Vehicles during Turning Maneuvers Based on the Yaw Rate of Vehicle Bodies and Roll Safety Factor

02-18-04-0024

06/05/2025

Hung, Ta Tuan

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