Journal Articles - SAE Mobilus

SAE journals provide rigorously peer-reviewed, archival research by subject matter experts--basic and applied research that is valuable to both academia and industry.

Items (10,640)

Application of a Chemical Kinetic Modeling Approach within a Fully Coupled Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation of Battery Cells during Thermal Runaway

14-14-02-0014

06/11/2025

The objective of the current study is to systematically evaluate the battery thermal runaway heat release rate through chemical kinetics and then study its effect on battery module and pack level. For this purpose, a chemistry solver has been developed, capable of simultaneously solving the thermal runaway kinetics in multiple battery cells with the cell-specific chemistry model and battery active material compositions. This developed solid body chemistry (SBC) solver assumes a homogeneous system in the specified geometrical selection. A 3D representation can be achieved by setting up multiple solver selections in one solid domain (battery cell) as the SBC solver is capable of handling multiple selections, chemistry models, and battery active material compositions. Further, the SBC solver is fully integrated in a commercial three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (3D-CFD) code. Thus, enabling to simulate the real-life thermal runaway applications covering the battery module and

Chittipotula, Thirumalesha, Eder, Lucas, Uhl, Thomas

Multi-Physics Coupling Analysis of Hybrid Stator Permanent Magnet Vernier Motor for Electric Vehicle Based on Halbach Array

14-14-02-0013

06/11/2025

In order to improve the output torque and power density of the in-wheel motor, a hybrid stator permanent magnet vernier motor (HSPMVM) is proposed based on the traditional single-tooth permanent magnet vernier motor (PMVM-I) and split-tooth permanent magnet vernier motor (PMVM-II). With the help of analytical method and finite element method, the three motors of PMVM-I, PMVM-II, and HSPMVM are compared and analyzed. It is proved that HSPMVM has higher output torque and lower torque ripple, and the amount of permanent magnet is also significantly reduced. In order to further improve the operating performance, the Halbach array is applied to the HSPMVM to form a new hybrid stator Halbach array permanent magnet vernier motor (HSHPMVM). The analysis results show that the HSHPMVM has a significant magnetic concentration effect, the torque is increased by 61.96%, and the torque ripple is reduced by 22.47%. The magneto-thermal two-way coupling analysis of HSHPMVM under rated conditions shows

Xiuping, Wang, Jingquan, Yu, Dong, Xu, Chuqiao, Zhou, Chunyu, Qu

Braking Force Distribution Strategy for Brake-by-Wire Systems: Enhancing Safety and Redundancy

10-09-03-0028

06/09/2025

Brake-by-wire (BBW) systems, characterized by fast response, high precision, ease installation, and simplified maintenance, are highly likely to become the future braking systems. However, the reliability of BBW is currently inferior to that of traditional hydraulic braking systems. Considering ECE R13 regulations, actuator reliability, and braking efficiency, this article first proposes a new braking force distribution strategy to prevent braking failure and enhance vehicle safety without modifying the actuator itself. The strategy reduces the operating frequency of rear actuators during low- and medium-intensity braking, thereby extending their service life and operational reliability. Then, the co-simulation model combining Simulink and AMESim was established for simulation validation based on direct drive braking actuator. Additionally, the real-vehicle test platform was built for typical braking scenarios. The simulation and experimental results show that this strategy

Li, Tianle, Gong, Xiaoxiang, He, Chunrong, Deng, Zhenghua, Zhang, Hong, Xu, Rong, He, Haitao, Wang, Xun, Zhang, Huaiyue

Investigation of Injury Risk Functions of THOR-AV 50th Percentile Male Dummy

2025-22-0004

06/05/2025

This research investigated injury risk functions (IRF) for the THOR-AV 50th percentile male dummy in accordance with ISO TS18506, focusing on areas with design changes. The IRF development utilized a combination of physical tests and finite element (FE) model simulations. For certain postmortem human subject test cases lacking physical dummy tests, the validated Humanetics THOR-AV FE model (v0.7.2) was used to quickly generate data, with the understanding that final IRFs based on full physical test data might offer greater accuracy. Log-logistic, log-normal, and Weibull survival functions were fitted with 95% confidence intervals. The Akaike Information Criterion, Goodman-Kruskal-Gamma, Area under the Curve of Receiver Operating Characteristic, and Quantile-Quantile plot were employed to assess the prediction strength and relative quality of the final IRF selections. Among the three survival distributions, the Weibull distribution provided the best fit. The lumbar Fz was identified as

Wang, Z. Jerry, Hu, George

Analysis and Evaluation of Roll Safety Thresholds of Tractor Semi-Trailer Vehicles during Turning Maneuvers Based on the Yaw Rate of Vehicle Bodies and Roll Safety Factor

02-18-04-0024

06/05/2025

This article aims to analyze and evaluate the roll safety thresholds (RSTs) and roll safety zones of tractor semi-trailer vehicles during turning maneuvers, using the roll safety factor (RSF) and yaw rate of the vehicle bodies. To achieve this, a full dynamics model is established using the multibody system method. This model is then used to survey and evaluate the vehicle’s motion state, using ramp steer maneuver (RSM) steering rules. In each survey case, the maximum values of RSF and yaw rate of vehicle bodies are synthesized in 3D data, with an initial velocity range of 40 km/h to 80 km/h and a magnitude of steering wheel angle range of 12.5° to 300°. These 3D data are used to determine the proposed values of RSF, which can be used as examples to set the threshold values of the yaw rate of vehicle bodies and roll safety zones. At a velocity of 60 km/h, the dynamic rollover threshold for proposed roll safety factor (RSFprop) is equal to 1, with corresponding values of 15.718°/s and

Hung, Ta Tuan

Hydrogen Operation Strategies in a Turbocharged SI Engine: Challenges and Solutions

03-18-04-0024

06/05/2025

Hydrogen is a promising fuel for internal combustion engines, offering the potential for efficient, environmentally friendly, and reliable operation. With a large number of technical challenges, there is currently no mass production of hydrogen-powered engines despite great efforts. One of the key challenges is the complexity of optimizing hydrogen combustion and its control. Despite the variety of proposed operation strategies, questions regarding their comparative efficiency, interrelation, and mutual influence remain open, particularly in turbocharged engines with direct multi-injection. To explore various hydrogen operation strategies, a mathematical simulation of a turbocharged hydrogen-powered engine was performed over its full range of loads and speeds. This study employed a modified mathematical model based on Wiebe functions, which describes the combustion of a premixed mixture in the flame front, diffusion combustion, and relatively slow combustion occurring behind the flame

Osetrov, Oleksandr, Haas, Rainer

Comprehensive Management of Water Ingress in the Torque Overlay Steering System for Enhanced Reliability in Smart Trucks

02-18-03-0016

06/02/2025

The reliability and performance of steering systems in commercial vehicles are paramount, given their direct impact on reducing hazardous driving and improving operational efficiency. The torque overlay system is designed to enhance driver control, feedback, and reduce driver fatigue. However, vulnerabilities such as water ingress under certain environmental conditions have raised significant reliability requirements. This article discusses the systematic investigation into how radial bearing sideloading led to the input shaft seal failing to contact the input shaft. Water was allowed a path to enter the TOS module, affecting the electronic sensor, and faulting out the ADAS functionality. Improvement to the bearing support and sealing design culminated to an enhanced TOS module package able to withstand testing procedures that mimic the environmental and use case situation which caused the ingress.

Bari, Praful Rajendra, Kintner, Jason

Letter from the Guest Editors

05-18-04-0026

06/02/2025

Letter from the Guest Editors

Zhu, Shun-Peng, Zhan, Zhenfei, Huang, Shiyao

Effect of Zirconia and Quarry Dust Reinforcements on Mechanical Properties of Al7079 Composite

05-19-01-0008

05/29/2025

In this work, the microstructure and mechanical behavior of AL7079 metal matrix composites (MMCs) mixed with zirconia and quarry dusts are analyzed. The high-strength Al7079 can be further improved by the addition of zirconia particulates and quarry dust particles, a cost-effective reinforcement. Composite samples with different weight fractions of zirconia (2%, 4%, and 6%) and quarry dust (2%) were produced via a stir-casting technique. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was engaged to examine the microstructure of the composites, which showed that the reinforcements were well integrated and bonded perfectly to the matrix material. A simple mechanical test of hardness, tensile, and impact strength revealed enrichment in hardness and tensile strength in comparison to the Al7079 alone, whereas the impact strength decreased. Composite containing 6% zirconia and 2% quarry dust improved both the hardness (95 BHN) and tensile strength (186 MPa) by 7%, outperforming the remaining composition

Madan Kumar, K.N., Sathyanarayana, G.M., Kuldeep, B., Manu, S.S., Manjunath Yadav, S., Anand, H.R.

Improving the Working Performance of Sliding Friction Pairs Using Optimal Asymmetric Textures

04-18-03-0016

05/29/2025

Optimizing the parameters of asymmetric textures (AT) designed on the surface of sliding frictional pairs (SFP) can make each texture more reasonably distributed. Thereby, the oil film thickness can be more stable; and the lubrication and load ability of SFP can be improved. To clarify this issue, based on the SFP’s lubricating model added by AT using the rectangular structure, parameters of AT including the angle between the horizontal axe and bottom surface (φij), the angle between the lateral axe and bottom surface (γij), and texture’s depth (hij) are optimized. The study results show that the parameters of φij, γij, and hij of AT optimized can create the p (hydrodynamic pressure of liquid) better than the symmetric textures. Significantly, the pmax and load ability of the liquid in the SFP using optimal AT have been greatly increased compared to the liquid in the SFP using the symmetric textures. Accordingly, the results are an important reference for the design and distribution of

Wang, Cuifang, Zhang, Lu

Immersion Cooling for Lithium-Ion Batteries at High Discharging Rates

14-14-02-0012

05/29/2025

The high-performance electric sports cars market is expected to register rapid development in the next years, driven by a different attitude of racing enthusiasts toward electric vehicles. The improvements in battery technology are reinforcing consumer confidence and interest in electric sports vehicles, making them more attractive to enthusiasts and accelerating their adoption. Batteries have been used in high heat generation conditions more often with fast charging and discharging. Therefore, the need for more advanced battery thermal management systems (BTMS) has been increasing in recent years. Vegetable oil, owing to its unique availability and biodegradability, is considered as a viable alternative to fossil fuel-based cooling fluids in immersion cooling systems. In the present work, the feasibility of using vegetable oil in immersion cooling under high discharge conditions is studied by comparing it with four types of fossil fuel-based cooling fluids. Immersion cooling was

Hong, Hanchi, Song, Xiang, Shi, Xu, d’Apolito, Luigi, Xin, Qianfan

LightNetDehaze: Lightweight and Unsupervised Single-Image Dense Haze Removal

12-09-01-0005

05/26/2025

Image dehazing techniques can play a vital role in object detection, surveillance, and accident prevention, especially in scenarios where visibility is compromised because of light scattering by atmospheric particles. To obtain a high-quality image or as an initial step in processing, it’s crucial to restore the scene’s information from a single image, given that this is an ill-posed inverse problem. The present approach utilized an unsupervised learning approach to predict the transmission map from a hazy image and used YOLOv8n to detect the car from a clear recovered image. The dehazing model utilized a lightweight parallel channel architecture to extract features from the input image and estimate the transmission map. The clear image is recovered using an atmospheric scattering model and given to the YOLOv8n for car detection. By incorporating dark channel prior loss during training, the model eliminates the need for a paired dataset. The proposed dehazing model with fewer

Dave, Chintan, Patel, Hetal, Kumar, Ahlad

Design Space Exploration of a Continuous Rubber Track System via Surrogate Modeling

02-18-04-0023

05/26/2025

Continuous rubber track systems for heavy applications are typically designed using multiple iterations of full-scale physical prototypes. This costly and time-consuming approach limits the possibility of exploring the design space and understanding how the design space of that kind of system is governed. A multibody dynamic simulation has recently been developed, but its complexity (due to the number of model’s inputs) makes it difficult to understand and too expensive to be used with multi-objective optimization algorithms (approximately 3 h on a desktop computer). This article aims to propose a first design space exploration of continuous rubber track systems via multi-objective optimization methods. Using an existing expensive multibody dynamic model as original function, surrogate models (artificial neural networks) have been trained to predict the simulation responses. These artificial neural networks are then used to explore the design space efficiently by using optimization

Faivre, Antoine, Rancourt, David, Plante, Jean-Sébastien

Predictive Modeling of Surface Roughness, Tool Wear, and Cutting Temperature in High-Speed Turning under Sustainable Machining Environments

05-19-01-0007

05/24/2025

The utilization of Inconel 718 is increasing daily in stringent operating conditions such as aircraft engine parts, space vehicles, chemical tanks, and the like due to its physical properties such as maintaining strength and corrosion resistance at higher temperature conditions. Besides, Inconel 718 is one of the difficult materials for machining because of maintaining its strength at elevated temperature, which generates higher cutting force leading to observed multiple tool wear mechanisms that affect the surface quality; lower thermal conductivity of materials produces high temperature generation that impacts the tool performance by reducing tool life. In addition, the presence of carbides and high hardness of IN 718 affects the machining performance. Therefore, in this view, this article describes the effect of cutting environments and machining parameters on the machining of Inconel 718 and optimizes the cutting conditions for sustainable machining. Three input parameters namely

Mane, Pravin Ashok, Dhawale, Pravin A., Nipanikar, Suresh, Khadtare, Avinash N.

Enabling Neat Alcohol Combustion in a Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine with Exhaust Rebreathing

13-06-03-0022

05/23/2025

In this study, a strategy for MCCI combustion of a novel alcohol fuel is demonstrated. The novel fuel, “GrenOl”, is the result of the catalytic upgrade of sustainable ethanol into alcohols of higher molecular weight. The composition of GrenOl includes approximately 70% 1-butanol, 15% 1-hexanol, and 5% 1-octanol by mass, resulting in a cetane number around 18. In order to achieve mixing-controlled compression ignition with GrenOl, an exhaust rebreathing strategy is employed. In this strategy, the exhaust valve reopens for a part of the intake stroke, inducting hot exhaust into the cylinder and preheating the fresh air. This study investigates the feasibility of operating with such a valve strategy from idle to peak torque. At idle, the primary challenge is ensuring stable combustion by inducting adequate exhaust to achieve ignition. Under load, when cylinder temperatures are higher, the primary challenge is ensuring sufficient air is inducted to achieve the target torque. It was found

Trzaska, Joseph, Xu, Zhihao, Boehman, André L.

Experimental Study for Energy Balance and Exergy Analysis of a Single-Cylinder, Spark-Ignition, Air-Cooled Engine

03-18-04-0023

05/22/2025

In a time when small and micro energy sources are becoming increasingly important due to current environmental challenges, the efficient recovery of low-grade waste heat has emerged as a key strategy to enhance overall energy sustainability. Although extensive research has been conducted on energy and exergy distributions in large-scale internal combustion engines, experimental studies focusing on small, air-cooled gasoline engines remain limited, particularly regarding the quantification of their recoverable energy potential. Addressing this gap, this work analyzes and quantifies the global energy distribution and exergy availability in a single-cylinder, spark-ignition, air-cooled Robin EY15 engine operating at rotational speeds between 1500 and 4600 min−1, and throttle valve openings from one-quarter to full. The defined control volume includes the engine and the load system. The mass flows analyzed are fuel flow (standard gasoline), intake air, exhaust gas (assumed as air) and

Romero, Carlos Alberto, Monroy, Mauricio, Ramírez, Juan David

Assessing the Performance of a Modified Fuel Injection System–Equipped Dimethyl Ether-Fueled Genset/Tractor Engine

04-18-03-0014

05/21/2025

Ethers are emerging as suitable mineral diesel replacements. A customized mechanical fuel injection system was used to investigate the dimethyl ether–fueled genset/tractor, and ~75% rated engine load was achieved over diesel. The in-cylinder pressure rise rate was about half for the dimethyl ether engine. However, the lower pressure generated in the high-pressure dimethyl ether line reduced brake thermal efficiency for the dimethyl ether engine. Dimethyl ether engines emitted lower nitrogen oxide emissions than baseline diesel except at higher loads and reduced nozzle opening pressure. Carbon monoxide emissions increased due to prolonged and incomplete combustion at higher loads with reduced nozzle opening pressure. Blowby gas leakage was lower for dimethyl ether than for baseline diesel engines. Overall, the genset/tractor engine could perform satisfactorily using a customized fuel injection system and will help achieve carbon neutrality from the various sectors using this technology.

Agarwal, Avinash Kumar, Pal, Manojit, Valera, Hardikk

Development of an Intelligent Instrumented Tire for Real-Time Hydroplaning Risk Estimation

10-09-03-0027

05/21/2025

This study introduces an innovative intelligent tire system capable of estimating the risk of total hydroplaning based on water pressure measurements within the tread grooves. Dynamic hydroplaning represents an important safety concern influenced by water depth, tread design, and vehicle longitudinal speed. Existing intelligent tire systems primarily assess hydroplaning risk using the water wedge effect, which occurs predominantly in deep water conditions. However, in shallow water, which is far more prevalent in real-world scenarios, the water wedge effect is absent at higher longitudinal speeds, which could make existing systems unable to reliably assess the total hydroplaning risk. Groove flow represents a key factor in hydroplaning dynamics, and it is governed by two mechanisms: water interception rate and water wedge pressure. In both the shallow water and deep water cases, the groove water flow will increase as a result of increasing the longitudinal speed of the vehicle for a

Vilsan, Alexandru, Sandu, Corina, Anghelache, Gabriel, Warfford, Jeffrey

Methods to Reduce Transmission of Airborne Viruses in a Bus Cabin

02-18-04-0021

05/19/2025

Public buses can be high-risk environments for the transmission of airborne viruses due to the confined space and high passenger density. However, advanced cabin air control systems and other measures can mitigate this risk. This research was conducted to explore various strategies aimed at reducing airborne particle transmission in bus cabins by using retrofit accessories and a redesigned parallel ventilation system. Public transit buses were used for stationary and on-road testing. Air exchange rates (ACH) were calculated using CO2 gas decay rates measured by low-cost sensors throughout each cabin. An aerosol generator (AG) was placed at various locations inside the bus and particle concentrations were measured for various experiments and ventilation configurations. The use of two standalone HEPA air filters lowered overall concentrations of particles inside the bus cabin by a factor of three. The effect of using plastic “barriers” independently showed faster particle arrival times

Lopez, Brenda, Swanson, Jacob, Dover, Kevin, Renck, Evan, Chang, M.-C. Oliver, Jung, Heejung

Letter from the Guest Editors

10-09-02-0009

05/19/2025

Letter from the Guest Editors

Wang, Zhenfeng, Zhang, Yunqing, Qi, Ronghuai, Lu, Yukun

Experimental Investigation of Carbon Nanotube Additives Effect on Performance and Emission of a High-Injection Pressure Common Rail Diesel Engine

03-18-03-0020

05/16/2025

Due to the continuous decrease in fossil fuel resources, and drawbacks of some biofuel properties, in addition to restricted environmental concerns, it becomes a vital manner to innovate some approaches for energy saving and emission reduction. One of the promising approaches is to enhance the fuel properties via adding nanoparticles. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) blended with biofuels get extensive investigations by researchers using conventional diesel engines at relatively limited operating regimes. The objective of this work is to extend these studies using diesel fuel, rather than biofuels, on a high-injection pressure (1400–1600 bar) common rail diesel engine at wide operating conditions and higher CNT concentrations. Experimental results show an increase in peak pressure up to 24.46% than pure diesel when using 100 ppm CNTs concentration. Also, BSFC has decreased by 33.19%, and BTE increased by 54.2% compared to pure diesel fuel at high speeds and loads. NOx and CO2 emissions raised

Moaayet, Sayed, Neseem, Waleed Mohamed, Amin, Mohamed Ibrahim, Shahin, Motasem Abdelbaky

Evaluation of Occupant Injury Risk in a Transport Aircraft Crash Test Environment

02-18-02-0011

05/16/2025

Researchers at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Langley Research Center (LaRC) previously conducted a full-scale crash test of a Fokker F28 MK1000 aircraft to study occupant injury risks. The goal of the current study was to investigate the injury predictions of the Global Human Body Models Consortium (GHBMC) and Total Human Model for Safety (THUMS) occupant models in the tested aircraft crash condition and explore possible utilization of both human body models (HBMs) in this context. Eight crash conditions were simulated utilizing each of the models. The HBMs were positioned in two postures, a neutral upright posture with hands resting on the legs and feet contacting the floor and a braced posture with head and hand contact with the forward seat back. Head and neck injury metrics and lumbar vertebra axial force were calculated and compared for all simulations. Both HBMs reported similar kinematic responses in the simulated impact conditions. However, the GHBMC

Jones, Nathaniel, Putnam, Jacob, Untaroiu, Costin Daniel

V2P-Based Speed Guidance Method for Avoiding Vehicle–Pedestrian Collisions at Intersections

12-09-01-0006

05/14/2025

Conflicts between vehicles and pedestrians at unsignalized intersections occur frequently and often result in serious consequences. In order to alleviate traffic flow congestion at unsignalized intersections caused by accidents, reduce vehicle congestion time and waiting time, and improve intersection safety as well as intersection access efficiency, a speed guidance algorithm based on pedestrian-to-vehicle (P2V) and vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P) communication technologies is proposed. The method considers the heading angle (direction of motion) of vehicles and pedestrians and combines the post encroachment time (PET) and time to collision (TTC) to determine whether there is a risk of collision, so as to guide the speed of vehicles. Network simulator NS3 and traffic flow simulation software SUMO are used to verify the effectiveness of the speed guidance strategy proposed in this article. The experimental findings demonstrate that the speed guidance strategy introduced in this article

Sun, Yuanyuan, Wang, Kan, Liu, Weizhen, Li, Wenli

Proposed Reformulation of Brain Injury Criteria (BrIC) Using Head Rotation-Induced Brain Injury Thresholds Simulated and Derived Directly from A Subhuman Primate Finite Element Model

2025-22-0003

05/13/2025

Recent studies have found that Brain Injury Criteria (BrIC) grossly overpredicts instances of real-world, severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, as it stands, BrIC is the leading candidate for a rotational head kinematics-based brain injury criteria for use in automotive regulation and general safety standards. This study attempts to understand why BrIC overpredicts the likelihood of brain injury by presenting a comprehensive analysis of live primate head impact experiments conducted by Stalnaker et al. (1977) and the University of Pennsylvania before applying these injurious conditions to a finite element (FE) monkey model. Data collection included a thorough analysis and digitization of the head impact dynamics and resulting pathology reports from Stalnaker et al. (1977) as well as a representative reconstruction of the Penn II baboon diffuse axonal injury (DAI) model. Computational modeling techniques were employed on a FE Rhesus monkey model, first introduced by Arora et al

Demma, Dominic R., Tao, Ying, Zhang, Liying, Prasad, Priya

Development of a Generic Nearside Impact Test Fixture for Evaluating In-Vehicle Crashworthiness of Wheelchairs

2025-22-0002

05/13/2025

Current voluntary standards for wheelchair crashworthiness only test under frontal and rear impact conditions. To help provide an equitable level of safety for occupants seated in wheelchairs under side impact, we developed a sled test procedure simulating nearside impact loading using a fixed staggered loading wall. Publicly available side impact crash data from vehicles that could be modified for wheelchair use were analyzed to specify a relevant crash pulse. Finite element modeling was used to approximate the side impact loading of a wheelchair during an FMVSS No. 214 due to vehicle intrusion. Validation sled tests were conducted using commercial manual and power wheelchairs and a surrogate wheelchair base fixture. Test procedures include methods to position the wheelchair to provide consistent loading for wheelchairs of different dimensions. The fixture and procedures can be used to evaluate the integrity of wheelchairs under side impact loading conditions.

Boyle, Kyle, Hu, Jingwen, Manary, Miriam, Orton, Nichole R., Klinich, Kathleen D.

Optimization of Stainless Steel Casting Process Based on Numerical Simulation

05-19-01-0006

05/10/2025

Due to the increasing precision requirements for stainless steel castings in the current industrial field, we take stainless steel as the object, use numerical simulation to analyze the manufacturing process of castings, and explore the mechanism of related defects and preventive measures. The results indicate that in the process optimization of small castings, the maximum shrinkage and porosity of the conventional scheme, the optimization scheme with the addition of cold iron and insulation riser, and the optimization scheme with the improved pouring system combined with the optimal parameters are 1.83%, 1.64%, and 1.42%, respectively. The optimal pouring temperature, pouring speed, and shell preheating temperature of medium- and large-sized castings are: 1620°C, 1.5 kg/s, and 1100°C, respectively. According to the aforementioned findings, the study raises the standard of precision production for stainless steel, and fuel the growth of the precision casting sector.

Huang, Jie, Zhang, Hongshan

Structural Strength Evaluation of the Lightweight Frame of Bus Passenger Seat with High-Tensile Material and Analysis of the Importance of Independent Variables by Regression

02-18-04-0022

05/10/2025

This study aims to develop a lightweight bus passenger seat frame by conducting structural nonlinear finite element analysis (FEA) on various thickness combinations of seat frame components to identify the optimal configuration. The thicknesses of critical structural members that primarily bear the load when force is applied to the seat frame were selected as independent variables, while stress on each component and compliance with ECE R14 seatbelt anchorage displacement regulations were set as dependent variables. A regression analysis was performed to calculate the importance of each component and analyze the influence of each design variable on the dependent variables. Strain gauges were attached to critical areas of the actual seat frame to conduct a seatbelt anchorage test, and simulations under identical conditions were performed using the nonlinear FEA software (LS-DYNA) to validate the reliability of the analysis results. The optimized seat frame exhibited a maximum stress of

Ko, Yeong Gook, Cho, Kyu Chun, Lee, Ji Sun, Kang, Ki Weon

Experimental Quantitative Analysis of Spray Velocity Field Characteristics of Four Compression-Ignition Engine Oxygenated Alternative Fuels

03-18-03-0021

05/10/2025

As the suitable substitutes for diesel in compression-ignition (CI) piston engines, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers (PODEs), and bio-aviation fuel (BAF), among other oxygenated alternative fuels have been widely recognized due to higher cetane values. To explore the in-cylinder fuel spray dynamics and subsequent fuel–air entrainment of these fuels, experimental studies on near-field and full-field spray characteristics were carried out by the diffuser back-illumination imaging (DBI) method within a constant-volume chamber. The local velocity was inferred by momentum flux conservation and Gaussian radial profile assumption, and the dimensionless Jet number was introduced to qualify the strength of interaction within two-phase flow. It was found that the initial spray transitions from a “needle” to a larger spray head structure as injection pressure rises, especially with PODE3-5 exhibiting a stable “mushroom” structure due to its higher surface tension

Chen, Houchang, Jiang, Junxin, Hu, Yong, Yu, Wenbin, Zhao, Feiyang

Impact of High-Aspect-Ratio Wing Aircraft Concepts on Conventional Tricycle Landing Gear Integration

01-18-02-0008

05/10/2025

To comply with the Paris Agreement targets set in 2015, significant reductions in aircraft emissions are required. This demands a fundamental shift in aircraft design. Therefore, it is essential to study how future aircraft designs will affect the integration and design of landing systems. This research project examines the landing gear issues that arise from adopting specific future aircraft configurations. The study focuses on two primary configurations: the high-aspect-ratio wing and the ultra-high-aspect-ratio wing, with selected aircraft concepts from Cranfield University as baselines. It investigates the design and integration of conventional landing systems into these new aircraft concepts, highlighting the limitations posed by the modified airframes. The selected concepts include either telescopic or trailing arm arrangements, with attachment points on the wings or fuselage. A methodology for preliminary sizing of landing systems is presented, emphasizing automation and

Martin, Raphaël, Stockford, Jack, Smith, Howard

Experimental Evaluation of Direct and Port Fuel Injection Strategies on a Heavy-Duty Liquefied Petroleum Gas Engine

03-18-03-0022

05/09/2025

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a popular alternative fuel in the transportation sector as a result of its favorable physical and chemical properties, availability, and relatively lower emissions compared to conventional fuels. However, much of its use is currently in light-duty applications, usually in manifold or port-injected configurations primarily due to their simplicity and ease of conversion. However, there are shortfalls in heavy-duty applications where decarbonization efforts are direly needed. The key reasons for this shortfall in alternative fuel adoption in the heavy-duty sector are the deficit in engine performance when compared to conventional heavy-duty diesel engines and the lack of specialized hardware to bridge this performance gap, for example, direct injectors optimized for LPG fuel operation on large-bore engines. To address this, this study evaluated the performance, emissions, and combustion characteristics of a heavy-duty single-cylinder research engine, the

Fosudo, Toluwalase, Windom, Bret, Olsen, Daniel

Wear Protection for Electrified Transmissions Using e-Fluids without Active Sulfur

04-18-03-0015

05/08/2025

In electrified drivetrains, lubricants are commonly in contact with the motor and other electrical components as well as the gears and bearings. Copper, present in these electrical components, is susceptible to corrosion by fluids containing active sulfur, which can lead to catastrophic failure of the unit. Lubricating fluids for electric vehicles (referred to as e-fluids) must not cause corrosion and must maintain high performance while having suitable electrical conductivity, material compatibility, and heat transfer properties. We describe a new formulation without active sulfur that has recently entered the market, which can protect against copper corrosion. We show that this e-fluid can provide suitable wear protection under field trial conditions, and that the e-fluid provides improved wear protection in bearing (FE-8) tests compared to a traditional extreme pressure axle fluid (API GL-4). Surface analysis (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) measurements of the component surfaces

Hopper, Elizabeth R., Williams, Megan S., Gahagan, Michael

Variable Speed Limit Control Based on Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient under Mixed Traffic Environment

12-09-01-0004

05/06/2025

The existing variable speed limit (VSL) control strategies rely on variable message signs, leading to slow response times and sensitivity to driver compliance. These methods struggle to adapt to environments where both connected automated vehicles (CAVs) and manual vehicles coexist. This article proposes a VSL control strategy using the deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG) algorithm to optimize travel time, reduce collision risks, and minimize energy consumption. The algorithm leverages real-time traffic data and prior speed limits to generate new control actions. A reward function is designed within a DDPG-based actor-critic framework to determine optimal speed limits. The proposed strategy was tested in two scenarios and compared against no-control, rule-based control, and DDQN-based control methods. The simulation results indicate that the proposed control strategy outperforms existing approaches in terms of improving TTS (total time spent), enhancing the throughput efficiency

Ding, Xibin, Zhang, Zhaolei, Liu, Zhizhen, Tang, Feng

Letter from the Guest Editors

12-08-02-0011

05/06/2025

Letter from the Guest Editors

Liang, Ci, Törngren, Martin

Influence of Strain Rate Effect on Mechanical and Crashworthiness Properties of CFRP Composite Structures

05-19-01-0002

05/06/2025

Composite materials are increasingly utilized in industries such as automotive and aerospace due to their lightweight nature and high strength-to-weight ratio. Understanding how strain rate affects the mechanical and crashworthiness properties of CFRP composites is essential for accurate impact simulations and improved safety performance. This study examines the strain rate sensitivity of CFRP composites through mechanical testing and finite element analysis (FEA). Experimental results confirm that compressive strength increases by 100%–200% under dynamic loading, while stiffness decreases by up to 22% at a strain rate of 50 s−1, consistent with trends observed in previous studies. A sled test simulation using LS-Dyna demonstrated that the CFRP crash box sustained an average strain rate of 46.5 s−1, aligning with realistic impact conditions. Incorporating strain rate–dependent material properties into the FEA model significantly improved correlation with experimental crashworthiness

Badri, Hesam, Jayasree, Nithin Amirth, Loukodimou, Vasiliki, Omairey, Sadik, Bradbury, Aidan, Lidgett, Mark, Page, Chris, Kazilas, Mihalis

Simulation and Experimental: Enhanced Stability Control of Electric Vehicle Based on Phase Plane Boundary Analysis

10-09-02-0017

05/05/2025

To optimize vehicle chassis handling stability and ride safety, a layered joint control algorithm based on phase plane stability domain is proposed to promote chassis performance under complicated driving conditions. First, combining two degrees-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model considering tire nonlinearity with phase plane theory, a yaw rate and side slip angle phase plane stability domain boundary is drew in real time. Then based on the real-time stability domain and hierarchical control theory, an integrated control system with active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC) is designed, and the stability of the controller is validated by Lyapunov theory. Finally, the lateral stability of the vehicle is validated by Simulink and CarSim simulations, real car data, and driving simulators under moose test and pylon course slalom test. The experimental results confirm that the algorithm can enhance the maneuverability and ride safety for intelligent vehicles.

Liao, Yinsheng, Zhang, Zhijie, Su, Ailin, Zhao, Binggen, Wang, Zhenfeng

A Comprehensive Review of Vehicle and Road Condition Estimation Techniques

10-09-02-0014

04/30/2025

This article reviews the key physical parameters that need to be estimated and identified during vehicle operation, focusing on two key areas: vehicle state estimation and road condition identification. In the vehicle state estimation section, parameters such as longitudinal vehicle speed, sideslip angle, and roll angle are discussed, which are critical for accurately monitoring road conditions and implementing advanced vehicle control systems. On the other hand, the road condition identification section focuses on methods for estimating the tire–road friction coefficient (TRFC), road roughness, and road gradient. The article first reviews a variety of methods for estimating TRFC, ranging from direct sensor measurements to complex models based on vehicle dynamics. Regarding road roughness estimation, the article analyzes traditional methods and emerging data-driven approaches, focusing on their impact on vehicle performance and passenger comfort. In the section on road gradient

Chen, Zixuan, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing

Enhancing Laser Cut Quality of Copper Thin Foils for Lithium-Ion Batteries through Pre-Cooling and Teaching–Learning–Based Optimization

05-19-01-0004

04/28/2025

The efficiency and performance of lithium-ion batteries are highly influenced by the quality of laser cutting of electrode materials. The laser cut quality of thin foils is often measured by amount of kerf width and heat-affected zone (HAZ). This article adopts a novel approach that involves pre-cooling of thin copper foils prior to the laser cutting process. The impact of laser conditions and foil temperature were analyzed on HAZ and kerf width induced during laser cutting experiments conducted based on L27 orthogonal array. Teaching–learning–based optimization (TLBO) technique was employed to identify the optimal laser parameters. ANOVA results indicated that the temperature was the most significant factor influencing kerf width and HAZ. The optimized laser parameters identified through TLBO technique were 16 W laser power, 69.47 mm/s scanning speed, and 20 kHz pulse frequency at dry ice conditions. A reduction of 50.76% kerf width and a decrease in 7.6% HAZ were observed when the

Rao, Akshay P., Bharatish, A., Solaiachari, Sivakumar, Kumar, S. Mahendra

On-the-Market Air Suspension Systems for Passenger Cars

10-09-02-0016

04/28/2025

This article conducts a thorough review of contemporary air suspension systems on the market for passenger cars. The evolution of suspension structures and control methodologies are briefly discussed. The layout of air suspension systems is introduced in detail, with each component receiving a comprehensive description and analysis. The open-loop and closed-loop arrangements are explained. Various types of air springs are discussed and compared. The sensory system, special working conditions, and failure analysis are also elaborated. In the case studies, some example models are listed to show a complete guide of how air suspension is implemented on passenger cars, which includes functionalities, air spring configurations, control methods, signal flow, service modes, and diagnostic messages. The major sources are OEMs’ official websites and previously released documents, such as user manuals and maintenance manuals, which are valid up to April 2023. Finally, the article concludes with a

Ma, Changye, Lu, Yukun, Zhen, Ran, Liu, Yegang, Pan, Bingwei, Khajepour, Amir

Influence of Exhaust Gas Recirculation on Knock in a Spark Ignition Engine Fueled with Ethanol–Gasoline Blends

03-18-03-0019

04/28/2025

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is widely used in spark ignition engines to reduce throttling losses, decrease exhaust gas temperatures, increase efficiency, and suppress knock. However, the effectiveness of EGR as a knock suppressor is dependent on the fuel type and operating condition. In this study, the effectiveness of EGR to suppress knock was tested with E10, E30, E50, E75, and E100 at a moderately boosted condition. It was found that EGR was effective at suppressing knock with E10, but high EGR rates were required to achieve a knock suppression effect with E30 and E50. No knock suppression effect was observed with E75 and E100 across all tested EGR rates. With E30 and E50, EGR that was passed through a three-way catalyst was more effective at suppressing knock at all EGR rates. Chemkin modeling with neat ethanol revealed that nitric oxide enhanced ignition by increasing the hydroxyl radical concentration in the end gas, resulting in earlier auto-ignition. Directly seeding nitric

Gandolfo, John, Gainey, Brian, Lawler, Benjamin

Damping and Vibration Characteristics of Carbon Fiber Sandwich Beams with Corrugated Cores

05-19-01-0005

04/26/2025

Composite sandwich beams are widely favored for their high strength-to-weight ratio, so understanding their vibration characteristics is important for optimizing designs in critical industries. This study investigates, through experimental and statistical analyses, the impact of core geometry on the vibration characteristics of epoxy/carbon fiber composite sandwich beams featuring sinusoidal and trapezoidal cores. Modal tests were conducted to determine natural frequencies, damping ratios, and mode shapes. The height and angle of the cores were treated as key independent factors influencing the beams’ vibration characteristics. In both of the cores the damping ratio values increased about 25% and 35% with increasing the height and angle of the sinusoidal and trapezoidal cores, respectively. Additionally, response surface methodology (RSM) was used for statistical analysis of these input parameters’ effects on damping properties, and the optimal values of core’s geometries were

Alwan, Majeed A., Abbood, Ahmed Sh., Farhan, Arkan J., Azadi, Reza

Development of an Imperceptible Brake Failure Control Technology and Real Vehicle Application

10-09-02-0015

04/26/2025

With the advancement of control technology in the automotive field, there is a possibility of cross-system redundant control between various actuators. As for the braking system, current brake-by-wire system often uses mechanical backup braking methods to give the vehicle a certain braking capacity after failure. However, in the mechanical backup braking mode, the brake master cylinder is connected to the supporting wheel cylinder, and the brake assist is lost, which leads to an increase in brake pressure and makes it difficult for the driver to step on the brake pedal. Meanwhile, due to the limitation of the brake master cylinder stroke, the maximum braking deceleration of the vehicle is only 3 m/s2 after the driver fully presses the brake pedal. The above two defects greatly affect the safety of the vehicle during backup braking. To solve the above problems, this article takes electric vehicles as the research object, designs a new type of hydraulic circuit for the braking system

Tian, Boshi, Li, Liang, Liao, Yinsheng, Lv, Haijun, Hu, Zhiming, Sun, Yue, Qu, Wenying

Effect of Moisture Content and Salinity on Impact Strengths of Glass-Reinforced Plastics and Aluminum Honeycomb Sandwich Composites: An Experimental Investigation

05-19-01-0001

04/26/2025

Polymer composites, such as fiber-reinforced plastics (FRPs), are widely used in shipbuilding, aerospace, and automobile industries due to their lightweight and high strengths. In real-world conditions, ship hulls are exposed to harsh environmental factors, including variations in moisture and salinity. FRPs tend to absorb water and moisture, leading to an increase in weight and a reduction in strengths over time, which is undesirable for ship and aircraft structures. This study investigates the reduction in energy absorption and specific energy absorption of glass FRPs (GFRP) and aluminum honeycomb sandwich composites (AHSC) due to exposure to moisture and salinity. Experimental analysis was conducted by immersing the materials in saline and non-saline water. A comparative assessment of the percentage reduction in specific energy absorption (SEA) of GFRP and AHSC is presented. Additionally, the influence of honeycomb parameters such as cell size (CS), foil thickness (FT), and core

Rajput, Arun, Kumar, Ashwin, Sunny, Mohhamed Rabius, Chavhan, Harikrishna

Experimental and Numerical Study on Ballistic Testing and Failure Mechanism of Ultra-High Hard and Rolled Homogeneous Armor Steels

05-19-01-0003

04/25/2025

The escalating weight of main battle tanks (MBTs) has compelled designers to innovate with Ultra-high hard armor (UHA) steel against the current generation rolled homogenous armor (RHA). This study delves into investigating the experimental and numerical ballistic performance of 15 mm–thick UHA steel and 15 mm–thick RHA steel against a 7.62 mm armor-piercing (AP) small-arm projectile. Finite element (FE) simulations were executed using ANSYS software, incorporating the Johnsons Cook model and shock Rankine–Hugoniot equations. The outcomes highlight that the UHA steel arrests the projectile’s advancement at a depth of penetration (DoP) of 3 mm, where the mode of failure is projectile break-up with cleavage failure. Conversely, the RHA base metal demonstrates perforation accompanied by ductile hole growth as the mode of failure. This perforation is attributed to plastic deformation and material extrusion, aligning well with the FE model. In the second scenario, the ballistic limit of a

Naveen Kumar, Subramani, Balasubramanian, V., Malarvizhi, S., Sonar, Tushar, Hafeezur Rahman, A., Balaguru, V.

Influence of Coolant Properties on Battery Thermal Management in Electric Buses during Cold Starts

02-18-03-0013

04/25/2025

Improving electric vehicles’ overall thermal management strategy can directly or indirectly improve battery efficiency and vehicle range [1]. In this study, the effect of the coolant type used in BTMS (battery thermal management system) units used for heating batteries in cold weather conditions was investigated in electric buses. In this investigation, tests were performed with two types of antifreeze, which have different characteristics. The study evaluated the impact of coolant flow, BTMS circulation pump performance, and battery heating using these two types of antifreeze in the BTMS coolant line. In addition to carrying out tests, 1D computational fluid dynamics models’ simulations were carried out for both types of antifreeze, and the results were validated with experimental findings. In this study, a 12-m EV Citivolt vehicle of Anadolu Isuzu was used for tests. As a result, it was observed that differences in the properties of the antifreeze that is used in BTMS coolant line

Çetir, Özgür, Birgül, Çağrı Emre

Cross-Scene Traffic Target Detection and Recognition Based on Improver YOLOv5s

12-09-01-0003

04/24/2025

Aiming at the problem of insufficient cross-scene detection performance of current traffic target detection and recognition algorithms in automatic driving, we proposed an improved cross-scene traffic target detection and recognition algorithm based on YOLOv5s. First, the loss function CIoU of insufficient penalty term in the YOLOv5s algorithm is adjusted to the more effective EIoU. Then, the context enhancement module (CAM) replaces the original SPPF module to improve feature detection and extraction. Finally, the global attention mechanism GCB is integrated with the traditional C3 module to become a new C3GCB module, which works cooperatively with the CAM module. The improved YOLOv5s algorithm was verified in KITTI, BDD100K, and self-built datasets. The results show that the average accuracy of mAP@0.5 is divided into 95.1%, 72.2%, and 97.5%, respectively, which are 0.6%, 2.1%, and 0.6% higher than that of YOLOv5s. Therefore, it shows that the improved algorithm has better detection

Ning, Qianjia, Zhang, Huanhuan, Cheng, Kehan

Aerated Oil in the Rotating Channel

03-18-03-0018

04/24/2025

In this article we examine the behavior of oil in the lubrication channel between the main bearing and the connecting rod bearing in the crankshaft of an internal combustion engine. The requirement for high service life and proper operation of these bearings, while minimizing input power of the lubrication system, lead to the need to understand the function of these structural parts in detail. To simulate and visualize this process, an experimental device was created. The device allows the experimenters to change individual parameters such as rotation speed, oil pressure, oil temperature, and aeration, while simultaneously visualizing the process with the help of a special rotating camera. These parameters are then obtained by image processing. In this way, the following influences are investigated here: at oil temperatures of 30, 50, and 80°C, relative oil pressures of 1, 2, 3, and 4 bar, at undissolved air in the oil of 5 and 10 vol% and crankshaft station speeds from 0 to 6000 1/min

Rychtar, Vaclav

Research on the Influence of Door and Window Sealing on Interior Wind Noise Based on Statistical Energy Analysis

10-09-03-0026

04/24/2025

Wind noise is an important indicator for evaluating cabin comfort, and it is essential to accurately predict the wind noise inside the vehicle. In the early stage of automotive design, since the geometry and properties of the sealing strip are often unknown, the contribution of the sealing strip to the wind noise is often directly ignored, which makes the wind noise obtained through simulation in the pre-design stage to be lower than the real value. To investigate the effect of each seal on wind noise, an SUV model was used to simulate the cases of not adding body seals, adding window seals, and further adding door seals, respectively. The contribution of each seal to wind noise was obtained and verified by comparing it with the test results. The influence of the cavity formed at the door seal was also addressed. In the simulations, a CFD solver based on the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) was used to solve the external flow field, and the noise transmitted into the interior of the

Zhang, Yingchao, He, Tengsheng, Wang, Yuqi, Niu, Jiqiang, Zhang, Zhe, Shen, Chun, Zhang, Chengchun

A Novel Model for Short-Term Traffic Flow Prediction on Highways Utilizing Multi-Head Attention–BiLSTM–BiGRU

12-09-01-0002

04/24/2025

With the development of intelligent transportation systems and the increasing demand for transportation, traffic congestion on highways has become more prominent. So accurate short-term traffic flow prediction on these highways is exceedingly crucial. However, because of the complexity, nonlinearity, and randomness of highway traffic flows, short-term prediction of its flows can be difficult to achieve the desired accuracy and robustness. This article presents a novel architectural model that harmoniously fuses bidirectional long–short-term memory (BiLSTM), bidirectional gated recurrent unit (BiGRU), and multi-head attention (MHA) components. Bayesian optimization (BO) is also used to determine the optimal set of hyperparameters. Based on the PeMS04 dataset from California, USA, we evaluated the performance of the proposed model across various prediction intervals and found that it performs best within a 5-min prediction interval. In addition, we have conducted comparison and ablation

Chen, Peng, Wang, Tao, Ma, Changxi, Chen, Jun

Traffic Flow Prediction Based on the Optuna–CNN–BiLSTM–GBRT Model

12-09-01-0001

04/24/2025

Traffic flow prediction is very important in traffic-related fields, and increasing prediction accuracy is the primary goal of traffic prediction research. This study proposes a new traffic flow prediction method, which uses the CNN–BiLSTM model to extract features from traffic data, further models these features through GBRT, and uses Optuna to tune important hyperparameters of the overall model. The main contribution of this study is to propose a new combination model with better performance. The model integrates two deep learning models that are widely used in this field and creatively uses GBRT to process the output features of the front-end model. On this basis, the optimal hyperparameters and the robustness of the model are deeply explored, providing an effective and feasible solution to the difficult problems in traffic flow prediction. This model is experimentally studied using three different data transformation methods (original data, wavelet transform, Fourier transform

Ma, Changxi, Jin, Renzhe

Transient Failure Analysis of Alloy Steel Welded Joints under Sudden Tension Load Condition

05-18-03-0025

04/21/2025

The study aims to evaluate the transient failure behavior of welding joints that are exposed to sudden tensile loading. The Mohr–Coulomb criterion’s fundamental theories are examined and evaluated. The failure function of Mohr’s envelope is first expanded into a polynomial in terms of the stress components (σp , τxy ) on the failure region up to the third order. Using ANSYS software, the transient failure response of welding joints was simulated. The Runge–Kutta fourth-order computational technique was employed to perform numerical analysis on transient failure response. Python software is used to develop a computer code for the time-dependent failure response of welding joints. The welded joint specimen is tested with the help of a UTM machine. The analytical results are compared with experimental results. A fractography study was carried out on the welded joint of the failure surface. In this context, the main focus is on SEM and EDS methods to determine the exact type of failure

Chavan, Shivaji, Raut, D. N.

Items per page:

1 – 50 of 10640