Browse Topic: Batteries

Items (4,902)
A great number of performances of an electric vehicle such as driving range, powering performance, and the like are affected by its configured batteries. Having a good grasp of the electrical and thermal behavior of the battery before the detailed design stage is indispensable. This paper introduces an experiment characterization method of a lithium-ion battery with a coolant system from cell level to pack level in different ambient conditions. Corresponding cell and pack simulation models established in AMESim that aimed to capture the electrical and thermal features of the battery were also illustrated, respectively. First, the capacity test and hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) test were conducted in a thermotank to acquire basic data about the battery cell. Next, based on acquired data, first-order equivalent circuit model (1C-ECM) was built for the battery cell and further combined with environmental boundary conditions to check the simulation accuracy. Then, hybrid
Zhou, ShuaiLiu, HuaijuYu, HuiliYan, XuYan, Junjie
With the global issue of fossil fuel scarcity and the greenhouse effect, interest in electric vehicles (EVs) has surged recently. At that stage, because of the constraints of the energy density and battery performance degradation in low-temperature conditions, the mileage of EVs has been criticized. To guarantee battery performance, a battery thermal management system (BTMS) is applied to ensure battery operates in a suitable temperature range. Currently, in the industry, a settled temperature interval is set as criteria of positive thermal management activation, which is robust but leads to energy waste. BTMS has a kilowatt-level power usage under high- and low-temperature environments. Optimizing the BTMS control strategy becomes a potential solution to reduce energy consumption and overcome mileage issues. An appropriate system simulation model provides an effective tool to evaluate different BTMS control strategies. In this study, a predictive BTMS control strategy, which adjusts
Huang, ZhipeiChen, JiangboTang, Hai
Increasing global pressure to reduce anthropogenic carbon emissions has inspired a transition from conventional petroleum-fueled internal combustion engines to alternative powertrains, including battery electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrids. Hybrids offer a promising solution for emissions reduction by addressing the limitations of pure EVs such as slow recharge and range anxiety. In a previous research endeavor, a prototype high-power density generator was meticulously designed, fabricated, and subjected to testing. This generator incorporated a compact permanent magnet brushless dynamo and a diminutive single-cylinder two-stroke engine with low-technology constructions. This prototype generated 8.5 kW of electrical power while maintaining a lightweight profile at 21 kg. This study investigates the performance and emissions reduction potential by adapting the prototype to operate on methanol fuel. Performance and emissions were experimentally evaluated under varying operating conditions
Gore, MattNonavinakere Vinod, KaushikFang, Tiegang
The number of electric vehicles (EVs) has significantly increased in recent years. Safety performance of EVs is at least at the same level as that of conventional vehicles. To evaluate battery safety and ensure passenger protection, several standard tests and regulations for EV batteries have been established, including IEC 62660-3, ISO 6469-1, and UN/ECE/R100 Revision 3. ISO 6469-1:2019/Amd 1 specifies thermal propagation (TP) test to evaluate battery robustness against thermal runaway (TR) in a single cell. Moreover, UN/ECE/R100 Revision 3 aims to provide sufficient egress time to protect passengers in the event of a TR in a single cell. Typically, these tests initiate TR in a cell within a battery pack using either a heater or nail. In the heater method, if the gap between cells is larger than the heater’s thickness and there are no installation constraints due to components, almost any cell can be chosen as the initiating cell. However, if the gap between cells is smaller than the
Maeda, KiyotakaTakahashi, Masashi
As the main power source for modern portable electronic devices and electric vehicles, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are favored for their high energy density and good cycling performance. However, as the usage time increases, battery performance gradually deteriorates, leading to a heightened risk of thermal runaway (TR) increases, which poses a significant threat to safety. Performance degradation is mainly manifested as capacity decline, internal resistance increase and cycle life reduction, which is usually caused by internal factors of LIBs, such as the fatigue of electrode materials, electrolyte decomposition and interfacial chemical reaction. Meanwhile, external factors of LIBs also contribute to performance degradation, such as external mechanical stresses leading to internal structural damage of LIBs, triggering internal short-circuit (ISC) and violent electrochemical reactions. In this paper, the performance degradation of LIBs and TR mechanism is described in detail, as well
Zhou, JingtaoZhong, XiongwuWang, KunjunZhou, YouhangYou, GuojianTang, Xuan
aThe lengthy charging time of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) significantly affect their acceptance. Reducing charging time requires high-power fast charging. However, such fast charging can trigger various side reactions, leading to safety and durability issues. Among these, lithium plating is a major concern as it can reduce battery capacity and potentially cause internal short circuits or even thermal runaway. Currently, multi-stage constant current charging (MCCC) protocols are widely adopted. However, the difficulty in effectively detecting lithium plating during the MCCC process significantly limits the charging power. Therefore, it is urgent to explore a method to detect lithium plating during the MCCC process. In this study, the impedance evolution during the MCCC procedure was first investigated. Then a method based on the impedance variation patterns was proposed to detect lithium plating. Besides, the reason for the behavior of impedance changes was further
Shen, YudongWang, XueyuanWu, HangWei, XuezheDai, Haifeng
The use of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles marks a major progression in the automotive sector. Energy storage systems extensively make use of these batteries. The extended life cycle, low self-discharge rates, high energy density, and eco-friendliness of lithium-ion batteries are well-known. However, Temperature sensitivity has an adverse effect on lithium-ion battery safety, durability, and performance. Thus, maintaining ideal operating conditions and reducing the chance of thermal runaway depend heavily on efficient thermal management. To address this, experimental study was conducted on various battery thermal management techniques, including active, passive, and hybrid approaches. These techniques were investigated for their cooling efficiencies under different operating conditions. The electro-thermal behavior of cylindrical lithium-ion battery cells, battery packs, and supervisory control techniques were simulated in the study using MATLAB Simulink, Simscape, and
Thangaraju, ShanmuganathanN, MeenakshiGanesan, Maragatham
Battery safety is a paramount concern in the development of electric vehicles (EVs), as failures can lead to catastrophic consequences, including fires and explosions. With the rapid global adoption of EVs, understanding how battery cells perform under extreme conditions such as mechanical or thermal abuse is crucial for ensuring vehicle safety. This study investigates the abuse response of lithium-ion batteries under high-speed mechanical loading. Our research systematically examines the response of these cells at different states of charge (SOC) through controlled dynamic tests. These tests offer insights into the failure response of the cells. By analyzing the data, we gain a deeper understanding of the conditions that could trigger thermal runaway under mechanical abuse loadings, representative of EV crashes, a critical safety concern in EV battery systems. The experimental setup and methodologies are presented in this paper, alongside key findings that highlight the importance of
Patanwala, HuzefaKong, KevinChalla, VidyuDarvish, KuroshSahraei, Elham
As part of the global effort to combat climate change, electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining popularity, even for long-haul commercial transportation. A battery pack is a critical component of an EV, and it contains several modules with many series- and parallel-connected electrochemical cells. Strict safety and operational limits are enforced on the cell-level to ensure safe operation of the battery pack. However, variations in the electrochemical properties among the cells in the pack causes some cells to reach the safety and operational limits faster than others. This limits the total power, and over time, the energy delivered and the lifetime of the battery pack. Maximizing the energy delivered by the battery pack (potentially also improving the battery pack’s lifetime) can be achieved by increasing cell-level control, and battery-integrated modular multilevel converters (BI-MMC) is presented as a solution. A BI-MMC has several series-connected DC-to-AC converters, commonly called
Balachandran, ArvindJonsson, TomasEriksson, Lars
The demand for eco-friendly electric powertrains has increased significantly in recent years. Cells are the most crucial component of a battery pack, directly influencing the dimensions, range, lifespan, performance, and cost of electric vehicles. Lithium-ion cells outperform other cell chemistries due to their higher energy density, allowing for more compact and lightweight designs while providing longer operational ranges. It is crucial that lithium-ion cell packaging complies with assembly requirements to maximize its lifespan and ensure operational safety. Assembly force requirements of lithium-ion cells are critical to ensure optimal cell performance throughout its lifetime & enhance the longevity of the battery pack. The compression pad between cells ensures appropriate cell assembly pressure. The service life is how long a lithium-ion cell can operate effectively, while the cyclic life refers to the number of charge-discharge cycles before cell functional degradation. The cell
Varambally, VishakhaSithick basha, AbubakkerChalumuru, MadhuSasikumar, K
The adoption of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is becoming more popular during the last few years due to government incentives and favourable legislation both for automotive companies and final users. This type of vehicle claims very low carbon dioxide emissions while eliminating the range anxiety associated with battery electric vehicles thanks to the on-board range extender being able to recharge the battery throughout the journey. Unfortunately, the low emissions values are more representative of the particular mathematical model implemented by the legislation than the measured real driving emissions. Specifically, the legislation does not take into account the CO2 embedded in production of the batteries or of the electrical energy stored in it. This work analyses these aspects by means of a numerical model of the BMW i3 94Ah vehicle. The results obtained are collected from simulations conducted over the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) by using the commercial
Turner, JamesVorraro, Giovanni
A method for performance calculation and experimental method of a high voltage heater system in electric vehicles is proposed. Firstly, heater outlet temperature and pressure drop of the heater are used as metrics to compare simulation results with experimental data, thereby validating the established model. Then, simulations are performed on two heater flow channel configurations: a cavity flow channel and a cooling fin flow channel. It is observed that the latter significantly reduces the heating plate temperature. This reduction enhances the protection of heating elements and extends their operational lifespan, demonstrating the advantages of incorporating cooling fins into the flow channel structure. The optimization variables for multi-objective optimization include the fin unit length, fin height, fin thickness, fin width, and spacing between two adjacent rows of fins. The optimization objectives include pressure drop, heat transfer efficiency, and heating plate temperature
Gong, MingWang, XihuiWang, DongdongShangguan, Wen-Bin
Any vehicle traveling on roads interacts with various profiles of surface roughness, which can be best characterized by randomness. The resulting random vibrations not only expose passengers to unpleasant physical shakes and noises, but also impart fatigue damage to nearly everything installed on the vehicle. In today’s robust design process, it is highly desirable to predict fatigue damage in the early design phase, in order to prevent any durability problems in the future, especially for electric vehicles. Historically, the conventional approach to tackling the problem of fatigue damage has involved cycle-counting stress or strain responses, obtained through step-by-step numeric solutions in the time-domain. However, the most effective method of predicting fatigue in random vibration lies in the frequency domain. Such a spectrum-based approach is greatly advantageous because it does not have to deal with expensive and tedious simulations involving millions of time instants of
Yang, ZaneFouret, Charles
The proliferation of the electric vehicle (EVs) in the US market led to an increase in the average vehicle weight due to the assembly of the larger high-voltage (HV) batteries. To comply with this weight increase and to meet stringent US regulations and Consumer Ratings requirements, Vehicle front-end rigidity (stiffness) has increased substantially. This increased stiffness in the larger vehicles (Large EV pickups/SUVs) may have a significant impact during collision with smaller vehicles. To address this issue, it is necessary to consider adopting a vehicle compatibility test like Euro NCAP MPDB (European New Car Assessment Program Moving Progressive Deformable Barrier) for the North American market as well. This study examines the influence of mass across vehicle classes and compares the structural variations for each impact class. The Euro NCAP MPDB (European New Car Assessment Program Moving Progressive Deformable Barrier) protocol referenced for this analysis. Our evaluation
Kusnoorkar, HarshaKoraddi, BasavarajGuerrero, MichaelSripada, Venu VinodTangirala, Ravi
This paper introduces a novel approach to optimize battery power usage and optimal engine torque for Axle disconnect device engagement under power constrained scenarios for range extended hybrid vehicles. Range extended hybrid architecture provides benefits of BEV architecture and relief the range anxiety that BEV drivers often have. The Axle disconnect device helps improve the efficiency of the battery power usage when it is disconnected and provides better drivability and performance to fulfill driver demand when it is connected [1]. Under power constraint scenario, the disconnect device engagement could take too long or eventually fail to engage and result in degradation for drivability and vehicle level performance. This novel approach is utilizing the engine to either generate more power to spin up the disconnect motor faster under discharge limited case or generate less power to allow the disconnect motor to spin down under charge limited case. The effectiveness of this approach
Sha, HangxingMadireddy, Krishna ChaitanyaBanuso, AbdulquadriKhanal, ShishirRock, JoePatel, Nadirsh
Rechargeable lithium batteries are widely used in the electric vehicle industry due to their long lifespan and high energy density. However, after long-term repeated charging and discharging, various electrochemical reactions inside lithium batteries can lead to performance degradation and even cause battery fires. Estimating the health status and predicting the remaining life of lithium batteries can provide insights into their future operating conditions, which is crucial for achieving fault warnings and ensuring the safe operation of battery-related equipment. In terms of predicting the health status of lithium batteries, this paper proposes a method based on an improved Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) for health status estimation. This method first employs nearest neighbor component analysis to eliminate feature redundancy among the multidimensional health factors of the battery. Then, a differential grey wolf optimization algorithm (DEGWO) is used to globally optimize the
K, Meng Zi
Accurate estimation of crucial quantities in automotive drivetrain systems is essential for optimizing performance, durability, and emissions. However, the presence of time delays, arising from tasks scheduling and communication latency between control units, can significantly hinder the effectiveness of advance control algorithms. Closed-loop performance is often limited by the equivalent time delay between the control action command, its effect on the system, and the measurement of the reaction. Frequently, commands and measurements originate from different sources, requiring precise coordination to accurately estimate the driveline response. This paper presents a novel model-based approach that integrates Kalman filtering with horizon prediction techniques to effectively address time-delay compensation. By leveraging the descriptive capabilities of physics-based models, the proposed method enables to overcome synchronization misalignment between commands, actuations and measurements
Rostiti, CristianPatel, NadirshCatkin, Bilal
A specific thick film heater (TFH) for electric vehicles is investigaed in this study, and its three dimensional heat tansfer analysis model is estab-lished. The heat transfer and fluid performance of the TFH is analyzed using a computational fluid dynamics soft-ware. The performance of TFH is measured on a test bench, and the measured data is used to validate the developed model. Using the established model, the heating efficiency of TFH is studied for different inlet temperatures and flow rates, and the influence of the fin spoiler structure on TFH heating efficiency and the heating board temperature is investigated. The result indicates that the spoiler structure has a large effect on the board heating temperature, but has little effect on the heating efficiency. An orthogonal experimental design method is used to optimize the design of the fins and water channels, and the purpose is to reduce the board heating temperature for preventing over burning. Under the 25°C inlet
Guan, WenzheGuo, YimingWu, XiaoyongWang, DongdongShangguan, Wen-Bin
Battery cell aging and loss of capacity are some of the many challenges facing the widespread implementation of electrification in mobility. One of the factors contributing to cell aging is the dissimilarities of individual cells connected in a module. This paper reports the results of several aging experiments using a mini-module consisting of seven 5 Ah 21700 lithium-ion battery cells connected in parallel. The aging cycle comprised a constant current-constant voltage charge cycle at a 0.7C C-rate, followed by a 0.2C constant current discharge, spanning the useful voltage range from minimum to maximum according to the cell manufacturer. Charge and discharge events were separated by one-hour rest periods and were repeated for four weeks. Weekly reference performance tests were executed to measure static capacity, pulse power capability and resistance at different states of charge. All diagnostics were normalized with respect to their starting numbers to achieve a percentage change
Swarts, AndreSalvi, Swapnil S.Juarez Robles, Daniel
As the high-quality development of the new energy vehicle (NEV) and traction battery industries, the safety of traction batteries has become a global focus. Typically mounted at the bottom of NEVs, traction battery systems are particularly vulnerable to mechanical damage caused by bottom impacts, posing serious safety risks. This study investigates the damage sustained by NEV traction battery systems during bottom impact collisions, using computer tomography analysis to detail the damage mechanisms. The findings provide valuable data to enhance the safety and protective performance of traction batteries under such scenarios.
Yan, PengfeiWang, FangMa, TianyiHan, CeHe, Gaiyun
Accurate battery capacity estimation is critical for ensuring the safe and reliable operation of electric vehicles (EVs) and addressing user range anxiety. However, predicting battery health is challenging due to the non-linearity, non-measurability, and complex multi-stress operating conditions that characterize battery performance. Incremental capacity curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) are effective tools for reflecting battery aging, but their practical application has limitations. This paper presents a novel method for battery capacity estimation using charging segment data derived from real-world operating conditions monitored by the vehicle's Battery Management System (BMS). The proposed approach begins with a detailed statistical analysis of voltage data to determine optimal charging capacity intervals and involves selecting appropriate voltage ranges to compute equivalent full-charge capacities. Experimental tests are performed to measure battery charging
Tao, SiyiZhu, JiangongLi, YuanChang, WeiDai, HaifengWei, Xuezhe
In this study, we examine the thermal behaviours of lithium-ion battery cells using two widely employed electro-chemistry models: the Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) and the Newman-Tiedemann-Gauthier-Kim (NTGK) model. Given the critical importance of temperature regulation for the efficiency and lifespan of lithium-ion batteries, this research aims to identify the numerical method that best predicts cell thermal behaviour under constant discharge conditions with 2C, 1C and 0.5C rate. By comparing the outputs of the ECM and NTGK models, we assess their accuracy in predicting key parameters such as State-of-Charge (SoC), current output, voltage, temperature and heat generation. The findings offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of each model in simulating the thermal dynamics of battery cells, providing a basis for optimizing battery performance and longevity in real-world applications.
Wakale, AnilMa, ShihuHu, Xiao
In recent years, energy scarcity and environmental pollution have intensified globally, prompting increased research and development in new energy vehicles as countries prioritize environmental protection and energy conservation. Compared to fuel-powered vehicles, new energy vehicles have relatively larger battery volumes and weights, which can increase damage and the risk of fires and explosions in collisions. To analyze and optimize the safety performance of a specific vehicle model's battery pack, we constructed a finite element model using existing software and performed pre-processing, simulation, and analysis of modal, random vibration, and extrusion characteristics. This revealed specific damage scenarios and enabled reliability analysis under working conditions. To enhance safety and reduce mass, we parametrically modeled power pack components and optimized parameters via multi-objective genetic algorithms under three road conditions. Results indicate reduced mass and improved
Wang, Zhi
In the automotive industry, it is essential to consider not only how well specialty materials perform and are formulated, but also how efficiently and economically they can be applied during manufacturing. This becomes especially important during the early stages of development to prevent issues when these materials are used in new designs by automotive suppliers or manufacturers. With the rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs), new materials are being used more frequently, and these materials may not have been as thoroughly tested as those used in traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure that these materials can be applied correctly and efficiently from the start. One way to speed up the development process is through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling. CFD helps predict how materials will behave when dispensed, which is essential for developing the right equipment and conditions for applying these materials. Working with
Kenney, J. AndyDelgado, RobertoHossain, ArifNg, Sze-SzeThomas, RyanChyasnavichyus, MariusTsang, Chi-WeiHwang, MargaretWu, LanceDietsche, LauraMcmichael, JonathanRaines, KevinNelson, Grant
Efficient and robust optimization frameworks are essential to develop and parametrize battery management system (BMS) controls algorithms. In such multi-physics application, the tradeoff between fast-charging performance and aging degradation needs to be solved while simultaneously preventing the onset of thermal runaway. To this end, a multi-objective optimization framework was developed for immersion-cooled battery systems that provides optimal charging rates and dielectric flowrates while minimizing aging and charging time objectives. The developed production-oriented framework consists of a fully coupled, lumped electro-thermal-aging model for cylindrical cells with core-to-surface and immersion-cooling heat transfer, the latter controlled by the dielectric fluid flowrate. The modeled core temperatures are inputs to a semi-empirical aging degradation model, in which a fast-aging solver computes the updated capacity and internal resistance over multiple timescales, which in turn
Suzuki, JorgeTran, Manh-KienTyagi, RamavtarMeshginqalam, AtaZhou, ZijieNakhla, DavidAtluri, Prasad
Electrified vehicles rely on batteries to store energy for propulsion. Batteries depend on chemistry that changes over time and with use. This aging has many effects. Historically, efforts to predict and be robust to battery aging have focused on capacity loss and power loss/resistance growth. While a battery’s state of charge-open circuit voltage (SOC-OCV) relationship is typically treated as static, data illustrates that it shifts with battery age. We are not aware of any published methods to account for this effect for on-board modeling or controls. Regulations by the European Union, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the California Air Resource Board have proposed a state of certified energy (SOCE) to provide vehicle owners with a common metric reflecting the vehicle battery age. This metric captures the capacity and power loss of an aged battery. However, SOC-OCV changes with age may make accurately estimating SOCE more challenging. The upcoming regulations require accurate
Vuylsteke, GabrielleWu, HaoMoore, WilliamWashington, Donnell
Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining popularity due to their zero tailpipe emissions, superior energy efficiency, and sustainable nature. EVs have various limitations, and crucial one is the occurrence of thermal runaway in the battery pack. During charging or discharging condition of battery pack may result in thermal runaway condition. This promotes the requirement of effective cooling arrangement in and around the battery pack to avoid localized peak temperature. In the present work, thermal management of a 26650 Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cell using natural convection air cooling, composite biobased phase change material (CBPCM) and its combination with copper fins is numerically investigated using multi-scale multi dimension - Newman, Tiedenann, Gu and Kim (MSMD-NTGK) battery model in Ansys Fluent at an ambient temperature of 306 K. Natural convection air cooling was found effective at discharge rates of 1C to 3C, maintaining cell temperature below the safe limit of 318 K for 80
Srivastav, DurgeshPatil, Nagesh DevidasShukla, Pravesh Chandra
Thermal runaway in battery cells presents a critical safety concern, emphasizing the need for a thorough understanding of thermal behavior to enhance battery safety and performance. This study introduces a newly developed AutoLion 3D thermal runaway model, which builds on the earlier AutoLion 1D framework and offers significantly faster computational performance compared to traditional CFD models. The model is validated through simulations of the heat-wait-search mode of the Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (ARC), accurately predicting thermal runaway by matching experimental temperature profiles from peer-reviewed studies. Once validated, the model is employed to investigate the thermal behavior of 3D LFPO cells under controlled heating conditions, applying heat to one or more surfaces at a time while modeling heat transfer from non-heated surfaces. The primary objective is to understand how these localized heating patterns impact temperature profiles, including average core temperatures
Hariharan, DeivanayagamGundlapally, Santhosh
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are gaining increasing interest due to contributions to zero emissions and carbon neutrality. Thermal management of FCEVs is essential for fuel cell lifespan and vehicle driving performance, but there is a lack of specialized thermal balance test standards for FCEVs. Considering differences in heat generating mechanism between FCEVs and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), current thermal balance method for ICEVs should be amended to suit for FCHVs. This study discussed thermal balance performance of ICEV and FCHVs under various regulated test conditions based on thermal balance tests in wind tunnel of two FCEVs and an ICEV. FCEVs reported overheat risk during low-speed climbing test due to continuous large power output from fuel cell (FC). Frequent power source switches between FC and battery were observed under dual constrains of fuel cell temperature and battery state of charge (SOC). Significant temperature exceedance of ICEV occurred
Fang, YanhuaMin, YihangMing, ChenLi, HongtaoLi, DongshengHe, ChongMao, Zhifei
The problem of monitoring the parametric failures of a traction electric drive unit consisting of an inverter, a traction machine and a gearbox when interacting with a battery management system has been solved. The strategy for solving the problem is considered for an electric drive with three-phase synchronous and induction machines. The drive power elements perform electromechanical energy conversion with additional losses. The losses are caused by deviations of the element parameters from the nominal values during operation. Monitoring gradual failures by additional losses is adopted as a key concept of on-board diagnostics. Deviation monitoring places increased demands on the information support and accuracy of mathematical models of power elements. We take into account that the first harmonics of currents and voltages of a three-phase circuit are the dominant energy source, higher harmonics of PWM appear as harmonic losses, and mechanical losses in the rotor and gearbox can be
Smolin, VictorGladyshev, SergeyTopolskaya, Irina
Electric vehicles (EVs) have experienced significant growth, and the battery safety of EVs has drawn increased attention. However, the mechanical responses of battery during crashes have rarely been studied. Hence, the objective of this study was to understand EV battery package mechanics during side-pole crashes at different impact locations and speeds beyond regulated side-pole test with one specific speed and one location. An EV finite element (FE) model with a battery package was used. Side-pole impact simulations were conducted at four impact locations, including the baseline impact location according to side-pole impact regulation, plus three positions by moving the rigid pole 400 mm toward the back of the EV and moving the pole 400 and 800 mm toward the front of the EV. In addition, the impact velocities at 32, 50, and 80 km/h were simulated. Based on simulations, the peak relative displacement, the maximum change in gap between batteries, the maximum change in gap between the
Chen, JianBian, KeweiMao, Haojie
Given the promising prospects of retired lithium-ion batteries in second-life utilization, enhancing their consistency through a rational sorting process has become a pressing priority. Traditional capacity-based sorting methods have significant limitations as it takes high time costs and fails to provide internal dynamic information about the batteries. To address this, the present study introduces a novel approach by incorporating electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) into the sorting process. Firstly, principal component analysis (PCA) analysis is applied to extract the first principal component from the EIS data, which has a strong correlation with battery capacity. It serves as a key feature for assessing the residual value of retired batteries. Accurate estimation of battery capacity is then achieved using a simple linear equation: For retired nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM) batteries, the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and root mean squared percentage error (RMSPE
Fan, WenjunWang, XueyuanJin, YiqunJiang, BoZhu, JiangongWei, XuezheDai, Haifeng
With the increasingly prominent environmental problems and energy crisis, wind power, solar power and other new energy has been rapid development, and energy storage technology is of great significance to the development of new energy. Compared with the power batteries applied in electric vehicles, battery energy storage systems gather a larger number of batteries and a larger scale, usually up to megawatts or 100 megawatts. During the operation of the energy storage system, the lithium-ion battery continues to charge and discharge, and its internal electrochemical reaction will inevitably generate a lot of heat. If the heat is not dispersed in time, the temperature of the lithium-ion battery will continue to rise, which will seriously affect the service life and performance of the battery, and even cause thermal runaway leading to explosion. It is of great significance for promoting the development of new energy technologies to carry out research on the thermal model of lithium-ion
Chen, JianxiangLi, LipingZhou, FupengLi, ChunchengShangguan, Wen-Bin
This Paper will focus on simulating thermal runaway propagation within a battery cell and module. The thermal runaway model parameters are derived from accelerating rate calorimeter (ARC). The simulation involves a thermal runaway propagation model that converts the stored energy of the battery materials into thermal energy, thereby simulating the propagation of thermal runaway. The initiation of thermal runaway is modelled through a nail penetration event, represented by a heat profile in the nail region. The resulting temperature rise in this area triggers the short propagation model, leading to the spread of thermal runaway. For the single-cell simulation, the 1-equation thermal runaway model is used, focusing on the direct energy conversion and propagation within the cell. In contrast, the module simulation involves a more complex scenario. Here, an initial temperature rise near the nail region activates a short propagation model, which subsequently triggers the 4-equation thermal
Wakale, AnilMa, ShihuHu, Xiao
Interest in Battery-Driven Electric Vehicles (EVs) has significantly grown in recent years due to the decline of traditional Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs). However, malfunctions in Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) can lead to catastrophic results such as Thermal Runaway (TR), posing serious safety concerns due to their high energy release and the emission of flammable gases. Understanding this phenomenon is essential for reducing risks and mitigating its effects. In this study, a digital twin of an Accelerated Rate Calorimeter (ARC) under a Heat-Wait-and-Seek (HWS) procedure is developed using a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) framework. The CFD model simulates the heating of the cell during the HWS procedure, pressure build-up within the LIB, gas venting phenomena, and the exothermic processes within the LIB due to the degradation of internal components. The model is validated against experimental results for an NCA 18650 LIB under similar conditions, focusing on LIB temperature
Gil, AntonioMonsalve-Serrano, JavierMarco-Gimeno, JavierGuaraco-Figueira, Carlos
A vital aspect of Ultra-Fast Charging (UFC) Li-Ion battery pack is its thermal management system, which impacts safety, performance, and cell longevity. Immersion cooling technology is more effective compared to indirect cold plate as heat can dissipate much quicker and has a potential to mitigate the thermal runaway propagation, improve pack overall performance, and cell life significantly. For design optimization and getting better insight, high fidelity Multiphysics-Multiscale simulations are required. Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) based electro-thermally coupled multi-physics CFD simulations are performed to optimize the innovative busbar design, of a recently developed immersion cooled battery pack, which enables the capability to remove individual cell. Further, high fidelity 3D transient flow-thermal simulations have helped in optimizing the coolant flow direction, inlet positions, cell spacing and separator design for efficient flow distribution in the module. While high
Tyagi, RamavtarNegro, SergioBaranowski, AlexAtluri, Prasad
Thermal runaway is a critical phenomenon in lithium batteries, characterized by a self-sustaining process due to internal chemical reactions, that is triggered once a certain temperature is reached within the cell. This event is often caused by overheating due to charge and discharge cycles and can lead to fires or explosions, posing a significant safety threat. The aim of this study is to induce thermal runaway on single cells in different ways to characterize the phenomenon and validate the simulation models present in Altair SimLab®. The work was conducted in several key phases. Initially, an experimental test was performed in a calorimeter (EV ARC HWS test) to collect temperature data of the Molicel 21700 P45B cell during thermal runaway under adiabatic conditions. These data were used for a simulation on a single cell, allowing a detailed comparison with the experimental results. Subsequently, a test was conducted on a single cell under operational conditions, overheated using a
Giuliano, LucaScrimieri, LuigiReitano, SimoneBerti Polato, DavideFerraris, AlessandroComerford, AndrewBhatnagar, Saakaar
The rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), driven by stricter emissions norms, is transforming both urban and rural mobility. However, significant challenges remain, particularly concerning the charging infrastructure and battery technology. The limited availability of charging stations and the reliance on current high-energy-density cells restrict the overall effectiveness of the e-mobility ecosystem. These constraints lead to shorter vehicle ranges and longer charging times, contributing to range anxiety—one of the most critical barriers to widespread EV adoption. Adding to these challenges, auxiliary systems, especially air-conditioning (AC) systems, significantly impact energy consumption. Among all auxiliary systems, the AC system is the most energy-intensive, often exacerbating range anxiety by reducing the distance an EV can travel on a single charge. Hence, it is essential to focus on enhancing the efficiency of AC systems. This involves redefining and optimizing system
Sen, SomnathJadhav, YashSingh, KaramjeetSorte, SwapnilAnwar, Md Tahir
Detailed modeling of battery thermal runaway and propagation often requires a source term that represents the chemical heat release of the cell as a function of temperature. The shape of this heat release trend typically comes from cell testing data. Accelerating rate calorimetry (ARC) tests provide concise information on cell self-heating, since the cell is kept nearly isothermal and adiabatic. Also, compared to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) tests of battery component materials, it contains all interactions between components. Converting the temperature rise rate data to heat release rate is theoretically very simple, only requiring the heat capacity of the cell. Practically, however, careful analysis is required to avoid artifacts arising from limitations of the test setup. This study uses a simple one-dimensional transient heat transfer model to illustrate the runaway process inside a cell and describe two error sources present in many ARC tests. As the cell temperature
Vanderwege, BradPetersen, Ben
The rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to a significant increase in vehicle mass due to the integration of large and heavy battery systems. This increase in mass has raised concerns about collision energy and the associated risks, particularly in high-speed impacts. As a consequence, crashworthiness evaluations, especially front-impact regulations, have become increasingly stringent. Crash speed between the vehicle and the Mobile Progressive Deformable Barrier (MPDB) is increasing, reflecting the growing emphasis on safety in the automotive industry. Moreover, a new frontal pole crash scenario is under consideration for future regulatory standards, highlighting the continuous evolution of crash testing protocols. To ensure occupant protection and battery safety, manufacturers have traditionally used Hot Blow Forming technology for producing closed-loop dash lower cross member components. However, this process is both costly and energy-intensive, necessitating more
Lee, JongminKim, DonghyunJang, MinhoKim, GeunhoSeongho, YooKim, Kyu-Rae
Thermal management is a key challenge in the design and operation of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), particularly in high-stress conditions that may lead to thermal runaway (TR). Immersion cooling technology provides a promising solution by offering uniform cooling across all battery cells, reducing the risk of hotspots and thermal gradients that can trigger TR. However, accurately modeling the thermal behavior of such systems, especially under the complex conditions of immersion cooling, presents significant challenges. This study introduces a comprehensive multiscale and Multiphysics modeling framework to analyze thermal runaway and its propagation (TRP) in battery systems cooled by immersion in dielectric fluids. The model integrates both 1D and 3D simulations, focusing on calibrating energy terms at the single-cell level using 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The calibration process includes a detailed analysis of cell chemistries, exothermic heat release, and thermal runaway
Negro, SergioTyagi, RamavtarKolaei, AmirPugsley, KyleAtluri, Prasad
As electric vehicles (EVs) become increasingly prevalent, ensuring the safety of their battery systems is paramount. Lithium-ion batteries, present unique safety challenges due to their high energy density and the potential for failure under certain conditions. There is an extensive amount of research on pouch and cylindrical cells, however, prismatic cells have not received similar attention. This study presents an extensive series of experimental tests conducted on prismatic cells from two different manufacturers. These tests include flat punch, hemispherical punch, axial compression and three-point bending tests, all designed to assess the cells’ mechanical properties and failure behavior. A model was developed simulating the behavior of the cell under local loading scenarios. While this paper focuses primarily on testing methodologies, initial findings and an introductory FEA model, future work will incorporate these experimental results into detailed FEA models across all loading
Patanwala, HuzefaSong, YihanSahraei, Elham
Designing for the durability of motor vehicles requires accounting for various stress factors, including tractive loads, electrical loads, thermal loads, and structural loads. For electric vehicle propulsion systems, it is crucial to consider not just the magnitude and repeats of these loads but also their temporal sequence throughout the vehicle’s lifespan. The order and timing of these loads influence factors such as, charge and discharge cycles or active motor heating, which ultimately impact the damage to the propulsion system components like the cell and the motor. Traditionally, lifetime loads for durability assessments are derived from a single-user load profile consisting of a set of ‘representative’ drive cycles accounting for the cumulative damage equivalent to the real-world damage covered under warranty. This profile is typically based on historical usage data, user scenarios, and industry experience, but may not capture the diverse failure modes of the different propulsion
Ramakrishnan, SankaranKhapane, Prashant
The shift towards hybrid and electric powertrains in off-road vehicles aims to enhance mobility, extend range, and improve energy efficiency. However, heat pump-based battery thermal management systems in these vehicles continue to consume significant energy, impacting overall range and efficiency. Effective thermal management is essential for maintaining battery performance and safety, particularly in extreme conditions. Although high-fidelity models can capture the complex dynamics of heat pumps, real-time control within model-based optimization frameworks often depends on simplified models, which can degrade system performance. To address this, we propose a novel data-driven grey box control-oriented model (COM) that accurately represents the thermal dynamics of a vapor-compression refrigeration-based heat pump system. This COM is integrated into a model-predictive control (MPC) framework, optimizing thermal management during transient and burst-power operations of the battery pack
Sundar, AnirudhGhate, AtharvaZhu, QilunPrucka, RobertRuan, YeefengFigueroa-Santos, MiriamBarron, Morgan
The operating temperature of lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells significantly influences their degradation behavior. In indirect liquid cooling systems, temperature variations within a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) LIB module are inevitable due to the increasing downstream temperature of the cooling medium as it absorbs heat. This leads to reduced temperature differentials between the cooling medium and the LIB cells. As a result, LIB cells located further along the flow path experience higher average temperatures than those at the front. Typically, a maximum average cell temperature difference of 5 K within LIB modules is considered acceptable. However, results from a conventional cooling system indicate that, when fast charging is exclusively used, this can lead to a 15.5 % difference in the total ampere-hours passed before the End-of-Life (EOL) is reached for the front and back LIB cells. To address this issue, a switchable thermal management system for the traction battery is
Auch, MarcusWeyershäuser, KonstantinKuthada, TimoWagner, Andreas
Diverse solutions will likely be needed to decarbonize the commercial truck sector in the United States. Battery-powered vehicles play a predominant role but in some cases, fuel cell trucks are more advantageous for the consumer. This study examines several medium- and heavy-duty applications designed for different driving range requirements to identify the design space where battery and fuel cell trucks are attractive. Also considered are the impacts of purchase price, fuel cost, and vehicle usage. We examine the top 10 truck classes as well as bus applications based on vehicle population, fuel usage, and driving distances. We assume a 2030 scenario where both batteries and FC systems become less costly and more efficient, as targeted by the U.S. Department of Energy. Even for smaller-class vehicles, where battery electric vehicles are expected to be the most economical among clean vehicle solutions, the results are not straightforward. Based on vehicle design, usage, and external
Vijayagopal, RamBirky, Alicia
This study presents a detailed techno-economic assessment of battery-electric trucks, incorporating battery aging effects within a total cost of ownership (TCO) model. With increasingly stringent emissions regulations, battery-electric trucks are becoming a viable solution in Europe. However, due to uncertainty regarding their long-term cost-effectiveness and fleet operators’ profit-oriented priorities, there is an urgent need for accurate TCO assessment. Existing studies often overlook or oversimplify the impact of battery aging on overall costs. This work addresses this gap by introducing battery aging-related costs through an empirical battery degradation model, evaluated over the vehicle’s lifetime. Key aging costs include a refined estimation of battery residual value, influenced by degradation and remaining battery life, and potential battery replacement expenses. A case study on a VECTO group 9 truck used for regional delivery missions examines different payloads and battery
Costantino, TrentalessandroAcquarone, MatteoMiretti, FedericoSpessa, Ezio
This study presents a comparative analysis of Samsung lithium-ion batteries, which are the INR21700 30T high-power (HP) cell and INR21700 50E high-energy (HE) cell, examining their design differences and performance characteristics. Based on teardown data reported in literature, the HP cell features higher porosity, thicker current collectors, and thinner electrode coatings compared to the HE cell, while the HE cell incorporates approximately 6% silicon oxide in its graphite anode for increased energy density. Cell-level characterization test results demonstrated superior rate capability of the HP cell, maintaining 93.8% of its capacity at 2C discharge, while the HE cell retained 93.4% at 1.6C. The HP cell also exhibited better cycle life stability due to its silicon-free design. Pseudo-two-dimensional (P2D) models were constructed using both teardown experimental parameters and adjusted parameters. Simulation results revealed significant discrepancies using teardown parameters
Yao, QiKollmeyer, PhillipChen, JunranPanchal, SatyamGross, OliverEmadi, Ali
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