Improving electric vehicles’ overall thermal management strategy can directly or indirectly improve battery efficiency and vehicle range [1]. In this study, the effect of the coolant type used in BTMS (battery thermal management system) units used for heating batteries in cold weather conditions was investigated in electric buses. In this investigation, tests were performed with two types of antifreeze, which have different characteristics. The study evaluated the impact of coolant flow, BTMS circulation pump performance, and battery heating using these two types of antifreeze in the BTMS coolant line. In addition to carrying out tests, 1D computational fluid dynamics models’ simulations were carried out for both types of antifreeze, and the results were validated with experimental findings. In this study, a 12-m EV Citivolt vehicle of Anadolu Isuzu was used for tests. As a result, it was observed that differences in the properties of the antifreeze that is used in BTMS coolant line

Çetir, Özgür, Birgül, Çağrı Emre

Local and Global Entropy Generation of Topographically Optimized Porous Reactors in Reaction-Diffusion Systems Considering Coupling Effects between Heat and Mass Transfer

2024-32-0069

04/18/2025

As the automotive sector shifts towards cleaner and more sustainable technologies, fuel cells and batteries have emerged as promising technologies with revolutionary potential. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles offer faster refueling times, extended driving ranges, and reduced weight and space requirements compared to battery electric vehicles, making them highly appealing for future transportation applications. Despite these advantages, optimizing electrode structures and balancing various transport mechanisms are crucial for improving PEFCs’ performance for widespread commercial viability. Previous research has utilized topology optimization (TO) to identify optimal electrode structures and attempted to establish a connection between entropy generation and topographically optimized structures, aiming to strengthen TO numerical findings with a robust theoretical basis. However, existing studies have often neglected the coupling of transport phenomena. Typically, it is assumed that a single

Tep, Rotanak Visal Sok, Long, Mengly, Alizadeh, Mehrzad, Charoen-amornkitt, Patcharawat, Suzuki, Takahiro, Tsushima, Shohji

Effect of Mesopore Structure of Carbon Gel on Improving the Capacity of Electric Double-Layer Capacitors

2024-32-0026

04/18/2025

Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) store charge by adsorbing ions at the electrode-electrolyte interface, offering fast charge/discharge rates, high power density, minimal heat generation, and long cycle life. These characteristics make EDLCs ideal for memory backup in electronic devices and power assistance in electric and hybrid vehicles. However, their energy density is lower than that of batteries, necessitating improvements in electrical capacity and potential. Traditionally, activated carbon with a high specific surface area has been used, but recent research focuses on mesoporous carbon materials for better ion diffusion. This study uses resorcinol-formaldehyde-carbon cryogel (RFCC) with mesopores and organic electrolytes with a wider electrochemical window. Various RFCCs with different pore sizes were synthesized and evaluated. Comprehensive investigations into the pore structures and surface properties of both synthesized carbon gels and commercial mesoporous materials

Cheng, Zairan, Okamura, Tsubasa, Ohnishi, Yuto, Nakagawa, Kiyoharu

Numerical Investigation of Electrolyte Feed System Designs at the Stack Level of Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries

2024-32-0068

04/18/2025

The rise of electric vehicles (EVs) highlights the need to transition to a renewable energy society, where power is generated from sustainable sources. This shift is driven by environmental, economic, and energy security concerns. However, renewable energy sources like wind and solar are intermittent, necessitating extensive energy storage systems. Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are promising for large-scale energy storage due to their long cycle life, scalability, and safety. In VRFBs, cells are typically connected in series to increase voltage, with electrolytes introduced through parallel flow channels using a single manifold. This design, while simple and low in pressure drop, often leads to imbalanced flow rates among cells, affecting performance. Balancing flow rates is crucial to minimize uneven overpotential and enhance durability, presenting an optimization challenge between achieving uniform flow and minimizing pressure drop. This study developed numerical models to

Suwanpakdee, Nut, Aiemsathit, Poramet, Charoen-amornkitt, Patcharawat, Suzuki, Takahiro, Tsushima, Shohji

Sustainable Design of Automotive Batteries

2025-01-000104/18/2025

A consequence of the automotive industry's shift to electrification is that a significantly higher percentage of a vehicle's lifecycle CO₂ emissions occur during the production phase. As a result, vehicle manufacturers and suppliers must shift the focus of product development from the 'in-use phase only' to optimizing the complete product lifecycle. The proper design of a battery has the highest impact to all other phases following in the life-cycle. It influences the selection of materials, the manufacturing, in-use and end of life, respectively the recycling and recycling yield for a circular economy. Using real-life examples the paper will explain what are the main parameters necessary for designing a sustainable battery. What are the low hanging fruits to be considered? In addition, it will elaborate on the relation as well as the impacts to other KPIs like safety, costs and life-time of the battery. Finally it will round up in an outlook on how batteries will evolve in the future

Braun, Andreas, Rothbart, Martin

Assessing Lithium-ion Battery Functionality Post-Thermal Management with Water Mist

2024-32-0122

04/18/2025

The danger of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) is intensified when they are used at inappropriate temperatures, leading to self-heating and eventually contributing to thermal runaway. Nevertheless, there is uncertainty through the safety of reusing batteries after they have been exposed to heat damage and water mist from fire extinguishers. To address these concerns, this study aimed to experimentally investigate the impact of temperature on batteries and introduce a thermal management using a water mist. Subjecting a battery to a temperature of 100°C for a duration of 39 minutes can immediately detect inoperability from a sudden drop in voltage. The use of water mist was proposed to rapidly mitigate the heat production inside the battery. The state of health (SOH) and the impedance were employed to confirm the battery’s functionality after exposure to thermal abuse and water spraying. The SOH of fresh cells was measured as a reference line for comparison to tested

Trinuruk, Piyatida, Patthathum, Pathomporn, Jumnongjit, Apiwit

Optimal Porous Electrode Structures in All-Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries

2024-32-0085

04/18/2025

To address the pressing issue of electrical fluctuations from renewable energy technologies, an energy storage system (ESS) is proposed. The vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is gaining significant attention due to its extended lifespan, durability, thermal safety, and independent power capacity, despite its high cost. Key components of the VRFB include a membrane, carbon electrode, bipolar plate, gasket, current collector, electrolyte, and pump. Among these, the carbon electrode and bipolar plate are the most expensive. Reducing capital costs in VRFB systems is crucial for advancing clean energy solutions. Conventional flow field designs like interdigitated flow field (IFF), serpentine flow field (SFF), and parallel flow field (PFF) are used to feed the electrolyte into the VRFB cell, necessitating thicker bipolar plates to avoid cracking during the machining process. This study focuses on optimizing the flow-through (FT) design, which eliminates the need for machining on bipolar

Aiemsathit, Poramet, Sun, Pengfei, Alizadeh, Mehrzad, Laoonual, Yossapong, Charoen-amornkitt, Patcharawat, Suzuki, Takahiro, Tsushima, Shohji

TOC

99-07-02-0TOC

04/17/2025

TOC

Tobolski, Sue

Experiment Characterization and Simulation Analysis of a Lithium-Ion Battery in Different Ambient Conditions

2025-01-5028

04/15/2025

A great number of performances of an electric vehicle such as driving range, powering performance, and the like are affected by its configured batteries. Having a good grasp of the electrical and thermal behavior of the battery before the detailed design stage is indispensable. This paper introduces an experiment characterization method of a lithium-ion battery with a coolant system from cell level to pack level in different ambient conditions. Corresponding cell and pack simulation models established in AMESim that aimed to capture the electrical and thermal features of the battery were also illustrated, respectively. First, the capacity test and hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) test were conducted in a thermotank to acquire basic data about the battery cell. Next, based on acquired data, first-order equivalent circuit model (1C-ECM) was built for the battery cell and further combined with environmental boundary conditions to check the simulation accuracy. Then, hybrid

Zhou, Shuai, Liu, Huaiju, Yu, Huili, Yan, Xu, Yan, Junjie

SAE Truck & Off-Highway Engineering: April 2025

25TOFHP0404/10/2025

Designs on a diverse powertrain future Perkins details range of development efforts to power future off-highway machines, from clean-sheet diesel to hybrid-electric and hydrogen combustion. Autonomous trucking tech hits high gear While some developers of autonomous technology for commercial trucks have stalled out, there's renewed energy to deliver augmented ADAS and automated driving systems to mass production. Autonomous quarry haulage in high demand Komatsu works with Pronto to upfit a growing fleet of haul trucks operating at Komatsu's Arizona Proving Grounds and customer sites. Editorial Hydrogen is hitting some headwinds Cummins unveils new B7.2 diesel engine Artificial intelligence being schooled for mining applications FPT's 37-kWh battery pack dives into marine market Mitsubishi Fuso repurposes EV batteries for energy storage systems First drive: REE Automotive's electrifying P7 delivery chassis Kalmar launches 3rd-gen electric terminal tractor Product Briefs SPOTLIGHTS

Adapting Basic On-Road Data to the Heavy Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck Schedule for Guiding the Electrification of Long-Haul Truck Transport

14-14-02-0011

04/10/2025

Heavy heavy-duty diesel truck (HHDDT) drive cycles for long-haul transport trucks were developed over 20 years ago and have a renewed relevance for performance assessment and technical forecasting for transport electrification. In this study, a model was constructed from sparse data recorded from the real-life on-road activity of a small fleet of class 8 trucks by fitting them into separate driving-type segments constituting the complete HHDDT drive cycle. Detailed 1-s resolution truck fleet raw data were also available for assessing the drive cycle model. Numerical simulations were conducted to assess the model for trucks powered by both 1.0 MW charging and 300 kW-level e-Highway, accounting for elevation and seasonally varying climate conditions along the Windsor–Quebec City corridor in Canada. The modeling approach was able to estimate highway cruising speeds, energy efficiencies, and battery pack lifetimes normally within 2% of values determined using the detailed high-resolution

Darcovich, Ken, Ribberink, Hajo, Soufflet, Emilie, Lauras, Gaspard

A Low-Entry Bus Body Structure Performance under the Conditions of the New Car Assessment Program Frontal Crash Tests

09-13-02-0007

04/09/2025

The New Car Assessment Program (e.g., US NCAP and EuroNCAP) frontal crash tests are an essential part of vehicle safety evaluations, which are mandatory for the certification of civil means of transport prior to normal road exploitation. The presented research is focused on the behavior of a tubular low-entry bus frame during a frontal impact test at speeds of 32 and 56 km/h, perpendicular to a rigid wall surface. The deformation zones in the bus front and roof parts were estimated using Ansys LS-DYNA and considered such factors as the additional mass (1630 kg) of electric batteries following the replacement of a diesel engine with an electric one. This caused stabilization of the electric bus body along the transverse axis, with deviations decreased by 19.9%. Speed drop from 56 to 32 km/h showed a reduction of the front window sill deformations from 172 to 132 mm, and provided a twofold margin (159.4 m/s2) according to the 30g ThAC criterion of R80. This leads to the conclusion about

Holenko, Kostyantyn, Dykha, Aleksandr, Koda, Eugeniusz, Kernytskyy, Ivan, Royko, Yuriy, Horbay, Orest, Berezovetska, Oksana, Rys, Vasyl, Humeniuk, Ruslan, Berezovetskyi, Serhii, Chalecki, Marek

Predictive Battery Thermal Management System Control Strategy and Simulation in Electric Vehicle

2025-01-5027

04/03/2025

With the global issue of fossil fuel scarcity and the greenhouse effect, interest in electric vehicles (EVs) has surged recently. At that stage, because of the constraints of the energy density and battery performance degradation in low-temperature conditions, the mileage of EVs has been criticized. To guarantee battery performance, a battery thermal management system (BTMS) is applied to ensure battery operates in a suitable temperature range. Currently, in the industry, a settled temperature interval is set as criteria of positive thermal management activation, which is robust but leads to energy waste. BTMS has a kilowatt-level power usage under high- and low-temperature environments. Optimizing the BTMS control strategy becomes a potential solution to reduce energy consumption and overcome mileage issues. An appropriate system simulation model provides an effective tool to evaluate different BTMS control strategies. In this study, a predictive BTMS control strategy, which adjusts

Huang, Zhipei, Chen, Jiangbo, Tang, Hai

Learning-Based Energy Management Strategy of Fuel Cell City Buses Considering Power Source Degradation

02-18-02-0012

04/02/2025

Fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) offer a promising solution for achieving environmentally friendly transportation and improving fuel economy. The energy management strategy (EMS), as a critical technology for FCVs, faces significant challenges of achieving a balanced coordination among the fuel economy, power battery life, and durability of fuel cell across diverse environments. To address these challenges, a learning-based EMS for fuel cell city buses considering power source degradation is proposed. First, a fuel cell degradation model and a power battery aging model from the literature are presented. Then, based on the deep Q-network (DQN), four factors are incorporated into the reward function, including comprehensive hydrogen consumption, fuel cell performance degradation, power battery life degradation, and battery state of charge deviation. The simulation results show that compared to the dynamic programming–based EMS (DP-EMS), the proposed EMS improves the fuel cell durability while

Song, Dafeng, Yan, Jinxing, Zeng, Xiaohua, Zhang, Yunhe

Use of Methanol in a High-Power Density Generator

13-06-03-0021

04/02/2025

Increasing global pressure to reduce anthropogenic carbon emissions has inspired a transition from conventional petroleum-fueled internal combustion engines to alternative powertrains, including battery electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrids. Hybrids offer a promising solution for emissions reduction by addressing the limitations of pure EVs such as slow recharge and range anxiety. In a previous research endeavor, a prototype high-power density generator was meticulously designed, fabricated, and subjected to testing. This generator incorporated a compact permanent magnet brushless dynamo and a diminutive single-cylinder two-stroke engine with low-technology constructions. This prototype generated 8.5 kW of electrical power while maintaining a lightweight profile at 21 kg. This study investigates the performance and emissions reduction potential by adapting the prototype to operate on methanol fuel. Performance and emissions were experimentally evaluated under varying operating conditions

Gore, Matt, Nonavinakere Vinod, Kaushik, Fang, Tiegang

Electro-Thermal Optimal Control for Driver-Centric DC Fast Charging of Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8374

04/01/2025

Charging a battery electric vehicle at extreme temperatures can lead to battery deterioration without proper thermal management. To avoid battery degradation, charging current is generally limited at extreme hot and cold battery temperatures. Splitting the wall power between charging and the thermal management system with the aim of minimizing charging time is a challenging problem especially with the strong thermal coupling with the charging current. Existing research focus on formulating the battery thermal management control problem as a minimum charging time optimal control problem. Such control strategy force the driver to charge with minimum time and higher charging cost irrespective of their driving schedule. This paper presents a driver-centric DCFC control framework by formulating the power split between thermal management and charging as an optimal control problem with the goal of improving the wall-to-vehicle energy efficiency. Proposed energy-efficient charging strategy

Gupta, Shobhit, Kang, Jun-Mo, Zhu, Yongjie, Lee, Chunhao, Zanardelli, Wesley

A Data-Driven Framework for Battery Capacity Estimation in Real-World Electric Vehicles Using Virtual Impedance and Incremental Capacity Analysis

2025-01-8561

04/01/2025

Accurate battery capacity estimation is critical for ensuring the safe and reliable operation of electric vehicles (EVs) and addressing user range anxiety. However, predicting battery health is challenging due to the non-linearity, non-measurability, and complex multi-stress operating conditions that characterize battery performance. Incremental capacity curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) are effective tools for reflecting battery aging, but their practical application has limitations. This paper presents a novel method for battery capacity estimation using charging segment data derived from real-world operating conditions monitored by the vehicle's Battery Management System (BMS). The proposed approach begins with a detailed statistical analysis of voltage data to determine optimal charging capacity intervals and involves selecting appropriate voltage ranges to compute equivalent full-charge capacities. Experimental tests are performed to measure battery charging

Tao, Siyi, Zhu, Jiangong, Li, Yuan, Chang, Wei, Dai, Haifeng, Wei, Xuezhe

Development of the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator for Evaluating Off-Road Mobile Machinery Energy Consumption

2025-01-8595

04/01/2025

This paper presents the development of a new vehicle simulation software, the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator Tool (referred to as the Power-Based Model), designed to predict fuel consumption and evaluate advanced powertrain technologies for off-road mobile machinery. The Power-Based Model integrates current research on fuel consumption simulation in the off-road vehicle sector and serves as a platform for development of advanced powertrain technologies such as battery-electric and fuel cell powertrains. The tool predicts the battery capacity and hydrogen storage required for the transition to these advanced powertrains, allowing users to accurately calculate component sizes and reductions in fuel consumption. The Power-Based Model was developed with a strong focus on the unique operational characteristics of off-road machinery, ensuring that it realistically reflects real-world energy consumption and the competitive advantages of various fuel-saving technologies. This paper describes

Kim, Namdoo, Seo, Jigu, Vijayagopal, Ram, Burnham, Andrew, makarczyk, David, Freyermuth, Vincent

Research on Crash Simulation and Safety of Automotive Power Battery

2025-01-8226

04/01/2025

In recent years, energy scarcity and environmental pollution have intensified globally, prompting increased research and development in new energy vehicles as countries prioritize environmental protection and energy conservation. Compared to fuel-powered vehicles, new energy vehicles have relatively larger battery volumes and weights, which can increase damage and the risk of fires and explosions in collisions. To analyze and optimize the safety performance of a specific vehicle model's battery pack, we constructed a finite element model using existing software and performed pre-processing, simulation, and analysis of modal, random vibration, and extrusion characteristics. This revealed specific damage scenarios and enabled reliability analysis under working conditions. To enhance safety and reduce mass, we parametrically modeled power pack components and optimized parameters via multi-objective genetic algorithms under three road conditions. Results indicate reduced mass and improved

Wang, Zhi

Numerical Model of the Heat-Wait and Seek and Heating Ramp Protocol for the Prediction of Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries

2025-01-8127

04/01/2025

Interest in Battery-Driven Electric Vehicles (EVs) has significantly grown in recent years due to the decline of traditional Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs). However, malfunctions in Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) can lead to catastrophic results such as Thermal Runaway (TR), posing serious safety concerns due to their high energy release and the emission of flammable gases. Understanding this phenomenon is essential for reducing risks and mitigating its effects. In this study, a digital twin of an Accelerated Rate Calorimeter (ARC) under a Heat-Wait-and-Seek (HWS) procedure is developed using a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) framework. The CFD model simulates the heating of the cell during the HWS procedure, pressure build-up within the LIB, gas venting phenomena, and the exothermic processes within the LIB due to the degradation of internal components. The model is validated against experimental results for an NCA 18650 LIB under similar conditions, focusing on LIB temperature

Gil, Antonio, Monsalve-Serrano, Javier, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Guaraco-Figueira, Carlos

Learning-Based Cell Level Battery Digital Twin for Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8386

04/01/2025

Electric vehicles rely on accurate estimation of battery states to operate safely and efficiently. Traditionally, the state estimation is pack level and based on empirical models developed to capture the dynamics of a representative battery pack and hence falls short in accounting for cell-to-cell variations. These variations become more pronounced as the cells age within a battery pack under non-homogeneous mechanical, thermal, manufacturing, and electrical conditions. It is challenging to adapt the traditional physics-based model to changing battery dynamics in real-time. To improve the state estimation at the cell level, a data-driven approach utilizing streamed data from vehicles enabled by connectivity has been shown in this paper. While traditional data-driven approaches result in large models and require large quantities of data for training, the proposed method relies on combining the underlying physics of the electrochemical model with novel data-driven modeling techniques

Gupta, Shobhit, Hegde, Bharatkumar, Haskara, Ibrahim, Shieh, Su-Yang, Chang, Insu

Battery Thermal Management System for PHEV by using Air Conditioning Heater System

2025-01-8172

04/01/2025

Toyota Motor Corporation pursuing an omnidirectional strategy that includes battery electric vehicle (BEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) to accelerate electrification. One of the technical challenges with our xEV batteries which feature good degradation resistance and long battery life, is that regenerative braking cannot be fully effective due to the decrease in regenerative power in some situations, such as low battery temperature. For the electrified vehicles with an internal combustion engine such as PHEVs, the solution has been running the engine to increase deceleration through engine braking during coasting. PHEVs are expected to extend their cruising range and enhance EV driving experience as "Practical BEVs". While increasing battery capacity and enhancing convenience, the restrictions on EV driving opportunity due to low battery temperature may negatively affect PHEV’s appealing. As an alternative, introducing a battery heater

Hoshino, Yu

Coupled Routing and Charge Schedule Optimization of Electrified Delivery Truck Fleets: Feasibility Analyses

2025-01-8602

04/01/2025

Electrifying truck fleets has the potential to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions from the freight transportation sector. However, the range limitations and substantial capital costs with current battery technologies imposes constraints that challenge the overall cost feasibility of electrifying fleets for logistics companies. In this paper, we investigate the coupled routing and charge scheduling optimization of a delivery fleet serving a large urban area as one approach to discovering feasible pathways. To this end, we first build an improved energy consumption model for a Class 7-8 electric and diesel truck using a data-driven approach of generating energy consumption data from detailed powertrain simulations on numerous drive cycles. We then conduct several analyses on the impact of battery pack capacity, cost, and electricity prices on the amortized daily total cost of fleet electrification at different penetration levels, considering availability of fast

Wendimagegnehu, Yared Tadesse, Ayalew, Beshah, Ivanco, Andrej, Hailemichael, Habtamu

CFD Modeling of Elastomeric Silicone Material Dispensing to Enable Equipment Design & Optimization for Efficient Automotive Manufacturing

2025-01-8318

04/01/2025

In the automotive industry, it is essential to consider not only how well specialty materials perform and are formulated, but also how efficiently and economically they can be applied during manufacturing. This becomes especially important during the early stages of development to prevent issues when these materials are used in new designs by automotive suppliers or manufacturers. With the rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs), new materials are being used more frequently, and these materials may not have been as thoroughly tested as those used in traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure that these materials can be applied correctly and efficiently from the start. One way to speed up the development process is through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling. CFD helps predict how materials will behave when dispensed, which is essential for developing the right equipment and conditions for applying these materials. Working with

Kenney, J. Andy, Delgado, Roberto, Hossain, Arif, Ng, Sze-Sze, Thomas, Ryan, Chyasnavichyus, Marius, Tsang, Chi-Wei, Hwang, Margaret, Wu, Lance, Dietsche, Laura, Mcmichael, Jonathan, Raines, Kevin, Nelson, Grant

Optimizing Battery Charging Strategies through Q-Learning and Electric Vehicle Powertrain System Modeling

2025-01-8116

04/01/2025

Battery health status and driving rangeof electric vehicles (EVs) are critical factors in determining their market penetration. Choosing an optimal charging strategy—specifying how, when, and for how long to charge based on the driver’s travel behavior—can significantly mitigate battery degradation and extend battery life. This study introduces an EV powertrain system energy model designed to enhance the prediction accuracy of battery status under real-world driving conditions. By integrating with the Q-learning approach, this studyprovides tailored recommendations on charging behaviors, including charger type, start time, and charging duration. This study innovatively considers the rental costs caused by the battery capacity not being able to meet the daily driving range. Simulating a typical three-year usage scenario for an average driver in New England, the results indicate that thecharging strategy proposed by this study reduces battery degradation rates by 1.53‰, 3.57‰, and 7.68

Wang, Jiayi, Jing, Hao, Ou, Shiqi (Shawn), Lin, Zhenhong

Analyzing EV Battery Package Responses during Side Pole Impacts with Multiple Speeds and Locations

2025-01-8730

04/01/2025

Electric vehicles (EVs) have experienced significant growth, and the battery safety of EVs has drawn increased attention. However, the mechanical responses of battery during crashes have rarely been studied. Hence, the objective of this study was to understand EV battery package mechanics during side-pole crashes at different impact locations and speeds beyond regulated side-pole test with one specific speed and one location. An EV finite element (FE) model with a battery package was used. Side-pole impact simulations were conducted at four impact locations, including the baseline impact location according to side-pole impact regulation, plus three positions by moving the rigid pole 400 mm toward the back of the EV and moving the pole 400 and 800 mm toward the front of the EV. In addition, the impact velocities at 32, 50, and 80 km/h were simulated. Based on simulations, the peak relative displacement, the maximum change in gap between batteries, the maximum change in gap between the

Chen, Jian, Bian, Kewei, Mao, Haojie

CFD-Based Performance Evaluation of Immersion Cooling Fluids for Lithium-Ion Battery Modules

2025-01-8163

04/01/2025

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are critical components in electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy systems. However, conventional cooling techniques for LIBs often struggle to efficiently dissipate heat during fast charging and discharging, potentially compromising performance and safety. This study investigates the thermal performance of immersion cooling applied to an Electric Vehicle (EV) battery module comprised of NCA-chemistry-based cylindrical 21700 format Lithium-ion cells. The effectiveness of immersion cooling in reducing maximum cell temperature, temperature gradient, cell-to-cell temperature differential, and pressure drop within the battery module is evaluated on a detailed 3D model of a 360-cell immersion-cooled battery module that was developed, incorporating a well-established heat generation model based on theoretical analysis and experimental data to simulate the thermal characteristics of the battery system. The effects of the different fluid properties are first

Garcia, Antonio, Micó, Carlos, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Elkourchi, Imad

Reducing Temperature-Related Aging Inhomogeneities in Battery Modules Using a Switchable Thermal Management System

2025-01-8167

04/01/2025

The operating temperature of lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells significantly influences their degradation behavior. In indirect liquid cooling systems, temperature variations within a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) LIB module are inevitable due to the increasing downstream temperature of the cooling medium as it absorbs heat. This leads to reduced temperature differentials between the cooling medium and the LIB cells. As a result, LIB cells located further along the flow path experience higher average temperatures than those at the front. Typically, a maximum average cell temperature difference of 5 K within LIB modules is considered acceptable. However, results from a conventional cooling system indicate that, when fast charging is exclusively used, this can lead to a 15.5 % difference in the total ampere-hours passed before the End-of-Life (EOL) is reached for the front and back LIB cells. To address this issue, a switchable thermal management system for the traction battery is

Auch, Marcus, Weyershäuser, Konstantin, Kuthada, Timo, Wagner, Andreas

Application of Model-Based Horizon Prediction to Enhance Control Algorithm Performance by Compensating for Time Delays in Automotive Drivelines

2025-01-8574

04/01/2025

Accurate estimation of crucial quantities in automotive drivetrain systems is essential for optimizing performance, durability, and emissions. However, the presence of time delays, arising from tasks scheduling and communication latency between control units, can significantly hinder the effectiveness of advance control algorithms. Closed-loop performance is often limited by the equivalent time delay between the control action command, its effect on the system, and the measurement of the reaction. Frequently, commands and measurements originate from different sources, requiring precise coordination to accurately estimate the driveline response. This paper presents a novel model-based approach that integrates Kalman filtering with horizon prediction techniques to effectively address time-delay compensation. By leveraging the descriptive capabilities of physics-based models, the proposed method enables to overcome synchronization misalignment between commands, actuations and measurements

Rostiti, Cristian, Patel, Nadirsh, Catkin, Bilal

Modeling and Control Strategies of the Thermal Management System for Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8190

04/01/2025

The electric vehicle thermal management system is a critical sub-systems of electric vehicles, and has a substantial impact on the driving range. The objective of this paper is to optimize the performance of the heat pump air conditioning system, battery, and motor thermal management system by adopting an integrated design. This approach is expected to effectively improve the COP (Coefficient of Performance) of cabin heating. An integrated thermal management system model of the heat pump air conditioning system, battery, and motor thermal management system is established using AMEsim. Key parameters, such as refrigerant temperature, pressure, and flow rate at the outlet of each component of the system are compared with the measured data to verify the correctness of the model established in this paper. Using the established model, the impact of compressor speed on the heating comfort of the cabin under high-temperature conditions in summer was studied, and a control strategy for rapid

Zhang, Min, Li, Liping, Zhou, Jianhua, Huang, Yu, Zhen, Ran, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Model-Predictive Control for Heat Pump-Based Battery Thermal Management in Off-Road Autonomous Electrified Vehicles During Transient Operation

2025-01-8184

04/01/2025

The shift towards hybrid and electric powertrains in off-road vehicles aims to enhance mobility, extend range, and improve energy efficiency. However, heat pump-based battery thermal management systems in these vehicles continue to consume significant energy, impacting overall range and efficiency. Effective thermal management is essential for maintaining battery performance and safety, particularly in extreme conditions. Although high-fidelity models can capture the complex dynamics of heat pumps, real-time control within model-based optimization frameworks often depends on simplified models, which can degrade system performance. To address this, we propose a novel data-driven grey box control-oriented model (COM) that accurately represents the thermal dynamics of a vapor-compression refrigeration-based heat pump system. This COM is integrated into a model-predictive control (MPC) framework, optimizing thermal management during transient and burst-power operations of the battery pack

Sundar, Anirudh, Ghate, Atharva, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Ruan, Yeefeng, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam, Barron, Morgan

A Data-Driven, Synthetic-Population Approach to Predict Durability Loads for Electric Vehicle Propulsion Systems

2025-01-8295

04/01/2025

Designing for the durability of motor vehicles requires accounting for various stress factors, including tractive loads, electrical loads, thermal loads, and structural loads. For electric vehicle propulsion systems, it is crucial to consider not just the magnitude and repeats of these loads but also their temporal sequence throughout the vehicle’s lifespan. The order and timing of these loads influence factors such as, charge and discharge cycles or active motor heating, which ultimately impact the damage to the propulsion system components like the cell and the motor. Traditionally, lifetime loads for durability assessments are derived from a single-user load profile consisting of a set of ‘representative’ drive cycles accounting for the cumulative damage equivalent to the real-world damage covered under warranty. This profile is typically based on historical usage data, user scenarios, and industry experience, but may not capture the diverse failure modes of the different propulsion

Ramakrishnan, Sankaran, Khapane, Prashant

Comprehensive Vehicle Level Thermal Management Simulation Platform: Development and Applications

2025-01-8149

04/01/2025

In modern vehicles, effective thermal management is crucial for regulating temperatures across various components and sub-systems, ensuring optimal performance, efficiency, safety, and passenger comfort. As the industry shifts towards reducing carbon emissions, powertrain electrification - encompassing electric and hybrid vehicles - has emerged as a prominent trend. This transition introduces greater complexities, as the powertrain system must now precisely control the temperatures of not only traditional components but also batteries, power electronics, and motors. Typically, the performance of vehicle-level thermal management systems is fully evaluated only after physical prototypes are developed and tested, particularly during summer and winter road trials. Conducting development and validation at such a late stage in the development process significantly increases both development risks and costs. To address these challenges, a comprehensive vehicle-level thermal management

Xu, Zheng, Qiu, Jie, Lu, Yuan, Wang, Yingzhen

An Integrated Data-Driven and Physics-Based Approach for Dynamic Operation Simulation of Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8604

04/01/2025

To address the challenges of complex operational simulation for Electric Vehicles (EVs) caused by spatial-temporal variations and driver behavior heterogeneity, this study introduces a dynamic operation simulation model that integrates both data-driven and physics-based principles, referred to as the Electric Vehicle-Dynamic Operation Simulation (EV-DOS) model. The physics-based component encompasses critical aspects such as the powertrain energy transfer module, heat transfer module, charge/discharge module, and battery state estimation module. The data-driven component derives key features and labels from second-by-second real-world vehicle driving status data and incorporates a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network to develop a State-of-Health (SOH) prediction model for the EV power pack. This model framework combines the interpretability of physical modeling with the rapid simulation capabilities of data-driven techniques under dynamic operating conditions. Finally, this study

Jing, Hao, HU, Jianyao, Ouyang, Jianheng, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn)

Investigation of Impedance Evolution for Lithium Plating Detection during Multi-Stage Constant Current Fast Charging of Lithium-Ion Batteries

2025-01-8124

04/01/2025

aThe lengthy charging time of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) significantly affect their acceptance. Reducing charging time requires high-power fast charging. However, such fast charging can trigger various side reactions, leading to safety and durability issues. Among these, lithium plating is a major concern as it can reduce battery capacity and potentially cause internal short circuits or even thermal runaway. Currently, multi-stage constant current charging (MCCC) protocols are widely adopted. However, the difficulty in effectively detecting lithium plating during the MCCC process significantly limits the charging power. Therefore, it is urgent to explore a method to detect lithium plating during the MCCC process. In this study, the impedance evolution during the MCCC procedure was first investigated. Then a method based on the impedance variation patterns was proposed to detect lithium plating. Besides, the reason for the behavior of impedance changes was further

Shen, Yudong, Wang, Xueyuan, Wu, Hang, Wei, Xuezhe, Dai, Haifeng

Modeling and Simulation Analysis of an Electric Vehicle in Cold Ambient Conditions: Energy Consumption and Impact of Battery Heating on Driving Range

2025-01-8142

04/01/2025

Thanks to greatly increased energy density of battery, the average driving range of an electric vehicle has been advanced quite a lot. However, drastic reduction of driving range in cold ambient conditions still greatly restricts the wide application of electric vehicles. This paper presents a methodology of establishing multi-discipline coupled full vehicle model in AMESim to investigate the energy consumption of a pure electric vehicle in cold ambient conditions. Different strategies of battery heating through Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) part and/or combination of Motor Waste Heat Recovery (MWHR) were also investigated to study whether there is an improvement of driving range. Firstly, basic framework of the full vehicle model established in AMESim was introduced. Next, modeling details of individual sub-systems were illustrated respectively. Then, full vehicle energy consumption test was carried out in -7°C ambient condition to check the simulation accuracy. Finally, a

Zhou, Shuai, Liu, Huaiju, YU, Huili, Yan, Xu, Yan, Junjie

Materials Innovation in Thermal Management: Advancing Aluminum Alloy Technologies for the Next-Generation Electrical Vehicle Battery Cold Plate

2025-01-8162

04/01/2025

The rapid expansion of the global electric vehicle (EV) market has significantly increased the demand for advanced thermal management solutions. Among these, the battery cold plate is a critical component, essential for maintaining optimal battery temperatures and ensuring efficient operation. As EV batteries increase in size, the thermal management requirements become more complex, necessitating the development of new alloys with enhanced strength and thermal conductivity. These advancements are crucial for the effective dissipation of heat and the ability to withstand the mechanical stresses associated with larger and more powerful batteries. The evolving performance demands of EVs are driving material innovation within the thermal management sector. This study aims to explore the global heat exchanger market trends from a material perspective, focusing on the evolution of the mechanical and thermal properties. Specifically, we investigated the transition from the traditional AA3003

Jalili, Mehdi, Wang, Xu, Razm-poosh, Hadi

Enhanced Sorting Investigation of Retired Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

2025-01-8130

04/01/2025

Given the promising prospects of retired lithium-ion batteries in second-life utilization, enhancing their consistency through a rational sorting process has become a pressing priority. Traditional capacity-based sorting methods have significant limitations as it takes high time costs and fails to provide internal dynamic information about the batteries. To address this, the present study introduces a novel approach by incorporating electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) into the sorting process. Firstly, principal component analysis (PCA) analysis is applied to extract the first principal component from the EIS data, which has a strong correlation with battery capacity. It serves as a key feature for assessing the residual value of retired batteries. Accurate estimation of battery capacity is then achieved using a simple linear equation: For retired nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM) batteries, the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and root mean squared percentage error (RMSPE

Fan, Wenjun, Wang, Xueyuan, Jin, Yiqun, Jiang, Bo, Zhu, Jiangong, Wei, Xuezhe, Dai, Haifeng

Optimization Method of Phase Change Energy Storage Device for Electric Vehicle Batteries based on Numerical Simulation

2025-01-8603

04/01/2025

Phase change energy storage devices are extensively utilized in latent heat thermal energy storage and hold significant potential for application in the thermal management of automotive batteries. By harnessing the high-density energy storage capabilities of phase change materials to absorb heat released by the batteries, followed by timely release and utilization, there is a substantial improvement in energy efficiency. However, the thermal conductivity of medium and low temperature phase change materials is poor, leading to its inefficient utilization. This paper focuses on optimizing the structure of a phase change heat exchanger in a phase change energy storage device to improve its performance. A basic design of the phase change heat exchanger is used as an example, and fin structure is added to enhance its heat exchange capabilities. A predictive surrogate model is built using numerical simulation, with the dimension and number of fins as design variables, and heat flow density

Zhang, Haonan, Sun, Mingzhe, Zheng, Haoyun, Zhang, Tianming

An Efficient CAE-Driven Weight Optimization Approach for an Existing Vehicle BIW

2025-01-8738

04/01/2025

Most of the plug-in electric vehicles (EVs) available today are retrofitted versions of the corresponding co-existing higher-volume internal combustion (IC) engine-based models. In order to make the former category of vehicles more attractive in terms of driving range, a Li-ion battery pack of substantive energy capacity (in kWh) is needed. The latter requirement is likely to add to the weight of an EV in relation to its conventional counterpart. This potential weight increase can to an extent be checked by aggressively scouring for opportunities for weight reduction of the BIW (Body-In-White) of the original platform. The current work suggests a practical and efficient CAE (Computer-Aided Engineering)-driven approach for weight optimization of the BIW of a vehicle without affecting its styling, modal frequencies and front crashworthiness performance. It is assumed that there would be no major changes to manufacturing resources associated with the current design although limited

Deb, Anindya, Zhu, Feng

Application of 1.7GPa Martensitic Steel in Dash Lower Cross Member to Enhance Automotive Frontal Impact Safety

2025-01-8218

04/01/2025

The rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to a significant increase in vehicle mass due to the integration of large and heavy battery systems. This increase in mass has raised concerns about collision energy and the associated risks, particularly in high-speed impacts. As a consequence, crashworthiness evaluations, especially front-impact regulations, have become increasingly stringent. Crash speed between the vehicle and the Mobile Progressive Deformable Barrier (MPDB) is increasing, reflecting the growing emphasis on safety in the automotive industry. Moreover, a new frontal pole crash scenario is under consideration for future regulatory standards, highlighting the continuous evolution of crash testing protocols. To ensure occupant protection and battery safety, manufacturers have traditionally used Hot Blow Forming technology for producing closed-loop dash lower cross member components. However, this process is both costly and energy-intensive, necessitating more

Lee, Jongmin, Kim, Donghyun, Jang, Minho, Kim, Geunho, Seongho, Yoo, Kim, Kyu-Rae

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