Browse Topic: Batteries

Items (4,891)

Integrating for Safety – A Proposed Approach to the Integration of Propulsion Battery Systems in Hybrid Electric Aviation

2025-01-0148To be published on 04/25/2025

In the last year we have witnessed a notable surge in the designs and in the guidance material for electric and hybrid aircraft. FAA and EASA have continued to evaluate the safety of Propulsion Battery Systems (PBS), with a focus on thermal runaway containment testing. As a result, a harmonization white paper was issued to provide a certification path for Thermal Runaway (TR) Hazards, followed by an EASA certification memorandum on the acceptable approaches for the certification of Electric/Hybrid Propulsion Systems (EHPS). And just recently, an FAA Advisory Circular (draft) was issued for the “powered-lift” aircraft that feature these propulsion battery systems. In spite of the advances made by electric/hybrid aircraft manufacturers and the aviation authorities, there is still a missing piece of the puzzle. Mainly, we are still not confident in our ability to properly integrate the PBS into the EHPS architecture, in such a way where safety is never compromised, no matter the hazard

Hanna, Michael, Walker, Cherizar

Sustainable Design of Automotive Batteries

2025-01-0001To be published on 04/18/2025

A consequence of the automotive industry's shift to electrification is that a significantly higher percentage of a vehicle's lifecycle CO₂ emissions occur during the production phase. As a result, vehicle manufacturers and suppliers must shift the focus of product development from the 'in-use phase only' to optimizing the complete product lifecycle. The proper design of a battery has the highest impact to all other phases following in the life-cycle. It influences the selection of materials, the manufacturing, in-use and end of life, respectively the recycling and recycling yield for a circular economy. Using real-life examples the paper will explain what are the main parameters necessary for designing a sustainable battery. What are the low hanging fruits to be considered? In addition, it will elaborate on the relation as well as the impacts to other KPIs like safety, costs and life-time of the battery. Finally it will round up in an outlook on how batteries will evolve in the future

Braun, Andreas, Rothbart, Martin

Cloud Based Digital Twin Development for High-Voltage Battery Systems in Commercial Vehicles

2025-01-8214To be published on 04/01/2025

Over recent years, BorgWarner has intensified its efforts to explore and leverage trending technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) to enhance products and processes. The digital twin technology has potential use cases on system behavior analysis, product optimization and predictive maintenance. As the high-voltage battery is the most valuable component in any electric vehicle understanding the mechanisms of battery aging and failure, along with their dependencies, is crucial for improving performance, battery lifespan, and residual value. A digital twin not only aids in comprehending the impacts of user behavior on the battery's state of health but also facilitates further fault diagnosis and analysis. This paper outlines the development process of a digital twin for a commercial vehicle battery. A cloud-based digital twin demonstrator was developed, which integrates vehicle telemetry data with physics-based battery electric and thermal models, and

Bongards, Anita, Liu, Xiaobing, Beemer, Maria, Gajowski, Daniel, Rama, Neeraj, Shah, Keya, Fallahdizcheh, Amirhossein

Battery Thermal Management System for PHEV by using Air Conditioning Heater System

2025-01-8172To be published on 04/01/2025

At Toyota Motor Corporation, we are pursuing an omnidirectional strategy that includes BEVs, PHEVs, and FCEVs to accelerate electrification. One of the technical challenges with our xEV batteries, which feature good degradation resistance and long battery life, is that regenerative braking cannot be fully effective due to the decrease in regenerative power in some situations, such as low battery temperature. For the electrified vehicles with an internal combustion engine such as PHEVs, the solution has been starting the engine to increase deceleration through engine braking during coasting. In this context, PHEVs are expected to extend their cruising range and enhance EV driving experience as "Practical BEVs". While several manufacturers including us are increasing battery capacity and enhancing convenience, restrictions on EV driving opportunity due to low battery temperature will affect the appeal of these electrified vehicles. However, introducing a battery heater is considered

Hoshino, Yu

Modeling of Battery and Fuel Cell Powered Systems with Their Real-World Applications

2025-01-8553To be published on 04/01/2025

Today’s communication, transportation, and power delivery systems, all depend on an extensive use of batteries to keep them functioning in a safe and reliable manner. While battery cell technology has its origins in the late 1700’s, and fuel cells were not available commercially until the mid-20th century, today’s batteries and fuel cells are an amazing combination of applications of principles of chemistry and electrical engineering! The standard approach today is that when a battery is the only power source of an electrical system (referred to as “primary power” sources), analysis techniques are normally applied to characterize the battery as being able to supply constant input voltage to its load. As we have all experienced in our daily lives, in reality, constant input voltage conditions do not exist unless there is an additional power source to maintain the state of charge of the battery. Unfortunately, this results in a potential divergence of the expected results of electrical

Ingarra, Nicholas

Comprehensive mechanical characterization of prismatic lithium-ion cells

2025-01-8129To be published on 04/01/2025

As electric vehicles (EVs) become increasingly prevalent, ensuring the safety of their battery systems is paramount. Lithium-ion batteries present unique safety challenges due to their high energy density and the potential for failure under certain conditions. There is an extensive amount of research on pouch and cylindrical cells, however, prismatic cells have not received similar attention. This study presents an extensive series of experimental tests conducted on prismatic cells from two different manufacturers. These tests include flat punch, hemispherical punch, axial compression and three-point bending tests, all designed to assess the cells’ mechanical properties and failure behavior. A model was developed simulating the behavior of the cell under local loading scenarios. While this paper focuses primarily on testing methodologies, initial findings and an introductory FEA model, future work will incorporate these experimental results into detailed FEA models across all loading

Patanwala, Huzefa, Song, Yihan, Sahraei, Elham

MDO approach for design synthesis of automotive interior components subjected to conflicting functional requirements

2025-01-8649To be published on 04/01/2025

Light weighting has been one of the focus areas in automotive design, which has assumed greater importance for electric vehicles due to sensitivity of electric range to mass of the vehicle and increased cost of the battery packs to meet range target with increasing mass of vehicle. Mass of vehicle interior components have significant impact of overall vehicle mass due to cascading effect. Hence mass of such components must be minimized during design synthesis, where multiple design configurations may be explored with tradeoffs with regard to meeting functional requirements which are often conflicting. Assist handle bracket is one of such components in vehicle which needs to meet mandatory safety requirement of FMVSS 201U that requires the bracket to be soft. At the same time, the bracket needs to have adequate stiffness and strength to meet perceived quality and durability requirements. These are conflicting requirements which are often difficult to meet using manual design iterations

R, Rajapandian, Koppaka, Vinaya

Overview of Battery-Integrated Modular Multilevel Converter Topologies for Automotive Applications

2025-01-8557To be published on 04/01/2025

The rise in global temperatures due to greenhouse gas emissions has led to a transition to alternative energy carriers especially in automotive applications. A key component in this transition is the battery pack, which contains several parallel and/or series-connected cells. The available energy and power of the battery pack are determined not only by the cell type, size, and configuration but also by the battery management system. To improve the control and energy utilization of the pack, battery-integrated modular multilevel converters (BI-MMCs) are presented. Five BI-MMC topologies for three main battery-integrated system configurations, namely, 3-phase, 6-phase low voltage, and 6-phase high voltage systems are evaluated for a 400 kW 40-ton commercial vehicle. The evaluation includes a comparative assessment of the number of submodules, battery, capacitor, and semiconductor losses for all BI-MMC topologies with 1 to 12 cascaded cells per submodule against a conventional 2-level

Balachandran, Arvind, Jonsson, Tomas, Eriksson, Lars

Analysis of Coolant Flowing and Heat Transfer Performance in High Voltage Heater System

2025-01-8194To be published on 04/01/2025

A method for performance calculation and experimental method of a high voltage heater system in electric vehicles is proposed. This system is critical for the thermal management of electric vehicle batteries, especially in low-temperature environments. It provides essential heating support to maintain optimal battery performance and safety, thereby improving overall efficiency and reliability.Firstly, heater outlet temperature and pressure drop of the heater are used as metrics to compare simulation results with experimental data, thereby validating the established model. Then, simulations are performed on two heater flow channel configurations: a cavity flow channel and a cooling fin flow channel. It is observed that the latter significantly reduces the heating plate temperature. This reduction enhances the protection of heating elements and extends their operational lifespan, demonstrating the advantages of incorporating cooling fins into the flow channel structure. The optimization

Gong, Ming, Wang, Xihui, Wang, Dongdong, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Methods for fatigue under Random Vibration excitation for components of an Electric Vehicle

2025-01-8233To be published on 04/01/2025

A vehicle travels on roads with various profiles of surface roughness that are best characterized by a random process. The random vibration not only subjects passengers to the unpleasant physical shakes and noises perceived, but also imparts the fatigue damage to components installed on it. The ability to predict fatigue damage at the early design stage to prevent unwanted durability problems down the road is very important in today’s design process, especially for an electronic vehicle. Although the random vibration analysis for a dynamic response for a linear system subjected to random excitations is fairly straightforward in the frequency-domain, the prediction of the fatigue damage as a result of those random responses is still an arena drawing a lot of research efforts. Different from the conventional approach to deal with the damage based on the stress or strain responses in a time-domain, the most effective method of predicting the fatigue in random vibration is to obtain the

Yang, Zane, Fouret, Charles

Understanding Forming Characteristics of 980 MPa and 1180 MPa strength level AHSS with various Microstructures

2025-01-8222To be published on 04/01/2025

For electrical vehicle (EV) automotive body-in-white (BIW) structures, protection of passengers and battery in crash event becomes critically important. In addition to energy absorption, intrusion protection for battery and vehicle becomes extremely important and Advanced high strength steels (AHSS), like dual phase (DP)/multi-phase (MP)/complex phase (CP)/retained austenite bearing (GEN3) steels and Press hardened steels (PHS), have become material of choice for design for these components. Higher yield strength materials especially in 980/1180MPa MP and CP category are chosen for part design over conventional low yield strength DP to meet crash and performance targets. In this study, the forming characteristics including both global and local formability are evaluated and compared among 980 DP/MP/CP grades. Formability tests, such as forming limit curve (FLC), true fraction strain, V bend, half dome, and hole expansion tests are conducted. Microstructure analysis to understand the

Shih, Hua-Chu, Pednekar, Vasant, Shi, Ming, Singh, Jatinder, Tedesco, Sarah, Wu, Wei

Concept of on-board diagnostic system of vehicle electric drive

2025-01-8095To be published on 04/01/2025

The problem of monitoring parametric failures of a traction electric drive unit consisting of an inverter, a traction machine and a gearbox when interacting with a battery management system has been solved. The strategy for solving the problem is considered for an electric drive with three-phase synchronous and induction machines. The drive power elements perform electromechanical energy conversion with additional losses. The losses are caused by deviations of the element parameters from the nominal values during operation. Monitoring gradual failures by additional losses is adopted as a key concept of on-board diagnostics. Deviation monitoring places increased demands on the information support and accuracy of mathematical models of power elements. The first harmonics of currents and voltages of a three-phase circuit, which are the dominant energy source, were taken into account. Higher harmonics of PWM appear as harmonic losses. Mechanical losses in the rotor and gearbox can be many

Smolin, Victor, Gladyshev, Sergey, Topolskaya, Irina

Modeling and Simulation analysis of an electric vehicle in clod ambient conditions: energy consumption and impact of battery heating on driving range

2025-01-8142To be published on 04/01/2025

Thanks to greatly increased energy density of battery, the average driving range of electric vehicles have been advanced quite a lot. However, drastic reduction of driving range in cold ambient conditions still greatly restricts the wide application of it. This paper presents a methodology of establishing mechanics-electricity-thermodynamics coupled full vehicle model in AMESim to investigate the energy consumption of a pure electric vehicle in cold ambient conditions. Different strategies of battery heating through Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) part and/or combination of Motor Waste Heat Recovery (MWHR) were also investigated to study whether there is an improvement of driving range. Firstly, basic framework of the full vehicle model established in AMESim was introduced. Next, modeling details of individual sub-systems were illustrated respectively. Then, full vehicle energy consumption test was carried out in -7℃ ambient condition to check the simulation accuracy. Finally, a

Zhou, Shuai, Liu, Huaiju, YU, Huili, Yan, Xu, Yan, Junjie

In-situ Nanoindentation and Finite Element Analysis for Evaluating the Young’s Modulus of Anode Current Collectors in Lithium-ion Batteries

2025-01-8133To be published on 04/01/2025

As the use of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles becomes increasingly prevalent, there has been a growing focus on the mechanical properties of lithium-ion battery cores. The metal collector exerts a significant impact on the tensile properties of the electrode and also on the internal fracture of the cell. Tensile tests are unable to obtain the mechanical properties of the collector in situ, and the stripping process tends to cause additional damage to the collector. Therefore, nanoindentation tests are required to gain the mechanical properties of the collector. Nanoindentation testing represents the primary methodology for the determination of the mechanical properties of thin films. Commercial indentation instruments typically employ the Oliver-Pharr method for the assessment of material mechanical properties. However, this method is subject to limitations due to the constraints imposed by sample boundary conditions. In order to obtain an accurate measurement of the elastic

Dai, Rui, Sun, Zhiwei, Park, Jeongjin, Xia, Yong, Zhou, Qing

Development of the Power- and Usage-based Simulator for evaluating Off-road Mobile Machinery Energy Consumption

2025-01-8595To be published on 04/01/2025

This paper presents the development of a new vehicle simulation software, the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator Tool (referred to as the Power-Based Model), designed to predict fuel consumption and evaluate advanced powertrain technologies for off-road mobile machinery. The Power-Based Model integrates current research on fuel consumption simulation in the off-road vehicle sector and serves as a platform to pilot the development of advanced powertrain technologies such as battery-electric and fuel cell powertrains. The tool is aimed at predicting the necessary battery capacity and hydrogen storage requirements when transitioning to these advanced powertrains, thereby facilitating component sizing and fuel consumption reduction calculations. The Power-Based Model was developed with a strong focus on the unique operational characteristics of off-road machinery, ensuring that it realistically reflects real-world energy consumption and the competitive advantages of various fuel-saving

Kim, Namdoo, Seo, Jigu, Vijayagopal, Ram, Burnham, Andrew, makarczyk, David, Freyermuth, Vincent

Bi-Level Control Co-Design for Parallel Electric-Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles

2025-01-8582To be published on 04/01/2025

This study presents a control co-design method that utilizes a bi-level optimization framework for parallel electric-hydraulic hybrid powertrains, specifically targeting heavy-duty vehicles like class 8 semi-trailer trucks. The primary objective is to minimize battery energy consumption, particularly under high torque demand at low speed, thereby extending both battery lifespan and vehicle driving range. The proposed method formulates a bi-level optimization problem to ensure global optimality in hydraulic energy storage sizing and the development of a high-level energy management strategy. Two nested loops are used: the outer loop applies a Genetic Algorithm (GA) to optimize key design parameters such as accumulator volume and pre-charged pressure, while the inner loop leverages Dynamic Programming (DP) to optimize the energy control strategy in an open-loop format without predefined structural constraints. Both loops use a single objective function, i.e. battery energy consumption

Taaghi, Amirhossein, Yoon, Yongsoon

A Data-Driven Framework for Battery Capacity Estimation in Real-World Electric Vehicles Using Virtual Impedance and Incremental Capacity Analysis

2025-01-8561To be published on 04/01/2025

Accurate battery capacity estimation is critical for ensuring the safe and reliable operation of electric vehicles (EVs) and addressing user range anxiety. However, predicting battery health is challenging due to the non-linearity, non-measurability, and complex multi-stress operating conditions that characterize battery performance. Incremental capacity curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) are effective tools for reflecting battery aging, but their practical application has limitations. This paper presents a novel method for battery capacity estimation using charging segment data derived from real-world operating conditions monitored by the vehicle's Battery Management System (BMS). The proposed approach begins with a detailed statistical analysis of voltage data to determine optimal charging capacity intervals and involves selecting appropriate voltage ranges to compute equivalent full-charge capacities. Experimental tests are performed to measure battery charging

Tao, Siyi, Zhu, Jiangong, Li, Yuan, Chang, Wei, Dai, Haifeng, Wei, Xuezhe

Optimizing Hybrid Powertrains for Light Duty Commercial Vehicles

2025-01-8544To be published on 04/01/2025

Battery electric vehicles (BEV) are well-suited for many passenger vehicle applications, but high cost, short range, and long recharging times have limited their growth in commercial vehicle markets. These constraints can be eliminated with plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) which combine many benefits of BEVs with those of conventional vehicles. In this study, research was conducted to determine the optimal hybrid electric powertrain system for a Class 3, light duty commercial vehicle. The key technologies used in this hybrid powertrain include engine downsizing, P3 architecture hybridization, and active thermal management of aftertreatment. A vehicle cost of ownership analysis was conducted to determine the economic viability, a very important consideration for commercial vehicles. Several combinations of E-motor and battery pack sizes were evaluated during the cost analysis and the best possible configuration was determined. The resulting vehicle powertrain demonstrated ~60

Meruva, Prathik, Michlberger, Alexander, Bachu, Pruthvi, Bitsis, Daniel Christopher

Application of 1.7GPa Martensitic Steel in Dash Lower Cross Member to Enhance Automotive Frontal Impact Safety

2025-01-8218To be published on 04/01/2025

The rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to a significant increase in vehicle mass due to the integration of large and heavy battery systems. This increase in mass has raised concerns about collision energy and the associated risks, particularly in high-speed impacts. As a consequence, crashworthiness evaluations, especially front-impact regulations, have become increasingly stringent. Crash speed between the vehicle and the Mobile Progressive Deformable Barrier (MPDB) is increasing, reflecting the growing emphasis on safety in the automotive industry. Moreover, a new frontal pole crash scenario is under consideration for future regulatory standards, highlighting the continuous evolution of crash testing protocols. To ensure occupant protection and battery safety, manufacturers have traditionally used Hot Blow Forming technology for producing closed-loop dash lower cross member components. However, this process is both costly and energy-intensive, necessitating more

Lee, Jongmin, Kim, Donghyun, Jang, Minho, Kim, Geunho, Seongho, Yoo, Kim, Kyu-Rae

Research on heat dissipation of cabinet of electrochemical energy storage system

2025-01-8193To be published on 04/01/2025

When lithium batteries are charged and discharged in electrochemical energy storage systems, significant internal electrochemical reactions occur, generating substantial heat and causing a rise in battery temperature. This can adversely affect battery performance and lifespan, and in severe cases, lead to thermal runaway, threatening the safety of the entire system. Research on the thermal modeling of lithium-ion batteries, accurate description and prediction of temperature rise, and the design of thermal management systems based on numerical heat flow simulations are crucial for ensuring safe and reliable battery operations. These efforts are vital for advancing new energy technologies. However, most existing research on heat dissipation in energy storage systems focuses solely on single air-cooled or liquid-cooled systems, which often have simple structures and poor heat dissipation effects. Based on the actual size of an energy storage products, this thesis establishes a

Chen, Jianxiang, Li, Liping, Zhou, Fupeng, Li, Chuncheng, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Downsizing 12 volts battery for EV using effective energy management strategies when vehicle is inactive

2025-01-8192To be published on 04/01/2025

On electric vehicle the low voltage (nominal 12 volt) battery serves mostly as an energy storage buffer for supporting features and actuators on the 12 volts power supply network. The power management strategies significantly influences the thermal management of the vehicle especially in power critical states. Within an EV, unlike an internal combustion engine car, as there is no cranking requirement needed to be supported by this battery, it presents a significant opportunity for downsizing. This can save from 10 kg-15 kg which could add up to 1 mile of range in combined cycle. In a premium car there are a significant number of features which inhibits the car to go into “deep sleep” and hence remains on a “stand-by” mode of operation. During this period of stand-by the low voltage energy storage system need to be sized for up to 0.4 W of continuous power drain. To sustain longer periods of stand-by mode the low voltage battery needs to have enough stored energy to maintain the

Dutta, Nilabza, Overs, Sheldon

CFD-Based Performance Evaluation of Immersion Cooling Fluids for Lithium-Ion Battery Modules

2025-01-8163To be published on 04/01/2025

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are critical components in electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy systems. However, conventional cooling techniques for LIBs often struggle to efficiently dissipate heat during fast charging and discharging, potentially compromising performance and safety. This study investigates the thermal performance of immersion cooling applied to an Electric Vehicle (EV) battery module comprised of NMC-chemistry-based cylindrical 21700 format Lithium-ion cells. The effectiveness of immersion cooling in reducing maximum cell temperature, temperature gradient, cell-to-cell temperature differential, and pressure drop within the battery module is evaluated on a detailed 3D model of a 360-cell immersion-cooled battery module that was developed, incorporating a well-established heat generation model based on theoretical analysis and experimental data to simulate the thermal characteristics of the battery system . The effects of the different fluid properties are first

Garcia, Antonio, Micó, Carlos, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Elkourchi, Imad

Materials Innovation in Thermal Management: Advancing Aluminum Alloy Technologies for the Next-Generation Electrical Vehicle Battery Cold Plate

2025-01-8162To be published on 04/01/2025

The rapid expansion of the global electric vehicle (EV) market has significantly increased the demand for advanced thermal management solutions. Among these, the battery cold plate is a critical component, essential for maintaining optimal battery temperatures and ensuring efficient operation. As EV batteries increase in size, the thermal management requirements become more complex, necessitating the development of new alloys with enhanced strength and thermal conductivity. These advancements are crucial for the effective dissipation of heat and the ability to withstand the mechanical stresses associated with larger and more powerful batteries. The evolving performance demands of EVs are driving material innovation within the thermal management sector. This study aims to explore global heat exchanger market trends from a materials perspective, focusing on the evolution of alloy mechanical, fatigue, and thermal properties. Specifically, we investigated the transition from traditional

Jalili, Mehdi, Wang, Xu, Razm-poosh, Hadi

Battery Thermal Runaway Propagation: A CFD Approach to Cell and Module Analysis

2025-01-8164To be published on 04/01/2025

This Paper will focus on simulating thermal runaway propagation within a battery cell and module. The thermal runaway model parameters are derived from accelerating rate calorimeter (ARC). The simulation involves a thermal runaway propagation model that converts the stored energy of the battery materials into thermal energy, thereby simulating the propagation of thermal runaway. The initiation of thermal runaway is modelled through a nail penetration event, represented by a heat profile in the nail region. The resulting temperature rise in this area triggers the short propagation model, leading to the spread of thermal runaway. For the single-cell simulation, the 1-equation thermal runaway model is used, focusing on the direct energy conversion and propagation within the cell. In contrast, the module simulation involves a more complex scenario. Here, an initial temperature rise near the nail region activates a short propagation model, which subsequently triggers the 4-equation thermal

Wakale, Anil, Ma, Shihu, Hu, Xiao

Comparative Analysis of Thermal Balance of Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicles (FCHVs) and Test Standard Proposal

2025-01-8153To be published on 04/01/2025

Fuel cell hybrid vehicles (FCHVs) are gaining increasing interest for zero emissions and carbon neutrality. Thermal management of FCHVs is essential for fuel cell lifespan and driving performance, , but no unified test standards for FCEV thermal balance test has been approved in China. Considering differences in power configurations and heat generation of FCHV and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), amendments should be applied to current thermal balance standard to develop FCHV test procedures. This study discussed thermal balance performance of ICEV and FCHVs under various regulated test cycles based on thermal balance tests in wind tunnel of two FCHVs and a ICEV. FCHV reported risk of overheat during low-speed climbing test due to insufficiency of power generation, and frequent switch between fuel cell (FC) and battery management system (BMS) was observed under dual constrains of fuel cell temperature and state of charge of BMS. Major temperature exceedance of ICEV occurred

Min, Yihang, Fang, Yanhua, He, Chong, Ming, Chen, Mao, Zhifei

Impact of Thermal Gradients on Calorimetry Testing of Battery Cells

2025-01-8175To be published on 04/01/2025

Detailed modeling of battery thermal runaway and propagation often requires a source term that represents the chemical heat release of the cell as a function of temperature. The shape of this heat release trend typically comes from cell testing data. Accelerating rate calorimetry (ARC) tests provide concise information on cell self-heating, since the cell is kept nearly isothermal and adiabatic. Also, compared to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) tests of battery component materials, it contains all interactions between components. Converting the temperature rise rate data to heat release rate is theoretically very simple, only requiring the heat capacity of the cell. Practically, however, careful analysis is required to avoid artifacts arising from limitations of the test setup. This study uses a simple one-dimensional transient heat transfer model to illustrate the runaway process inside a cell and describe two error sources present in many ARC tests. As the cell temperature

Vanderwege, Brad, Petersen, Ben

Performance Analysis of Cooling Plates for Battery Packages Based on Biomimetic Leaf-Vein Structures

2025-01-8174To be published on 04/01/2025

The liquid-cooled plate is a critical component of the liquid-cooled system for battery packages.Battery overheating problem under charging and discharging can be solved effectively by a liquid-cooled plate with superior thermal performance.A liquid-cooled plate with a leaf-vein-like structure aiming to enhance the cooling performance was proposed and designed. A test bench of the battery pack cooling system was built,and an experimental for battery pack cooling system was carried. The maximum temperature,temperature difference of batteries inside a module and flow resistance the liquid-cooled plate were measured. A model for thermal analysis of the liquid-cooled plate was established,and the model was validated by the data obtained from the experiment.The effects of parameters such as the number of main and secondary flow channels,the inclination angle of the secondary flow channels and the inlet flow distribution on the fluid and temperature characteristics of the battery pack

Liao, Changsheng, Wang, Xihui, Zhou, Fupeng, Li, Kunyuan, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Impact of Thermal Imbalances on Energy Availability, State of Power, and aging in Immersion-Cooled Batteries

2025-01-8170To be published on 04/01/2025

This study investigates the impact of thermal imbalances on energy delivery and Battery State of Power (SoP) in immersion-cooled battery cells. It explores how these imbalances, which arise when cells within a module operate at different temperatures, lead to variations in internal resistance and inefficiencies in energy storage and discharge. Such imbalances critically affect the battery's SoP, representing the maximum charge or discharge power the system can support over specific time intervals. By analyzing SoP over 2-second and 10-second durations, we assess how thermal imbalances influence both short-term and medium-term power capabilities. Temperature significantly impacts cell aging, and imbalances can accelerate degradation in some cells, ultimately affecting serviceability. To address these issues, we employ a high-level simulation framework that integrates advanced tools. GT-SUITE software optimizes thermal performance by adjusting coolant temperature and flow rate to manage

Meshginqalam, Ata, Negro, Sergio, Atluri, Prasad, Tyagi, Ramavtar, Suzuki, Jorge, K B, Anjusha, Cao, Yuyuan

Extreme-Fast Charging Performance Optimization of Immersion-Cooled Battery Systems with Cylindrical Cells

2025-01-8169To be published on 04/01/2025

Efficient and robust optimization frameworks are essential to develop and parametrize battery management system (BMS) controls algorithms. In such multi-physics application, the tradeoff between fast-charging performance and aging degradation needs to be solved while simultaneously preventing the onset of thermal runaway. To this end, a multi-objective optimization framework was developed for immersion-cooled battery systems that provides optimal charging rates and dielectric flowrates while minimizing aging and charging time objectives. The developed production-oriented framework consists of a fully coupled, lumped electro-thermal-aging model with core-to-surface and immersion-cooling heat transfer, the latter controlled by the dielectric fluid flowrate. The modeled core temperatures are inputs to a semi-empirical aging degradation model, in which a fast-aging solver computes the updated capacity and internal resistance over multiple timescales, and feedback into the electrical and

Suzuki, Jorge, Tran, Manh-Kien, Tyagi, Ramavtar, Meshginqalam, Ata, Zhou, Zijie, Nakhla, David, Atluri, Prasad

Biobased Phase Change Material for Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal Management using Copper Fins: A numerical Investigation

2025-01-8171To be published on 04/01/2025

Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining popularity due to their zero tailpipe emissions, superior energy efficiency, and sustainable nature. EVs have various limitations, and crucial one is the occurrence of thermal runaway in the battery pack. During charging/discharging of EV battery pack which consists Li-ion cells generates significant amount of heat; thermal runaway in the battery pack happens due to excessive heat accumulation inside the cell because of ineffective cooling of the Li-ion cell/battery pack. It necessitates for the development of an effective EV battery thermal management system. In the present work thermal management of a 26650 Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cell using natural air cooling, composite biobased phase change material (CBPCM) and its combination with copper fins is numerically investigated using multi-scale multi dimension - Newman, Tiedenann, Gu and Kim (MSMD-NTGK) battery model in Ansys Fluent at an ambient temperature of 306 K. Natural air cooling was

Srivastav, Durgesh, Patil, Nagesh Devidas, Shukla, Pravesh Chandra

Multiscale Modeling and Validation of Thermal Runaway Propagation in Immersion-Cooled Battery Systems with Full-Scale Application

2025-01-8166To be published on 04/01/2025

Thermal management is a critical challenge in the design and operation of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), particularly under high-stress conditions that can lead to thermal runaway (TR). Immersion cooling technology offers a promising solution by providing uniform cooling across all battery cells, thereby reducing the risk of hotspots and thermal gradients that can trigger thermal runaway. However, accurately modeling the thermal behavior of such systems, especially under the complex conditions of immersion cooling, presents significant challenges. This study introduces a comprehensive multiscale and multiphysics modeling framework to analyze thermal runaway and its propagation (TRP) in battery systems cooled by immersion in dielectric fluids. The model integrates 1D and 3D simulations, with a focus on the detailed calibration of energy terms at the single-cell level using 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). This calibration includes thorough analysis of cell chemistries, exothermic

Negro, Sergio, Tyagi, Ramavtar, Kolaei, Amir, Pugsley, Kyle, Atluri, Prasad

Damage Analysis of Traction Battery For New Energy Vehicle Based on Bottom Impact

2025-01-8125To be published on 04/01/2025

At present, as the new energy vehicle and traction battery industries enter in a stage of high-quality development, the safety performance of traction batteries has also received widespread attention worldwide. The traction battery system is mainly arranged at the bottom of new energy vehicles, which is easy to cause mechanical damage to the traction battery system, resulting in serious safety hazards for the new energy vehicle. This article studies the battery system of new energy vehicles based on the scenario of bottom impact collision, and discusses the specific damage caused by the bottom impact scenario. Combined with the analysis of the computer tomography system, the damage caused to the traction battery system during the bottom impact process is explored in detail, providing data support for improving the safety protection performance of traction batteries during the bottom impact scenario.

Yan, Pengfei, Wang, Fang, Ma, Tianyi, Han, Ce, He, Gaiyun

Optimization of Electric Vehicle Battery Charging Strategy Based on Reinforcement Learning

2025-01-8116To be published on 04/01/2025

The battery capacity of electric vehicles (EVs) is a critical factor influencing their overall performance. Selecting an appropriate charging strategy based on the EV driver’s travel behaviors can significantly mitigate battery capacity degradation and prolong its lifespan. This study integrated a physics-based battery degradation model with an EV powertrain system energy consumption model to enhance the prediction accuracy for the battery status under real-world driving conditions. In addition, it employed the Q-learning algorithm to provide suggestions on the driver’s charging behaviors, including charging start time, charging duration, and charger types. To create a reasonable reward function in the Q-learning algorithm, this study addressed the issue of car rental costs when the battery capacity is insufficient to support daily mileage. With the algorithm, this study modeled the 3-year use of an EV by an average driver sampled from the New England area in the U.S. The simulation

Wang, Jiayi, Jing, Hao, Ou, Shiqi (Shawn), Lin, Zhenhong

Research on Crash Simulation and Safety of Automotive Power Battery

2025-01-8226To be published on 04/01/2025

In order to analyze the safety performance of the power battery pack of a certain model and optimize it. The finite element model of the battery pack is constructed by Hyperworks software, and then the pre-processing of the finite element model is carried out, which includes the simplification of the model, mesh partitioning, parameter selection and so on. The processed model is used to simulate and analyze the mechanical impact, random vibration, and side rigid column collision of the battery pack, and explore the specific situation of the damage of the power battery pack. Under the current GB, in combination with E-NCAP, a simulation program is provided for the battery pack to be subjected to side rigid column collision. In order to reduce the mass of the automotive power battery pack under certain working conditions, parametric modeling of its components and parameter optimization combined with multi-objective genetic algorithms are carried out, and the results show that the mass of

Wang, Zhi

Modeling and Control Strategies of the Thermal Management System for Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8190To be published on 04/01/2025

The electric vehicle thermal management system is a critical sub-systems of electric vehicles, and has a substantial impact on the driving range. The objective of this paper is to optimize the performance of the heat pump air conditioning system, battery, and motor thermal management system by adopting an integrated design. This approach is expected to effectively improve the COP (Coefficient of Performance) of cabin heating. An integrated thermal management system model of the heat pump air conditioning system, battery, and motor thermal management system is established using AMEsim. Key parameters , such as refrigerant temperature, pressure, and flow rate at the outlet of each component of the system are compared with the measured data to verify the correctness of the model established in this paper. Using the established model, the impact of compressor speed on the heating comfort of the cabin under high-temperature conditions in summer was studied, and a control strategy for rapid

Zhang, Min, Li, Liping, Zhou, Jianhua, Huang, Yu, Zhen, Ran, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Multiphysics-Multiscale Reduced Order Model Based Design Optimization of an Immersion Cooled Battery System

2025-01-8185To be published on 04/01/2025

A vital aspect of Ultra-Fast Charging (UFC) Li-Ion battery packs is their thermal management system, which directly influences safety, performance, and cell longevity. Immersion cooling technology offers superior effectiveness compared to indirect cold plate cooling, as it allows for faster heat dissipation and has the potential to significantly mitigate thermal runaway propagation, enhance overall pack performance, and extend cell life. To achieve faster design optimization and deeper insights, high-fidelity Multiphysics-Multiscale simulations are essential. In this study, Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) based electro-thermally coupled CFD simulations are utilized to optimize an innovative busbar design that facilitates the removal of individual cells. Additionally, high-fidelity 3D transient flow-thermal simulations have been employed to optimize coolant flow direction, inlet positions, cell spacing, and separator design, ensuring efficient flow distribution within the module. While

Tyagi, Ramavtar, Negro, Sergio, Baranowski, Alex, Atluri, Prasad

Comprehensive Vehicle Level Thermal Management Simulation Platform: Development and Applications

2025-01-8149To be published on 04/01/2025

In modern vehicles, effective thermal management is crucial for regulating temperatures across various components and sub-systems, ensuring optimal performance, efficiency, safety, and passenger comfort. As the industry shifts towards reducing carbon emissions, powertrain electrification—encompassing electric and hybrid vehicles—has emerged as a prominent trend. This transition introduces complexities, as the powertrain system must now precisely control the temperatures of not only traditional components but also batteries, power electronics, and motors. Typically, the performance of thermal management systems is evaluated only after the physical prototypes are developed for testing, specially through summer and winter road tests. These development and validations at the later stage of the development process significantly increases development risks and costs. To address these challenges, a comprehensive vehicle level thermal management simulation platform is essential. This platform

Xu, Zheng, Qiu, Jie, Lu, Yuan, Wang, Yingzhen

Experimental and Simulation-Based Characterization of Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Altair SimLab

2025-01-8146To be published on 04/01/2025

Thermal runaway is a critical phenomenon in lithium batteries, characterized by a self-sustaining process due to internal chemical reactions, that is triggered once a certain temperature is reached within the cell. This event is often caused by overheating due to charge and discharge cycles and can lead to fires or explosions, posing a significant safety threat. The aim of this study is to induce thermal runaway on single cells in different ways to characterize the phenomenon and validate the simulation models present in Altair SimLab. The work was conducted in several key phases. Initially, an experimental test was performed in a calorimeter (EV ARC HWS test) to collect temperature data of the Molicel 21700 P45B cell during thermal runaway under adiabatic conditions. These data were used for a simulation on a single cell, allowing a detailed comparison with the experimental results. Subsequently, a test was conducted on a single cell under operational conditions, overheated using a

Giuliano, Luca, Scrimieri, Luigi, Reitano, Simone, Berti Polato, Davide, Ferraris, Alessandro, Comerford, Andrew, Bhatnagar, Saakaar

A thermal behaviour of battery Cell using different electrochemical models (ECM and NTGK)

2025-01-8140To be published on 04/01/2025

In this study, we examine the thermal behaviors of lithium-ion battery cells using two widely employed electro-chemistry models: the Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) and the NTGK model. Given the critical importance of temperature regulation for the efficiency and lifespan of lithium-ion batteries, this research aims to identify the numerical method that best predicts cell thermal behavior under both constant current and varying current discharge conditions. By comparing the outputs of the ECM and NTGK models, we assess their accuracy in predicting key parameters such as State-of-Charge (SoC), power output, and heat generation. The findings offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of each model in simulating the thermal dynamics of battery cells, providing a basis for optimizing battery performance and longevity in real-world applications

Wakale, Anil, Ma, Shihu, Hu, Xiao

Enhancement in Cabin Comfort and Overall Energy Utilization of an Electric Reverse Trike Car by Optimizing the System Layout

2025-01-8150To be published on 04/01/2025

As the emissions norms are getting stringent and stricter, the use of all electric vehicles is widespread and becoming mainstream mobility both in urban and rural areas. However, lack of good charging infrastructure and high energy density cells limiting the overall electric mobility eco-system. Eventually the shorter range and high charging time of the vehicle is becoming the key challenge of e-mobility. Energy consumption by one of the key auxiliary systems e.g. air-conditioning (AC) system is adding further concerns over the range anxiety. It is the most energy consuming system among all others. Hence the need of the hour is to improve and enhance the AC system performance by means of redefining and optimizing the system layout in order to reduce power drawn by system. The present paper evaluates the improvement of cabin comfort and reduce the energy consumption of an electric car AC system by optimizing the layout and position of condenser and compressor. The experiments were

Sen, Somnath, Jadhav, Yash, Singh, Karamjeet, Sorte, Swapnil, Anwar, Md Tahir

Analyzing EV Battery Package Responses during Side Pole Impacts with Multiple Speeds and Locations

2025-01-8730To be published on 04/01/2025

Electric vehicles (EV) have experienced significant growth recently. Battery safety of EV has drawn increased attention. However, battery mechanical responses due to crash have rarely been studied. Hence, the objective of this study was to understand EV battery package mechanics during side pole crashes with different impact locations and speeds. A full EV finite element (FE) model with detailed battery package was used. Eight side pole impact simulations were conducted to study four impact locations, including the baseline impact location according to side-pole impact regulation, plus three positions by moving the rigid pole 400 mm toward the back of EV, and moving the pole 400 and 800mm toward the front of the EV. Different from 32 km/h impact velocity as specified in regulations, two higher impact speeds of 50 km/h and 80 km/h were applied. The relative displacement, change of the gap between the battery and the inner wall, and battery peak stress were analyzed. In addition, frontal

Chen, Jian, Bian, Kewei, Mao, Haojie

An Efficient CAE-Driven Weight Optimization Approach For An Existing Vehicle BIW

2025-01-8738To be published on 04/01/2025

Most of the plug-in electric vehicles (EVs) available today are retrofitted versions of the corresponding co-existing higher-volume internal combustion (IC) engine-based models. In order to make the former category of vehicles more attractive in terms of driving range, a Li-ion battery pack of substantive energy capacity (in kWh) is needed. The latter requirement is likely to add to the weight of an EV in relation to its conventional counterpart. This potential weight increase can to an extent be checked by aggressively scouring for opportunities for weight reduction of the BIW (Body-In-White) of the original platform. The current work suggests a practical and efficient CAE (Computer-Aided Engineering)-driven approach for weight optimization of the BIW of a vehicle without affecting its styling, modal frequencies and front crashworthiness performance. It is assumed that there would be no major changes to manufacturing resources associated with the current design although limited

Deb, Anindya, Zhu, Feng

Learning-Based Cell Level Battery Digital Twin for Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8386To be published on 04/01/2025

Electric vehicles rely on accurate estimation of battery states to operate safely and efficiently. Traditionally, the state estimation is pack level and based on empirical models developed to capture the dynamics of a representative battery pack and hence fall short in accounting for cell-to-cell variations. These variations become more pronounced as the cells age within a battery pack under non-homogeneous mechanical, thermal, manufacturing, and electrical conditions. It is challenging to adapt the traditional physics-based model to changing battery dynamics in real-time. To improve the state estimation at the cell level, a data-driven approach utilizing streamed data from vehicles enabled by connectivity has been shown in this paper. While traditional data-driven approaches result in large models and require large quantities of data for training, the proposed method relies on combining the underlying physics of the electrochemical model with novel data-driven modeling techniques. The

Gupta, Shobhit, Hegde, Bharatkumar, Haskara, Ibrahim, Shieh, Su-Yang, Chang, Insu

Driver-Centric Direct Current Fast Charging of Electric Vehicles via Energy Optimal Thermal Management

2025-01-8374To be published on 04/01/2025

Charging a battery electric vehicle at extreme temperatures can lead to battery deterioration without proper thermal management. To avoid battery degradation, charging current is generally limited at extreme hot and cold battery temperatures. Splitting the wall power between charging and the thermal management system with the aim of minimizing charging time is a challenging problem especially with the strong thermal coupling with the charging current. Existing research focus on formulating the battery thermal management control problem as a minimum charging time optimal control problem. The current control strategy forces the driver to charge with minimum time and higher charging cost irrespective of their driving schedule. This paper presents a driver-centric DCFC control framework by formulating the power split between thermal management and charging as an optimal control problem with the goal of improving the wall-to-vehicle energy efficiency. Proposed energy-efficient charging

Gupta, Shobhit, Kang, Jun-Mo, Zhu, Yongjie, Lee, Chunhao, Zanardelli, Wesley

Technology Package Optimization for Power, Cost, and Efficiency in a Dedicated Range Extender Engine for Electrified Vehicles

2025-01-8373To be published on 04/01/2025

A reemergence of manufacturer interest in range-extended electric vehicles is being driven by increasing diversification of consumer interest in low carbon-intensity technologies in the passenger vehicle and other markets. A major advantage of range-extended electric vehicles is that they curtail consumer vehicle range anxiety while maintaining a lower vehicle cost when compared with battery electric vehicles (BEV). By incorporating a small liquid-fueled internal combustion engine (ICE), the range and “refueling” time of electrified vehicles can be significantly improved while overcoming issues with cost and weight faced by long-range battery packs. Compared to ICEs designed for non-hybrid and mild hybrid vehicles, the ICE in a range-extended electric vehicle has a unique set of requirements focused on compact size, low cost, and efficient operation within a limited engine map. The MAHLE Range Extender (REx) is a dedicated engine design for such applications, prioritizing these

Peters, Nathan, Marion, Joshua, Pothuraju Subramanyam, Sai, Hoth, Alexander, Bunce, Mike

3D Modeling of Thermal Runaway in Pouch Cells: Effects of Surface Heating and Heating Rates

2025-01-8559To be published on 04/01/2025

Thermal runaway in battery cells presents a critical safety concern, emphasizing the need for a thorough understanding of thermal behavior to enhance battery safety and performance. This study introduces a newly developed AutoLion 3D thermal runaway model, which builds on the earlier AutoLion 1D framework and offers significantly faster computational performance compared to traditional CFD models. The model is validated through simulations of the heat-wait-search mode of the Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (ARC), accurately predicting thermal runaway by matching experimental temperature profiles from peer-reviewed studies. Once validated, the model is employed to investigate the thermal behavior of 3D LFPO cells under controlled heating conditions, applying heat to one or more surfaces at a time while modeling heat transfer from non-heated surfaces. The primary objective is to understand how these localized heating patterns impact temperature profiles, including average core temperatures

Hariharan, Deivanayagam, Gundlapally, Santhosh

Optimization-Oriented Adaptive Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy for Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicles Based on Power

2025-01-8552To be published on 04/01/2025

Fuel economy and the ability to maintain the state of charge (SOC) of the battery are two key metrics for the energy management of a full-power fuel cell hybrid vehicle fitted with a small-capacity battery pack. To achieve stable maintenance of SOC and near-optimal fuel consumption, this paper proposes an adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (PA-ECMS) based on power prediction. The strategy realizes demand power prediction through a hybrid deep learning model, and periodically updates the optimal equivalent factor (EF) based on the predicted power to achieve SOC convergence and ensure fuel economy. Simulation results show that the hybrid deep learning network model has high prediction accuracy with a root mean square error (RMSE) of only 0.733 m/s. Compared with the traditional ECMS based on SOC feedback, the PA-ECMS effectively maintains the battery SOC in a more reasonable range, reduces the situation of the fuel cell directly charging the power cell in the high

Gao, Xinyu, Ju, Fei, Chen, Gang, Zong, Yuhua, Wang, Liangmo

Enhanced Sorting Investigation of Retired Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

2025-01-8130To be published on 04/01/2025

Given the promising prospects of retired lithium-ion batteries in second-life utilization, enhancing their consistency through a rational sorting process has become a pressing priority. Traditional capacity-based sorting methods have significant limitations as it takes high time costs and fails to provide internal dynamic information about the batteries. To address this, the present study introduces a novel approach by incorporating electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) into the sorting process. Firstly, principal component analysis (PCA) analysis is applied to extract the first principal component from the EIS data, which has a strong correlation with battery capacity. It serves as a key feature for assessing the residual value of retired batteries. Accurate estimation of battery capacity is then achieved using a simple linear equation: For retired nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM) batteries, the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and root mean squared percentage error (RMSPE

Fan, Wenjun, Wang, Xueyuan, Jin, Yiqun, Jiang, Bo, Zhu, Jiangong, Wei, Xuezhe, Dai, Haifeng

Numerical Model of the Heat-Wait and Seek and Heating Ramp Protocol for the Prediction of Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries

2025-01-8127To be published on 04/01/2025

Interest in Battery-Driven Electric Vehicles (EVs) has significantly grown in recent years due to the decline of traditional Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs). However, malfunctions in Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) can lead to catastrophic results such as Thermal Runaway (TR), posing serious safety concerns due to their high energy release and the emission of flammable gases. A better understanding of this phenomenon is essential for reducing risks and mitigating its effects. In this study, a digital twin of an Accelerated Rate Calorimeter (ARC) under a Heat-Wait-and-Seek (HWS) procedure is developed using a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) framework. The CFD model simulates the heating of the cell during the HWS procedure, pressure build-up within the LIB, gas venting phenomena, and the exothermic processes within the LIB due to the degradation of internal components. The model is validated against experimental results for an NCA 18650 LIB under similar conditions, focusing on LIB

Gil, Antonio, Monsalve-Serrano, Javier, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Guaraco-Figueira, Carlos

Coupled Routing and Charge Schedule Optimization of Electrified Delivery Truck Fleets Feasibility Analyses

2025-01-8602To be published on 04/01/2025

Electrifying truck fleets has the potential to improve energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions from the freight transportation sector. However, the range limitations and substantial capital costs with current battery technologies imposes constraints that challenge the overall cost feasibility of electrifying fleets for logistics companies. In this paper, we investigate the feasibility via coupled routing and charge scheduling optimization of a delivery fleet serving a large urban area. To this end, we first build an improved energy consumption rate model for a Class 7-8 electric and diesel truck using a data-driven approach of generating energy consumption data from powertrain simulations on numerous drive cycles. We then conduct several analyses on the impact of battery size, cost, and electricity prices on the feasibility of fleet electrification at different penetration levels, considering availability of fast charging at the depot. Findings indicate that at typical energy

Wendimagegnehu, Yared Tadesse, Ayalew, Beshah, Ivanco, Andrej, Hailemichael, Habtamu

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