Browse Topic: Battery thermal management

Items (250)
Find
A Comprehensive CFD-Driven Approach to Battery Thermal Modeling and Cooling System Optimization2026-01-07527/1/2026
With the continued expansion of electric mobility, liquid-cooled thermal management systems have become indispensable for ensuring the performance, durability, and safety of automotive battery packs. This work presents a novel cooling-plate design that integrates offset strip-fin turbulators to enhance convective heat transfer between lithium-ion cells and the circulating coolant. A comprehensive multi-region CFD model of the full battery pack is developed, incorporating an implicit lumped-parameter representation of cell heat generation. The numerical predictions are validated against dedicated experimental measurements available in the literature. Subsequently, a parametric study is conducted in which the number of hydraulic sub-modules and the inlet/outlet configurations are systematically varied to generate all feasible design permutations. The resulting configurations are compared to assess thermal performance and to quantify the benefits—as well as the potential penalties—introduced by the turbulators relative to the experimentally validated baseline.
Montenegro, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Della Torre, Augusto, Tariq, Muhammad Hasnain, Bonetti, Elisa
Low-Temperature Internal Heating of Lithium-Ion Cells by Zero-Mean Square-Wave Current Excitation: Thermal Response and Aging Effects2026-01-07537/1/2026
Current lithium-ion batteries should generally only be charged above 0 °C, as charging below this temperature can promote lithium plating and irreversible degradation. However, conventional pack-level heating elements increase system mass and design complexity. In addition, heat is transferred from outside into the cell, causing the temperature inside the cell to rise slowly. This study evaluates internal Joule heating of cylindrical Li-ion cells using a zero-mean square-wave current excitation and quantifies the associated aging impact. LG INR21700-M50L cells were tested at 0 °C, −10 °C, and −20 °C with three excitation frequencies (50 Hz, 1 Hz, 10 mHz) at 5 A amplitude. Each cycle consisted of 30 min heating followed by 60 min cooling; reference capacity-based state of health (SOH) was assessed every 50 cycles up to 400 cycles. A maximum surface temperature rise of 14.3 K was achieved, with larger temperature rise at lower ambient temperature and lower excitation frequency. Capacity fade remained below approximately 1% for most conditions; however, at −20 °C and 10 mHz a pronounced SOH decrease to 87% was observed, indicating a critical operating regime. The results provide practical guidance for pulse-heating parameter selection and highlight the need for safeguards and further diagnostics in extreme low-frequency excitation at very low temperatures. This heating approach is particularly suitable for simpler battery-electric applications without thermal management, such as e-bikes or power tools. However, it may also be relevant for applications with existing thermal management systems, as it simplifies battery pack design.
Raiber, Stefan, Allmendinger, Frank, Degler, David, Parschau, Anke
Passive Thermal Management of Battery Disconnect Units for Fast-Charging Electric Vehicles: A Comparative Study of Phase Change Material Heat Transfer Configurations2026-01-07597/1/2026
The widespread adoption of electric vehicles is currently hindered by long charging durations and limited infrastructure. While fast-charging technologies address these issues, they impose significant thermal loads on high-voltage components. Within this architecture, the Battery Disconnect Unit plays a critical role as it monitors and controls the connection between the battery, powertrain, and charging system. However, the high currents required for fast-charging often drive these units' temperatures beyond safe operating limits, necessitating advanced thermal solutions that do not require extensive redesigns of the vehicle's electrical layout. To address this challenge, this study proposes a passive thermal management solution using Phase Change Material heat transfer devices to enhance the thermal robustness of the component. The methodology employs a dual approach involving initial experimental testing to pinpoint specific thermal hotspots under high-power conditions, followed by detailed numerical simulations using GT-Power software to predict system behavior. Furthermore, the paper provides a comparative analysis of various configurations, assessing their impact on temperature reduction, response time, and thermal uniformity. The results demonstrate that appropriately designed passive solutions significantly improve thermal performance, effectively enabling higher charging power capabilities while minimizing system complexity and integration effort. This innovation provides a scalable and efficient path for improving overall vehicle performance and safety during rapid energy transfer events.
Salameh, Georges, Goumy, Guillaume, Frecinaux, Anthony, Ratajczack, Christelle, Palluel, Marlène, Noiseau, Pascal, Lardeux, Sébastien
Research on Waste Heat Recovery Characteristics of Electric Drive System in Hybrid Electric Light-Duty Trucks2026-99-07225/15/2026
Aimed at the high energy consumption for battery heating of a light hybrid truck in low-temperature winter, this paper proposes an optimized battery thermal management scheme based on motor waste heat and PTC cooperation. Then it verifies its energy-saving performance based on multi-condition simulation and testing. Taking the constant-speed condition at -5°C as an example, firstly, the accuracy of the battery thermal management model is verified by comparative simulation and test. Then, based on the verified model, the battery thermal management model is simulated under typical winter conditions at 0°C and 5°C. The analysis results show that, when the battery temperature is raised from the initial state to a certain target, the energy consumption of the motor waste heat-assisted PTC heating scheme is obviously less than that of PTC heating. The energy saving rates are 33.137% at -5°C, 32.45% at 0°C, and 32.56% at 5°C, respectively. The research results have proved that the effective utilization of motor waste heat can reduce PTC energy consumption.
Meng, Shun, Zhang, Dong, Zhang, Yu, Zhang, Chunyu, Yao, Mingyao, Qiu, Liang, Qian, Yejian
Optimal Heat Transfer and Coolant Flow Correlations in a Cylindrical Cell Format, Production-Based Battery Pack Model under Constant Discharge, Winter–Summer Driving14-15-02-00115/6/2026
A full lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack has hundreds to thousands of cells, coolant flow lines and channels, and channel bends to control cell temperature within its operating window and minimize cell internal resistance, aging, and fire risk. A 75 kWh LIB pack has four modules, and each has 23–25 bricks. Two challenges in battery state predictions for hot and subzero temperatures are battery temperature (Tbatt ) and coolant flow within the whole pack. In this work, a 1D 75 kWh full-pack model with its thermal management system is developed using a holistic reverse-engineering method, which can predict Tbatt at any bricks/modules and inlet/outlet coolant flow characteristics. A Tesla Model Y equipped with dual e-motors is tested on an in-house state-of-the-art chassis dynamometer. The test data at V = 60–80 km/h, 100–150 A constant discharge, and Tbatt = −10°C to 40°C are used to develop the model. The 75 kWh pack model features 4000+ cylindrical cells (96S46P, Panasonic 21700-format), 20+ coolant lines (or plates, tubes), and 700+ flow channels. The model considers heat exchange from cells to the ambient air via coolant (water-glycol), coolant channel walls, adhesive bonding, trays, and cases. Four forced convective heat transfer coefficient correlations (α) from the coolant to the walls are used to predict coolant outlet temperature (T cool, out ) and Tbatt at different bricks. Three coolant flow losses correlations (K) due to pipe friction, and pipe bends are used to predict the coolant pressure drop ∆Pcool across the pack. Optimal α and K correlations are identified using the fully validated pack model, and the transient temperatures at any cell in bricks and the inlet/outlet coolant flow characteristics are well predicted with over 90% accuracy. This work provides guidelines for selecting optimal α and K correlations to develop any 1D fully liquid-based battery pack models for all-weather driving.
Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin
SIMULATION-DRIVEN BATTERY DEVELOPMENT26AUTD05_035/1/2026
From material selection to system-level performance Transportation's shift toward electric power - whether cars, planes, or big trucks - has made battery engineering a pretty wild, multidisciplinary puzzle. It's not just about coming up with a prototype anymore. To hit the right mix of energy density, power, safety, cost, and longevity, teams need to rethink how they design these systems. Enter simulation and modeling tools. Engineers now use these digital tools to blend electrochemistry, thermal management, materials science, and whole-system design. Instead of jumping straight to building, they try out battery ideas in the virtual world first, speeding up how long it takes to figure out what works and what doesn't and boosting the reliability of those batteries in the real world. Today, battery simulation spans multiple scales from the behavior of active materials within electrodes to the thermal dynamics of the entire battery pack as integrated into a vehicle.
Gupta, Pradyumna (Prady)
Battery Cooling System Airborne Noise Correlation Using Statistical Based Tool14-15-02-00084/16/2026
In a traditional electric vehicle, managing its battery thermal performance is of prime importance. A well-designed battery thermal management system helps in extending its life and avoids safety-related issues like thermal runaways. A critical part of this thermal management is the battery cooling system (BCS), which can be air- or liquid-cooled. Based on the vehicle battery pack size, location, and its design complexity, the original equipment manufacturer can opt for either of the previous two methods. An air-cooled type of BCS system usually involves an active ventilation fan to dissipate the battery heat in the surroundings, which brings symbiotic noise into the picture. In an air-cooled BCS system, the primary source of noise is the cooling airflow over the heat exchanger caused by the fan. The airflow and noise performance characteristics of this fan are typically measured by the supplier in a standalone condition. These performance parameters deviate greatly when the fan is introduced inside a battery cooling module. In the current work, flow-induced noise simulation of a fan placed inside a confined BCS is performed. The simulation has made use of a statistically based tool due to its inherent low dissipative and dispersion properties. The simulation model included all complex interior parts of the BCS, including the mating gaps higher than 1 mm. The simulation results were correlated with the test, and further iterations were performed in simulations to understand the sensitivity of the condenser core location with respect to the fan. Additionally, the changes in noise performance behavior while moving from a standalone fan toward a fan integrated with the BCS system are also studied. The overall noise correlation between the simulation and test is achieved within a 0.4 dBA level. Further, the presence of flow-induced resonance inside the BCS at a lower frequency than the BPF was identified in simulation.
Nomani, Mustafa, Dupatti, Darshan, Nikam, Krishna, Sasikumar, R., Kajagar, Suresh, Panchare, Dattaji, Agalawe, Kiran
Thermal Management Simulation of Liquid-Cooled Energy Storage Batteries Using a Reduced-Order Model2026-01-01224/7/2026
Linear time-invariant (LTI) reduced-order models (ROMs) have been widely used in battery thermal management simulations due to their low hardware requirements, high computational efficiency, and good accuracy. However, the inherent assumption of LTI behavior limits their applicability in scenarios with varying coolant flow rates, where this assumption is no longer valid. To address this limitation, a novel ROM is developed by decomposing the entire battery thermal system into two subsystems. All solid components are modeled as a traditional LTI ROM, while the coolant channel is represented using Newton’s cooling law. The two subsystems are then coupled through the exchange of heat transfer rate and temperature at the fluid–solid interface between the coolant and the cold plate. Model fidelity is further enhanced by introducing a spatially distributed heat flux during the generation of the LTI ROM for solid components. Validation is performed against CFD simulations at both module and pack levels, under constant and varying flow rates. The results demonstrate that the proposed ROM achieves high accuracy while requiring several orders of magnitude less computational time than the corresponding CFD models.
Guo, Jia, Chen, Guijie, Ma, Shihu, Hu, Xiao, Li, Jing, Song, Shujun, Huang, Long
Electrochemical-Thermal Simulation for Evaluating Indirect and Immersion Cooling in High-Power EV Charging2026-01-04034/7/2026
With the rapid advancement of electric vehicle (EV) fast charging technology, battery thermal management faces increasingly critical challenges due to elevated heat generation and stringent safety requirements. Conventional indirect cooling methods often struggle to provide sufficient heat removal under fast charging conditions, leading to potential safety risks. Immersion cooling has emerged as a promising solution because of its superior heat dissipation capability and uniform temperature distribution. In this study, an electrochemical-thermal coupled simulation framework is developed to evaluate indirect and immersion cooling performance under high-power charging conditions. A Pseudo-two-dimensional (P2D) electrochemical EV battery model is developed in GT-SUITE and validated against vehicle charging data. An immersion cooling system is also modeled and integrated into the battery framework to allow comparison with a conventional indirect cooling system under high-power DC fast charging scenarios. Simulation results indicate that immersion cooling achieves a maximum module temperature of 37.5 °C under 250 kW fast charge, which is 4 °C lower than the indirect cooling system. Furthermore, the immersion-cooled pouch cell battery pack can be charged from 10% to 80% SoC within 22 min, 11 min faster than using the indirect cooling system with a temperature limit of 42 °C. These findings demonstrate the potential of immersion cooling to enhance thermal safety, improve charging efficiency, and extend battery life in next-generation EVs.
Guo, Yuyang, Rockstroh, Toby, Oezdag, Erdal, Haenel, Patrick, Bodemann, Basil, Toghyani, Somayeh
Predictive Battery Preconditioning Strategy Considering Charging Time, Battery Degradation and Energy Consumption2026-01-01264/7/2026
Electric vehicles (EVs) play a key role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, yet their widespread adoption remains limited due to long charging times and concerns about battery degradation. To address these challenges, this paper presents a predictive battery preconditioning strategy to optimally prepare the battery before fast charging, with the goal of minimizing either charging time, battery degradation, or energy consumption. The proposed approach employs route-based velocity prediction together with a longitudinal vehicle dynamics model to predict the battery load, ambient temperature, and arrival time at the charging station. Based on this predictive information, the optimal battery temperature trajectory is determined using nonlinear programming with precomputed maps derived from a high-fidelity vehicle model and an electrochemical battery model including physics-based degradation mechanisms. The optimized temperature trajectory is then realized through a nonlinear model predictive controller (NMPC) for the thermal management system. The control-oriented models used for optimization and control, as well as the high-fidelity vehicle model, are parameterized and validated using measurement data. Simulation results demonstrate that the predictive preconditioning strategy enables a reduction in charging time of up to 8.9% or a reduction in battery degradation of up to 6.2% compared to no preconditioning, while outperforming a rule-based preconditioning strategy. Furthermore, the results show that energy consumption cannot be reduced through active preconditioning. Overall, the findings highlight the potential of predictive battery preconditioning to improve charging performance and battery longevity in electric vehicles.
Acker, Lukas, Hofmann, Peter, Konrad, Johannes
Modeling Non-Uniform Temperature Distribution in Lithium-Ion Batteries2026-01-01204/7/2026
Non-uniform temperature distribution within lithium-ion battery cells is a critical challenge that accelerates degradation, compromises safety, and reduces pack-level performance in electric vehicles (EVs). This work focuses on modeling and minimizing these thermal gradients through the structured optimization of a liquid-based Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS). A one-dimensional transient thermal model is developed to capture the axial temperature differentials (ΔT) in a cylindrical cell under dynamic drive-cycle loading, incorporating detailed heat transfer from the cell interior through thermal interface materials (TIM) and an aluminum cooling plate to the coolant. Using a Design for Six Sigma (DFSS) approach with an L18 orthogonal array, key control factors—including coolant flow rate, inlet temperature, TIM properties, and plate geometry—are systematically analyzed to identify configurations that optimally balance low average temperature with minimal internal temperature variation. The results provide a data-driven framework for designing robust cooling systems that mitigate the risks of localized hotspots and thermal runaway, thereby enhancing the durability and safety of EV battery packs.
El-Sharkawy, Alaa, Asar, Mona, Serpento, Stan, Sheta, Mai
Standalone Battery Pack Thermal Behavior Simulation and Experimental Correlation in a Controlled Environment2026-01-01254/7/2026
Battery thermal management is crucial for ensuring the safety, efficiency, and longevity of lithium-ion battery packs, particularly in electric vehicles (EVs). The primary purpose of a lithium-ion battery in an electric vehicle is to store and provide electrical energy for vehicle propulsion while maintaining safety under different operating conditions. This work proposes a thermal correlation between 1D CFD simulation and experimental test data under passive environmental heat exchange conditions without active coolant flow of a battery pack comprising four modules. An environmental exchange test was conducted using a 50% state of charge (SOC) battery pack, which is stabilized at 25°C to assess passive heat dissipation, thermal soak behavior, temperature distribution, and potential thermal runaway risks. The simulation predictions correlate well within a 1.5°C range compared to test results using ambient temperature and flow inputs, which confirms the reliability of the modeling approach. The simulation work was carried out using the GT-SUITE software. This study improves battery thermal management strategies by enhancing predictive accuracy and optimizing simulation frameworks for real-world applications. It minimizes overheating risks in practical scenarios, such as prolonged exposure to high ambient temperatures.
Nayaka, Sateesh Kumar, Dixit, Manish, Gudiyella, Soumya
Beyond PFAS: Unlocking the Potential of R290 and R744 for EV Efficiency2026-01-01274/7/2026
The anticipated PFAS ban in the US by 2029 has created a need to evaluate alternative refrigerant solutions for automotive thermal management systems. This work compares three candidates—Propane (R290), Carbon Dioxide (R744), and R1234yf—through system-level testing and demonstration projects. R1234yf remains the current industry baseline. Test results show that Propane (R290) delivers comparable efficiency while offering a significantly lower global warming potential. However, its flammability presents integration challenges, not present with R1234yf or R744. CO₂ (R744) demonstrated promising performance as well. To address safety concerns with Propane, AVL developed mitigation measures including rapid leak detection, robust containment strategies, and optimized circuit layouts designed to reduce ignition risks. These countermeasures were validated in practice through the European Commission’s QUIET project. Within this program, a Honda B-segment electric vehicle was equipped with a Propane-based heat pump, thermal storage, infrared cabin heating, and lightweight materials. Testing under real-world conditions showed a 25% increase in driving range in cold conditions while maintaining passenger comfort [25,25]. An AI-based control strategy further improved system efficiency by coordinating thermal and energy management. The findings demonstrate that Propane can be a feasible replacement refrigerant for electric vehicle applications if appropriate safety measures are implemented. CO₂ also remains a strong candidate, offering a cost-effective and PFAS-compliant solution. Together, these results contribute to the evaluation of sustainable refrigerants and provide guidance for future thermal system development in the automotive sector.
bires, Michael, Possegger, Jonathan
Ambient and Initial Temperature Effects on Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) Range and Energy Consumption Rate Modeled in FASTSim2026-01-02774/7/2026
Ambient and initial temperatures significantly impact the energy consumption rate (ECR) of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) due to auxiliary loads and the temperature dependence of battery efficiency. This study introduces a streamlined, physics-based thermal modeling approach within the FASTSim tool that bridges the gap between oversimplified constant-load models and computationally expensive high-fidelity simulations. By employing a lumped thermal mass framework, the model captures fundamental energy balances and critical non-linear energy penalties while maintaining the computational efficiency required for expansive sensitivity studies. The simulations evaluated a compact BEV hatchback with a resistive heater over city (UDDS) and highway (HWFET) test cycles. Compared to a 22°C initial and ambient temperature baseline, a -7°C initial/ambient temperature resulted in a 221% increase in the ECR for the city cycle and a 100% increase for the highway cycle. Conversely, a 45°C initial / 40°C ambient temperature resulted in a 40% increase for UDDS and an 18% increase for HWFET. These results demonstrate that while cold conditions impose the most severe energy penalties due to resistive heating, the impact is consistently more pronounced in city driving where auxiliary loads represent a larger proportion of total energy. This lightweight yet robust framework enables researchers to rapidly quantify BEV thermal sensitivity across diverse climates without the need for high-overhead simulation environments.
Baker, Chad, Steuteville, Robin, Holden, Jake, Gonder, Jeffrey, Carow, Kyle
Thermal Management of Battery Modules under Fast Charging2026-01-03994/7/2026
Battery modules operate under diverse and complex conditions, such as driving cycles and fast charging. In these scenarios, effective thermal management is critical to ensuring safety and extending the battery's lifespan. Fast-charging scenarios present a particular challenge due to the complex current control strategies that strongly influence cell temperature distribution, making thermal uniformity a key concern. Existing studies focus more on drive cycles, but not sufficient for fast charging. This study presents a coupled electrochemical-thermal simulation framework based on the DCIR (Direct Current Internal Resistance) model to examine heat generation and temperature responses during fast charging. The model incorporates heat conduction pathways and the structural layout of the module, enabling the evaluation of thermal mismatch risks and the optimization of module design and thermal management strategies. The findings offer practical insights for battery thermal management and the development of advanced control strategies.
Xiao, Fangzhi, Chen, Guijie, Ma, Shihu, Hu, Xiao, Song, Shujun, Wakale, Anil Bhaurao
Electro-Thermal Co-Optimization of Battery Modules Based on 3D Thermal Model Simulation2026-01-70292/27/2026
As an important energy storage device and the power source for key equipment such as automobiles and drones at present, lithium-ion batteries generate a substantial amount of heat during their operation. Without an effective cooling system, the temperature of the battery module can rise, significantly impacting the battery's service life and safety performance. Therefore, automotive battery modules require an efficient battery thermal management system to regulate heat dissipation and extend battery life. We note that many existing vehicle battery thermal management systems focus solely on the surface temperature of the battery. However, uneven heat distribution within the battery can also lead to issues such as unbalanced aging and thermal runaway safety hazards. Thus, we specifically emphasize the internal temperature distribution of the battery, focusing on internal temperature optimization design and simulation. Taking the battery module equipped with the third-generation NCM 9-series high-nickel CVD silicon-carbon anode semi-solid battery cells as an example, this paper designs an integrated electro-thermal simulation and optimization scheme for the interior of electric vehicles, as well as an external heat exchange device capable of efficiently exchanging heat with the interior. By establishing a 3D thermal model of the battery, conducting a series of simulations, and comparing the results with the corresponding experimental data, this study not only obtains a relatively comprehensive 3D thermal model and thermal simulation process, but also develops an optimized thermal management solution for the battery module.
Wu, Jiayi, Zheng, Bowen, Kang, Mengran, Zhan, Wenwei, Qi, Ji, Yi, Yong
Analysis of Heat Transfer in Microchannel Heat Sink with Porous Fins for Battery Cooling Module2026-01-70172/27/2026
Heat sinks are essential cooling components in the battery thermal management systems (BTMS). Porous fin microchannel heat sinks can achieve high heat transfer rates in confined spaces, offering significant potential for practical applications. In this study, a modified-porous fin microchannel heat sink for BTMS is numerically simulated to examine its fluid dynamics and thermal exchange properties. By partially and uniformly filling metal foam in solid fins, the temperature is reduced, the Nusselt number is increased, and the comprehensive performance is enhanced. Compared with solid fins, the modified design is shown to yield a maximum Nusselt number improvement of 153.6%, accompanied by a peak performance evaluation coefficient reaching 1.92. Thermal analysis is conducted by considering both structural optimization and coolant flow behavior. Effects of metal foam filling width and height are investigated. The fluid dynamics and thermal exchange properties of the modified structure, as influenced by the Reynolds number, are studied. The interfacial area between metal foam and coolant flow is the main factor affecting the heat sink performance. Thermal enhancement is observed with both the decreased metal foam filling width and the increased filling height. As the Reynolds number increases, heat transfer improves. The growth ratio of the Nusselt number is decreased in higher Reynolds number regimes, thus yielding better comprehensive performance in lower Reynolds number regimes. The reduced thermal resistance defined by the entransy dissipation indicates that the modified heat sink can achieve a stronger convective heat transfer effect. This heat transfer enhancement is also evidenced by the decreased synergy angle.
Zhang, Liyuan, Lai, Huanxin
Performance Evaluation of a Novel Coolant Channel Configuration for Liquid Based Battery Thermal Management in Electric Vehicles2026-28-00422/12/2026
The performance and longevity of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) are critically dependent on effective thermal management. As internal heat generation during charge and discharge cycles can lead to uneven temperature distribution, exceeding optimal operating limits (25 - 40°C) can significantly degrade battery performance and lifespan. This study presents a performance evaluation of a novel liquid-based Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) featuring a dual-directional coolant channel configuration designed to enhance thermal uniformity and heat dissipation. The proposed configuration combines horizontal and vertical coolant passages in an indirect cooling layout to address the limitations of conventional serpentine-type channels. A comprehensive thermal analysis was carried out under realistic loading conditions using three coolant types: water, ethylene glycol- based G48, and graphene-enhanced water nanofluids. These were evaluated for thermal conductivity, heat transfer efficiency, and effectiveness in minimizing temperature gradients. Graphene nanofluids exhibited superior performance due to their high thermal conductivity and enhanced convective heat transfer capabilities. Additionally, the effect of varying coolant flow rates was analyzed to simulate different operating scenarios. While increasing flow rates improved cooling effectiveness, the study also identified a threshold beyond which performance gains diminished. The novel dual-channel design demonstrated significant improvements over traditional serpentine configurations, including a notable reduction in maximum cell temperatures and enhanced temperature uniformity across the battery pack. This improvement is critical in reducing hotspots and extending battery health. The dual- directional flow facilitates more efficient convective heat transfer, offering a promising advancement in BTMS design. The integration of advanced nanofluid coolants with an innovative channel configuration pave the way for the development of more efficient, reliable, and thermally stable battery systems in next-generation electric mobility.
Selvan, Arul Mozhi, Periyasamy, Muthukumar, R, Thiruppathi, Prasad S, Hari, Raghav, R, Boddu, Sriram Pydi Aditya
Thermal System Design of Inter-City Fuel Cell Electric Bus2026-26-04271/16/2026
In current scenario, demand for alternate energy is increasing due to depletion of fossil fuels and countries working to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. Hydrogen being a cleaner fuel, many OEMs across the world started to work on various strategies like hydrogen combustion engine and fuel cell. Passenger vehicles like buses are at the lookout for fuel cell technology at faster rate than other commercial vehicles. In fuel cell vehicles, cooling system design is critical & complex since it includes fuel cell cooling, Power electronics cooling & battery cooling. In this paper, cooling system design of a Fuel cell electric bus for inter-city application is demonstrated. Radiators and Fans are designed considering overall heat rejection and Coolant inlet temperature requirements of components. Cooling system circuit and pump is decided to meet the coolant flow rate targets. Flow simulation and thermal simulation done with the help of simulation models built using software KULI to predict coolant flow rate and temperature across each component. Fuel cell circuits, Power electronic circuits, Battery circuits modelled in KULI with all components in the circuit. KULI predicted results signifies good co-relation with actual results.
M S, Vignesh, Kiran, Nalavadath
Accelerating EV Thermal Controller Development Using Rapid Control Prototyping on Speedgoat2026-26-06851/16/2026
In the era of Software Defined Vehicles, the complexity and requirements of automotive systems have increased knowingly. EV Thermal management systems have become more complicated while having multiple functions and control strategies within software frameworks. This shift creates new challenges like increased development efforts and long lead time in creating an efficient thermal management system for Electric Vehicles (EV’s) due to battery charging and discharging cycles. For solving these challenges in the early stages of development makes it even more challenging due to the unavailability of key components such as fully developed ECU hardware, High voltage battery pack and the motor. To address this, a novel framework has been designed that combines virtual simulation with physical emulation at the same time, enabling the testing and validation of thermal control strategies without fully matured system and the ECU hardware. The framework uses the Speedgoat QNX machine as the central controller which hosts the control logics and electro-thermal models developed in Simulink and Simscape. Speedgoat is physically connected to a non-functional vehicle equipped with key thermal components such as a radiator cooling fan, AC compressor, HVAC blower, active grille shutters (AGS), valves etc. The heat load for different conditions is emulated using heater carts and vehicle itself. The entire system is designed to be mobile, allowing it to be placed inside a climatic chamber. By controlling all the components through Speedgoat and offering an interactive calibration interface for real time calibration, this framework bridges the gap between simulation and physical testing. It helps in accelerating controls development, optimizes thermal control strategies, ensures energy efficiency, reliability, and cost effectiveness in system design.
Chothave, Abhijeet, S, Bharathan, S, Ananth, Gangwar, Adarsh, Khan, Parvej, Gummadi, Gopakishore, Kumar, Dipesh
Optimization and Evaluation of Thermal Interface Material Thickness and Distribution Patterns for Improved Heat Transfer in Liquid-Cooled Battery Pack2026-26-04321/16/2026
Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMS) play a critical role in ensuring the longevity, safety, and efficient operation of lithium-ion battery packs. These systems are designed to better dissipate the heat generated by the cells during vehicle operation, thereby maintaining a uniform temperature distribution across the battery modules, preventing overheating and mitigating the chances of thermal runaway. However, one of the primary challenges in BTMS design lies in achieving effective thermal contact between the battery cells and the cooling plate. Non-uniform or excessive application of Thermal Interface Materials (TIMs) without ensuring robustness and uniformity can increase interfacial thermal resistance, leading to significant temperature variations across the battery modules, which may trigger power limitations via the Battery Management System (BMS) and these thermal changes can cause inefficient cooling, ultimately affecting battery performance and lifespan. In this paper, a real-world testing was conducted on the battery pack with uneven TIM application and unoptimized distribution patterns, which resulted in significant temperature variations across the pack. In contrast, the application of uniformly optimized TIM thickness reduced these temperature differences by up to 70%, demonstrating the critical impact of consistent interface design on thermal performance. To validate and further understand these findings, combined conduction-convection heat transfer model was developed using ANSYS Fluent to simulate the thermal changes of the battery pack with different TIM thicknesses alongside the unoptimized distribution patterns. The results confirmed that uneven TIM distribution contributes significantly to thermal non-uniformity within the battery pack, whereas optimizing the thickness improves overall thermal performance. Additionally, the optimized application led to a significant reduction in weight of the thermal paste (TIMs) usage, resulting in cost savings and more efficient material utilization.
K, Mathankumar, Jahagirdar, Manasi, Kumbhar, Makarand Shivaji
State-of-the-Art Battery Thermal Management Technologies for SCV EV: An Integrated Approach to Enhance Energy Utilization and Reduce Expenses2026-26-00761/16/2026
The performance, lifespan, safety, and overall cost of high-voltage batteries—central elements in electric vehicles (EVs)—are fundamental to the success of the entire EV industry. These batteries, primarily used as energy storage systems, are especially critical in small commercial vehicles (SCVs), where efficient thermal management directly impacts reliability and durability. This paper presents innovative methods to improve energy efficiency, driving range, charging speed, and cost-effectiveness by combining advanced insulation techniques with thermoelectric cooling systems (TECs). The automotive industry is growing in EV domain and mostly in commercial vehicle application. The major challenge in EV’s is maintaining battery temperature to get optimal performance and best battery warranty. The key strategy of this research is providing insulating materials to stabilize battery temperatures. The thermal insulation minimizes thermal losses and buffers against external environmental conditions, reducing the cooling and heating system’s workload. This leads to lowering the operational demand on the compressor, pump and fan ultimately optimizing energy consumption. In this work, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), with a thermal conductivity of approximately 0.026 W/m-K, is used as the insulating material. In addition to thermal insulation, the integration of thermoelectric cooling systems provides precise temperature regulation by the thermoelectric effect to move heat away from battery cells either to TES tank or to ambient. In this setup, a thermal energy storage (TES) unit works alongside TECs as a cost effective thermal management solution for SCVs. Unlike traditional refrigeration systems, this approach replaces the refrigerant cycle with TEC modules and a PCM based TES tank. During the vehicle’s charging phase, TECs draw power externally to store cooling energy in the TES unit. Then, during operation, the stored energy maintains battery temperatures without consuming power from the high voltage battery. In colder climates, the same TEC modules can works as battery heater by reversing electric polarity. This paper is succeeding part of advanced battery thermal management technologies for SCVs: a comprehensive approach to optimize energy use, enhance battery performance and cost reduction, technical paper which is presented in TTTMS 2025. The optimization of existing thermo-electric system is important from system sizing, costing and performance point of view. In this paper the system is optimized and made compact with better thermal performance. In summary, combining advanced insulation and thermoelectric cooling strategies for non-air-conditioned SCV EVs results in significant benefits— including increased driving range and a 25–30% reduction in overall system costs—while still meeting stringent battery thermal management requirements.
Chormule, Suhas Rangrao, Warule, Prasad, Nagpure, Rahul, Jadhav, Vaibhav
A Strategic Approach to the Selection of Switchgear and Busbars for EV Battery Packs2026-26-01651/16/2026
With the rising adoption of electric vehicles, the need for robust and efficient power distribution systems has become increasingly important. As the battery pack is the primary energy source for an electric vehicle (EV), the strategy of selection of switchgears and busbars is paramount. Currently, the design and selection of battery protection and conducting components, such as switchgears and busbars are carried out primarily focusing on the continuous current and the peak current capabilities of the battery pack. Despite this approach ensuring that the components can withstand extreme conditions, it often results in over-engineering. The sizing should be such that it does not overdesign, which would result in unnecessary cost and material weight addition to the pack, ultimately leading to performance deterioration. As the current discharge from a battery pack is dynamic in nature and fluctuates based on driving conditions and usage a real-time heat generation studies have to be carried out based on this varying demand. This paper explores various sizing strategies for selecting key components such as busbars, fuses, contactors, relay and pre-charge resistor in a high voltage battery pack. It also focuses on the thermal behaviour of these electrical components, especially the busbar, including heat generation and dissipation under the implemented cooling strategies. A thermal simulation study was carried out on ANSYSTM platform to investigate the thermal behaviour of busbars under varying load current. An investigatory study is carried out on the sizing of electrical components for a 96V battery pack system, considering thermal behaviour and protection coordination.
Soman, Anu, satheesh, Goutham, K, Mathankumar
To Study and Compare Communication Protocol for Fast Charging in Electric Two-Wheeler with Respect to CCS 2.0: An Indian Perspective2026-26-01981/16/2026
This comprehensive research presents an in-depth analysis of communication protocols essential for implementing fast charging systems in India's rapidly expanding electric two-wheeler and three-wheeler market. As India witnesses unprecedented growth in electric mobility, with two-wheelers representing over 95% of current EV sales, the establishment of standardized, secure, and efficient charging protocols becomes paramount for widespread adoption. This study examines the current landscape of AC charging methodologies, evaluates the technical and economic feasibility of DC fast charging implementation, and provides detailed comparative analysis of existing international standards including IS 17017-25, IS 17017-31, ChaoJi, and CCS 2.0. The research concludes with strategic recommendations for developing cyber-secure, cost-effective charging infrastructure specifically tailored to meet India's unique market requirements and operational constraints.
Uthaman, Sreekumar, Mulay, Abhijit B
Integrated Quality Assurance Frameworks for Testing Advanced Automotive Systems in the Era of ADAS and E-Mobility2026-26-05681/16/2026
Ensuring the safety and functionality of sophisticated vehicle technologies has grown more difficult as the automotive industry quickly shifts to intelligent, electric, and connected mobility. Software-defined architectures, electric powertrains, and advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) all require strong quality assurance (QA) frameworks that can handle the multi domain nature of contemporary vehicle platforms. In order to thoroughly assess the functionality and dependability of next generation automotive systems, this paper proposes an integrated QA methodology that blends conventional testing procedures with model-based validation, digital twin environments, and real-time system monitoring. The suggested framework, which includes hardware-in-the-loop (HIL), software-in-the-loop (SIL), and over-the-air (OTA) testing techniques, concentrates on end-to-end traceability from specifications to validation. Simulating intricate situations for ADAS, electric vehicle battery temperature management, and dynamic system updates in connected platforms are prioritized. This study also outlines the main obstacles to integrating QA methods with changing regulatory environments and draws attention to discrepancies between operational performance in real-world scenarios and compliance benchmarks. Early fault detection, lifecycle validation, and continuous improvement are made possible by the QA process's transition from reactive to proactive through the integration of digital twins and predictive analytics. A strategic roadmap for QA specialists and test engineers to adjust to changing industry demands is presented in the paper's conclusion. In addition to promoting safety and dependability, the suggested framework speeds up time to market, lowers development costs, and increases consumer confidence in cutting-edge automotive technologies.
Komanduri, Arun Srinivas, Srivastava, Anuj
Battery Thermal Management Approach for Two-Wheeler Electric Vehicles – An Indian Case Study2026-26-01511/16/2026
India's electric 2-wheeler (E2W) market has witnessed fast growth, driven by lucrative government policies. The two-wheeler segment dominates the Indian automotive market, accounting for the largest share of total sales. Consequently, the manufacturers of 2-wheelers are developing new electric vehicles (EV) tailored for the Indian market. However, the Indian EV market has witnessed multiple fire accidents in recent years, raising safety concerns among consumers and industry stakeholders. These incidents highlight key weakness in battery thermal management systems (BTMS), particularly during charging. Most existing E2W BTMS relies on passive (natural) air cooling, which has been associated with fire incidents due to its inefficiency in heat dissipation, particularly during charging in India's high-temperature environment. Therefore, it is imperative to build thermally viable and economical BTMS for the growing E2W vehicles with fast charging capability. FEV is actively developing the thermally efficient and cost-effective BTMS solutions tailored for Indian E2Ws operating in extreme climatic conditions. The present study evaluates a novel approach of integrating heat carrier plates into the E2W with 3.6 kWh battery pack, which is analyzed under natural and forced air cooling system. The airtight battery pack is located under the floorboard region. The multiple internal heat carrier plates models are developed and integrated with aligned and staggered cell arrangement to evaluate heat dissipation and temperature uniformity with the battery pack. The study further proposes a concept of duct and fan placement for the application during forced air cooling. The simulations are performed at a high ambient temperature of 45 °C, representing a worst-case scenario in India, using charging rates of 0.2 C for natural cooling and 0.35 C for forced cooling. The results show that the aligned cell model with 4-heat carrier plates achieve superior temperature distribution across cells, with a lower average module temperature of 49.6 °C, minimal temperature gradient of 1.3°C and reduced maximum cell temperature of 50 °C, under natural cooling. In forced air-cooling mode, the split air duct model provides better cooling over the battery cover surfaces with maximum temperature of 55 °C with ΔT of 4°C. The study also presents comprehensive details of modelling approaches and outlines the scope of further research for developing thermally efficient BTMS for E2Ws.
Raut, Ankit, Hiremath, Vinodkumar S, Emran, Ashraf, Garg, Shivam, Berry, Sushil
Implementation of Rule-Based Controllers on an Electric Vehicle Thermal Management System Model in Simulink2026-01-50001/15/2026
Electric vehicles (EVs) are coming into usage quickly because of the environmental advantages and technological innovations. But among the most important issues in EV operation is effectively handling thermal loads, especially in the mobile air-conditioning (MAC) system. As opposed to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, which have access to engine waste heat to use for climate control, EVs depend solely on the battery for propulsion and auxiliary systems. This renders the MAC system one of the primary energy consumers and directly influences vehicle range and overall efficiency. While MAC systems are inherently designed for energy efficiency, this study focuses on an addition to the controller-level optimization, providing an additional pathway to improve thermal management performance in existing EV architectures. The work uniquely implements and compares five rule-based supervisory controllers (RBCs) on an open-source Simulink-based electric vehicle thermal management (EVTM) model, demonstrating a simple and computationally efficient approach to compressor control. Five different RBC strategies are formulated, each of which controls the compressor depending on factors such as ambient temperature, cabin temperature variation, and battery thermal load. The controllers are tested over three varied driving cycles to determine their robustness: the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP) Class 2 cycle, the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC), and Bangalore Drive Cycle. These varied test cycles allow for examination over different traffic patterns, speed profiles, and environmental conditions. Simulation results show the optimum RBC delivers an optimal compressor power saving of 4.38% compared to a baseline control strategy.
Akkalkot, Yash Satish, Vidyasagar, Shekhar, Raju, Tarun L., Vaasuki, G., Kiran, M.
Integrated Cooling/HVAC System Design and Control Strategy for Light Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle14-15-01-00021/14/2026
In the recent years, the use of conventional passenger vehicles has been increasingly discouraged, from European-level policies to local municipal regulations, due to the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and urban pollution. In response to these challenges, the PRIN2020 project HySUM (Hybrid SUstainable Mobility platform) explores innovative hybrid powertrain solutions for light and heavy quadricycles to achieve near-zero pollutant emissions, focusing on internal combustion engine hybrid electric vehicles and fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles. Taking all these aspects into consideration, this article proposes an integrated solution for cooling/HVAC circuits, to improve energy efficiency and occupants’ comfort, while focusing on proper battery operation, with a recuperator heat exchanger used to recover the available heat at the powertrain output, in order to reduce the HVAC heater energy consumption. The complexity of the circuit requires a specific control logic to be implemented to simultaneously ensure cabin comfort, effective thermal management of the battery, and minimize energy consumption. The study is applied to the HySUM fuel cell/battery hybrid L-class electric vehicle. A thermal and electrical model for predicting the heat generation and the state of charge of the battery under dynamic load profiles is employed to better understand the potential of the thermal integration of the battery cooling with the HVAC system. The simulation results are encouraging and demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed thermal load management. Significant energy savings are achieved through the use of the recuperator during driving, while battery thermal management is accomplished without the need for a dedicated circuit, by utilizing conditioned air from the HVAC/cabin system. Unlike traditional lightweight electrified vehicles, which often lack efficient HVAC systems, this solution enhances energy efficiency and guarantees reliable component operation in varying environmental conditions.
Lombardi, Simone, Putano Bisti, Chiara, Federici, Leonardo, Pistritto, Antonino, Chiappini, Daniele, Tribioli, Laura
Thermal Control of Lithium-Ion Batteries Using a Model-Free Control Strategy2025-36-016212/18/2025
The growth of the electric vehicle market has driven the advancement of technologies related to energy storage and lithium-ion cells, which stand out for their fast charge and discharge capabilities, high energy density, and long service life. This paper proposes a thermal control strategy for lithium-ion battery packs using the Active Disturbance Rejection Control (ADRC) method. The model is developed in Simcenter Amesim software, using cylindrical 21700 cells in a pack equipped with a water-cooling system, and was adapted for export in FMU format and integrated into MATLAB/Simulink, where the control algorithms were designed and simulated. From step input tests, a first-order transfer function was identified with a fitting of 97.67%, supporting the adoption of a first-order ADRC. The tests involved scenarios with changes in temperature reference and current disturbances typical of vehicle operation. Results indicate that ADRC performs satisfactorily in temperature tracking, even under actuator saturation, and particularly excels in disturbance rejection, outperforming the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller in speed and precision. Furthermore, ADRC proved robust to system degradation—an essential feature in the thermal management of batteries subject to aging. The proposed approach shows promise for real-world applications, offering thermal stability and extended system lifespan. For future work, experimental validation through Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) is suggested.
Leal, Gustavo Nobre, Fernandes, Lucas Pasqual, Ebner, Eric Rossini, Neto, Cyro Albuquerque, Leonardi, Fabrizio
PRODUCT BRIEFS25AUTP12_2112/1/2025
Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal Management under Extreme Fast Charging with Deep Reinforcement Learning14-14-03-002211/20/2025
The increasing importance of electric vehicles requires addressing challenges related to fast charging, safety, and battery range. Thermal management ensures safety, prolongs battery life, and enables extremely fast charging. In this regard, this article proposes a novel battery thermal management system (BTMS) optimization approach based on a model-free deep reinforcement learning (RL) for a battery pack of an electric vehicle under extreme fast-charging conditions considering the detailed dynamics of vehicle-level BTMS. The objective of the proposed approach seeks to minimize the battery degradation and power consumption of the underlying BTMS. In this respect, the dynamic equations of the thermal system model are constructed considering the air-conditioning refrigerant loop and indirect battery liquid cooling loop. Further, the proposed methodology is implemented on a battery pack, and the results are compared with those of model predictive control (MPC) and proportion–integral–derivative (PID) as representatives of optimal control and tracking control baseline strategies, respectively. It is shown that if a perfect BTMS model is at the disposal of MPC, MPC performance can be as good as that of the proposed RL. However, the proposed RL algorithm is 48 times faster than MPC during testing. The superiority of the proposed deep RL over MPC is attributed to its model-free nature. Lastly, the RL outperformance is shown over the PID controller in terms of both battery degradation and BTMS power consumption, where the former is improved by up to 1.05% whereas the latter is improved by up to 43.68%.
Arjmandzadeh, Ziba, Hossein Abbasi, Mohammad, Wang, Hanchen, Zhang, Jiangfeng, Xu, Bin
A Methodology to Develop 25-kWh Battery Pack Model with Its Cooling System for Off-Highway Application2025-28-024011/6/2025
This study presents a methodology to develop a new 25kWh battery pack for off-highway application. Initially an enclosure space is extracted from tractor model maintaining minimum space with adjacent components. Based on available space, various combination of cell form factors and different cell chemistries are evaluated considering operating ambient temperature range (-20 to 45 deg C) and charge/discharge rate 1C. Cylindrical NMC type cell with indirect cooling system fulfils all our technical requirements. However, complete battery pack thermal simulation is carried out for ensuring battery pack safety and limited deterioration with different discharge rate and wider temperature range. The battery pack model contains multiple cells, bricks, and modules with numerous coolant pipes and flow channels. Cell characterization experimental data is used for estimating cell thermal capacity and IR behavior. Battery pack model is tested with different Charge/discharge rates. Five thermocouples, pressure, and coolant flow sensors are installed on the different battery cells, bricks, and modules to capture the time-series thermal and electrical performance changes. These data are used to validate the integrated battery pack and its TMS cooling circuit. It is observed correlation above 90% for temperature, pressure and velocity between simulated and experimental values.
Nain, Ajay, Lamba, Shamsher, jayagopal, S, dhir, Anish
Development of Vibration Fixtures for Automotive Testing: A Combined Analytical and FEA-Based Approach2025-28-025811/6/2025
Vibration testing is an essential component of automotive product development, ensuring that components such as engines, transmissions, and electronic systems perform reliably under various operating conditions. The adoption of electronics in the automotive industry, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s, marked a shift in vibration testing approaches, moving from primarily low-frequency tests to methods that could address high-frequency vibrations as well. This evolution highlights the need for effective vibration fixture designs that can simulate real-world conditions, enabling manufacturers to detect potential weaknesses before products are integrated into vehicles. A key aspect of vibration testing is the identification of resonant frequencies within components. The coupled mass-spring-damper system, for example, can exhibit multiple resonances characterized by a Bode Diagram, where the Q factor technique is utilized to assess damping levels. Accurate vibration analysis can be achieved through various methodologies, including modal analysis and frequency response calculations, which help engineers understand how components will behave under different stimulus. Furthermore, the use of advanced analytical tools, such as Finite Element Analysis (FEA) has become increasingly important in the automotive industry. These modern approaches allow for more precise and efficient vibration analysis, providing deeper insights into potential issues and enhancing overall product reliability. By adhering to industry standards such as International Organization for Standardization standard i.e. (ISO) 16750-3, Society of Automotive Engineers standard i.e. (SAE) J1455, and Military standard (MIL-STD)-810G, manufacturers can ensure their products meet rigorous safety and durability requirements, ultimately leading to reduced warranty claims and increased customer satisfaction. Utilizing FEA allows for virtual prototyping, which reduces the reliance on physical prototypes traditionally used to test and refine designs. This approach not only shortens the design-to-production cycle but also allows for comprehensive testing and optimization, ultimately resulting in a more efficient development process and lower costs associated with prototype creation. The design process for vibration fixtures involves a cyclical approach where simulations guide modifications. By continuously analysing and adjusting designs based on performance data, engineers can refine fixtures to meet specific criteria such as cost efficiency, structural performance, and overall functionality. This iterative nature of design helps in exploring multiple configurations and ensuring that the final product achieves all desired performance targets within the constraints of the given package space.
Shinde, Pramodkumar, Shah, Viren
Advanced Battery Thermal Management Technologies for SCVs - A Comprehensive Approach to Optimize Energy Use, Enhance Battery Performance and Cost Reductions2025-28-041610/30/2025
The whole electric vehicle world is directly & indirectly dependent on performance, life, safety & cost of high voltage battery which is used in vehicle primarily as energy storage system. The efficient thermal management of batteries is crucial for the performance and longevity of small commercial vehicles (SCVs). This paper explores innovative strategies aimed at enhancing energy optimization, range improvement, charging time optimization & cost reduction through the integration of insulation and thermoelectric cooling systems. As the demand for electric vehicles (EVs) continues to rise, particularly in commercial applications, effective battery thermal management systems (BTMS) have become increasingly important. Maintaining optimal operating temperatures is essential to ensure battery performance, safety, and lifespan. The use of advanced insulating materials is a foundational element in maintaining stable battery temperatures. By minimizing heat loss and protecting against external temperature variations, insulation enhances thermal stability, thereby improving overall battery performance and reduces thermal load of cooling system implies reduction in compressor, pump and fan duty cycle which results in overall energy optimization. In this work polyethylene terephthalate material is used as insulating material having thermal conductivity is around 0.026 W/m-K. The integration of thermoelectric cooling systems (TECs) offer precise temperature control by utilizing the thermoelectric effect to transfer heat away from battery cells using thermal storage system. This Thermoelectric cooling systems (TECs) with Thermal energy storage system is cost effective solution for SCV segment. In proposed technology, the refrigerant system is replaced with TEC coolers & PCM based thermal energy storage (TES) tank. During charging mode, the TEC cooler will get power from external grid supply & stores thermal energy in TES tank. During drive mode, battery temperature will be maintained by using thermal energy from TES tank, Results no power consumption from HV battery. During low ambient temperature condition battery heating performed by reversing the current polarity of same TEC module. In conclusion, with integration these two strategy for Non-AC SCV EV’s results measurable improvement in range as well as reduction in overall system cost by 20-30% with achieving same battery thermal management requirements target.
Nagpure, Rahul, Chormule, Suhas Rangrao, Jadhav, Vaibhav, Warule, Prasad
Design and Analysis on Integrated Thermal Management Solution for Electric Vehicles2025-28-041810/30/2025
Thermal Management System (TMS) for Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) incorporates maintaining optimum temperature for cabin, battery and e-powertrain subsystems under different charging and discharging conditions at various ambient temperatures. Current methods of thermal management are inefficient, complex and lead to wastage of energy and battery capacity loss due to inability of energy transfer between subsystems. In this paper, the energy consumption of an electric vehicle's thermal management system is reduced by a novel approach for integration of various subsystems. Integrated Thermal Management System (ITMS) integrates air conditioning system, battery thermal management and e-powertrain system. Characteristics of existing integration strategies are studied, compared, and classified based on their energy efficiency for different operating conditions. A new integrated system is proposed with a heat pump system for cabin and waste heat recovery from e-powertrain. Various cooling and heating strategies for battery are identified for different ambient temperatures. An ITMS valve functioning is explained for each scenario depending on vehicle operating condition and ambient temperature.
K, Muthukrishnan, S, Saikrishna, Mahobia, Tanmay, Vijayaraj, Jayanth Murali
Thermal Management in Electrified Transportation: A Comparative Study of Different Powertrain Technologies2025-28-041210/30/2025
The transition towards sustainable transportation necessitates the development of advanced thermal management systems (TMS) for electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), and hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles (HICEVs). Effective thermal control is crucial for passenger comfort and the performance, longevity, and safety of critical vehicle components. This paper presents a rigorous and comparative analysis of TMS strategies across these diverse powertrain technologies. It systematically examines the unique thermal challenges associated with each subsystem, including cabin HVAC, battery packs, fuel cell stacks, traction motors, and power electronics. For cabin HVAC, the paper explores methods for minimizing energy consumption while maintaining thermal comfort, considering factors such as ambient temperature, humidity, and occupant load. The critical importance of battery thermal management is emphasized, with a focus on preventing thermal runaway and maximizing battery lifespan through precise temperature regulation. The complexities of fuel cell stack thermal management are addressed, considering the electrochemical reactions and the need for uniform temperature distribution for optimal performance and durability. Furthermore, the paper investigates the thermal behavior of high-power traction motors and power electronics, analyzing different cooling techniques and their impact on efficiency and reliability. A comparative assessment of various cooling technologies, including forced air convection, liquid cooling, and emerging two-phase cooling methods, is provided. The paper also delves into integrating these individual TMS components, exploring opportunities for waste heat recovery and holistic system optimization. Finally, the paper identifies critical research gaps and outlines future directions in the development of intelligent and adaptive thermal management systems for next-generation electrified vehicles, emphasizing the need for robust control algorithms, advanced materials, and innovative cooling architectures.
K, Neelima, K, Anisha, Ch, Kavya, C, Somasundar, Satyam, Satyam, P, Geetha
Evaluation on Battery Thermal Management through Liquid Cooling Plate Geometric Parameter Design for Electric Vehicles2025-28-037710/30/2025
Lithium-ion batteries are the most preferable power source for electric vehicles due to their high energy density compared to other battery types. However, the life cycle, battery capacity, and safe operation are significantly influenced by the operating temperatures of the batteries. In general, most of the battery thermal management systems employ battery cooling plates to maintain the required battery temperature. However, there are significant problems in battery cooling such as coolant temperature difference, non-uniform velocity distribution, coolant pressure drop and power consumption, which are influenced by cooling plate channel geometric parameters. In this study, different combinations of critical parameters such as channel width, channel height and dimple diameter of battery cooling plates are modelled. Simulations are made using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). From the results, pressure drop, temperature rise and power consumption are analyzed to identify the dominant parameters.
K, Muthukrishnan, K, Keshavbalaje, Gutte, Ashish, N, Aswin
Temperature and State of Charge Equalization through Passive and Active Thermal Management System Techniques for Electric Vehicles2025-28-036310/30/2025
Electric vehicles frequently employ lithium-based batteries owing to their elevated energy density, long lifespan, and flexible design. Currently, research is concentrated on thermal safety, particularly in high power and dense packing applications. In addition to being vital for data management, equalization, temperature control, voltage and current estimation, and battery safety, performance, and durability, for equalization a battery thermal management system is also necessary. To obtain a balanced and effective thermal management solution, passive and active thermal management techniques address thermal challenges in various applications. This paper provides a review on temperature effect on battery performance and comprehensive comparison between passive and active thermal management techniques, with a specific focus on temperature equalization and state of charge equalization in battery systems. A passive approach is analysed using natural cooling methods to equalise temperatures in a system by directly contacting heat- generating components, allowing them to absorb heat efficiently. Similarly, an active approach is analysed by circulating air by fan to remove heat from hotspots and distribute it more evenly throughout the system. The weakest cell can frequently achieve the highest voltage while utilizing the same current when extra energy is released from the cell with the highest level of charge using the passive balancing mechanism. On the other hand, the active balancing strategy reduces temperature gradients and prevents localized overheating by more uniformly distributing heat. Extra energy from the highest state of charge cell is dispersed using the active balancing approach, until all the cells are equal. Active strategy batteries outperform passive ones due to their superior balance and temperature-maintaining ability that is suitable for low-power systems. However, by combining the strengths of both approaches, these systems can achieve enhanced cooling performance, optimized energy efficiency, improved reliability, flexibility and cost-effectiveness, making them ideal for demanding thermal management in diverse environments.
Shaik, Amjad, Talluri, Srinivasa Rao, Prasad, Gvl, Boora, Meghana
Numerical Investigation of Novel Hybrid Battery Thermal Management System Integrating Angular Fins for Lithium-Ion Batteries2025-28-035110/30/2025
To address the thermal management challenges in lithium-ion batteries-which are associated with safety, real-world driving, and operating cycles, particularly at high discharge rates and in extreme ambient conditions-it is essential to maintain the battery temperature within its optimal range. This work introduces a novel hybrid Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) that integrating a Phase Change Material (PCM) and air cooling with fins attached to air-channel in PCM side. Unlike conventional approaches that use standard rectangular fins, this study employs angular fins with varying dimensions to enhance heat dissipation. The hybrid system is designed to leverage the high latent heat storage capability of the PCM while ensuring efficient convective heat removal through air cooling. The airflow through the cooling channel accelerates heat dissipation from the PCM, thereby increasing its effectiveness. The angular fins are strategically positioned within the PCM section to enhance thermal diffusion by increasing the effective heat transfer surface area. This study compares conventional fins with the proposed angular fin design to analyse the peak battery temperature and temperature variation across the battery. The optimized fin orientation with specific angles may enhance heat diffusion within the PCM. As the number of fin segments increases, the volume fraction occupied by the PCM is restricted, so the optimal number of fin segments must be evaluated for the best performance of the combined PCM and fin system. Our analysis of Fin - 3 (design 4) reveals its exceptional ability to maintain thermal uniformity across varying flow regimes. At a low velocity of 2 m/s, the PCM effectively homogenizes the temperature field, achieving the lowest temperature difference of 4.38 K. As airflow increases to 4 m/s, the system transitions to a convection-dominated state. In this regime, Fin - 3’s performance is sustained by a synergistic conduction-convection mechanism, achieving a minimum temperature gradient of 4.95 K. Furthermore, the proposed hybrid BTMS, under different conditions, may limit thermal stresses that develop within the battery. This research aims to improve battery thermal management with novel fin designs for next-generation systems.
Kalvankar, Tejas, Lam, Prasanth Anand Kumar, Aruri, Pranushaa
Automotive Battery Thermal Management by Federated Learning Methodology - Real Time Thermal Runaway Detection2025-28-040810/30/2025
Modern battery management systems, as part of Battery Digital Twin, include cloud-based predictive analytics algorithms. These algorithms predicts critical parameters like Thermal runaway events, state of health (SOH), state of charge (SOC), remaining useful life (RUL), etc. However, relying only on cloud-based computations adds significant latency to time-sensitive procedures such as thermal runaway monitoring. This is a very critical and safety function and delay is not acceptable, but automobiles operate in various areas throughout the intended path of travel, internet connectivity varies, resulting in a delay in data delivery to the cloud and similarly delay in return of the detected warning to the driver back in the vehicle. As a result, the inherent lag in data transfer between the cloud and vehicles challenges the present deployment of cloud-based real-time monitoring solutions. This study proposes application of Federated Learning and applying to a thermal runaway model in low-cost microcontroller as a strategy to reduce transmission and processing costs and delays. Furthermore, this will ensure safety assured, rapid and efficient client experience, and other long term, history and huge data based algorithms running in cloud, giving OEMs a competitive advantage in the digital technology arena.
Sarkar, Prasanta
Research on the Control Method of Electric Vehicle Air-Conditioning System Based on Human Thermal Comfort2025-01-506510/2/2025
For electric vehicles (EVs), the automotive air-conditioning system is the most energy-consuming auxiliary system and the key to the thermal comfort of the passenger compartment. How to reduce the energy consumption of EVs’ air-conditioning system and improve passenger comfort is one of the focuses of EVs’ air-conditioning system research. This article proposes a method to integrate the passenger cabin thermal comfort into the control of electric vehicle air-conditioning system. A coupled thermal model of the passenger compartment, air-conditioning system and battery thermal management system of EVs is established for the control of the air-conditioning system, and the effects of the air supply parameters of the air-conditioning system and the zonal air supply control strategy of the air-conditioning system on the thermal comfort of the passenger compartment are analyzed. Based on this coupled thermal model, an air-conditioning control strategy is established with the thermal comfort of the passenger compartment as the control objective, and the thermal comfort is synergized with the battery thermal management. The results show that the control method of electric vehicle air-conditioning system based on human thermal comfort is simple and effective, and the thermal comfort of the passenger compartment is significantly improved, while the energy-saving target of the air-conditioning system is realized.
Xu, Xiang, Yan, FuWu, Wang, Wei, Liu, Shuqi, Wang, Yuan
Effects of the Battery Pack Temperature on the Energy Management Strategy and Fuel Consumption of a Series Hybrid Quadricycle2025-24-01019/7/2025
Nowadays, a push towards decarbonisation to reduce the problem of the environmental pollution is increasingly pressing. In the current automotive context, a tendency among the cars manufacturer to consider the development of hybrid vehicles is growing. Indeed, thanks to the battery downsizing due to the addition of the range extender (REx), a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) allows to overcome the limitations of pure electric vehicles (EV) such as the infrastructure which is linked to the battery charging process. Moreover, the performance of battery in terms of efficiency and operating limits are strictly related with the temperature of the battery pack and with the energy management strategy (EMS). The proposed work aims to analyse the performance of a Plug-In series hybrid vehicle (Plug-In HEV) depending on the temperature of battery pack and the EMS. The considered Plug-In HEV is equipped with a hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine that is used as REx. First, a lumped dynamic thermal model of is proposed to compute the performance of the battery pack depending on the operating temperature. Moreover, a Rule Based (RB) and a Pontryagin’s Minimum Principle (PMP) Energy Management Strategy (EMS) are considered. The results in terms of fuel consumption are discussed accounting for the battery lumped thermal dynamics. The effects of the battery pack thermal transients according to the EMS decisions are analysed. The relationship between the EMS metrics, the battery pack downsizing and the cooling mechanism of the battery pack is discussed. The authors will observe how the adoption of an optimal EMS can help to simplify the vehicle powertrain by allowing a battery pack downsizing and avoiding the use of an active cooling system of the battery pack.
Cervone, Davide, Sicilia, Massimo, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare
When Electric Vehicles Sleep: Investigating Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Precooling in Extreme Temperature Conditions2025-24-01469/7/2025
Effective thermal management is essential for optimizing the performance and longevity of lithium-ion battery packs, particularly in electric vehicles facing extreme temperature conditions. This study investigates the performance of an indirect liquid cooling system used for pre-cooling stationary electric vehicle battery packs, focusing on scenarios such as vehicle sleep mode in high-temperature conditions. The cooling system, which utilizes a water-glycol mixture flowing at 1.2 L/min, was tested on a battery pack consisting of 36 prismatic battery cells in a thermally isolated chamber, subjected to initial temperatures of 50.0°C, 60.0°C, and 69.5°C. To assess the thermal behavior, 25 thermocouples were strategically positioned on the battery surface, and inlet coolant temperature was monitored via an additional thermocouple. An exponential cooling response was observed across all temperature cases, with maximum temperature difference between the hottest and coldest cells reaching 7.6°C, 10.5°C, and 12.7°C at approximately 15 minutes for initial temperatures of 50.0°C, 60.0°C, and 69.5°C, respectively. While higher initial temperatures led to longer cooling durations (37, 52, and 67 minutes for each case), the final temperature differences converged to similar values, indicating a stable cooling performance across various scenarios. The cooling behavior exhibited consistent thermal patterns, with the temperature differences slightly decreasing toward the end of the tests. Additionally, a resistance-capacitance model was calibrated to predict thermal behavior, achieving a low root mean square error and mean absolute error of 0.4°C and 0.3°C, respectively. These findings offer valuable insights for improving battery thermal management in electric vehicles, particularly during sleep periods, and contribute to the development of energy-efficient and reliable cooling strategies that ensure optimal performance and safety in extreme climates.
Darvish, Hossein, Carlucci, Antonio Paolo, Ficarella, Antonio, Laforgia, Domenico
An Investigation of Battery Module Thermal Behavior Based on CFD Simulations and Experimental Tests2025-24-01449/7/2025
Battery management systems are among the key components in electric vehicles (EVs), which are increasingly replacing internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in the automotive industry. Battery management systems mainly focus on battery thermal management, efficiency, battery life and the safety conditions. Generally, lithium-ion batteries have been chosen in EV cars. Therefore, the internal resistance of Li-ion batteries plays a crucial role in the thermal behavior of the energy storage system. Most of the published studies rely on 0D-1D models to analyses single cell thermal behavior depending on the internal resistance at different ambient temperatures and charging/ discharging rates, and on the cooling system. However, these models, though fast, cannot provide detailed information about the temperature distribution within a cell or a module. Full 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)- Conjugate Heat Transfer (CHT) simulations on the other hand, are very time consuming and require robust computational resources, but allow a deeper understanding of the cell/module thermal evolution with and without cooling. In this study, a method has been developed to reduce the time required for 3D simulations. In the 3D model of a battery module with 21700 Li-ion battery cells the liquid-cooled base plate of the battery module is replaced by a solid aluminum plate. The approach consists mainly in assigning constant temperature on the outer surface of the rectangular component during the simulations. In this way, it becomes possible to calculate the temperature evolution of the module’s cells without having to use the very time-consuming Conjugate Heat Transfer model, with only moderate penalties in terms of accuracy. The simulations were run at 1C and 1.5C discharge-charge rates at different ambient temperatures. In addition to the 3D simulations, the numerical results will be validated with some experimental measurements.
Karaca, Cem, Olmeda, Pablo, Margot, Xandra, Postrioti, Lucio, Baldinelli, Giorgio
Active Temperature Control Strategies with Liquid Cooling Thermal Management System for Li-Ion Batteries2025-24-01489/7/2025
Nowadays, electric vehicles (EVs) are considered one of the most promising solutions for reducing pollutant emissions related to the road transportation sector. Although these vehicles have achieved a high level of reliability, various challenges about Li-ion storage systems and their thermal management systems remain unresolved. This work proposes a numerical and experimental study of a lithium-ion storage cell with a scaled battery thermal management system (BTMS). In particular, a channel plate for liquid cooling is specifically designed and manufactured for the cell under test. The BTMS is based on the development of an indirect liquid cooling system with optimal control of the coolant flow rate to fulfill the thermal requirements of the system. A lumped parameters approach is used to simulate the electro-thermal behavior of the system and to analyze the effects of real-time control strategies on the temperature of the cell under test. An ad-hoc experimental test rig is set up for model and control validation purposes, operating under both steady-state and dynamic conditions in a controlled environment. The temperature management is implemented by using an ARDUINO UNO board, regulating the cooling plate water supply through a variable mass flow rate pump. The overall system model was validated and optimized under various environmental conditions, taking into account the actual on-board behavior of the storage cell under study. Experimental and simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed system in maintaining the battery temperature within the optimal range, even under harsh temperature conditions. Although the results are based on a single Li-ion battery cell, they can be suitably extended to a complete vehicle battery pack by considering cell-to-cell thermal and electrical interactions.
Capasso, Clemente, Castiglione, Teresa, Perrone, Diego, Sequino, Luigi
A Comprehensive Electro-Thermal and Fluid-Dynamic Model for Liquid-Cooled Lithium-Ion Cells: Development and Experimental Validation2025-24-01459/7/2025
The temperature evolution of lithium-ion cells under operation has a significant impact on their performance, efficiency, and aging. Modeling the thermal status of lithium-ion cells is crucial to predict and prevent undesired working conditions or even failures. In this context, this paper presents a mathematical model to predict the transient temperature distributions of a lithium-ion polymer battery (LiPo) cooled by forced convection via a specially designed channel plate for liquid cooling. For the battery modeling, Newman’s pseudo-2D approach was used to perform a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. It assumes that the porous electrode is made of equally sized, isotropic, homogeneous spherical particles, which results in smooth, uniform intercalation/de-intercalation of lithium inside the electrode. Also, the channel plate geometry and the cooling liquid fluid-dynamic behavior were simulated with a commercial code based on the finite volume method. The model has been set up and validated through experimental measurements performed on the LiPo and a 3D-printed sample of the cooling plate. Both electrical and thermal parameters of the battery and the refrigerant circuit were collected during the tests at different ambient and charge/discharge conditions. The simulated results were in good agreement with the experimental data. The electro-thermal and fluid-dynamic predictions of the developed model can be used for “test-before-invest” industrial strategies to support the design of battery cooling systems with high performance.
Ferrari, Cristian, Magri, Luca, Sequino, Luigi
Advanced Energy and Thermal Management Control Strategy for Heavy-Duty Fuel Cell Powertrains02-18-03-00228/14/2025
Medium- and heavy-duty fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) have gained attention over the battery electric vehicles, offering long vehicle range, fast refueling times, and high payload capacity. However, FCEVs face challenges of high upfront system cost and fuel cell system durability. To address the cost sensitivity of the fuel cell powertrain, it is imperative to maximize the operating efficiency of the energy and thermal management system while meeting the fuel cell durability requirements. This article presents an advanced adaptive control strategy for each of the energy and thermal management systems of a FCEV to maximize operating efficiency as well as vehicle performance. The proposed adaptive energy management strategy builds upon a real-time equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS), which is updated based on a horizon prediction algorithm using GPS and navigation data of the route. The algorithm predicts the battery state of charge (SOC) for a defined horizon, which is used to predict the target SOC for the real-time ECMS strategy to minimize hydrogen consumption. For a long-haul heavy-duty truck application, the proposed adaptive ECMS strategy showed 1.8% and 1% improvements in fuel efficiency when compared to rule-based and baseline ECMS strategies through model-in-loop (MiL) evaluation. In addition, this article presents an adaptive thermal management strategy that integrates predictive and real-time control approaches, such as the adaptive ECMS. The predictive control strategy leverages GPS and navigation data to forecast component temperatures over a predefined horizon prediction. The predicted component temperatures are then utilized to adjust the target component temperatures for the real-time linear quadratic regulator (LQR) control algorithm. LQR is deployed to minimize the energy consumption of the thermal management system while ensuring that component temperatures are maintained within limits during aggressive duty cycles. Lastly, MiL evaluations were conducted on a validated plant model to verify the developed adaptive thermal management control strategy.
Batool, Sadaf, Baburaj, Adithya, Sadekar, Gaurav, Joshi, Satyum, Franke, Michael
Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus2025-01-02667/2/2025
Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of heat transfer are modelled analogue to the real system. The goal is to find synergy effects between the different components to improve the overall energy efficiency. Additionally, a test setup is built on the Automotive and Powertrain Engineering Institutes’ power and inertia simulator test rig in Hamburg including all relevant components of an exemplary electric powertrain for validation of the simulation model. Results are presented, which show that the thermal behaviour of the system can be modelled with high accuracy to the real system. Moreover, synergy effects are identified for improving the thermal energy flows with the goal of reducing the overall energy demand.
Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias
Design and Analysis of a Battery Thermal Management System for Fast Charging in Extreme Hot Condition2025-01-03227/2/2025
Fast charging of lithium-ion batteries presents significant thermal management challenges, due to the high demanding conditions of high C-rates, particularly at extreme ambient temperatures. This study explores the thermal behavior of a cylindrical lithium-ion cell during fast-charging scenarios designed to achieve a full charge in 15 minutes or less (SOC: 0%–100%), across a wide range of ambient temperatures. The analysis covers a broad spectrum of ambient temperatures, from 303 K to 333 K, addressing real-world operational challenges faced by electric vehicles and energy storage systems. A validated thermal model, calibrated with experimental data on the open circuit voltage (OCV) and internal resistance of the cell across varying conditions, is employed to accurately predict the temperature distribution of the cell at different states of charge (SOC). The model also includes scenarios involving high initial cell temperatures to assess their effect on thermal performance during fast charging. To mitigate the thermal stresses generated by these extreme charging conditions, an immersion Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) is proposed and analyzed. This advanced cooling system is specifically selected to manage the rapid heat generation associated with fast charging. Simulation results confirm the effectiveness of the BTMS in maintaining cell temperatures within safe operational limits, minimizing thermal gradients, and preventing overheating even in the most challenging conditions. Under natural convection cooling, the module temperature reached 368 K at an ambient temperature of 303 K and 396 K at 333 K, emphasizing the need for active cooling solutions to avoid thermal runaway and ensure safety. The lumped heat generation model, validated for a single cell and extended to a 16-cell battery module, demonstrated high computational efficiency and applicability for real-world thermal management scenarios. Immersion cooling systems effectively kept the module temperature below 308 K, with inlet coolant velocities up to 12 m/s required in extreme conditions (333 K), reducing the maximum cell temperature from 397.5 K to below 308 K, achieving a temperature drop of over 89.5 K in less than 45 seconds. The study also found that temperature uniformity was achieved after 0.4 SOC at 303 K. High-speed cooling is essential during the brief charging period (approximately 700 seconds), with high coolant velocities crucial for rapid thermal regulation. These findings provide critical insights into charging strategies and cooling mechanisms, offering a pathway to safer, more efficient, and thermally stable operation in electric vehicles and energy storage systems, even under extreme environmental and operational conditions.
Jahanpanah, Jalal, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Babaie, Meisam, Konno, Juho, Akbarzadeh, Mohsen
Immersion Cooling for Lithium-Ion Batteries at High Discharging Rates14-14-02-00125/29/2025
The high-performance electric sports cars market is expected to register rapid development in the next years, driven by a different attitude of racing enthusiasts toward electric vehicles. The improvements in battery technology are reinforcing consumer confidence and interest in electric sports vehicles, making them more attractive to enthusiasts and accelerating their adoption. Batteries have been used in high heat generation conditions more often with fast charging and discharging. Therefore, the need for more advanced battery thermal management systems (BTMS) has been increasing in recent years. Vegetable oil, owing to its unique availability and biodegradability, is considered as a viable alternative to fossil fuel-based cooling fluids in immersion cooling systems. In the present work, the feasibility of using vegetable oil in immersion cooling under high discharge conditions is studied by comparing it with four types of fossil fuel-based cooling fluids. Immersion cooling was applied to an 8S3P battery module, and the cooling performance of the battery module at high discharging rates was studied by using five different types of dielectric coolants. The immersion cooling model of battery module has been built, and the cooling performance with different types of coolants at high discharging rates (4C, 6C, and 8C) has been analyzed. The effect of coolant flow rate on battery cooling performance was also studied. To make a comprehensive evaluation on the coolants used for immersion cooling at high discharging rates, an analysis was conducted by assessing power consumption and temperature uniformity. Cooling efficiency, power consumption, and temperature uniformity were considered in coolant selection, and coolant flow rate had a significant effect on coolant selection. This study can provide a guidance for the design of BTMS with immersion cooling in electric vehicle applications.
Hong, Hanchi, Song, Xiang, Shi, Xu, d’Apolito, Luigi, Xin, Qianfan
Items per page:
1 – 50 of 250