Browse Topic: Battery thermal management

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Integrated Quality Assurance Frameworks for Testing Advanced Automotive Systems in the Era of ADAS and E-Mobility2026-26-0568To be published on 01/16/2026
As the automotive industry rapidly transitions toward intelligent, electrified, and connected mobility, ensuring the safety and performance of advanced vehicle systems has become increasingly complex. Technologies such as Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), electric powertrains, and software-defined architectures demand robust quality assurance (QA) frameworks capable of addressing the multi-domain nature of modern vehicle platforms. This paper presents an integrated QA methodology that combines traditional testing protocols with model-based validation, digital twin environments, and real-time system monitoring to comprehensively evaluate the reliability and functionality of next-generation automotive systems. The proposed framework focuses on end-to-end traceability from requirements to validation, encompassing hardware-in-the-loop (HIL), software-in-the-loop (SIL), and over-the-air (OTA) testing strategies. Emphasis is placed on simulating complex scenarios for ADAS, battery
KOMANDURI, ARUN SRINIVAS, Srivastava, Anuj
State-of-the-Art Battery Thermal Management Technologies for SCV EV: An Integrated Approach to Enhance Energy Utilization, Boost Battery Efficiency, and Reduce Expenses2026-26-0076To be published on 01/16/2026
The Effective battery thermal management is fundamental to ensuring both the performance and durability of small commercial electric vehicles. This study investigates advanced methods for maximizing energy efficiency, extending driving range, shortening charging durations, and lowering costs by employing insulation and thermoelectric cooling technologies. India's diverse and often extreme climatic conditions-ranging from intense summer heat to cold winters-significantly affect the thermal management of electric vehicle (EV) batteries. Also in small commercial vehicle segment uncontrolled operation condition (loading & off-road driving) of vehicle is common in India which leads to higher average C rate from battery implies need active battery cooling. Keeping batteries within their optimal temperature range is vital for maintaining their efficiency, safety, and service life. Advanced thermal insulating materials stabilize battery temperatures by minimizing heat gain and external
Chormule, Suhas Rangrao, Warule, Prasad, Nagpure, Rahul, Jadhav, Vaibhav
Battery Thermal Management Approach for 2-Wheeler Electric Vehicles – An Indian Case Study2026-26-0151To be published on 01/16/2026
India's electric 2-wheeler (E2W) market has witnessed fast growth, driven by lucrative government policies. Two-wheeler market captures 73% volume of total Indian automotive market, representing the largest segment (Greaves Electric Mobility Limited report 2024). Consequently, all manufacturers of 2-wheelers are developing new electric vehicles (EV) tailored for the Indian market. However, the Indian EV market has witnessed multiple fire accidents in recent years, raising safety concerns among consumers and industry stakeholders. These incidents highlight key weakness in battery thermal management systems (BTMS), particularly during charging. Most existing E2W BTMS relies on passive air cooling, which has been associated with fire incidents due to its inefficiency in heat dissipation, particularly charging in India's high-temperature environment. Therefore, it is imperative to build thermally viable and economical BTMS for the growing E2W vehicles with fast charging capability. The
Emran, Ashraf, Sankhla, Harsh, Garg, Shivam, Raut PhD, Ankit, Hiremath, Vinodkumar, Berry, Sushil
To study and compare communication protocol for fast charging in electric two-wheeler with respect to CCS 2.0: An Indian Perspective2026-26-0198To be published on 01/16/2026
India, as the world’s largest two-wheeler market, is witnessing an aggressive transition towards electric mobility, driven by urban air quality concerns, fuel cost sensitivity, and government incentives. Among the critical enablers of this shift is the availability of robust and efficient fast charging infrastructure tailored to electric two-wheelers. This paper proposes a systematic testing framework for fast charging of electric two-wheelers, addressing key parameters such as battery thermal management, charging communication protocols, safety interlocks, and State of Charge (SOC) estimation accuracy. The study evaluates current and emerging standards, including AIS-156, IS 17017, and IEC 61851, and identifies gaps specific to two-wheeler applications such as compact form factor constraints, lower energy storage, and high operational turnover in fleet usage. A special focus is placed on interoperability, user safety, and infrastructure scalability for dense urban environments. The
Uthaman, Sreekumar, Mulay, Abhijit B
Thermal System design of Inter-City Fuel Cell Electric Bus2026-26-0427To be published on 01/16/2026
In the current scenario, demand for alternate energy is increasing due to depletion of fossil fuels and countries commitment towards carbon neutrality by 2050. Hydrogen is considered as one of the cleaner fuels and many OEMs across the world started to work on various strategies like hydrogen combustion engine and fuel cell. Passenger vehicles like Buses are at the lookout for fuel cell technology at faster rate than other commercial vehicles. In fuel cell vehicles, cooling system design is critical & complex since it includes fuel cell cooling, Power electronics cooling & battery cooling. In this paper cooling system design of a Fuel cell electric bus for inter-city application is demonstrated. Radiators and Fans are selected based on the overall heat rejection and Coolant inlet temperature requirements of components. Cooling system circuit and pump is decided to meet the coolant flow rate targets. Flow simulation and thermal simulation done using simulation models using software KULI
M S, Vignesh, KIRAN, NALAVADATH
Optimization and Evaluation of Thermal Interface Material Thickness and Distribution Patterns for Improved Heat Transfer in Liquid-Cooled Battery Pack2026-26-0432To be published on 01/16/2026
Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMS) play a critical role in ensuring the longevity, safety, and efficient operation of lithium-ion battery packs. These systems are designed to effectively dissipate the heat generated by the cells during vehicle operation, thereby maintaining a uniform temperature distribution across the battery modules, preventing overheating and mitigating the risk of thermal runaway. However, one of the primary challenges in BTMS design lies in achieving effective thermal contact between the battery cells and the cooling plate. Non-uniform or excessive application of Thermal Interface Materials (TIMs) without ensuring robustness and uniformity can increase interfacial thermal resistance, leading to significant temperature variations across the battery modules, which may trigger power limitations via the Battery Management System (BMS) and these thermal gradients can cause inefficient cooling, ultimately affecting battery performance and lifespan. In this study
K, Mathankumar, Jahagirdar, Manasi, Kumbhar, Makarand Shivaji
Driving Thermal Intelligence – Pioneering Digital Twin-Driven Hardware-In-Loop for Smart Climate Control Modules2026-26-0380To be published on 01/16/2026
The automotive industry is undergoing a transformative shift from hardware-driven vehicle development to software-centric, model-based validation practices. At the heart of this evolution is the demand for smarter, more adaptive cabin climate management systems. The Climate Control Module (CCM) a critical embedded ECU—regulates the vehicle’s Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) functionality based on a fusion of passenger inputs and environmental sensor data. Traditionally, validation of such systems relied heavily on manual testing within climatic chambers or through in-vehicle trials using physical interfaces like the Climate Control Head (CCH) and the Infotainment Head Unit (HU). These legacy methods are increasingly inadequate in addressing rapid development cycles, high functional complexity, and stringent safety and quality standards. This paper introduces a Digital Twin-enabled Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) testing methodology using advanced real-time controllers to
More, Shweta, Shinde, Vivek, Turankar, Darshana, Patel, Dafiya, Gosavi, Santosh, GHANWAT, HEMANT
Development of Vibration Fixtures for Automotive Testing: A Combined Analytical and FEA-Based Approach2025-28-025811/06/2025
Vibration testing is an essential component of automotive product development, ensuring that components such as engines, transmissions, and electronic systems perform reliably under various operating conditions. The adoption of electronics in the automotive industry, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s, marked a shift in vibration testing approaches, moving from primarily low-frequency tests to methods that could address high-frequency vibrations as well. This evolution highlights the need for effective vibration fixture designs that can simulate real-world conditions, enabling manufacturers to detect potential weaknesses before products are integrated into vehicles. A key aspect of vibration testing is the identification of resonant frequencies within components. The coupled mass-spring-damper system, for example, can exhibit multiple resonances characterized by a Bode Diagram, where the Q factor technique is utilized to assess damping levels. Accurate vibration analysis can be
Shinde, Pramodkumar, Shah, Viren
Design and Analysis on Integrated Thermal Management Solution for Electric Vehicles2025-28-041810/30/2025
Thermal Management System (TMS) for Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) incorporates maintaining optimum temperature for cabin, battery and e-powertrain subsystems under different charging and discharging conditions at various ambient temperatures. Current methods of thermal management are inefficient, complex and lead to wastage of energy and battery capacity loss due to inability of energy transfer between subsystems. In this paper, the energy consumption of an electric vehicle's thermal management system is reduced by a novel approach for integration of various subsystems. Integrated Thermal Management System (ITMS) integrates air conditioning system, battery thermal management and e-powertrain system. Characteristics of existing integration strategies are studied, compared, and classified based on their energy efficiency for different operating conditions. A new integrated system is proposed with a heat pump system for cabin and waste heat recovery from e-powertrain. Various cooling
K, Muthukrishnan, S, Saikrishna, Mahobia, Tanmay, Vijayaraj, Jayanth Murali
Thermal Management in Electrified Transportation: A Comparative Study of Different Powertrain Technologies2025-28-041210/30/2025
The transition towards sustainable transportation necessitates the development of advanced thermal management systems (TMS) for electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), and hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles (HICEVs). Effective thermal control is crucial for passenger comfort and the performance, longevity, and safety of critical vehicle components. This paper presents a rigorous and comparative analysis of TMS strategies across these diverse powertrain technologies. It systematically examines the unique thermal challenges associated with each subsystem, including cabin HVAC, battery packs, fuel cell stacks, traction motors, and power electronics. For cabin HVAC, the paper explores methods for minimizing energy consumption while maintaining thermal comfort, considering factors such as ambient temperature, humidity, and occupant load. The critical importance of battery thermal management is emphasized, with a focus on
K, Neelima, K, Anisha, Ch, Kavya, C, Somasundar, Satyam, Satyam, P, Geetha
Automotive Battery Thermal Management by Federated Learning Methodology - Real Time Thermal Runaway Detection2025-28-040810/30/2025
Modern battery management systems, as part of Battery Digital Twin, include cloud-based predictive analytics algorithms. These algorithms predicts critical parameters like Thermal runaway events, state of health (SOH), state of charge (SOC), remaining useful life (RUL), etc. However, relying only on cloud-based computations adds significant latency to time-sensitive procedures such as thermal runaway monitoring. This is a very critical and safety function and delay is not acceptable, but automobiles operate in various areas throughout the intended path of travel, internet connectivity varies, resulting in a delay in data delivery to the cloud and similarly delay in return of the detected warning to the driver back in the vehicle. As a result, the inherent lag in data transfer between the cloud and vehicles challenges the present deployment of cloud-based real-time monitoring solutions. This study proposes application of Federated Learning and applying to a thermal runaway model in low
Sarkar, Prasanta
Numerical Investigation of Novel Hybrid Battery Thermal Management System Integrating Angular Fins for Lithium-Ion Batteries2025-28-035110/30/2025
To address the thermal management challenges in lithium-ion batteries-which are associated with safety, real-world driving, and operating cycles, particularly at high discharge rates and in extreme ambient conditions-it is essential to maintain the battery temperature within its optimal range. This work introduces a novel hybrid Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) that integrating a Phase Change Material (PCM) and air cooling with fins attached to air-channel in PCM side. Unlike conventional approaches that use standard rectangular fins, this study employs angular fins with varying dimensions to enhance heat dissipation. The hybrid system is designed to leverage the high latent heat storage capability of the PCM while ensuring efficient convective heat removal through air cooling. The airflow through the cooling channel accelerates heat dissipation from the PCM, thereby increasing its effectiveness. The angular fins are strategically positioned within the PCM section to enhance
Kalvankar, Tejas, Lam, Prasanth Anand Kumar, Aruri, Pranushaa
Advanced Battery Thermal Management Technologies for SCVs - A Comprehensive Approach to Optimize Energy Use, Enhance Battery Performance and Cost Reductions2025-28-041610/30/2025
The whole electric vehicle world is directly & indirectly dependent on performance, life, safety & cost of high voltage battery which is used in vehicle primarily as energy storage system. The efficient thermal management of batteries is crucial for the performance and longevity of small commercial vehicles (SCVs). This paper explores innovative strategies aimed at enhancing energy optimization, range improvement, charging time optimization & cost reduction through the integration of insulation and thermoelectric cooling systems. As the demand for electric vehicles (EVs) continues to rise, particularly in commercial applications, effective battery thermal management systems (BTMS) have become increasingly important. Maintaining optimal operating temperatures is essential to ensure battery performance, safety, and lifespan. The use of advanced insulating materials is a foundational element in maintaining stable battery temperatures. By minimizing heat loss and protecting against
Nagpure, Rahul, Chormule, Suhas Rangrao, Jadhav, Vaibhav, Warule, Prasad
Temperature and State of Charge Equalization through Passive and Active Thermal Management System Techniques for Electric Vehicles2025-28-036310/30/2025
Electric vehicles frequently employ lithium-based batteries owing to their elevated energy density, long lifespan, and flexible design. Currently, research is concentrated on thermal safety, particularly in high power and dense packing applications. In addition to being vital for data management, equalization, temperature control, voltage and current estimation, and battery safety, performance, and durability, for equalization a battery thermal management system is also necessary. To obtain a balanced and effective thermal management solution, passive and active thermal management techniques address thermal challenges in various applications. This paper provides a review on temperature effect on battery performance and comprehensive comparison between passive and active thermal management techniques, with a specific focus on temperature equalization and state of charge equalization in battery systems. A passive approach is analysed using natural cooling methods to equalise temperatures
Shaik, Amjad, Talluri, Srinivasa Rao, Prasad, Gvl, Boora, Meghana
Evaluation on Battery Thermal Management through Liquid Cooling Plate Geometric Parameter Design for Electric Vehicles2025-28-037710/30/2025
Lithium-ion batteries are the most preferable power source for electric vehicles due to their high energy density compared to other battery types. However, the life cycle, battery capacity, and safe operation are significantly influenced by the operating temperatures of the batteries. In general, most of the battery thermal management systems employ battery cooling plates to maintain the required battery temperature. However, there are significant problems in battery cooling such as coolant temperature difference, non-uniform velocity distribution, coolant pressure drop and power consumption, which are influenced by cooling plate channel geometric parameters. In this study, different combinations of critical parameters such as channel width, channel height and dimple diameter of battery cooling plates are modelled. Simulations are made using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). From the results, pressure drop, temperature rise and power consumption are analyzed to identify the dominant
K, Muthukrishnan, K, Keshavbalaje, Gutte, Ashish, N, Aswin
Research on the Control Method of Electric Vehicle Air-Conditioning System Based on Human Thermal Comfort2025-01-506510/02/2025
For electric vehicles (EVs), the automotive air-conditioning system is the most energy-consuming auxiliary system and the key to the thermal comfort of the passenger compartment. How to reduce the energy consumption of EVs’ air-conditioning system and improve passenger comfort is one of the focuses of EVs’ air-conditioning system research. This article proposes a method to integrate the passenger cabin thermal comfort into the control of electric vehicle air-conditioning system. A coupled thermal model of the passenger compartment, air-conditioning system and battery thermal management system of EVs is established for the control of the air-conditioning system, and the effects of the air supply parameters of the air-conditioning system and the zonal air supply control strategy of the air-conditioning system on the thermal comfort of the passenger compartment are analyzed. Based on this coupled thermal model, an air-conditioning control strategy is established with the thermal comfort
Xu, Xiang, Yan, FuWu, Wang, Wei, Liu, Shuqi, Wang, Yuan
Effects of the Battery Pack Temperature on the Energy Management Strategy and Fuel Consumption of a Series Hybrid Quadricycle2025-24-010109/07/2025
Nowadays, a push towards decarbonisation to reduce the problem of the environmental pollution is increasingly pressing. In the current automotive context, a tendency among the cars manufacturer to consider the development of hybrid vehicles is growing. Indeed, thanks to the battery downsizing due to the addition of the range extender (REx), a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) allows to overcome the limitations of pure electric vehicles (EV) such as the infrastructure which is linked to the battery charging process. Moreover, the performance of battery in terms of efficiency and operating limits are strictly related with the temperature of the battery pack and with the energy management strategy (EMS). The proposed work aims to analyse the performance of a Plug-In series hybrid vehicle (Plug-In HEV) depending on the temperature of battery pack and the EMS. The considered Plug-In HEV is equipped with a hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine that is used as REx. First, a lumped dynamic
Cervone, Davide, Sicilia, Massimo, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare
Active Temperature Control Strategies with Liquid Cooling Thermal Management System for Li-Ion Batteries2025-24-014809/07/2025
Nowadays, electric vehicles (EVs) are considered one of the most promising solutions for reducing pollutant emissions related to the road transportation sector. Although these vehicles have achieved a high level of reliability, various challenges about Li-ion storage systems and their thermal management systems remain unresolved. This work proposes a numerical and experimental study of a lithium-ion storage cell with a scaled battery thermal management system (BTMS). In particular, a channel plate for liquid cooling is specifically designed and manufactured for the cell under test. The BTMS is based on the development of an indirect liquid cooling system with optimal control of the coolant flow rate to fulfill the thermal requirements of the system. A lumped parameters approach is used to simulate the electro-thermal behavior of the system and to analyze the effects of real-time control strategies on the temperature of the cell under test. An ad-hoc experimental test rig is set up for
Capasso, Clemente, Castiglione, Teresa, Perrone, Diego, Sequino, Luigi
An Investigation of Battery Module Thermal Behavior Based on CFD Simulations and Experimental Tests2025-24-014409/07/2025
Battery management systems are among the key components in electric vehicles (EVs), which are increasingly replacing internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in the automotive industry. Battery management systems mainly focus on battery thermal management, efficiency, battery life and the safety conditions. Generally, lithium-ion batteries have been chosen in EV cars. Therefore, the internal resistance of Li-ion batteries plays a crucial role in the thermal behavior of the energy storage system. Most of the published studies rely on 0D-1D models to analyses single cell thermal behavior depending on the internal resistance at different ambient temperatures and charging/ discharging rates, and on the cooling system. However, these models, though fast, cannot provide detailed information about the temperature distribution within a cell or a module. Full 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)- Conjugate Heat Transfer (CHT) simulations on the other hand, are very time consuming and require
Karaca, Cem, Olmeda, Pablo, Margot, Xandra, Postrioti, Lucio, Baldinelli, Giorgio
A Comprehensive Electro-Thermal and Fluid-Dynamic Model for Liquid-Cooled Lithium-Ion Cells: Development and Experimental Validation2025-24-014509/07/2025
The temperature evolution of lithium-ion cells under operation has a significant impact on their performance, efficiency, and aging. Modeling the thermal status of lithium-ion cells is crucial to predict and prevent undesired working conditions or even failures. In this context, this paper presents a mathematical model to predict the transient temperature distributions of a lithium-ion polymer battery (LiPo) cooled by forced convection via a specially designed channel plate for liquid cooling. For the battery modeling, Newman’s pseudo-2D approach was used to perform a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. It assumes that the porous electrode is made of equally sized, isotropic, homogeneous spherical particles, which results in smooth, uniform intercalation/de-intercalation of lithium inside the electrode. Also, the channel plate geometry and the cooling liquid fluid-dynamic behavior were simulated with a commercial code based on the finite volume method. The model has been set
Ferrari, Cristian, Magri, Luca, Sequino, Luigi
When Electric Vehicles Sleep: Investigating Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Precooling in Extreme Temperature Conditions2025-24-014609/07/2025
Effective thermal management is essential for optimizing the performance and longevity of lithium-ion battery packs, particularly in electric vehicles facing extreme temperature conditions. This study investigates the performance of an indirect liquid cooling system used for pre-cooling stationary electric vehicle battery packs, focusing on scenarios such as vehicle sleep mode in high-temperature conditions. The cooling system, which utilizes a water-glycol mixture flowing at 1.2 L/min, was tested on a battery pack consisting of 36 prismatic battery cells in a thermally isolated chamber, subjected to initial temperatures of 50.0°C, 60.0°C, and 69.5°C. To assess the thermal behavior, 25 thermocouples were strategically positioned on the battery surface, and inlet coolant temperature was monitored via an additional thermocouple. An exponential cooling response was observed across all temperature cases, with maximum temperature difference between the hottest and coldest cells reaching 7.6
Darvish, Hossein, Carlucci, Antonio Paolo, Ficarella, Antonio, Laforgia, Domenico
Advanced Energy and Thermal Management Control Strategy for Heavy-Duty Fuel Cell Powertrains02-18-03-002208/14/2025
Medium- and heavy-duty fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) have gained attention over the battery electric vehicles, offering long vehicle range, fast refueling times, and high payload capacity. However, FCEVs face challenges of high upfront system cost and fuel cell system durability. To address the cost sensitivity of the fuel cell powertrain, it is imperative to maximize the operating efficiency of the energy and thermal management system while meeting the fuel cell durability requirements. This article presents an advanced adaptive control strategy for each of the energy and thermal management systems of a FCEV to maximize operating efficiency as well as vehicle performance. The proposed adaptive energy management strategy builds upon a real-time equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS), which is updated based on a horizon prediction algorithm using GPS and navigation data of the route. The algorithm predicts the battery state of charge (SOC) for a defined horizon, which
Batool, Sadaf, Baburaj, Adithya, Sadekar, Gaurav, Joshi, Satyum, Franke, Michael
Design and Analysis of a Battery Thermal Management System for Fast Charging in Extreme Hot Condition2025-01-032207/02/2025
Fast charging of lithium-ion batteries presents significant thermal management challenges, due to the high demanding conditions of high C-rates, particularly at extreme ambient temperatures. This study explores the thermal behavior of a cylindrical lithium-ion cell during fast-charging scenarios designed to achieve a full charge in 15 minutes or less (SOC: 0%–100%), across a wide range of ambient temperatures. The analysis covers a broad spectrum of ambient temperatures, from 303 K to 333 K, addressing real-world operational challenges faced by electric vehicles and energy storage systems. A validated thermal model, calibrated with experimental data on the open circuit voltage (OCV) and internal resistance of the cell across varying conditions, is employed to accurately predict the temperature distribution of the cell at different states of charge (SOC). The model also includes scenarios involving high initial cell temperatures to assess their effect on thermal performance during fast
Jahanpanah, Jalal, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Babaie, Meisam, Konno, Juho, Akbarzadeh, Mohsen
Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus2025-01-026607/02/2025
Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of
Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias
Immersion Cooling for Lithium-Ion Batteries at High Discharging Rates14-14-02-001205/29/2025
The high-performance electric sports cars market is expected to register rapid development in the next years, driven by a different attitude of racing enthusiasts toward electric vehicles. The improvements in battery technology are reinforcing consumer confidence and interest in electric sports vehicles, making them more attractive to enthusiasts and accelerating their adoption. Batteries have been used in high heat generation conditions more often with fast charging and discharging. Therefore, the need for more advanced battery thermal management systems (BTMS) has been increasing in recent years. Vegetable oil, owing to its unique availability and biodegradability, is considered as a viable alternative to fossil fuel-based cooling fluids in immersion cooling systems. In the present work, the feasibility of using vegetable oil in immersion cooling under high discharge conditions is studied by comparing it with four types of fossil fuel-based cooling fluids. Immersion cooling was
Hong, Hanchi, Song, Xiang, Shi, Xu, d’Apolito, Luigi, Xin, Qianfan
Influence of Coolant Properties on Battery Thermal Management in Electric Buses during Cold Starts02-18-03-001304/25/2025
Improving electric vehicles’ overall thermal management strategy can directly or indirectly improve battery efficiency and vehicle range [1]. In this study, the effect of the coolant type used in BTMS (battery thermal management system) units used for heating batteries in cold weather conditions was investigated in electric buses. In this investigation, tests were performed with two types of antifreeze, which have different characteristics. The study evaluated the impact of coolant flow, BTMS circulation pump performance, and battery heating using these two types of antifreeze in the BTMS coolant line. In addition to carrying out tests, 1D computational fluid dynamics models’ simulations were carried out for both types of antifreeze, and the results were validated with experimental findings. In this study, a 12-m EV Citivolt vehicle of Anadolu Isuzu was used for tests. As a result, it was observed that differences in the properties of the antifreeze that is used in BTMS coolant line
Çetir, Özgür, Birgül, Çağrı Emre
TOC99-07-02-0TOC04/17/2025
TOC
Tobolski, Sue
Predictive Battery Thermal Management System Control Strategy and Simulation in Electric Vehicle2025-01-502704/03/2025
With the global issue of fossil fuel scarcity and the greenhouse effect, interest in electric vehicles (EVs) has surged recently. At that stage, because of the constraints of the energy density and battery performance degradation in low-temperature conditions, the mileage of EVs has been criticized. To guarantee battery performance, a battery thermal management system (BTMS) is applied to ensure battery operates in a suitable temperature range. Currently, in the industry, a settled temperature interval is set as criteria of positive thermal management activation, which is robust but leads to energy waste. BTMS has a kilowatt-level power usage under high- and low-temperature environments. Optimizing the BTMS control strategy becomes a potential solution to reduce energy consumption and overcome mileage issues. An appropriate system simulation model provides an effective tool to evaluate different BTMS control strategies. In this study, a predictive BTMS control strategy, which adjusts
Huang, Zhipei, Chen, Jiangbo, Tang, Hai
Model-Predictive Control for Heat Pump-Based Battery Thermal Management in Off-Road Autonomous Electrified Vehicles During Transient Operation2025-01-818404/01/2025
The shift towards hybrid and electric powertrains in off-road vehicles aims to enhance mobility, extend range, and improve energy efficiency. However, heat pump-based battery thermal management systems in these vehicles continue to consume significant energy, impacting overall range and efficiency. Effective thermal management is essential for maintaining battery performance and safety, particularly in extreme conditions. Although high-fidelity models can capture the complex dynamics of heat pumps, real-time control within model-based optimization frameworks often depends on simplified models, which can degrade system performance. To address this, we propose a novel data-driven grey box control-oriented model (COM) that accurately represents the thermal dynamics of a vapor-compression refrigeration-based heat pump system. This COM is integrated into a model-predictive control (MPC) framework, optimizing thermal management during transient and burst-power operations of the battery pack
Sundar, Anirudh, Ghate, Atharva, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Ruan, Yeefeng, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam, Barron, Morgan
A Thermal Behaviour of Battery Cell Using Different Electrochemical Models (ECM and NTGK)2025-01-814004/01/2025
In this study, we examine the thermal behaviours of lithium-ion battery cells using two widely employed electro-chemistry models: the Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) and the Newman-Tiedemann-Gauthier-Kim (NTGK) model. Given the critical importance of temperature regulation for the efficiency and lifespan of lithium-ion batteries, this research aims to identify the numerical method that best predicts cell thermal behaviour under constant discharge conditions with 2C, 1C and 0.5C rate. By comparing the outputs of the ECM and NTGK models, we assess their accuracy in predicting key parameters such as State-of-Charge (SoC), current output, voltage, temperature and heat generation. The findings offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of each model in simulating the thermal dynamics of battery cells, providing a basis for optimizing battery performance and longevity in real-world applications.
Wakale, Anil, Ma, Shihu, Hu, Xiao
Battery Thermal Management System for PHEV by using Air Conditioning Heater System2025-01-817204/01/2025
Toyota Motor Corporation pursuing an omnidirectional strategy that includes battery electric vehicle (BEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), and fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) to accelerate electrification. One of the technical challenges with our xEV batteries which feature good degradation resistance and long battery life, is that regenerative braking cannot be fully effective due to the decrease in regenerative power in some situations, such as low battery temperature. For the electrified vehicles with an internal combustion engine such as PHEVs, the solution has been running the engine to increase deceleration through engine braking during coasting. PHEVs are expected to extend their cruising range and enhance EV driving experience as "Practical BEVs". While increasing battery capacity and enhancing convenience, the restrictions on EV driving opportunity due to low battery temperature may negatively affect PHEV’s appealing. As an alternative, introducing a battery heater
Hoshino, Yu
Multiscale Modeling and Validation of Thermal Runaway Propagation in Immersion-Cooled Battery Systems with Full-Scale Application2025-01-816604/01/2025
Thermal management is a key challenge in the design and operation of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), particularly in high-stress conditions that may lead to thermal runaway (TR). Immersion cooling technology provides a promising solution by offering uniform cooling across all battery cells, reducing the risk of hotspots and thermal gradients that can trigger TR. However, accurately modeling the thermal behavior of such systems, especially under the complex conditions of immersion cooling, presents significant challenges. This study introduces a comprehensive multiscale and Multiphysics modeling framework to analyze thermal runaway and its propagation (TRP) in battery systems cooled by immersion in dielectric fluids. The model integrates both 1D and 3D simulations, focusing on calibrating energy terms at the single-cell level using 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The calibration process includes a detailed analysis of cell chemistries, exothermic heat release, and thermal runaway
Negro, Sergio, Tyagi, Ramavtar, Kolaei, Amir, Pugsley, Kyle, Atluri, Prasad
Bio-Based Phase Change Material for Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal Management using Copper Fins: A Numerical Investigation2025-01-817104/01/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining popularity due to their zero tailpipe emissions, superior energy efficiency, and sustainable nature. EVs have various limitations, and crucial one is the occurrence of thermal runaway in the battery pack. During charging or discharging condition of battery pack may result in thermal runaway condition. This promotes the requirement of effective cooling arrangement in and around the battery pack to avoid localized peak temperature. In the present work, thermal management of a 26650 Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cell using natural convection air cooling, composite biobased phase change material (CBPCM) and its combination with copper fins is numerically investigated using multi-scale multi dimension - Newman, Tiedenann, Gu and Kim (MSMD-NTGK) battery model in Ansys Fluent at an ambient temperature of 306 K. Natural convection air cooling was found effective at discharge rates of 1C to 3C, maintaining cell temperature below the safe limit of 318 K for 80
Srivastav, Durgesh, Patil, Nagesh Devidas, Shukla, Pravesh Chandra
CFD-Based Performance Evaluation of Immersion Cooling Fluids for Lithium-Ion Battery Modules2025-01-816304/01/2025
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are critical components in electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy systems. However, conventional cooling techniques for LIBs often struggle to efficiently dissipate heat during fast charging and discharging, potentially compromising performance and safety. This study investigates the thermal performance of immersion cooling applied to an Electric Vehicle (EV) battery module comprised of NCA-chemistry-based cylindrical 21700 format Lithium-ion cells. The effectiveness of immersion cooling in reducing maximum cell temperature, temperature gradient, cell-to-cell temperature differential, and pressure drop within the battery module is evaluated on a detailed 3D model of a 360-cell immersion-cooled battery module that was developed, incorporating a well-established heat generation model based on theoretical analysis and experimental data to simulate the thermal characteristics of the battery system. The effects of the different fluid properties are first
Garcia, Antonio, Micó, Carlos, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Elkourchi, Imad
Experimental Analysis of Battery Thermal Management Techniques for Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries Using MATLAB Simulink, Simscape, and Stateflow Simulations2025-01-816504/01/2025
The use of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles marks a major progression in the automotive sector. Energy storage systems extensively make use of these batteries. The extended life cycle, low self-discharge rates, high energy density, and eco-friendliness of lithium-ion batteries are well-known. However, Temperature sensitivity has an adverse effect on lithium-ion battery safety, durability, and performance. Thus, maintaining ideal operating conditions and reducing the chance of thermal runaway depend heavily on efficient thermal management. To address this, experimental study was conducted on various battery thermal management techniques, including active, passive, and hybrid approaches. These techniques were investigated for their cooling efficiencies under different operating conditions. The electro-thermal behavior of cylindrical lithium-ion battery cells, battery packs, and supervisory control techniques were simulated in the study using MATLAB Simulink, Simscape, and
Thangaraju, Shanmuganathan, N, Meenakshi, Ganesan, Maragatham
Electro-Thermal Optimal Control for Driver-Centric DC Fast Charging of Electric Vehicles2025-01-837404/01/2025
Charging a battery electric vehicle at extreme temperatures can lead to battery deterioration without proper thermal management. To avoid battery degradation, charging current is generally limited at extreme hot and cold battery temperatures. Splitting the wall power between charging and the thermal management system with the aim of minimizing charging time is a challenging problem especially with the strong thermal coupling with the charging current. Existing research focus on formulating the battery thermal management control problem as a minimum charging time optimal control problem. Such control strategy force the driver to charge with minimum time and higher charging cost irrespective of their driving schedule. This paper presents a driver-centric DCFC control framework by formulating the power split between thermal management and charging as an optimal control problem with the goal of improving the wall-to-vehicle energy efficiency. Proposed energy-efficient charging strategy
Gupta, Shobhit, Kang, Jun-Mo, Zhu, Yongjie, Lee, Chunhao, Zanardelli, Wesley
Multiphysics-Multiscale Reduced Order Model based Design Optimization of the Immersion Cooled Battery System2025-01-818504/01/2025
A vital aspect of Ultra-Fast Charging (UFC) Li-Ion battery pack is its thermal management system, which impacts safety, performance, and cell longevity. Immersion cooling technology is more effective compared to indirect cold plate as heat can dissipate much quicker and has a potential to mitigate the thermal runaway propagation, improve pack overall performance, and cell life significantly. For design optimization and getting better insight, high fidelity Multiphysics-Multiscale simulations are required. Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) based electro-thermally coupled multi-physics CFD simulations are performed to optimize the innovative busbar design, of a recently developed immersion cooled battery pack, which enables the capability to remove individual cell. Further, high fidelity 3D transient flow-thermal simulations have helped in optimizing the coolant flow direction, inlet positions, cell spacing and separator design for efficient flow distribution in the module. While high
Tyagi, Ramavtar, Negro, Sergio, Baranowski, Alex, Atluri, Prasad
Modeling and Control Strategies of the Thermal Management System for Electric Vehicles2025-01-819004/01/2025
The electric vehicle thermal management system is a critical sub-systems of electric vehicles, and has a substantial impact on the driving range. The objective of this paper is to optimize the performance of the heat pump air conditioning system, battery, and motor thermal management system by adopting an integrated design. This approach is expected to effectively improve the COP (Coefficient of Performance) of cabin heating. An integrated thermal management system model of the heat pump air conditioning system, battery, and motor thermal management system is established using AMEsim. Key parameters, such as refrigerant temperature, pressure, and flow rate at the outlet of each component of the system are compared with the measured data to verify the correctness of the model established in this paper. Using the established model, the impact of compressor speed on the heating comfort of the cabin under high-temperature conditions in summer was studied, and a control strategy for rapid
Zhang, Min, Li, Liping, Zhou, Jianhua, Huang, Yu, Zhen, Ran, Shangguan, Wen-Bin
Optimizing Cooling Circuit Lines in between Batteries and Its Thermal Management Unit2025-01-501703/21/2025
Ensuring uniform coolant distribution in electric buses is crucial for battery performance, longevity, and thermal stability. This study optimizes the battery thermal management system (BTMS) for an 18-m electric bus, addressing uneven coolant flow to battery packs caused by pressure drop variations. One-dimensional (1D) simulations were chosen for their ability to quickly and efficiently analyze flow and pressure variations, providing a fast solution to optimize coolant distribution across the system. dP-Q curves for the BTMS pump and battery packs were integrated into the 1D model based on supplier data, while the flow resistances of other components (pipes, bends) were calculated using KULI software. To correct flow imbalances, pipe diameters were adjusted to increase resistance in over-cooled areas, redistributing coolant to under-cooled sections. This modification resulted in a balanced flow and improved thermal consistency, contributing to longer battery life. Validation showed
Birgül, Çağrı Emre, Meydan, Ömer
Battery Pack VentingJ3325_202503 (Current)03/05/2025
The scope of this information report is battery packs containing lithium-ion battery cells with liquid electrolyte, focusing on automotive applications like passenger cars and trucks. Considering different operating conditions as well as durability and safety requirements, some of its contents might provide guidance for other applications. The same applies to battery cell chemistries not covered in this report (e.g., sodium-ion or solid-state battery cells).
Battery Pack Venting Committee
Investigation on Heat Transfer Properties of Graphene Nanoplatelets Blended Distilled Water-Ethylene Glycol Mixtures in Battery Thermal Management System2025-28-008902/07/2025
This study investigates the heat transfer properties of graphene nanoplatelets (GnPs) blended with distilled water-ethylene glycol (DW-EG) mixtures, focusing on their potential application in battery thermal management systems (BTMS). Compared to other nanoparticles, carbon nanostructures exhibit higher thermal conductivity due to their low density and integrated thermal conductivity. The experimental findings are relevant in that compared with the base fluid, nanofluid samples had heat transfer capability. The physicochemical characteristics of investigated GNP were characterized using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), pH and UV–Vis spectrophotometry. The thermal conductivity and physical properties of graphene platelets having the specific surface area of 500 m2/g in the base fluid of Distilled Water-Ethylene Glycol (DW-EG 70:30) and 100 % vol. of Ethylene Glycol (EG 100) were determined after 120 minutes of sonication time. The graphene nanofluids with the platelet
S, Palanisamy, Selvan, Arul Mozhi
Investigation on the Effectiveness of Phase Change Materials in Battery Thermal Management System of Electric Vehicles2025-28-017802/07/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) are a clean, sustainable alternative to conventional internal combustion engines representing a paradigm shift in the transportation sector. Electric vehicles (EVs) have significantly improved in performance in battery technology. With the rapid proliferation of Electric Vehicles (EVs), effective Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMS) are essential to ensure optimal performance and longevity of the battery packs. This study aims to investigating the effect of Phase Change Materials (PCM) in a hybrid cooling of liquid cold plate with battery pack. With the rapid proliferation of Electric Vehicles (EVs), effective Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMS) are essential to ensure optimal performance and longevity of the battery packs. This study aims to investigating the effect of Phase Change Materials (PCM) in a hybrid cooling of a liquid cold plate with the battery pack. In models of battery cell arrangement of 5x13 arrays of aligned modules with the PCM and
S, Palanisamy, Selvan, Arul Mozhi
Steady-State and Dynamic Characteristics of Secondary Loop CO 2 Thermal System for Electric Vehicles2025-01-700601/31/2025
With the rapid adoption of new energy vehicles (NEVs), effective thermal management has become a crucial factor for enhancing performance, safety, and efficiency. This study investigates the steady-state and dynamic characteristics of a secondary loop CO₂ (R744) thermal management system designed for electric vehicles. The secondary loop system presents several benefits, such as improved safety through reduced refrigerant leakage and enhanced integration capabilities with existing vehicle subsystems. However, these advantages often come at the cost of decreased thermodynamic efficiency compared to direct systems. Experimental evaluations were conducted to understand the effects of varying coolant flow rates, discharge pressure, and dynamic startup behaviors. Results indicate that while the indirect system generally shows a lower coefficient of performance (COP) than direct systems, optimization of key parameters like coolant flow rate and discharge pressure can significantly enhance
Zong, Shuo, He, Yifan, Guan, Yan, Dong, Qiqi, Yin, Xiang, Cao, Feng
Analysis of Influencing Factors in the Thermal Management System of Cylindrical Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on CPCM under High Discharge Rates2025-01-706401/31/2025
With the rapid development of new energy vehicles, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely used in the automotive sector. The performance and safety of LIBs in electric vehicles (EVs) are significantly influenced by operating temperature, making the development of an effective battery thermal management system (BTMS) crucial. In recent years, phase change material (PCM)-based BTMS technology has been recognized as one of the most promising solutions. Compared to traditional air and liquid cooling systems, PCM cooling technology exhibits superior cooling performance due to its large latent heat and efficient heat dissipation capabilities, while also eliminating the need for additional pump power consumption. Therefore, in-depth research on PCM cooling technology is of significant academic and practical value for enhancing the effectiveness and safety of power battery thermal management. This study investigates the effects of thermal conductivity, melting point, and thickness of
Lv, Kang-Min, Su, Chu-Qi, Wang, Yi-Ping, Yuan, Xiao-Hong, Liu, Xun
Design and Performance Optimization of an Air-Cooled Battery Thermal Management System Based on Flow Field Disturbance2025-01-701301/31/2025
As global energy concerns and environmental challenges intensify, the automotive industry is rapidly transitioning toward more sustainable solutions, with new energy vehicles, particularly battery electric vehicles (BEVs), at the forefront. BEVs depend on lithium-ion batteries due to their high energy efficiency, large storage capacity, and ability to support long-range driving. However, maintaining optimal performance, safety, and battery longevity is critical, especially during high-rate charging and discharging operations. To address these challenges, effective battery thermal management systems (BTMS) are essential. Poor thermal management can lead to overheating, reduced battery lifespan, and potential safety hazards. This study focuses on improving air-cooled BTMS, which are widely used for their cost-effectiveness, by introducing spoilers to enhance airflow within the cooling channels. By combining simulation with experimental methods, experiments on the air-cooled BTMS
An, Dou, Cui, Feifei, Meiwei, Wang, Wang, Chun, Xi, Huan
Fusion Control Strategy Based on Rule and Dynamic Objective of Heat Pump Type Thermal Management System for Electric Vehicles2025-01-702301/31/2025
Thermal management system of electric vehicles (EVs) is critical for the vehicle's safety and stability. While maintaining the components within their optimal temperature ranges, it is also essential to reduce the energy consumption of thermal management system. Firstly, a kind of architecture for the integrated thermal management system (ITMS) is proposed, which can operate in multiple modes to meet various demands. Two typical operating modes for vehicle cooling in summer and heating in winter, which utilizes the residual heat from the electric drive system, are respectively introduced. The ITMS based on heat pump enables efficient heat transfer between different components. Subsequently, an ITMS model is developed, including subsystems such as the battery system, powertrain system, heat pump system and cabin system. The description of modeling process for each subsystem is provided in detail. The model is tested under world light vehicle test cycle (WLTC) condition of six different
Zhao, Luhao, Tan, Piqiang, Yang, Xiaomei, Yao, Chaojie, Liu, Xiang
Analysis of the Battery Direct Cooling Thermal Management System Coupled with Passenger Cabin Air Conditioning in Extended-Range Vehicles2025-01-706501/31/2025
To investigate the characteristics of a battery direct-cooling thermal management system integrated with the passenger compartment air-conditioning in a range-extended hybrid electric vehicle (REV), a model of the vehicle’s direct-cooling and liquid-cooling thermal management systems was established in GT-SUITE software. The findings are as follows: (1) Under high-temperature fast-charging conditions, the direct-cooling thermal management system exhibited improved performance indicators compared to the liquid-cooling system. Specifically, the charging time was reduced by 3.8%, the maximum heat exchange power increased by 27.33%, the battery temperature decreased by 2.37°C, the thermal decay rate was only 6%, and the average system energy efficiency ratio increased by 8.37%. (2)The outlet pressure of the direct-cooling plate significantly affected the temperature reduction of the battery pack during high-temperature fast-charging. The results indicated that within a certain range, a
Li, Li-Jie, Su, Chuqi, Wang, Yi-Ping, Yuan, Xiao-Hong, Liu, Xun
Internet of Things Enabled Automatic Battery Cooling System Using the Peltier Effect2025-01-500401/23/2025
Electric vehicles (EVs) have developed rapidly and are popular due to their zero emissions and efficiency. However, several factors limit electric car development, including battery performance, cost, lifetime, and safety. Battery management is crucial for achieving maximum performance under various conditions. The battery thermal management system (BTMS) plays an important role in controlling the battery’s thermal behavior. A BTMS manages the battery’s operating temperature by either dissipating heat when it is too hot or providing heat when it is too cold. Various methods of cooling batteries include air cooling systems, liquid cooling systems, refrigerant cooling systems, and phase change material cooling systems. This study focuses on an innovative BTMS utilizing a Peltier module, regulated via the Internet of Things (IoT) platform for real-time temperature monitoring and control. The objective of this research is to design and develop a temperature-controlled cooling system for EV
Gunasekar, N., Abishek, H., Bharath, N. S., Gokul, G.
Numerical Simulation of Cooling Plates/Tubes of BTMS of Electric Vehicles by Changing Internal Structure and Coolant Mass Flow Rate2024-28-020312/05/2024
The lithium-ion battery is the most common type of batteries in modern electric vehicles. During vehicle operation and battery charging, the temperature of the battery cells increases. The temperature of any battery must be controlled and maintained within a specified range to ensure maximum efficiency. Considering the overall thermal effect on the battery, a battery cooling system is of great importance in electric vehicles to maintain the temperature of the battery cells inside the battery pack. There are different types of systems for battery cooling, out of which the water cooled systems are very popular. They use a mixture of water and ethylene glycol to absorb heat from the battery cells. The coolant circulates through the tubes or cold plates surrounded by the cells to absorb the heat. The paper involves the study of variation on temperature and pressure drop including overall thermal performance on the batteries by changing the internal structure. The temperature of battery
Parayil, Paulson, Ahmad, Taufeeq, Dagar, Aakash, Goel, Arunkumar
Performance Evaluation of Battery Cooling System for Electric Bus Applications Using MATLAB2024-28-014512/05/2024
As the electrification of transportation continues to gain momentum, the thermal management of onboard batteries remains a critical aspect to ensure optimal performance, efficiency, and longevity. To address this challenge, a standalone cooling system with a cooling capacity has been developed, specifically tailored for electric buses. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the performance comparison between simulation and testing data for a standalone battery cooling system designed for electric bus applications. The study encompasses two primary components: numerical simulation using MATLAB Simulink and experimental testing. In the experimental phase, rigorous tests were conducted in a laboratory environment to evaluate the system's cooling performance under various operating conditions. Key metrics such as cooling capacity, temperature profile, and power consumption were measured and recorded to assess the system's effectiveness. A detailed numerical simulation model was
Suman, Saurabh, Kushwah, Yogendra Singh, Shukla, Ankit
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