Browse Topic: Hydrogen storage

Items (230)

Development of the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator for Evaluating Off-Road Mobile Machinery Energy Consumption

2025-01-8595

04/01/2025

This paper presents the development of a new vehicle simulation software, the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator Tool (referred to as the Power-Based Model), designed to predict fuel consumption and evaluate advanced powertrain technologies for off-road mobile machinery. The Power-Based Model integrates current research on fuel consumption simulation in the off-road vehicle sector and serves as a platform for development of advanced powertrain technologies such as battery-electric and fuel cell powertrains. The tool predicts the battery capacity and hydrogen storage required for the transition to these advanced powertrains, allowing users to accurately calculate component sizes and reductions in fuel consumption. The Power-Based Model was developed with a strong focus on the unique operational characteristics of off-road machinery, ensuring that it realistically reflects real-world energy consumption and the competitive advantages of various fuel-saving technologies. This paper describes

Kim, Namdoo, Seo, Jigu, Vijayagopal, Ram, Burnham, Andrew, makarczyk, David, Freyermuth, Vincent

Modelling and Simulation of a Fuel Cell Powertrain for Extreme H Applications

2025-01-8008

04/01/2025

This paper aims to model and simulate a design specification for a fuel cell electric powertrain tailored for Extreme H motorsport applications. A comprehensive numerical model of the powertrain was constructed using GT-SUITE v2024, integrating the 2025 Extreme H regulations, which include specifications for the fuel cell stack, electric motors, hydrogen storage, and battery systems. A detailed drive cycle representing the real-world driving patterns of Extreme E vehicles was developed, utilizing kinematic parameters derived from literature and real-world data. The performance of the Extreme H powertrain was benchmarked against the Toyota Mirai fuel cell vehicle to validate the simulation accuracy under the same racing conditions. The proposed design delivers a maximum power output of 400 kW, with 75 kW supplied by the fuel cell and 325 kW by the battery, ensuring optimal performance within the constraints set by the Extreme H 2025 regulations. Additionally, the design maintains an

Moreno Medina, Javier, Samuel, Stephen

Hydrogen storage: Not everything need look like a sausage

25AUTP03_06

03/01/2025

Since the 1860 Hippomobile, hydrogen has been a part of powered mobility. Today, most hydrogen storage applications use cylindrical tanks, but other solutions are available. At a recent Bosch-sponsored event, SAE Media noted Linamar's Flexform conformable storage, which the company says uses the same or less material for a given storage volume while delivering anywhere from 5-25% more volumetric efficiency than conventional cylindrical tanks within that volume. “We see space as a regular bounding box where all you're losing is this area around the corners, closer to five to 10% [loss]. Where Flexform really shines and where the value proposition really is, is irregular spaces, such as between frame rails,” said representatives from the Linamar engineering team.

Cannell, Thom

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Fuel Cell Heavy-Duty Vehicles in China: A Cradle-to-Gate Analysis

13-06-03-0018

02/04/2025

Considered as one of the most promising technology pathways for the transport sector to realize the target of “carbon neutral,” fuel cell vehicles have been seriously discussed in terms of its potential for alleviating environmental burden. Focused on cradle-to-gate (CtG) stage, this article evaluates the environmental impacts of fuel cell heavy-duty vehicles of three size classes and three driving ranges to find the critical components and manufacturing processes in the energy context of China. The findings show that the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the investigated fuel cell heavy-duty vehicle range from 47 ton CO2-eq to 162 ton CO2-eq, with the fuel cell system and hydrogen storage system collectively contributing to 37%–56% of the total. Notably, as the driving range increases, the proportion of GHG emissions stemming from fuel cell-related components also rises. Within the fuel cell system, the catalyst layer and bipolar plate are identified as the components with the most

Mu, Zhexuan, Deng, YunFeng, Bai, Fanlong, Zhao, Fuquan, Liu, Zongwei, Hao, Han, Liu, Ming

Dynamic Performance Simulation of the Fuel Cell Stack On-Board Vehicle

2025-01-7084

01/31/2025

The dynamic behavior of the water and thermal management are critical to stabilize the performance of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) during severe load changes. In this paper, a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV) dynamic simulation model is established to evaluate the changes in liquid water and temperature distribution inside the fuel cell stack under a vehicle driving cycle conditions. This paper focuses on analyzing the power generation performance of the stack and the dynamic behavior of internal water and heat transfer following the demand of the vehicle. According to the simulation results, the temperature of MEA and cooling water fluctuates greatly, but the temperature of MEA is always higher than the cooling water temperature by about 1.57 degrees Celsius (average value). Compared to the experimental measurements of temperature, the simulation error for the maximum temperature is 3.4% and the simulation error for the average temperature is 4.4%. The

Zhao, Xiaojun, Shen, Xuesong, Wang, Yanbo, Shi, Wangying, Yang, Tao, Shan, Fengxiang, Ma, Xiao, Wang, Xin, Zhang, Yongheng, Pan, Fengwen

Transforming Hydrogen Supply at Hydrogen Refueling Stations: Design and Analysis of LOHC for Auxiliary Hydrogen Supply

2025-01-7101

01/31/2025

In order to give full play to the economic and environmental advantages of liquid organic hydrogen carrier(LOHC) technology in hydrogen storage and transportation as well as its technological advantages as a hydrogen source for hydrogen refueling station(HRS) supply, it promotes the change of hydrogen supply method in HRSs and facilitates its technological landing in the terminal of HRSs. In this paper, combining the current commercialization status of organic liquid technology and the current construction status of HRS in China, we establish a traditional long-tube trailer HRS model through Matlab Simulink, carry out modification on the existing process, maximize the use of the original equipment, and introduce the hydrogen production end of the station with organic liquid as an auxiliary hydrogen source. Research and design of the two hydrogen sources of gas extraction strategy and the station control strategy and the formation of Stateflow language model, to realize the verification

Huo, Tianqing, Feng, Tianyu, Yang, Fusheng, Huang, Ye, Zheng, Huaan, Wang, Bin, Fang, Tao, Wu, Zhen, Zhang, ZaoXiao

Efficiency Analysis of Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Power Generation System Based on Organic Hydrogen Storage Solution

2025-01-7117

01/31/2025

Organic solution is an ideal hydrogen storage and transport carrier, and the dehydrogenation of solution is an endothermic process. High dehydrogenation heat demand becomes a key factor restricting its application. Hydrogen internal combustion engine (HICE) is an ideal power device under the current background of emphasizing clean and low carbon. In this study, dibenzyltoluene (DBT) was selected as liquid organic hydrogen carrier (LOHC), the residual heat of engine exhaust was used as the heat source of organic solution dehydrogenation, and the residual heat of engine exhaust is used as the heat source of organic solution dehydrogenation, using the combustion of dehydrogenated hydrogen products to supplement the heat absorption of hydrogen released by organic solution. Taking hydrogen internal combustion engine power generation as the application scenario, the power generation system of liquid organic hydrogen storage solution combined with hydrogen internal combustion engine (LOHC

Zhang, Yulong, Luo, Qinghe, Sun, Baigang, Tang, Hongyang

Sustainable Aviation Fuel – An Effective Tool for Complying with the Aviation’s Global Environmental Commitment

2024-36-0066

12/20/2024

The (commercial) aviation sector (passenger and freight), which is strongly engaged with the world efforts to mitigate the carbon emissions and their inherent climate change effects, has accounted in 2018 for 2.4 % of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (pre-pandemic levels). Despite the reductions in air travel demand during the 2020 pandemic, with a reduction of up to 80% in passenger travel during the peak pandemic period, the air travel demand has already recovered to around 80% of the pre-pandemic level, with aviation emissions in 2022 reaching around 800 Mt CO2, accounting for 2% of the global energy related CO2 emissions. Moreover, the demand for air travel is expected to double by 2040, growing at an annual average rate of 3.4%, which means that. despite the efficiency improvement trend (average 2%/year), will almost double the aviation’s greenhouse (GHG) emissions, with a significant increase in its relative GHG share, compared to the other transport modes. Meanwhile the

Barbosa, Fábio Coelho

SAE TOMORROW TODAY: The Future of Hydrogen Fuel: A Distribution Revolution

1349112/11/2024

Jules Verne was ahead of his time--and so is a company inspired by his name that recognizes hydrogen's immense potential as a clean energy solution. Verne develops and commercializes a novel technology to store and distribute hydrogen in its densest form, cryo-compressed. This approach maximizes hydrogen density, addressing the limitations of compressed gas and reducing the cost of dense storage -- which is a game-changer for boosting hydrogen adoption. To learn more, we sat down with Ted McKlveen, Co-founder & CEO, Verne, to discuss the company's breakthrough solution to addressing hydrogen storage and transportation and how it can unlock the widespread adoption of hydrogen energy, particularly in sectors like Class 8 trucking. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the

Hineman, Marcie

Aerospace & Defense Technology: December 2024

24AERP1212/05/2024

Making a Material Difference in Aerospace & Defense Electronics Acquiring and Telemetering Test Data from Hypersonic Platforms Analog Transformation Complements Open System Designs to Optimize Modern Defense Systems These Speedy Cold Spray Machines Can 3D Print Vehicle Parts in War Zones Researchers Use Ancient Japanese Art Method to Create Tunable Antennas What is Drone Jamming and How Can it Be Countered? AI-Trained Vehicles Can Adjust to Extreme Turbulence on the Fly Researchers at Caltech took an important step toward using reinforcement learning to adaptively learn how turbulent wind can change over time, and then uses that knowledge to control a UAV based on what it is experiencing in real time. 'First of Its Kind' Composite Material to Help Space Vessels Travel Longer Distances A Coventry University design and materials engineer is leading an international team of researchers in the creation of a new material for liquid hydrogen storage tanks that are used to propel rockets into

A Review of Hydrogen Storage System (HSS) and Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine (H2-ICE) for the Potential H2-ICE Vehicle

2024-28-0129

12/05/2024

The different energy policies and legislations across the globe, unions, or country wise are the key influencer for evaluation of Transport Industry in both advancement of Technologies and Ecosystem development. Accordingly, European Climate law is focusing to achieve net zero greenhouse (or carbon neutral) gas emissions for EU (European Union) countries by 2050. Similarly in India, National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM) by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is aiming for significant decarbonization and to become market leader in Green Hydrogen Transition. Hydrogen is potential fuel for H2-FCEV (Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric vehicle) and H2-ICE (Hydrogen -Internal combustion Engine) due to its carbon free molecule and other properties. This review paper is focusing on comprehensive study of different aspects of H2- ICE vehicle. Key study areas are mainly Hydrogen (H2) as fuel, Hydrogen Storage System (HSS), H2-ICEs, Hydrogen storge pressure and H2-ICE vehicle architecture. The

Biswas, Sanjoy, Naik, Amit Kumar, Kashyap, Krishna

Model-based Evaluation of Advanced Energy Management Control Strategies for Heavy-Duty Fuel Cell Powertrains

02-17-04-0021

12/04/2024

In recent years, fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) have become a promising alternative to battery electric vehicles in medium- and heavy-duty on-road applications, which specifically require long vehicle range, high payload capacity, and fast refueling times. While FCEVs are more likely to meet these requirements, they come with their own challenges of high upfront system cost, reduced system efficiency at high load, on-board hydrogen storage system packaging, and fuel cell system (FCS) durability. To address these challenges, it is critical to ensure optimal propulsion system component sizing during the concept phase as well as ensure optimal propulsion system energy management during vehicle operation. In a previous publication, authors presented a model-based approach for system sizing and optimization of FCEV propulsion system components for a Class 8 long-haul application. In this study, the authors have evaluated and optimized multiple advanced propulsion system energy

Sadekar, Gaurav, Batool, Sadaf, Baburaj, Adithya, Goyal, Vasu, Joshi, Satyum, Franke, Michael

‘First of Its Kind’ Composite Material to Help Space Vessels Travel Longer Distances

24AERP12_08

12/01/2024

A Coventry University design and materials engineer is leading an international team of researchers in the creation of a new material for liquid hydrogen storage tanks that are used to propel rockets into space. Coventry University, Coventry, UK The future of space travel is seemingly changing by the day and a Coventry University academic is doing his bit to stay at the front of the space race. Dr. Ashwath Pazhani along with an international team of researchers have created a new material for storing the liquid hydrogen used to propel rockets into space by the likes of NASA.

‘First of Its Kind’ Composite Material to Help Space Vessels Travel Longer Distances

TBMG-52126

12/01/2024

The future of space travel is seemingly changing by the day and a Coventry University academic is doing his bit to stay at the front of the space race.

Modeling and Analysis of the Hydrogen Production via Steam Reforming of Ethanol, Methanol, and Methane Fuels

2024-01-2179

04/09/2024

The global transition to alternative power sources, particularly fuel cells, hinges on the cost-effective production and distribution of hydrogen fuel. While green hydrogen produced through water electrolysis using renewable energy sources holds immense promise, it currently falls short of meeting the burgeoning demand for hydrogen. To address this challenge, alternative methods, such as steam reforming and partial oxidation of hydrocarbon fuels with integrated carbon capture, are poised to bridge the gap between supply and demand in the near to midterm. Steam reforming of methane is a well-established technology with a proven track record in the chemical industry, serving as a dependable source of hydrogen feedstock for decades. However, to meet the demand for efficient hydrogen storage, handling, and onboard reforming, researchers are increasingly exploring liquid hydrocarbon fuels at room temperature, such as methanol and ethanol. In this work, we have developed reformer models for

Hariharan, Deivanayagam, Chhatija, Harish, Brown, Jonathan, Gundlapally, Santhosh

Hydrogen Refilling Optimizations Through 1-D Simulations for Commercial Vehicles

2024-26-0176

01/16/2024

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and battery electric vehicles are being touted worldwide by the automotive industry and policy makers as the answer to decarbonizing the transportation sector. FCEVs are especially suited for commercial vehicle applications as they offer very short re-fueling times that is comparable to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. While this is entirely possible there are host of challenges that include safety, that need to be addressed to make short refilling times possible for commercial vehicles where the hydrogen storage requirement is higher (25 kg or more). This is due to the rise in temperature of the hydrogen in the cylinder due to compression and the negative Joule-Thompson coefficient. The SAE J2601 standard limits the safe temperature limit of hydrogen gas in the cylinder to 85 °C during filling. In countries where the ambient temperature can go above 45°C, like India, this poses a serious challenge and can severely impact the re

Jacob, Joe, T P, Muhammad, Bhut, Bhaveshkumar, Chougule, Abhijeet

Development Challenges for Hydrogen Test Cell Facility Requirements and Safety Constraints

2024-26-0180

01/16/2024

The globe moving towards setting up targets for greenhouse gas emissions considering short term and long-term strategies, efforts in ICE domain has been accelerating to find an alternative way and H2 is among one of them leading! H2 as fuel is known to be clean source of energy for several years. Recent advancements in fuel cell and Internal Combustion engine technologies are making use of H2 as fuel more feasible for end application for mobility and industrial power generation segment. This paper helps understand the basic properties of Hydrogen which are critical for deriving safety aspects to be considered while designing an engine test cell to handle H2 as fuel. Also it summarizes the survey of relevant reference standards to be considered while designing and developing an H2 engine test cell. It elaborates typical test cell facilities and utilities to give an idea about the critical sub-systems required for an engine test cell. The hydrogen storage design considerations, its

Phadke, Abhijit N, Mokhadkar, Rahul Prakash

Fuel Cell Electric Metro Train Concept – Zero Emission Rail Transport Solution for Indian Cities

2024-26-0179

01/16/2024

Indian cities are among the most polluted in the world. The transportation sector is one of the major sources of gaseous pollutants. In recent years, also the effects of climate change and global warming have been felt across the globe. India has therefore committed at the CoP26 summit in 2021 to reduce its CO2 emissions by 45% till the year 2030. The Indian automotive sector is already addressing the problem with implementation of the Stage 2 BS VI norms, CAFÉ & Stage V standards and pursuing rapid electrification with application of zero emission vehicles. India also has the largest rail network of Asia, and a significant proportion of greenhouse gases is emitted by this sector. Deployment of zero emission fuel cell trains would be one of the solutions to meet India’s emission reduction targets. Indian Railways has already started its journey towards zero emissions and has set a target to launch hydrogen fuel cell trains on some routes soon as part of the “Hydrogen for Heritage

Emran, Ashraf, Garg, Shivam, Mertes, Simon, Gautam, Anirudh, Schmidt, Marvin, Wick, Maximilian, Walters, Marius, Wagh, Sachin, Sharma, Vijay

Hydrogen as a Carbon Neutral ICE Fuel for Future India

2024-26-0177

01/16/2024

Researchers are under pressure to investigate and discover ways to improve the efficacy and reduce emissions from ICE due to the depletion of energy resources and the growing concern over global warming. Hydrogen is viewed as a promising fuel and has been investigated as a potential fuel in combustion because to several desirable qualities like carbon-less content and strong flammability limitations. When equated to other alternative fuels like LPG, CNG, LNG, etc., hydrogen has inimitable qualities because it lacks carbon, making it one of the promising alternatives fuels. In order to achieve zero CO2 emissions for traffic applications in the near future, hydrogen being an automotive fuel in ICE is a solution. The ICE powered by hydrogen is prepared for that. The actual drawbacks of using hydrogen in ICE generally are manufacturing, storage, and development of the requisite infrastructure. Hydrogen can be produced in its many forms. Hydrogen storage is a significant barrier to the

Bandyopadhyay, Debjyoti, Sutar, Prasanna S, Sonawane, Shailesh Balkrishna, Rairikar, Sandeep, Thipse, Sukrut S, Jadhav, Ajinkya

Zero Carbon Emission Aviation Fuel Technology Review - The Hydrogen Pathway

2023-36-0029

01/08/2024

The commercial aviation currently accounts for roughly 2.5 % of the global CO2 emissions and around 3.5% of world warming emissions, taking into account non CO2 effects on the climate. Its has grown faster in recent decades than the other transport modes (road, rail or shipping), with an average rate of 2.3%/year from 1990 to 2019, prior to the pandemic. Moreover, its share of Greenhouse (GHG) emissions is supposed to grow, with the increasing demand scenario of air trips worldwide. This scenario might threaten the decarbonization targets assumed by the aviation industry, in line with the world efforts to minimize the climate effects caused by the carbon emissions. In this context, hydrogen is set as a promising alternative to the traditional jet fuel, due to its zero carbon emissions. Furthermore, its high energy content makes it suitable for the aviation industry, especially in the short to medium haul flights niche, that currently accounts for around 43.8% of global aviation CO2

Barbosa, Fábio Coelho

A Prophase Simulation Study of Fuel Cell-Battery Hybrid System for eVTOL Aircraft in Steady-State Operation

2023-01-7092

12/31/2023

Electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) is defined as vertical lift aircraft propelled by electric power and capable of carrying people. Based on the system of battery powered CY300 eVTOL, a fuel cell-battery hybrid system (FBHS) in steady-state operation as a potential propulsion system for CY300 eVTOL is proposed. In order to analyze the feasibility of FBHS-powered eVTOL system, a mathematical model is established to evaluate the proposed system performance considering various irreversible effects. Furthermore, considerable sensitivity analyses indicate that the payload of the proposed system is considerably benefited by a higher specific energy of the battery system, specific power of the fuel cell system and hydrogen storage ratio of the hydrogen tank. Hydrogen tank weight decreases the payload while enhances the hovering time. DoH accounts for power balancing between two power sources, and affects the impacts of different design parameters on the performance of the proposed

Qin, Yuan, Zhang, Xinfeng, Zhang, Houcheng, Li, Wenhao, Lin, Ye, Yue, Han

Fuel Cell/Battery Hybrid Lightweight Quadricycle with Metal Hydride Hydrogen Storage for Improved Performance

2023-24-0137

08/28/2023

Owe to their high electrical energy density, lithium-ion batteries are the most employed technologies in electrified vehicles, whose market share is growing very fast. As a matter of fact, their thermal management is of crucial importance to keep the operating temperature within an appropriate range, as this might greatly affect performance and durability of such devices. Heat generation during cyclic charge and discharge processes, occurring during a vehicle mission, may cause critical temperature variations and, therefore, a suitable thermal management is indispensable. This is particularly true for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles, where the battery undergoes more severe thermal stresses than in battery electric vehicles, due to higher operating C-rates. A hybrid energy storage system, which integrates the battery pack with a metal hydride hydrogen storage tank, may be a promising solution to store energy while implementing an effective, integrated and yet simple thermal

Tribioli, Laura, Di Ilio, Giovanni, Jannelli, Elio

Expanding the Definition of the Degree of Hybridization of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

2023-01-1202

06/26/2023

Fuel cell electric vehicles are expected to support the effort to overcome the economic and ecological challenges in the automotive sector. Just as battery electric vehicles, fuel cell electric vehicles also offer locally emission free mobility. The drive system of fuel cell electric vehicles consists of a fuel cell system, an electric motor, power electronics, a hydrogen storage system as well as a rechargeable energy storage system, typically a battery. The quantified power ratio between the fuel cell system and the rechargeable energy storage system is referred to as the degree of hybridization, although inconsistent definitions are used. As these existing definitions of the degree of hybridization of fuel cell electric vehicles don’t support a distinct differentiation and characterization of the vehicles, a new definition of the degree of hybridization is proposed considering the ratio of the energy contents of the hydrogen storage system and the rechargeable energy storage system

Braumandl, Adrian, Kim, Giyong, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert

Experimental Study on Distribution Characteristics and Leakage Detection of Hydrogen Release from Hydrogen Supply System of Fuel Cell Truck

04-17-01-0006

06/22/2023

The hydrogen supply system of a fuel cell truck is in a semi-enclosed space where hydrogen is easy to accumulate if a hydrogen leak occurs. The acquisition of hydrogen dispersion behavior data is essential to support the detection of hydrogen release. The purpose of this article is to present the characteristics of hydrogen concentration distribution and delay time of hydrogen leakage detection under different leakage parameters. The experiments have been performed in a hydrogen storage cabin with six hydrogen sensors arranged on the roof to measure hydrogen concentration. During the tests, hydrogen was released into the test cabin through standard leaks. Two different release rates (80 NL/min and 450 NL/min), three different release positions, and six release directions are investigated to analyze the effects on the distribution of hydrogen concentration and leakage detection delay time. This article presents both the experimental facility and results. The experimental results can

Liu, Shu, He, Ren

HYDROGEN STORAGE IN A BOX!

23AUTP06_02

06/01/2023

Cylindrical tanks no longer are the only solution for storing high-pressure hydrogen gas. The future is looking decidedly square - and better for vehicle range and packaging. Experts from Forvia explain. Until recently, there was only one practical solution for storing gaseous hydrogen for onboard vehicle use: the cylindrical storage tank. Spiral-wound, carbon fiber cylinders are the proven form factor for reliable containment of 350-bar (5000-psi) and more commonly, 700-bar (10,000-psi) hydrogen used in the latest fuel-cell electric and hydrogen-fueled IC-engine vehicles. Faurecia and Symbio, the hydrogen-technologies joint-venture with partner Michelin, are in the process of changing the cylindrical-tank paradigm with a new approach that looks downright…square. “This hydrogen storage system is our modular, conformable, 700-bar tank,” Rob Steele, product line manager at Faurecia, part of the Forvia group, told SAE Media while viewing a concept ‘skateboard’ chassis at the 2023

Brooke, Lindsay

A Review on Hydrogen Fuel and Storage System Product Design for PEM Fuel Cell Vehicle Applications

2023-28-1335

05/25/2023

As a future sustainable fuel, hydrogen will significantly reduce reliance on fossil energy resources as well as the amount of exhaust emitted by automobiles. It is a carbon-free fuel, and it can be produced through a number of conversion technologies, including thermochemical, electrochemical, and biological processes. However, with advanced PEM fuel cell technologies to drive commercialization and commercial vehicle growth, hydrogen fuel quality for efficient fuel cell system performance, and fuel storage system product design with all safety features are the unique selling points. Though the concept of the hydrogen storage system for fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) is derived from global technologies, it cannot be implemented directly in the Indian CV (commercial vehicle) market. A certain level of technology can only be transmitted. In light of the aforementioned scenario, the vehicle manufacturers should prioritise the focus on selection of well-organized strategies for hydrogen

Subramanian, Karthikeyan, Sankar, Gopi

Systematic Development Approach for a Hybrid Electric Powertrain Using Fuel-Cell-in-the-Loop Test Methodology

2023-01-0494

04/11/2023

A promising approach for defossilization in the transport sector is using the polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) as an energy converter for propulsion in combination with green hydrogen. Furthermore, hybridization can bring an additional gain in efficiency. In a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) powertrain, including FCHEV, at least two power sources (e.g., an FC system (FCS) with a hydrogen storage system and a high-voltage battery (HVB)) provide the required propulsion power. Thus, the powertrain topology and the energy management strategy (EMS) of an FCHEV are more complex than those of a conventional powertrain. To ensure a cost- and time-efficient development process, the FCHEV powertrain concept and its functions must be verified and evaluated early. To this end, this study presents the design and setup of an FC-in-the-Loop (FCiL) test platform as a tool for the systematic development of an FCHEV powertrain under realistic operating conditions. Hence, a medium size FCHEV

Steindl, Christoph, Hofmann, Peter

Modeling and Analysis of Fully Electric and Hydrogen-Powered Bradley Fighting Vehicles

2023-01-0119

04/11/2023

As the U.S. Army moves to electrify portions of its vehicle fleet, it is worth considering the heavier combat vehicles. However, the high power demand of these vehicles coupled with the relatively low energy density of modern batteries result in electric vehicles with limited range and functionality. Hydrogen-based fuel cells are an alternative to batteries that can provide many of the same environmental and logistical benefits associated with electrification. This study models the energy consumption for two variants of the M2A4 Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV). The first variant is powered by a hydrogen-based Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell; the second variant is powered through lithium-ion batteries. These models account for vehicle weight, accelerative forces, drag, road grade, tractive losses, and ancillary equipment and are compared against a conventional M2A4 BFV. The analysis also considers the weight and volume restrictions for the powertrain especially as they relate to the

Mittal, Vikram, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam

Revision of Modeling Scenario for Hydrogen Fueling Protocol under MC-MM

2023-01-0489

04/11/2023

A new hydrogen fueling protocol called MC Multi Map (MC-MM) was developed to reduce hydrogen station operating costs. With the MC-MM, the number of fueling control maps has increased from before and precise switching among them according to circumstances has achieved relaxation of precooling temperatures. Fueling control maps for hydrogen stations are created in accordance with Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) protocol, but with the MC-MM, greater accuracy of mapping is necessary, so steps were taken to revise the boundary conditions prescribed by the SAE. The creation of fueling control maps for a hydrogen fueling protocol used to require outsourcing of map analysis. However, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory research institute in the US has made a hydrogen fueling simulation called H2FillS publicly available on the Web so that analysis of fueling control maps can now be performed by anyone. Therefore, revision of the SAE boundary conditions was examined on the assumption

Yamaguchi, Shigehiro, Handa, Kiyoshi

On-Road CO ₂ and NO _x Emissions for a Heavy-Duty Truck with Hydrogen-Diesel Co-Combustion

2023-01-0281

04/11/2023

Heavy-duty diesel trucking is responsible for 25%-30% of the road transportation CO2 emissions in North America. Retrofitting class-8 trucks with a complementary hydrogen fuelling system makes it possible to co-combust hydrogen and diesel in the existing internal combustion engine (ICE), thus minimizing the costs associated with switching to non-ICE platforms and reducing the barrier for the implementation of low-carbon gaseous fuels such as hydrogen. This retrofitting approach is evaluated based on the exhaust emissions of a converted truck with several thousand kilometres of road data. The heavy-duty truck used here was retrofitted with an air-intake hydrogen injection system, onboard hydrogen storage tanks, and a proprietary hydrogen controller enabling it to operate in hydrogen-diesel co-combustion (HDC) mode. The hydrogen controller operates on the J1939 network, similar to the OEM Controller Area Network (CAN) and determines the hydrogen injection rate from hydrogen energy share

Kheirkhah, Pooyan, Steiche, Patrick, Whyte, Tyson, Guan, Mang, Kirchen, Patrick

Hydrogen expands applications as a commercial-vehicle fuel

23TOFHP02_09

02/01/2023

While several commercial vehicle OEMs, including Tesla and Nikola, are in the latter phase of testing battery-electric semi-tractors on the road, action in the hydrogen space continues to grow as it relates to transport vehicles. A few recent product introductions and partnership arrangements are detailed below.

Macaulay, Steven

J2578_202301 (Current)

01/09/2023

This SAE Recommended Practice identifies and defines requirements relating to the safe integration of the fuel cell system, the hydrogen fuel storage and handling systems (as defined and specified in SAE J2579) and high voltage electrical systems into the overall Fuel Cell Vehicle. The document may also be applied to hydrogen vehicles with internal combustion engines. This document relates to the overall design, construction, operation and maintenance of fuel cell vehicles.

Fuel Cell Standards Committee

Safety Distance Determination Methods for Hydrogen Refueling Stations: A Review

13-04-01-0006

12/30/2022

Hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) have been widely built in many countries to meet the requirements of the rapidly developing hydrogen-fueled vehicle industry. Safety distances are key parameters for HRS designs, but the codes and standards used for determining safety distances vary in different countries. The two main methods for determining the safety distances for HRSs are the consequence-based method and the quantitative risk assessment (QRA)-based method. This article reviews the two methods to show state-of-the-art research on determining safety distances globally. This review shows that the harm criteria in the consequence models differ greatly in the literature and the QRA-based method is a more reasonable way to determine the HRS safety distances. In addition, the QRA models lack reliable frequency data and uniform risk acceptance criteria. Future standardized QRA models should be developed with unified regulations and standards for hydrogen infrastructure.

Zhang, Jiaxin, Kong, Xiangling, Ba, Qingxin, Wang, Ping, Li, Xuefang

Numerical Study of Hydrogen Releases and Explosions in a Skid-Mounted Hydrogen Refueling Station

13-04-01-0007

12/30/2022

Many countries are developing hydrogen energy systems for fuel cell vehicles to embrace the low-carbon economy. Hydrogen refueling stations are one of the key infrastructure components for the hydrogen-fueled economy. Skid-mounted hydrogen refueling stations have smaller footprints and lower costs than traditional hydrogen refueling stations, so they can be more easily commercialized. The present work modeled hydrogen releases from a skid-mounted hydrogen refueling station using the flame acceleration simulation (FLACS) software. The hydrogen releases and dispersion were modeled for unintended leakages from the storage tube bundles of a skid-mounted hydrogen refueling station for 5 mm and 10 mm leak diameters in three different release directions. Hydrogen explosions were modeled for flammable clouds ignited at different instants after the hydrogen leakage. The results show that the hydrogen concentrations in the personnel operating area are lower than in other areas, but the flammable

Zhao, Zeying, Xiao, Guoping, Zhang, Xu, Ba, Qingxin, Wang, Jianqiang, Li, Xuefang

Developing Fuel Cell Electric Powertrain Architectures for Commercial Vehicles

13-04-01-0004

12/07/2022

This article addresses the architecture development for a commercial vehicle fuel cell electric powertrain by establishing a clear multi-step formalized workflow that employs a unique technoeconomic solution for architecture selection. The power capability of the fuel cell, the energy capacity and chemistry of the electrical energy storage (battery), the DC-DC converter (including the input current rating and isolation resistance requirements), the traction drive solution, the on-board hydrogen storage solution, and the real-time power-split management of the fuel cell and the battery are all considered and developed in this effort. The methods were used to select architecture for Class 8 urban, regional, and line haul applications. When compared to traditional load-following power-split controllers, an energy management power-split controller can increase system energy efficiency by up to 19.5%. The energy-efficient power-split controller may increase the required battery capacity for

Sujan, Vivek Anand

On the Thermal Integration of Metal Hydrides with Phase Change Materials: Numerical Simulation Developments towards Advanced Designs

2022-24-0018

09/16/2022

Hydrogen plays a crucial role towards the decarbonization of the transport sector, whilst most of the challenges for a widespread diffusion of hydrogen-based technologies are related to storage technologies. The use of Metal Hydrides (MH) has been widely recognized as a potential solution thanks to their advantages in terms of high degree of safety, high volumetric storage density, comparatively low operating pressure, the possibility of operation at room temperature and relatively low cost. Since the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of MH are respectively highly exothermic and endothermic reactions, thermal management of the storage tank is one of the most critical issues to ensure safe and effective operations. The integration of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) in the MH tank design is a potential solution for the self-contained thermal management of MH-based hydrogen storage systems, aiming at substantial charge/discharge performance improvements and ease of integration with the

Bartolucci, Lorenzo, Krastev, Vesselin Krassimirov

Fueling Protocol for Gaseous Hydrogen Powered Industrial Trucks

J2601/3_202209 (Current)09/16/2022

This document establishes safety limits and performance requirements for gaseous hydrogen fuel dispensers used to fuel Hydrogen Powered Industrial Trucks (HPITs). It also describes several example fueling methods for gaseous hydrogen dispensers serving HPIT vehicles. SAE J2601-3 offers performance based fueling methods and provides guidance to fueling system builders as well as suppliers of hydrogen powered industrial trucks and operators of the hydrogen powered vehicle fleet(s). This fueling protocol for HPITs can support a wide range of hydrogen fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles including fork lifts, tractors, pallet jacks, on and off road utility, and specialty vehicles of all types. The mechanical connector geometry for H25 and H35 connectors are defined in SAE J2600 Compressed Hydrogen Surface Vehicle Refueling Connection Devices. Multiple fueling methods are described in this document and include: 1 Fill to Service Pressure with fixed area flow-limiting device 2 Fill to Target

Fuel Cell Standards Committee

JP-8 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle

2024-01-3948

08/10/2022

ABSTRACT This paper summarizes development and demonstration of F-24/JP-8-fueled Fuel-Cell Electric-Vehicle that offers silent-mobility, silent-watch, and export-power. The prototype electric vehicle was fueled with MIL-SPEC F-24/JP-8. It can potentially be operated with other logistic fuels and does not require onboard hydrogen storage. An onboard fuel reformer with integrated sulfur trap was used for processing MIL-SPEC F-24/JP-8. The 10-kW electric (kWe) generator included a solid oxide fuel cell and balance of plant components (oxidizer, pumps, blowers, sensors, power and control electronics). It was hybridized with a rechargeable battery for startup, peak loads, and load following. Water neutrality and silent operation (i.e., ~60 dBA at 1-meter) was confirmed. The power produced was sufficient for vehicle propulsion and export power. Both 28-32 VDC and 110 VAC for charging batteries and supporting external load demands were available onboard. Initial off-road demonstrations were

Vilekar, Saurabh A., Junaedi, Christian, Allocco, Eric, Macri, Francesco, Hawley, Kyle, Plajer, Max, Blaze, Phil, LaBreche, Tim, Baca, Carlos Martinez, Mastanduno, Rich, Roychoudhury, Subir, Hoose, Jarrod, Centeck, Kevin

Model-Based Optimization of Hydrogen Storage for Military Ground Vehicle Applications

2024-01-3947

08/10/2022

ABSTRACT As the Army begins to explore the electrification of its ground vehicle fleet, several technologies are of interest to help clear the large hurdle presented by vehicles’ energy needs. Hydrogen fuel cells have potential as a solution to this problem but there are many challenges that need to be addressed, such as hydrogen storage. Siemens LMS Amesim was used to simulate the performance of several wheeled and tracked vehicles in order to evaluate several hydrogen storage methods and materials to determine if they are suitable for military ground vehicle use. Several technologies were found to perform better than the state of the art compressed gas storage, exemplifying that advanced hydrogen storage could enable the electrification of the heaviest ground vehicles in the Army’s fleet. Citation: B. Paczkowski, A. Wiegand, “Model-Based Optimization of Hydrogen Storage for Military Ground Vehicle Applications,” In Proceedings of the Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology

Paczkowski, Ben, Wiegand, Andrew

Development of Safety Performance for FC Stack in the New Toyota FCEV

2022-01-0686

03/29/2022

The new Toyota Mirai hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) was launched in December 2020. Achieving a low-cost, high-performance FC stack is an important objective in FCEV development. At the same time, it is also necessary to ensure vehicle safety. This paper presents an overview of the safety requirements for onboard FC stacks. It also describes the simulation and evaluation methods for the following matters related to the FC stack. i) Impact force resistance: The FC stack was designed to prevent cell layer slippage due to impact. Constraint force between the cell layers is provided by the frictional force between the cells and an external constraint. A simulation of the behavior of the cell layers under impact force was developed. The impact force resistance was confirmed by an impact loading test. ii) Hydrogen safety: The FC stack was designed so that permeated hydrogen is ventilated and the hydrogen concentration is kept below the standard. In addition, as a fail-safe measure

Enomoto, Kei, Ida, Atsushi, Harada, Takashi, Takeuchi, Hiroaki

Hydrogen Vehicle Crash Test Lab Safety Guidelines

J3121_202202 (Current)

02/23/2022

The scope of this document is to provide an overview of the risks and protective precautions to ensure safe and effective testing procedures for the test personnel and the vehicle during the testing of a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle. The main risks associated with a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle are the fuel cell stack, hydrogen storage vessel, fuel cell system components and the high voltage battery. Risks could be summarized from the battery into thermal runaway possibly leading to fire or explosion, electrolyte spillage and electrical shock or electrocution. The hydrogen fuel cell system risks include electrical shock or electrocution and possible release of hydrogen gas (if tested with). Vehicle crash testing protection should be coordinated with the system or component manufacturer(s) suggestions. Precautions should be taken with the handling, transportation, and storage of the vehicle pre-crash and post-crash. This document was written to provide and an understanding of the risks and

Impact and Rollover Test Procedures Standards Committee

Protective Wall Settings for a Skid-Mounted Electrolytic Hydrogen Production System

13-03-01-0006

11/12/2021

Electrolytic hydrogen production equipment has numerous hydrogen pipelines and high-pressure hydrogen storage tanks which may leak hydrogen which can lead to explosions causing damage to the nearby personnel and equipment. The present work modeled hydrogen explosions in a skid-mounted electrolytic hydrogen production unit. The model was first used to predict the area affected by an explosion without protective walls. The effects of protective walls on the flame and overpressure were then studied by modeling explosions with various protective walls at various distances from the opening on the side of the unit. The results show that the protective walls effectively reduced the damage behind the wall. However, the reflected shock waves may cause secondary damage in front of the wall if the protective wall is too close to the opening. Moreover, the protective wall blocks the hydrogen diffusion which increases the flammable gas mass. The present work can guide protective wall design and

Huang, Teng, Wang, Yujie, Xiao, Guoping, Zhao, Mingbin, Ba, Qingxin, Zhao, Zeying, Li, Xuefang

High on hydrogen

21AUTP11_0111/01/2021

Through its Symbio joint venture with Michelin, Faurecia expands far beyond its interior-systems base into the fuel-cell future. With only a single proton and electron, hydrogen is the lightest element in the Periodic Table, but it is having a heavy impact on Faurecia. The French Tier-1 supplier, whose automotive seating and interiors businesses accounted for nearly 69% of sales in 2020, is staking a significant slice of its future growth in hydrogen fuel-cell systems. It's a bold and admittedly disruptive strategy that Jose-Vicente March, Faurecia's general manager, Zero Emissions in the Clean Mobility group, is confident will establish his company as a technology and market leader. “Yes, it's been disruptive - but it's applied disruption! Our initiative on hydrogen and fuel cells is a key mission for us,” March explained in an interview with SAE Media. “It's part of Faurecia's commitment to be CO2 neutral by 2050. One of our four business groups, Clean Mobility [its exhaust

Brooke, Lindsay

A Perspective on the Challenges and Future of Hydrogen Fuel

13-03-01-000310/04/2021

Many consider hydrogen to be the automobile fuel of the future. Indeed, it has numerous characteristics that makes it very attractive. Hydrogen has a much higher energy density than gasoline, can be produced from water, and its only emission is water. However, there are numerous challenges associated with hydrogen. In particular, the production of hydrogen is a key issue. Currently, most hydrogen is developed from methane, resulting in hydrogen having a carbon footprint. New investments into electrolysis from renewable energy sources is showing promise as an alternative for generating hydrogen. Further, the distribution of hydrogen poses many problems, requiring substantial infrastructure to support a hydrogen economy. Additionally, hydrogen storage is a key issue since most conventional storage mechanisms are overly bulky. If these three issues can be addressed, hydrogen is posed for being a key fuel as the world tries to move away from fossil fuels. This article discusses these

Mittal, Vikram, Shah, Rajesh, Aragon, Nathan, Douglas, Nicholas

Engineering an Aircraft Hydrogen Powertrain

TBMG-39305

06/01/2021

ZeroAvia’s journey into the world of the hydrogen powertrain began with a mission to decarbonize one of the most challenging sectors in existence due to the complexities in recreating the synthesis of chain reactions that aircraft require to fly securely with hydrogen fueling. Currently, the balance of engine-triggered events that power, heat, pressurize, and so forth is not necessarily the result of the high-efficiency performance of fossil fuels. Yet, aircraft use engine inefficiencies to fill other needs such as thermal management. One of the most significant challenges in designing an effective hydrogen powertrain system is keeping the aircraft capabilities intact by using efficient and non-efficient fossil-fuel turbine engine performance metrics as a benchmarking tool for peak hydrogen performance.

Engineering an Aircraft Hydrogen Powertrain

21AERP06_0306/01/2021

ZeroAvia's journey into the world of the hydrogen powertrain began with a mission to decarbonize one of the most challenging sectors in existence due to the complexities in recreating the synthesis of chain reactions that aircraft require to fly securely with hydrogen fueling. Currently, the balance of engine-triggered events that power, heat, pressurize, and so forth is not necessarily the result of the high-efficiency performance of fossil fuels. Yet, aircraft use engine inefficiencies to fill other needs such as thermal management. One of the most significant challenges in designing an effective hydrogen powertrain system is keeping the aircraft capabilities intact by using efficient and non-efficient fossil-fuel turbine engine performance metrics as a benchmarking tool for peak hydrogen performance. As a physicist and pilot (both fixed-wing and helicopter), I started ZeroAvia because I wanted to work with engineers to move the needle towards zero-carbon aviation. To do this, we

Development of High-Pressure Hydrogen Storage System for New FCV

2021-01-0741

04/06/2021

This paper describes the high-pressure hydrogen storage system developed for new FCV. With the aim of further popularizing FCVs, this development succeeded in improving the performance of the system and reducing costs. This new storage system consists of multiple tanks of different sizes, which were optimized to store the necessary amount of hydrogen without sacrificing the interior space of the vehicle. The new tanks achieved one of the highest volume efficiencies in the world by adopting high-strength carbon fiber, developed in conjunction with the carbon fiber manufacturer, and by optimizing the layered construction design which allowed the amount of carbon fiber to be reduced. To increase the amount of available hydrogen, the longer high pressure tanks were mounted under the vehicle floor unlike the previous model. This was accomplished by the following two measures: First, individual design and manufacturing measures for the tanks were adopted. The liner shape was optimized to

Yahashi, Hiroki, Yamashita, Akira, Shigemitsu, Nozomu, Goto, Sogo, Kida, Koji, Inou, Takashi

Unsettled Issues Concerning the Use of Green Ammonia Fuel in Ground Vehicles

EPR202100302/15/2021

While hydrogen is emerging as a clean alternative automotive fuel and energy storage medium, there are still numerous challenges to implementation, such as the economy of hydrogen production and deployment, expensive storage materials, energy intensive compression or liquefaction processes, and limited trial applications. Synthetic ammonia production, on the other hand, has been available on an industrial scale for nearly a century. Ammonia is one of the most-traded commodities globally and the second most-produced synthetic chemical after sulfuric acid. As an energy carrier, it enables effective hydrogen storage in chemical form by binding hydrogen atoms to atmospheric nitrogen. While ammonia as a fuel is still in its infancy, its unique properties render it as a potentially viable candidate for decarbonizing the automotive industry. Yet, lack of regulation and standards for automotive applications, technology readiness, and reliance on natural gas for both hydrogen feedstocks to

Kolodziejczyk, Bart

Mahle's hydrogen focus spans fuel cells, ICEs

21TOFHP02_0802/01/2021

Hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) technology is gaining momentum in the mobility sector, with substantial volume expected by 2025 to 2030, according to Dr. Marco Warth, director of corporate advanced engineering mechatronics at Mahle. The iconic cylinder-systems supplier for diesel and gasoline engines is now a major player in the industry's investigation of hydrogen as a future transport fuel. Dr. Warth sees the company's work as laying a cornerstone on which rests CO2-neutral mobility. Having established a broad spectrum of products for fuel cell systems, Mahle is monitoring potential hydrogen applications for combustion engines. An R&D project that could be beneficial to both is a carbon-fiber gaseous hydrogen tank with a plastic liner that would increase hydrogen storage density and save production costs.

Birch, Stuart

Unsettled Issues in Electrical Demand for Automotive Electrification Pathways

EPR2021004

01/18/2021

With the current state of automotive electrification, predicting which electrification pathway is likely to be the most economical over a 10- to 30-year outlook is wrought with uncertainty. The development of a range of technologies should continue, including statically charged battery electric vehicles (BEVs), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and EVs designed for a combination of plug-in and electric road system (ERS) supply. The most significant uncertainties are for the costs related to hydrogen supply, electrical supply, and battery life. This greatly is dependent on electrolyzers, fuel-cell costs, life spans and efficiencies, distribution and storage, and the price of renewable electricity. Green hydrogen will also be required as an industrial feedstock for difficult-to-decarbonize areas such as aviation and steel production, and for seasonal energy buffering in the grid. For ERSs, it is critical to understand how battery life will be

Muelaner, Jody Emlyn

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