Browse Topic: Hydrogen storage

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Modeling and Simulation Analysis of Liquid Hydrogen and Power Systems Based on Amesim2026-99-1608To be published on 07/24/2026
Hydrogen-powered aircraft primarily utilize the conversion of liquid hydrogen into gaseous hydrogen to replace aviation kerosene, where hydrogen is directly combusted to provide propulsion. This study applied Amesim software to establish a complicated model simulating the liquid hydrogen to gaseous hydrogen conversion and ignition combustion processes. The simulation contains converting liquid hydrogen into gaseous hydrogen through a heat exchanger and simulating the mixture of gaseous hydrogen and air in the engine combustion chamber, and then igniting the mixture. The pressure, temperature, and flow rate of gaseous hydrogen and air during the ignition and combustion process in the engine combustion chamber, as well as the outlet temperature of the combustion chamber, are simulated and analyzed. The results demonstrate that during the simulation process, the internal pressure of the liquid hydrogen storage tank, the outlet pressure and flow rate of the liquid hydrogen pump, and the pressure and flow rate of gaseous hydrogen meet the requirements of the ignition combustion test. In addition, varying gaseous hydrogen flow rates had significant impacts on the temperature of the combustion chamber during combustion.
Gao, Pengfei, Wang, Lijian
Impact of Compression Ratio and Stroke on Hydrogen Requirement for Emission-Optimized Operation of an Ammonia-Fuelled Spark-Ignition Engine2026-37-00306/9/2026
Ammonia (NH3) fuelled engines have emerged as a promising route toward net-zero emission targets due to NH3’s carbon-free nature, ease of storage, and established handling infrastructure. However, the low laminar burning speed and narrow flammability limits of NH3 pose a significant combustion challenge, which can be addressed through hydrogen (H2) co-fuelling. For practical implementation, on-board H2 production via thermal catalytic cracking of NH3 is an attractive solution, as it eliminates the need for external H2 storage and associated handling and capital costs. Previous studies by the present authors identified a lean operating strategy that achieves an equimolar ratio of NOx and unburned NH3 (α NH3NOx ≈ 1), enabling complete conversion to nitrogen and water vapour when coupled with a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) system. This strategy was further validated using cracked NH3 derived H2 in place of bottled H2 through an on-board cracker, thereby representing a practical system configuration. However, the required H2 fraction, and consequently the size and power demand of the onboard cracking system, is strongly influenced by engine architecture and operating conditions. The present study investigates the effect of compression ratio (CR) and stroke length, on H2 fraction requirements to achieve an optimum α of unity in an externally boosted SI engine. Results demonstrate that the high CR = 17.5, long stroke configuration reduces H2 enrichment by 50–60% compared to a low CR = 12.5, short-stroke engine architecture, allowing smaller onboard H2 generation systems. At high-speed, high-load conditions, it achieves over 45% thermal efficiency with stable NH3 combustion and no H2 supplementation, maintaining an α ≈ 1. Across the full operating map, NOx emissions comply with IMO Tier III and EPA Tier 4 norms, demonstrating near-zero-emission operation.
Yadav, Neeraj Kumar, Ambalakatte, Ajith, Geng, Sikai, Gopakumar Suja, Gagan, Birch, Alexander, Cairns, Alasdair, Harrington, Anthony, Hall, Jonathan
Linear Trajectory Planning of Hydrogen Storage Tank with Unequal Polar Holes2026-99-07185/15/2026
In this paper, the design and process research of uniform filling linear trajectory for filament wound hydrogen storage tank with unequal polar holes are carried out. Firstly, by optimizing the slip coefficient, the winding angles of the left and right heads are smoothly and continuously transitioned to the cylindrical section. We study the necessary conditions for achieving the central angle of uniform filling, and calculate the tangent points of the trajectory line based on the continuous fraction principle. Meanwhile, the slip coefficients at the left and right ends that satisfy stable winding and uniform covering are determined. Based on the equal contour constraint conditions, we analyze the motion trajectory equation of the four-axis winding machine and convert it into the corresponding machine code for actual winding operations. Experimental results show that stable winding of fibers on the surface of the unequal-polar-hole mandrel is achieved, and uniform filling and winding effects are obtained after a certain number of winding cycles. Simulation results show that the proposed design parameters and optimization algorithm are feasible and effective.
Chen, Baosen, Fu, Jianhui, Cao, Xuewen, Yu, Libin
Fatigue Resistance of High-Pressure Hydrogen Storage Vessels with Aluminum Liner2026-99-07315/15/2026
Although carbon fiber-reinforced aluminum-lined hydrogen storage vessels (Type III) exhibit outstanding specific strength and specific stiffness, the constraints imposed by their design parameters on fatigue performance and ultimate load-bearing capacity remain incompletely elucidated. We propose a fatigue life prediction method for high-pressure vessels that couples progressive damage in the fiber composite with cumulative damage in the metallic liner, aimed at forecasting the fatigue performance of Type III pressure vessels under cyclic loading. Furthermore, a finite element analysis systematically investigates the influence of key design parameters, for nominal pressure, liner diameter and liner thickness, on fatigue performance and ultimate load-bearing capacity. Results indicate that fatigue life significantly decreases with increasing nominal pressure and liner diameter, with nominal pressure exerting a more pronounced effect. Notably, altering the autoclave pressure alone cannot achieve a synergistic design that balances high load-bearing capacity and high fatigue life when the burst safety factor equals 2.25. More interestingly, we discover that appropriately increasing the pressure vessel's safety factor or liner thickness enables synergistic optimization of the overall structure. These findings provide reliable design approach for the structural design and life assessment of composite hydrogen storage pressure vessels.
Bi, Zhihai, Zhang, Qian
Research on Hole Enlargement Process and Modeling Optimization for Type III Hydrogen Storage Tanks2026-99-07205/15/2026
The global automotive industry is accelerating its transition toward low-carbon solutions, with hydrogen fuel cell vehicles offering core advantages of zero emissions and extended range. Their critical component is the Type III fiber-wound hydrogen storage tank, whose performance directly impacts vehicle operational safety and driving range. This technology has now achieved widespread adoption. However, two significant challenges persist in the dome region of these tanks: first, modeling accuracy is difficult to control due to dynamic variations in thickness and winding angles; second, fiber thickness buildup frequently occurs near the pole holes. These issues compromise both the design reliability and manufacturing quality of hydrogen storage tanks. Therefore, this study adopted a combined approach of theoretical analysis and numerical simulation. First, based on composite mechanics theory and calibrated with experimental data (Tensile, Compression, and Shear Tests on NOL and Unidirectional Plates), the design methodology and key material parameters for the hydrogen storage tank were determined. Subsequently, through secondary development based on ABAQUS, rapid and high-precision finite element modeling was achieved. Results from the progressive damage model were validated against hydrostatic burst tests, controlling prediction errors within 3%, effectively resolving the modeling accuracy issue. Simultaneously, to address the fiber buildup problem, this study innovatively proposed two process solutions: bandwidth-based hole expansion and extreme-value hole expansion. Numerical simulation comparisons demonstrated that the 1.5-times bandwidth hole expansion scheme is optimal, enhancing fiber distribution uniformity, reducing overall stress levels, and improving load-bearing capacity. These technical methods and research conclusions provide theoretical support for the design and manufacturing of fiber-wound hydrogen storage cylinders.
Wang, Jianguo, Zhang, Qian, Cao, Xuewen, Zheng, Xuanxuan, Li, Jiajie
Exploration of a Full-scale Hydrogen Fuel Cell Powered Helicopter through Flight Tests and AnalysisF-0082-2026-01725/5/2026
A single pilot, full-scale, proton exchange membrane fuel cell powered helicopter is flight tested with 700 bar compressed gaseous hydrogen as fuel. Models are developed for the fuel cell, hydrogen and the helicopter and validated with flight test data. The data covers powerplant architecture, stack electrical characteristics, hydrogen flow, detailed component weights, radiator drag, and full aircraft power measured in hover and forward fight. The validated models are then used to conceptually explore the conversion of a larger, more capable, turbine engine Robinson R66-like airframe with liquid hydrogen supplied fuel cell. Predictions indicate that payloads of 300−600 lb can be carried over a range of 200 nautical miles with current fuel cell technology if hydrogen storage weight fractions of 0.2−0.3 can be achieved and the tank and baggage compartment both are used for fuel. The key conclusion is that hydrogen fuel cell helicopters are feasible and the test data and validations presented here open the door for advancing its performance in the future.
Enciu, Yuval, Leach, Asher, Pilon, Marc-Antoine, Cardinal, Mikael, Ibrahima, Diallo, Datta, Anubhav
Optimized Design and Economic Evaluation of a Renewable Hydrogen Refueling Station for Public Transport on Elba Island14-15-01-00042/13/2026
The aim of this study is to develop a methodology to significantly reduce emissions in bus fleet renewal scenarios by investigating both technical and economic aspects. This work presents a case study based on Elba Island, Italy, which investigates optimal solutions for replacing existing Diesel buses through a total cost of ownership analysis. The investigation is carried out for four different potential scenarios: renewing the fleet with Diesel buses, renewing the fleet with electric buses, adopting fuel cell buses, and implementing a hybrid solution. The latter represents a synergistic solution that integrates fuel cell buses with the development of a hydrogen refueling station driven by a proton exchange membrane electrolyzer, unlocking the techno-economic potential of self-producing green hydrogen for bus refueling. The novelty of this study is its integrated methodology that combines a total cost of ownership analysis with a tailored design of a green hydrogen production network optimized for continuous fleet operation. A constrained optimization algorithm was employed to determine the optimal configuration of key plant components, including the proton exchange membrane electrolyzer system size, the amount of photovoltaic panels and wind turbines, and the capacity of the hydrogen storage tank. The grid-based alternative offers a simple payback period under 4 years and a total cost of ownership of 6 M€, making it more cost-effective than the 6.5 M€ electric and 7.5 M€ Diesel options. These results provide a scalable, replicable roadmap for accelerating sustainable public transport adoption in similar contexts.
Bove, Giovanni, Sorrentino, Marco, Baldinelli, Arianna, Desideri, Umberto
Design and Development of a Lightweight Aluminium Cascade System for Type IV COPVs for Stationary and Mobile Applications2026-26-04851/16/2026
The global push for clean energy has made hydrogen a central element in decarbonizing transport, industrial processes, and energy systems. Effective hydrogen storage and distribution are critical to supporting this transition, and type IV Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessels (COPVs) have emerged as the preferred solution due to their lightweight, high pressure capacity, hydrogen embrittlement and corrosion resistance. However, the cascade infrastructure used to house and transport these vessels has lagged behind in innovation. Steel-based cascades, while strong, are heavy prone to corrosion, and unsuitable for mobile deployment. This paper introduces a custom designed aluminium cascade system offering a 65% weight reduction while maintaining structural integrity and safety. Designed for mobile use, the system features modularity, better damping, and enhanced corrosion protection. The paper outlines design methodology, material selection, fabrication process, and comparative performance evaluation against steel cascade, supporting the advancement of hydrogen infrastructure.
Parasumanna, Ajeet Babu, Muthusamy, Hariprasad, Ammu, Vnsu Viswanath, Kola, Immanuel Raju
Establishing a High-Pressure Direct Injection Hydrogen Engine Test Facility with Integrated Ammonia Fuel Capability: Technical Considerations, Safety Framework, and Best Practices2026-26-02671/16/2026
The transition toward zero-carbon propulsion technologies has highlighted the urgent need for specialized test infrastructure to support hydrogen and alternative fuel research. This paper presents the conceptualization, design, and operation of a High-Pressure Direct Injection (HPDI) Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine (H2 ICE) test facility with integrated ammonia fuel testing capability, marking a significant advancement in India’s sustainable automotive research efforts. Drawing from practical experience, it outlines crucial technical specifications, safety protocols, and best practices for establishing robust, adaptable, and secure testing environments. Addressing the industry’s need for dedicated infrastructure, it is engineered for adaptability across various engine types including heavy-duty, light-duty, and multi-utility vehicles while aligning with global technical standards. Key technical considerations include a transient dynamometer with an advanced automation system for precise control of both hydrogen and ammonia test cycles. Emission measurement systems such as hydrogen analyzer, ammonia-specific FTIR, particle number counter, and particle size distribution analyzer, are essential for analyzing regulated and unregulated emissions that are critical to sustainable fuel development. The hydrogen fuel storage and distribution system support up to 500 bar pressure, incorporating certified components. Three distinct supply lines operating at 350 bar (for HPDI), 100 bar (for Low Pressure Direct Injection), and 20 bar (for Port Fuel Injection) to accommodate diverse engine configurations. A separate ammonia delivery system ensures dual-fuel testing while addressing its specific chemical and safety needs. Safety remains a cornerstone of the facility's design due to hydrogen’s flammability and ammonia’s toxicity. Essential measures include a high-capacity ventilation, ATEX-rated electricals, real-time gas detection, inert-gas fire suppression, remote monitoring using CCTV, thermal imaging and acoustic sensors. The facility serves as a benchmark for hydrogen and ammonia ICE research in emerging markets, providing practical insights, and technical recommendations and guidance for aligned infrastructure development in support of a zero-carbon mobility future.
Dhyani, Vipin, Kurien, Caneon, Subramanian, Balaji, Khandai, Chinmayananda, Muralidharan, M
Mathematical Modeling and Genetic Algorithm-Based Energy Management in Hydrogen PEM Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles2026-26-02571/16/2026
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) represent a significant trajectory in vehicular decarbonization, harnessing the inherently high energy density of diatomic hydrogen within electrochemical conversion systems. When sourced via renewable pathways, such hydrogen facilitates propulsion architectures characterized by zero tailpipe emissions, enhanced energy efficiency, and extended operational range profiles. Realizing peak systemic efficacy necessitates the synergistic orchestration of high-fidelity fuel cell stack design, resilient compressed gas storage modalities, and nuanced energy governance protocols. To reduce transient stressors and guarantee long-term electrochemical stability, employing multi-scale modeling and predictive simulation, combined with constraint-aware architectural synthesis, is crucial in handling stochastic driving conditions spectra. This study develops a high-fidelity mathematical plant model of a hydrogen Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell vehicle and implements advanced Energy Management Strategies (EMS). The FCEV plant model is developed with the forward approach method, taking into account the power limitations of the power plant. A PEM fuel cell system is accurately and in detail modeled, representing voltage loss mechanisms. The performance of the mathematical model was calibrated with the experimental results with an error margin of 8-10%. Whereas, a permanent magnet synchronous motor is modeled mathematically along with a Field-Oriented Controller (FoC) for ensuring precise torque regulation. Energy Management Strategies (EMS) optimize fuel cell and battery coordination to boost vehicle performance and efficiency. Online EMS adapts control using real-time data, while offline EMS applies machine learning to past driving patterns for predictive energy allocation. In this study, a Genetic Algorithm (GA)-based EMS, which is one of the types of offline EMS, is implemented to enhance fuel economy, dynamic performance, and component-level energy usage. Compared to non-optimized operation, the GA approach offers improved power split efficiency, 9-12% improvement in hydrogen consumption, resulting in lower energy consumption and enhanced overall vehicle performance. This work improves PEM FCEV technology through better design, simulation, and optimization methods, laying a solid foundation for future advancements in sustainable and efficient transportation.
Mulik, Rakesh Vilasrao, E, Porpatham, Senthilkumar, Arumugam
Study of the Performance, Consumption and Range of a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Powered by Green Hydrogen2025-36-000712/18/2025
Ethanol is a hydrogen-rich liquid and has a specific energy of 8.0 kWh/kg. In a vehicle, hydrogen storage is done in high-pressure cylinders. The same fundamental technology is used at other fuel cell systems in vehicles such as Toyota Mirai and Honda Clarity. Hydrogen is also introduced into the cell to generate electricity, which will power an electric motor that drives the vehicle. Excess electricity is stored in batteries. The main characteristic of the system described here is that hydrogen can be generated through an additional process in a reformer, installed at a fixed station. The reformer transforms the ethanol stored in the fuel station tank into hydrogen, which can then fuel a vehicle equipped with high-pressure cylinders and fed into the fuel cell. The system, however, emits water vapor, heat, and CO2. This is because carbon dioxide is a byproduct resulting from the transformation of ethanol into hydrogen. According to studies, despite this the system is carbon neutral, considering the total cycle. That is, the CO2 released into the atmosphere is retained by the plantations that are cultivated to produce ethanol. Thus, the carbon is contained in a closed cycle. In addition to ethanol, the reformer can also operate with other fuels such as natural gas, biogas, etc. In view of these facts, we have the following considerations: the use of an electric traction system with a fuel cell powered by reformed hydrogen gas from ethanol can allow greater autonomy for electric vehicles, reducing the dependence on electric charging stations; it can also make a significant contribution to reducing pollutant emissions. Looking at the world situation in the medium term, it may turn out to be an alternative system to the use of internal combustion engines and reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
Fontana, Romeu
Scalable Hydrogen Storage and Transport Systems2025-01-05029/16/2025
Advances in conformable tank technology have resulted in opportunities to harness and deploy hydrogen energy in a variety of operational environments. Various use cases are described, and the benefits of these unique storage systems in vehicular, stationary, and bulk storage applications are illustrated. The impressive scalability of conformable hydrogen tank production is also explained, as it relates to the cost effective and broad application of these storage systems.
Johnston, Stephen, Kondogiani, Chris
Q&A25AUTP06_176/1/2025
Tarek Abdel-Baset, Forvia's chief engineer for hydrogen storage systems, has two decades of experience in alt-fuel transporation development, with all the ups and downs that entails. So he was a good person for SAE Media to ask about the industry vibe at the 2025 Advanced Clean Transportation Expo in Anaheim.
Clonts, Chris
Development of the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator for Evaluating Off-Road Mobile Machinery Energy Consumption2025-01-85954/1/2025
This paper presents the development of a new vehicle simulation software, the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator Tool (referred to as the Power-Based Model), designed to predict fuel consumption and evaluate advanced powertrain technologies for off-road mobile machinery. The Power-Based Model integrates current research on fuel consumption simulation in the off-road vehicle sector and serves as a platform for development of advanced powertrain technologies such as battery-electric and fuel cell powertrains. The tool predicts the battery capacity and hydrogen storage required for the transition to these advanced powertrains, allowing users to accurately calculate component sizes and reductions in fuel consumption. The Power-Based Model was developed with a strong focus on the unique operational characteristics of off-road machinery, ensuring that it realistically reflects real-world energy consumption and the competitive advantages of various fuel-saving technologies. This paper describes the simulation tool and its key features and summarizes the most critical future updates under investigation. In addition, we present an initial validation of the tool’s performance against real-world measurement data, highlighting its ability to accurately simulate vehicle energy consumption. While the results suggest good test reproducibility, further development is needed to accurately reflect the real-world energy consumption of off-road mobile machinery.
Kim, Namdoo, Seo, Jigu, Vijayagopal, Ram, Burnham, Andrew, makarczyk, David, Freyermuth, Vincent
Modelling and Simulation of a Fuel Cell Powertrain for Extreme H Applications2025-01-80084/1/2025
This paper aims to model and simulate a design specification for a fuel cell electric powertrain tailored for Extreme H motorsport applications. A comprehensive numerical model of the powertrain was constructed using GT-SUITE v2024, integrating the 2025 Extreme H regulations, which include specifications for the fuel cell stack, electric motors, hydrogen storage, and battery systems. A detailed drive cycle representing the real-world driving patterns of Extreme E vehicles was developed, utilizing kinematic parameters derived from literature and real-world data. The performance of the Extreme H powertrain was benchmarked against the Toyota Mirai fuel cell vehicle to validate the simulation accuracy under the same racing conditions. The proposed design delivers a maximum power output of 400 kW, with 75 kW supplied by the fuel cell and 325 kW by the battery, ensuring optimal performance within the constraints set by the Extreme H 2025 regulations. Additionally, the design maintains an optimal fuel cell operating temperature of 81°C, as indicated in the literature. The logical methodology employed for developing the powertrain, which includes integrating regulations, designing the drive cycle, and optimizing the performance envelope, is elaborated in this paper.
Moreno Medina, Javier, Samuel, Stephen
Hydrogen storage: Not everything need look like a sausage25AUTP03_063/1/2025
Since the 1860 Hippomobile, hydrogen has been a part of powered mobility. Today, most hydrogen storage applications use cylindrical tanks, but other solutions are available. At a recent Bosch-sponsored event, SAE Media noted Linamar's Flexform conformable storage, which the company says uses the same or less material for a given storage volume while delivering anywhere from 5-25% more volumetric efficiency than conventional cylindrical tanks within that volume. “We see space as a regular bounding box where all you're losing is this area around the corners, closer to five to 10% [loss]. Where Flexform really shines and where the value proposition really is, is irregular spaces, such as between frame rails,” said representatives from the Linamar engineering team.
Cannell, Thom
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Fuel Cell Heavy-Duty Vehicles in China: A Cradle-to-Gate Analysis13-06-03-00182/4/2025
Considered as one of the most promising technology pathways for the transport sector to realize the target of “carbon neutral,” fuel cell vehicles have been seriously discussed in terms of its potential for alleviating environmental burden. Focused on cradle-to-gate (CtG) stage, this article evaluates the environmental impacts of fuel cell heavy-duty vehicles of three size classes and three driving ranges to find the critical components and manufacturing processes in the energy context of China. The findings show that the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the investigated fuel cell heavy-duty vehicle range from 47 ton CO2-eq to 162 ton CO2-eq, with the fuel cell system and hydrogen storage system collectively contributing to 37%–56% of the total. Notably, as the driving range increases, the proportion of GHG emissions stemming from fuel cell-related components also rises. Within the fuel cell system, the catalyst layer and bipolar plate are identified as the components with the most significant impacts, accounting for 62.9% and 32.7%, respectively, of the total GHG emissions from a fuel cell stack. The fundamental materials constituting these components namely, platinum, titanium, and carbon black are thus of considerable significance in the emission profile of the fuel cell stack. For the hydrogen storage system, carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) layer stands out as the most important component, constituting 98% of the total GHG emissions. It is suggested that GHG emissions from fuel cell systems and hydrogen storage systems can be effectively curtailed by implementing strategies such as grid decarbonization, reducing Pt loading in catalysts, and enhancing fuel cell power density. Additionally, the potential for GHG emissions reduction in fuel cell heavy-duty vehicles can be reinforced through the adoption of lightweight materials and the integration of low-carbon alternatives into the glider components.
Mu, Zhexuan, Deng, YunFeng, Bai, Fanlong, Zhao, Fuquan, Liu, Zongwei, Hao, Han, Liu, Ming
Transforming Hydrogen Supply at Hydrogen Refueling Stations: Design and Analysis of LOHC for Auxiliary Hydrogen Supply2025-01-71011/31/2025
In order to give full play to the economic and environmental advantages of liquid organic hydrogen carrier(LOHC) technology in hydrogen storage and transportation as well as its technological advantages as a hydrogen source for hydrogen refueling station(HRS) supply, it promotes the change of hydrogen supply method in HRSs and facilitates its technological landing in the terminal of HRSs. In this paper, combining the current commercialization status of organic liquid technology and the current construction status of HRS in China, we establish a traditional long-tube trailer HRS model through Matlab Simulink, carry out modification on the existing process, maximize the use of the original equipment, and introduce the hydrogen production end of the station with organic liquid as an auxiliary hydrogen source. Research and design of the two hydrogen sources of gas extraction strategy and the station control strategy and the formation of Stateflow language model, to realize the verification of the LOHC technology auxiliary hydrogen supply program. Different LOHC hydrogen production quantities are set to analyze their effects on the cost of hydrogen supply, energy consumption, and high-pressure hydrogen inventory (safety) in the HRS. The results show that in the case of LOHC for auxiliary hydrogen supply, a specific amount of hydrogen production can ensure the full utilization of the trailer at the station and avoid overnight stationing. In terms of hydrogen supply costs, LOHC for auxiliary hydrogen supply is cost-effective, with overall transportation costs decreasing by 25.9%-56.1% as the amount of LOHC production increases.
Huo, Tianqing, Feng, Tianyu, Yang, Fusheng, Huang, Ye, Zheng, Huaan, Wang, Bin, Fang, Tao, Wu, Zhen, Zhang, ZaoXiao
Efficiency Analysis of Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Power Generation System Based on Organic Hydrogen Storage Solution2025-01-71171/31/2025
Organic solution is an ideal hydrogen storage and transport carrier, and the dehydrogenation of solution is an endothermic process. High dehydrogenation heat demand becomes a key factor restricting its application. Hydrogen internal combustion engine (HICE) is an ideal power device under the current background of emphasizing clean and low carbon. In this study, dibenzyltoluene (DBT) was selected as liquid organic hydrogen carrier (LOHC), the residual heat of engine exhaust was used as the heat source of organic solution dehydrogenation, and the residual heat of engine exhaust is used as the heat source of organic solution dehydrogenation, using the combustion of dehydrogenated hydrogen products to supplement the heat absorption of hydrogen released by organic solution. Taking hydrogen internal combustion engine power generation as the application scenario, the power generation system of liquid organic hydrogen storage solution combined with hydrogen internal combustion engine (LOHC-HICE) is designed and the system calculation model is built. The system efficiency changes and the influence of subsystem modules on the system during the transfer of hydrogen internal combustion engine from 800 to 2000 are comprehensively analyzed. Waste heat accounted for about 20% of the heat consumed in dehydrogenation, up to 26% at 2000 RPM. Hydrogen combustion energy was the main contributor to dehydrogenation heat, accounting for 60-70%. Comprehensive and comparative analysis was made on measures to improve waste heat utilization, such as improving heat exchange efficiency, increasing exhaust temperature and reducing reaction temperature, and it was concluded that controlling reaction temperature at a lower level was the most feasible. The benefits to the system are most obvious. Improving the process of dehydrogenation of compressed hydrogen and organic solution and reducing the reaction temperature are the key to maintain self-dehydrogenation in the practical application of hydrogen combustion engine.
Zhang, Yulong, Luo, Qinghe, Sun, Baigang, Tang, Hongyang
Dynamic Performance Simulation of the Fuel Cell Stack On-Board Vehicle2025-01-70841/31/2025
The dynamic behavior of the water and thermal management are critical to stabilize the performance of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) during severe load changes. In this paper, a fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV) dynamic simulation model is established to evaluate the changes in liquid water and temperature distribution inside the fuel cell stack under a vehicle driving cycle conditions. This paper focuses on analyzing the power generation performance of the stack and the dynamic behavior of internal water and heat transfer following the demand of the vehicle. According to the simulation results, the temperature of MEA and cooling water fluctuates greatly, but the temperature of MEA is always higher than the cooling water temperature by about 1.57 degrees Celsius (average value). Compared to the experimental measurements of temperature, the simulation error for the maximum temperature is 3.4% and the simulation error for the average temperature is 4.4%. The accuracy of the simulation model is less than 5%. Based on the temperature distribution, a fuel cell system temperature control method is proposed, which is helpful to the optimization of the system and control design for the PEMFC system in FCHEV.
Zhao, Xiaojun, Shen, Xuesong, Wang, Yanbo, Shi, Wangying, Yang, Tao, Shan, Fengxiang, Ma, Xiao, Wang, Xin, Zhang, Yongheng, Pan, Fengwen
Sustainable Aviation Fuel – An Effective Tool for Complying with the Aviation’s Global Environmental Commitment2024-36-006612/20/2024
The (commercial) aviation sector (passenger and freight), which is strongly engaged with the world efforts to mitigate the carbon emissions and their inherent climate change effects, has accounted in 2018 for 2.4 % of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (pre-pandemic levels). Despite the reductions in air travel demand during the 2020 pandemic, with a reduction of up to 80% in passenger travel during the peak pandemic period, the air travel demand has already recovered to around 80% of the pre-pandemic level, with aviation emissions in 2022 reaching around 800 Mt CO2, accounting for 2% of the global energy related CO2 emissions. Moreover, the demand for air travel is expected to double by 2040, growing at an annual average rate of 3.4%, which means that. despite the efficiency improvement trend (average 2%/year), will almost double the aviation’s greenhouse (GHG) emissions, with a significant increase in its relative GHG share, compared to the other transport modes. Meanwhile the aviation sector is one of the hardest to decarbonize, with few and costly pathways available. Zero emissions technologies, such hydrogen fuel and electric batteries are currently far from commercially ready for aviation use in the short to medium term, due to the technical challenges, such as aircraft onboard liquid hydrogen storage difficulties, as well as battery weight and volume, and are unlikely ever to be able to power large or long-haul flights. In this scenario, the so called sustainable aviation fuel (SAF), a drop-in fuel concept, already available in modest amounts on a commercial scale, are seen as a promising short to medium term alternative to tackle aviation emissions, by using existing aircraft designs and infrastructure. As a drop-in fuel, the SAF enables the replacement for the fossil jet fuel by using the existing fuel delivery and storage infrastructure and existing aircraft engines, with lifespan that still ranges from 20 to 30 years. From a chemical perspective, the SAF is the liquid aviation fuel derived from non fossil carbon resources, such as biomass or organic derived waste feedstocks, as well as synthetic fuels produced from carbon capture and renewable energy sources. They might be currently used in blends with fossil jet fuel, with current blending limits ranging from 5% to 50%, depending on the feedstock and production pathway. It is estimated from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) that to reach the net zero emission commitment, by 2050, around 65% of emission reductions should be reached by replacing conventional jet fuel with SAF. Despite its important role in the aviation decarbonization, the SAF share currently makes up only 0.1% of aviation fuel demand, which requires a huge increase in the production capacity, which might face challenges, such as feedstock availability, fuel sustainability and cost competitiveness. This work presents a review of the SAF technology, with a focus on the production pathways and their environmental footprint, their use on current aircraft engines and the associated required blends, as well as the challenges associated with SAF production increase and cost reductions, still required to make it a realistic aviation decarbonization tool.
Barbosa, Fábio Coelho
SAE TOMORROW TODAY: The Future of Hydrogen Fuel: A Distribution Revolution1349112/11/2024
Jules Verne was ahead of his time--and so is a company inspired by his name that recognizes hydrogen's immense potential as a clean energy solution. Verne develops and commercializes a novel technology to store and distribute hydrogen in its densest form, cryo-compressed. This approach maximizes hydrogen density, addressing the limitations of compressed gas and reducing the cost of dense storage -- which is a game-changer for boosting hydrogen adoption. To learn more, we sat down with Ted McKlveen, Co-founder & CEO, Verne, to discuss the company's breakthrough solution to addressing hydrogen storage and transportation and how it can unlock the widespread adoption of hydrogen energy, particularly in sectors like Class 8 trucking. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, Twitter, and Instagram.
Hineman, Marcie
A Review of Hydrogen Storage System (HSS) and Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine (H2-ICE) for the Potential H2-ICE Vehicle2024-28-012912/5/2024
The different energy policies and legislations across the globe, unions, or country wise are the key influencer for evaluation of Transport Industry in both advancement of Technologies and Ecosystem development. Accordingly, European Climate law is focusing to achieve net zero greenhouse (or carbon neutral) gas emissions for EU (European Union) countries by 2050. Similarly in India, National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM) by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is aiming for significant decarbonization and to become market leader in Green Hydrogen Transition. Hydrogen is potential fuel for H2-FCEV (Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric vehicle) and H2-ICE (Hydrogen -Internal combustion Engine) due to its carbon free molecule and other properties. This review paper is focusing on comprehensive study of different aspects of H2- ICE vehicle. Key study areas are mainly Hydrogen (H2) as fuel, Hydrogen Storage System (HSS), H2-ICEs, Hydrogen storge pressure and H2-ICE vehicle architecture. The advantages, challenges and gaps in present technology are discussed. This paper aims to provide an overview and potential of carbon neutral emission technology solution namely H2-ICEs based on scientific literature survey and try to conclude considering current knowledge and Technological maturity. Further, this paper covers the comparison of H2-ICE vehicle architecture among the HPDI and SI Engine. This consists of optimization of HSS within the vehicle Architecture. The study indicates that High-Pressure Direct Injection (HPDI) Engine type H2-ICE vehicle is potentially more favorable than Spark Ignition (SI) type H2-ICE in terms of Vehicle Performance, Applicability (operation / use-case), engine efficiency and safety. Same time, Engine (HPDI - H2-ICE) and vehicle complexity level is at higher side for HPDI-H2-ICE vehicle.
Biswas, Sanjoy, Naik, Amit Kumar, Kashyap, Krishna
Aerospace & Defense Technology: December 202424AERP1212/5/2024
Making a Material Difference in Aerospace & Defense Electronics Acquiring and Telemetering Test Data from Hypersonic Platforms Analog Transformation Complements Open System Designs to Optimize Modern Defense Systems These Speedy Cold Spray Machines Can 3D Print Vehicle Parts in War Zones Researchers Use Ancient Japanese Art Method to Create Tunable Antennas What is Drone Jamming and How Can it Be Countered? AI-Trained Vehicles Can Adjust to Extreme Turbulence on the Fly Researchers at Caltech took an important step toward using reinforcement learning to adaptively learn how turbulent wind can change over time, and then uses that knowledge to control a UAV based on what it is experiencing in real time. 'First of Its Kind' Composite Material to Help Space Vessels Travel Longer Distances A Coventry University design and materials engineer is leading an international team of researchers in the creation of a new material for liquid hydrogen storage tanks that are used to propel rockets into space. Scientists Fuse Simulations and Machine Learning to Accelerate Novel Additively Manufactured Materials Researchers at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory have developed a machine learning method that could have a huge impact on understanding how material is formed during the additive manufacturing process. Aviation Safety Expert Unites Industry to Safeguard Aviation Supply Chain A new aviation supply chain integrity coalition has offered 13 recommended actions to prevent the circulation of non-serialized aircraft parts throughout the global aviation industry. DEVCOM CBC Innovates and Integrates through Autonomous Technologies Researchers and engineers at the U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center have developed a prototype system for decontaminating military combat vehicles.
Model-based Evaluation of Advanced Energy Management Control Strategies for Heavy-Duty Fuel Cell Powertrains02-17-04-002112/4/2024
In recent years, fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) have become a promising alternative to battery electric vehicles in medium- and heavy-duty on-road applications, which specifically require long vehicle range, high payload capacity, and fast refueling times. While FCEVs are more likely to meet these requirements, they come with their own challenges of high upfront system cost, reduced system efficiency at high load, on-board hydrogen storage system packaging, and fuel cell system (FCS) durability. To address these challenges, it is critical to ensure optimal propulsion system component sizing during the concept phase as well as ensure optimal propulsion system energy management during vehicle operation. In a previous publication, authors presented a model-based approach for system sizing and optimization of FCEV propulsion system components for a Class 8 long-haul application. In this study, the authors have evaluated and optimized multiple advanced propulsion system energy management control strategies to maximize the FCEV propulsion system efficiency during vehicle operation. Specifically, several energy management strategies were evaluated with the primary objective of reducing hydrogen consumption through efficient power split between FCS and high-voltage battery, while maintaining vehicle performance and sustaining battery state of charge (SOC). A 1D multi-physics-based plant model of the vehicle propulsion and thermal system was developed in GT-SUITE and validated against vehicle test data. The validated plant model was then used for model-in-loop (MiL) simulations to evaluate multiple control strategies such as rule-based, equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS), and dynamic programming (DP), on real-world drive cycles.
Sadekar, Gaurav, Batool, Sadaf, Baburaj, Adithya, Goyal, Vasu, Joshi, Satyum, Franke, Michael
‘First of Its Kind’ Composite Material to Help Space Vessels Travel Longer Distances24AERP12_0812/1/2024
A Coventry University design and materials engineer is leading an international team of researchers in the creation of a new material for liquid hydrogen storage tanks that are used to propel rockets into space. Coventry University, Coventry, UK The future of space travel is seemingly changing by the day and a Coventry University academic is doing his bit to stay at the front of the space race. Dr. Ashwath Pazhani along with an international team of researchers have created a new material for storing the liquid hydrogen used to propel rockets into space by the likes of NASA.
‘First of Its Kind’ Composite Material to Help Space Vessels Travel Longer DistancesTBMG-5212612/1/2024
The future of space travel is seemingly changing by the day and a Coventry University academic is doing his bit to stay at the front of the space race.
Modeling and Analysis of the Hydrogen Production via Steam Reforming of Ethanol, Methanol, and Methane Fuels2024-01-21794/9/2024
The global transition to alternative power sources, particularly fuel cells, hinges on the cost-effective production and distribution of hydrogen fuel. While green hydrogen produced through water electrolysis using renewable energy sources holds immense promise, it currently falls short of meeting the burgeoning demand for hydrogen. To address this challenge, alternative methods, such as steam reforming and partial oxidation of hydrocarbon fuels with integrated carbon capture, are poised to bridge the gap between supply and demand in the near to midterm. Steam reforming of methane is a well-established technology with a proven track record in the chemical industry, serving as a dependable source of hydrogen feedstock for decades. However, to meet the demand for efficient hydrogen storage, handling, and onboard reforming, researchers are increasingly exploring liquid hydrocarbon fuels at room temperature, such as methanol and ethanol. In this work, we have developed reformer models for ethanol, methanol, and methane within the GT-SUITE software, drawing on data from the existing body of research. We examine fuel conversion and hydrogen yield under varying conditions, including different feed temperatures, flow rates, and catalyst loadings. These reactor models hold the potential for seamless integration into system-level models, designed to investigate onboard fuel reforming, startup and shutdown procedures, carbon capture, and more.
Hariharan, Deivanayagam, Chhatija, Harish, Brown, Jonathan, Gundlapally, Santhosh
Fuel Cell Electric Metro Train Concept – Zero Emission Rail Transport Solution for Indian Cities2024-26-01791/16/2024
Indian cities are among the most polluted in the world. The transportation sector is one of the major sources of gaseous pollutants. In recent years, also the effects of climate change and global warming have been felt across the globe. India has therefore committed at the CoP26 summit in 2021 to reduce its CO2 emissions by 45% till the year 2030. The Indian automotive sector is already addressing the problem with implementation of the Stage 2 BS VI norms, CAFÉ & Stage V standards and pursuing rapid electrification with application of zero emission vehicles. India also has the largest rail network of Asia, and a significant proportion of greenhouse gases is emitted by this sector. Deployment of zero emission fuel cell trains would be one of the solutions to meet India’s emission reduction targets. Indian Railways has already started its journey towards zero emissions and has set a target to launch hydrogen fuel cell trains on some routes soon as part of the “Hydrogen for Heritage” initiative. In this study, the application of fuel cell technology in an Indian metro train is investigated. The dimensioning of the major powertrain components like the fuel cell system, HV battery pack, and the hydrogen storage system for the fuel cell train are presented. Also, a retrofit approach will be developed, which includes a packaging study of the major powertrain components in the engine and passenger coaches of the existing train. System simulations with validated models allow an assessment of the system weight and costs for the new fuel cell metro train.
Emran, Ashraf, Garg, Shivam, Mertes, Simon, Gautam, Anirudh, Schmidt, Marvin, Wick, Maximilian, Walters, Marius, Wagh, Sachin, Sharma, Vijay
Hydrogen Refilling Optimizations Through 1-D Simulations for Commercial Vehicles2024-26-01761/16/2024
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and battery electric vehicles are being touted worldwide by the automotive industry and policy makers as the answer to decarbonizing the transportation sector. FCEVs are especially suited for commercial vehicle applications as they offer very short re-fueling times that is comparable to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. While this is entirely possible there are host of challenges that include safety, that need to be addressed to make short refilling times possible for commercial vehicles where the hydrogen storage requirement is higher (25 kg or more). This is due to the rise in temperature of the hydrogen in the cylinder due to compression and the negative Joule-Thompson coefficient. The SAE J2601 standard limits the safe temperature limit of hydrogen gas in the cylinder to 85 °C during filling. In countries where the ambient temperature can go above 45°C, like India, this poses a serious challenge and can severely impact the re-filling rates. One way re-filling stations get around this is by cooling the hydrogen gas to as low as -40°C before filling. However, this adds to the cost of the hydrogen re-filling stations which then becomes an additional bottleneck in the development of hydrogen infrastructure. In this work we explore, using 1-D simulations, how different novel re-filling strategies can impact the re-filling time while staying within safe handling limits of hydrogen gas. Different initial conditions for hydrogen gas before filling are studied to understand how refilling can be optimized to meet targeted refilling times while still curtailing cost over runs on the infrastructure side.
Jacob, Joe, T P, Muhammad, Bhut, Bhaveshkumar, Chougule, Abhijeet
Hydrogen as a Carbon Neutral ICE Fuel for Future India2024-26-01771/16/2024
Researchers are under pressure to investigate and discover ways to improve the efficacy and reduce emissions from ICE due to the depletion of energy resources and the growing concern over global warming. Hydrogen is viewed as a promising fuel and has been investigated as a potential fuel in combustion because to several desirable qualities like carbon-less content and strong flammability limitations. When equated to other alternative fuels like LPG, CNG, LNG, etc., hydrogen has inimitable qualities because it lacks carbon, making it one of the promising alternatives fuels. In order to achieve zero CO2 emissions for traffic applications in the near future, hydrogen being an automotive fuel in ICE is a solution. The ICE powered by hydrogen is prepared for that. The actual drawbacks of using hydrogen in ICE generally are manufacturing, storage, and development of the requisite infrastructure. Hydrogen can be produced in its many forms. Hydrogen storage is a significant barrier to the utilization of this renewable fuel; hence its transportation and storage are being researched. For ICE, hydrogen can be a fuel, and its required adaptations for the current ICE are currently being researched. The characteristics and various fuel properties of a hydrogen ICE are studied. This study aims to comprehend the worldwide scenario of hydrogen and its emerging demand in the automobile market. The various challenges of using hydrogen as a fuel in India are identified, the possibility of on-site production of hydrogen and the pros and cons of using hydrogen as an ICE fuel are reviewed in this paper.
Bandyopadhyay, Debjyoti, Sutar, Prasanna S, Sonawane, Shailesh Balkrishna, Rairikar, Sandeep, Thipse, Sukrut S, Jadhav, Ajinkya
Development Challenges for Hydrogen Test Cell Facility Requirements and Safety Constraints2024-26-01801/16/2024
The globe moving towards setting up targets for greenhouse gas emissions considering short term and long-term strategies, efforts in ICE domain has been accelerating to find an alternative way and H2 is among one of them leading! H2 as fuel is known to be clean source of energy for several years. Recent advancements in fuel cell and Internal Combustion engine technologies are making use of H2 as fuel more feasible for end application for mobility and industrial power generation segment. This paper helps understand the basic properties of Hydrogen which are critical for deriving safety aspects to be considered while designing an engine test cell to handle H2 as fuel. Also it summarizes the survey of relevant reference standards to be considered while designing and developing an H2 engine test cell. It elaborates typical test cell facilities and utilities to give an idea about the critical sub-systems required for an engine test cell. The hydrogen storage design considerations, its handling from storage till engine test cell are studied and summarized. Also, the critical sub-systems which are required for safe handling of H2 as fuel inside the engine test cell are discussed and elaborated. Various reference standard guidance is summarized for safety features and considerations like blow out panels, ATEX considerations etc. Few critical risks to be considered while developing the safety controls are discussed. The operational and human safety and its control are discussed in detail. It also provides information on protection systems to be considered for hydrogen leakage detection and its controls. In summary it compares the infrastructure and test cell utilities required for a typical Diesel Vs H2 ICE test cell.
Phadke, Abhijit N, Mokhadkar, Rahul Prakash
Zero Carbon Emission Aviation Fuel Technology Review - The Hydrogen Pathway2023-36-00291/8/2024
The commercial aviation currently accounts for roughly 2.5 % of the global CO2 emissions and around 3.5% of world warming emissions, taking into account non CO2 effects on the climate. Its has grown faster in recent decades than the other transport modes (road, rail or shipping), with an average rate of 2.3%/year from 1990 to 2019, prior to the pandemic. Moreover, its share of Greenhouse (GHG) emissions is supposed to grow, with the increasing demand scenario of air trips worldwide. This scenario might threaten the decarbonization targets assumed by the aviation industry, in line with the world efforts to minimize the climate effects caused by the carbon emissions. In this context, hydrogen is set as a promising alternative to the traditional jet fuel, due to its zero carbon emissions. Furthermore, its high energy content makes it suitable for the aviation industry, especially in the short to medium haul flights niche, that currently accounts for around 43.8% of global aviation CO2 emissions. Hydrogen fueled aircrafts might have fewer range limitations, compared with battery electric counterparts, currently restricted to smaller commuter flights, given the low energy density of the batteries. For long range flights, liquid fuels alternatives, such as sustainable aviation (SAF), still have a leading position in the short to medium term environmental agenda. Hydrogen can be burned directly in (modified) gas turbine engines, in fuel cells, to generate electricity to power electric motors, or in hybrid-electric propulsion systems. Nevertheless, despite the environmental benefits, there are great challenges to make hydrogen a viable alternative to the fossil liquid jet fuel. One of the main hurdles is the fuel storage, associated with the much higher volume and storage system complexity required for (liquid) hydrogen, to provide the same amount of energy of liquid jet fuel. These fuel features require aircraft and engine design modifications, as well as a new fuel distribution infrastructure. Another major challenge is the full understanding of the non CO2 related climate impacts of hydrogen combustion, such as H2O emissions at cruise altitudes, which interacts with soot and particles in the atmosphere, to form contrails. Finally, the H2 cost, might be addressed to enable a fair competition with fossil jet fuel. Currently, there is a great research effort, from both the government and academic sectors, as well as from the aircraft manufacturers, which includes the test of demonstration H2 aircraft prototypes. This effort also might include policies to foster environmental friendly fuel alternatives, to make them cost competitive. This work presents a review of the aviation hydrogen technology, with a focus on both the propulsion and onboard storage systems, as well as on the potential environmental benefits and the associated costs of the aviation hydrogen fuel pathway. The review research has been supported on a wide search on the technical literature, by using up to date (mainly published in the last two years) articles, whitepapers and technical reports, available at specialized directories and scientific journals. The search has used key words, such as aviation sustainability, hydrogen for aviation propulsion, aviation environmental footprint (and Greenhouse emissions) reduction, as well as liquid and gaseous hydrogen storage.
Barbosa, Fábio Coelho
A Prophase Simulation Study of Fuel Cell-Battery Hybrid System for eVTOL Aircraft in Steady-State Operation2023-01-709212/31/2023
Electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) is defined as vertical lift aircraft propelled by electric power and capable of carrying people. Based on the system of battery powered CY300 eVTOL, a fuel cell-battery hybrid system (FBHS) in steady-state operation as a potential propulsion system for CY300 eVTOL is proposed. In order to analyze the feasibility of FBHS-powered eVTOL system, a mathematical model is established to evaluate the proposed system performance considering various irreversible effects. Furthermore, considerable sensitivity analyses indicate that the payload of the proposed system is considerably benefited by a higher specific energy of the battery system, specific power of the fuel cell system and hydrogen storage ratio of the hydrogen tank. Hydrogen tank weight decreases the payload while enhances the hovering time. DoH accounts for power balancing between two power sources, and affects the impacts of different design parameters on the performance of the proposed FBHS. In order to achieve a long endurance eVTOL with a cruise time of more than 30 min and a payload rate of more than 30%, the specific energy of the battery system in this proposed FBHS needs to be greater than 500 Wh/kg, and the specific power of the fuel cell system needs to reach more than 1000 W/kg. For hydrogen storage technology selections, high pressure gaseous hydrogen storage technologies are suitable enough for short-range eVTOLs, but liquid hydrogen powered eVTOLs can be an ideal solution for long-endurance aircraft. The results acquired may be helpful in designing and optimizing such an actual power system.
Qin, Yuan, Zhang, Xinfeng, Zhang, Houcheng, Li, Wenhao, Lin, Ye, Yue, Han
Fuel Cell/Battery Hybrid Lightweight Quadricycle with Metal Hydride Hydrogen Storage for Improved Performance2023-24-01378/28/2023
Owe to their high electrical energy density, lithium-ion batteries are the most employed technologies in electrified vehicles, whose market share is growing very fast. As a matter of fact, their thermal management is of crucial importance to keep the operating temperature within an appropriate range, as this might greatly affect performance and durability of such devices. Heat generation during cyclic charge and discharge processes, occurring during a vehicle mission, may cause critical temperature variations and, therefore, a suitable thermal management is indispensable. This is particularly true for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles, where the battery undergoes more severe thermal stresses than in battery electric vehicles, due to higher operating C-rates. A hybrid energy storage system, which integrates the battery pack with a metal hydride hydrogen storage tank, may be a promising solution to store energy while implementing an effective, integrated and yet simple thermal management. In fact, if the system is properly designed, it becomes possible to exploit the endothermic desorption process of hydrogen in metal hydrides to remove heat from the battery during vehicle operation. In this work, starting from a battery electric L-class vehicle, a plug-in fuel cell/battery hybrid powertrain with a hybrid energy storage system is designed in order to improve its performance in terms of driving range, by enhancing the on-board gravimetric and volumetric energy densities. Due to the homologation constraint on the maximum vehicle weight, i.e. 450 kg without battery for L-class vehicles, particular attention is taken to the influence of weight increase associated to the fuel cell and metal hydride hydrogen storage tank. Simulation results are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness and potentialities of the proposed solution.
Tribioli, Laura, Di Ilio, Giovanni, Jannelli, Elio
Expanding the Definition of the Degree of Hybridization of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles2023-01-12026/26/2023
Fuel cell electric vehicles are expected to support the effort to overcome the economic and ecological challenges in the automotive sector. Just as battery electric vehicles, fuel cell electric vehicles also offer locally emission free mobility. The drive system of fuel cell electric vehicles consists of a fuel cell system, an electric motor, power electronics, a hydrogen storage system as well as a rechargeable energy storage system, typically a battery. The quantified power ratio between the fuel cell system and the rechargeable energy storage system is referred to as the degree of hybridization, although inconsistent definitions are used. As these existing definitions of the degree of hybridization of fuel cell electric vehicles don’t support a distinct differentiation and characterization of the vehicles, a new definition of the degree of hybridization is proposed considering the ratio of the energy contents of the hydrogen storage system and the rechargeable energy storage system, effectively adding a second dimension. The degree of hybridization is then evaluated for existing fuel cell electric vehicles using the proposed definition and enables the characterization and clustering of the different vehicles. While this two-dimensional degree of hybridization can be used as optimization criteria during the design and optimization of fuel cell drive systems, the aforementioned clusters can be assigned to already established qualitative degree of hybridization definitions used to describe types of hybrid electric vehicles. This supports customers to be able to more easily distinguish between different types of fuel cell electric vehicles while also increasing the suitability of the degree of hybridization as an optimization criterion in drive system development.
Braumandl, Adrian, Kim, Giyong, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert
Experimental Study on Distribution Characteristics and Leakage Detection of Hydrogen Release from Hydrogen Supply System of Fuel Cell Truck04-17-01-00066/22/2023
The hydrogen supply system of a fuel cell truck is in a semi-enclosed space where hydrogen is easy to accumulate if a hydrogen leak occurs. The acquisition of hydrogen dispersion behavior data is essential to support the detection of hydrogen release. The purpose of this article is to present the characteristics of hydrogen concentration distribution and delay time of hydrogen leakage detection under different leakage parameters. The experiments have been performed in a hydrogen storage cabin with six hydrogen sensors arranged on the roof to measure hydrogen concentration. During the tests, hydrogen was released into the test cabin through standard leaks. Two different release rates (80 NL/min and 450 NL/min), three different release positions, and six release directions are investigated to analyze the effects on the distribution of hydrogen concentration and leakage detection delay time. This article presents both the experimental facility and results. The experimental results can help optimize the placement of hydrogen sensors and the design of a hydrogen leakage detection system.
Liu, Shu, He, Ren
HYDROGEN STORAGE IN A BOX!23AUTP06_026/1/2023
Cylindrical tanks no longer are the only solution for storing high-pressure hydrogen gas. The future is looking decidedly square - and better for vehicle range and packaging. Experts from Forvia explain. Until recently, there was only one practical solution for storing gaseous hydrogen for onboard vehicle use: the cylindrical storage tank. Spiral-wound, carbon fiber cylinders are the proven form factor for reliable containment of 350-bar (5000-psi) and more commonly, 700-bar (10,000-psi) hydrogen used in the latest fuel-cell electric and hydrogen-fueled IC-engine vehicles. Faurecia and Symbio, the hydrogen-technologies joint-venture with partner Michelin, are in the process of changing the cylindrical-tank paradigm with a new approach that looks downright…square. “This hydrogen storage system is our modular, conformable, 700-bar tank,” Rob Steele, product line manager at Faurecia, part of the Forvia group, told SAE Media while viewing a concept ‘skateboard’ chassis at the 2023 Innovation Day at the company's suburban Detroit tech center. At first glance, the display chassis appeared to be a pack of battery modules. Then the concept struck.
Brooke, Lindsay
A Review on Hydrogen Fuel and Storage System Product Design for PEM Fuel Cell Vehicle Applications2023-28-13355/25/2023
As a future sustainable fuel, hydrogen will significantly reduce reliance on fossil energy resources as well as the amount of exhaust emitted by automobiles. It is a carbon-free fuel, and it can be produced through a number of conversion technologies, including thermochemical, electrochemical, and biological processes. However, with advanced PEM fuel cell technologies to drive commercialization and commercial vehicle growth, hydrogen fuel quality for efficient fuel cell system performance, and fuel storage system product design with all safety features are the unique selling points. Though the concept of the hydrogen storage system for fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) is derived from global technologies, it cannot be implemented directly in the Indian CV (commercial vehicle) market. A certain level of technology can only be transmitted. In light of the aforementioned scenario, the vehicle manufacturers should prioritise the focus on selection of well-organized strategies for hydrogen storage systems and usage of hydrogen fuel from competent production techniques with improved fuel quality. Hence, it is significant to study the hydrogen fuel production process, quality, impact of impurities on fuel cell vehicle performance, together with storage tank design requirements and mitigation approach without compromising the quality of the FC vehicle performances. Accordingly, in this review, regardless of firm type, for transforming the FCEV market opportunities into a commercially viable FCEV product are discussed in this paper.
Subramanian, Karthikeyan, Sankar, Gopi
Systematic Development Approach for a Hybrid Electric Powertrain Using Fuel-Cell-in-the-Loop Test Methodology2023-01-04944/11/2023
A promising approach for defossilization in the transport sector is using the polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) as an energy converter for propulsion in combination with green hydrogen. Furthermore, hybridization can bring an additional gain in efficiency. In a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) powertrain, including FCHEV, at least two power sources (e.g., an FC system (FCS) with a hydrogen storage system and a high-voltage battery (HVB)) provide the required propulsion power. Thus, the powertrain topology and the energy management strategy (EMS) of an FCHEV are more complex than those of a conventional powertrain. To ensure a cost- and time-efficient development process, the FCHEV powertrain concept and its functions must be verified and evaluated early. To this end, this study presents the design and setup of an FC-in-the-Loop (FCiL) test platform as a tool for the systematic development of an FCHEV powertrain under realistic operating conditions. Hence, a medium size FCHEV is modeled with quasistatic sub-models of the powertrain components. The full-vehicle model is validated against measurement data of a commercially available FCHEV on a 4-wheel chassis dynamometer in a driving cycle. Based on the FCiL test methodology, the sizing of the FCS and HVB is demonstrated. It is found that for a low-load driving cycle such as the WLTC, a 110 kW FCS, and a 1.6 kWh HVB can achieve a good result regarding low hydrogen consumption. Furthermore, two different EMS schemes, the power follower strategy (PFS) and the equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS), are implemented and evaluated. With the ECMS, hydrogen consumption can be reduced by 1.6 % compared to the PFS. Moreover, the trade-off behavior between minimum hydrogen consumption and reduced dynamics of the FCS is investigated. Reducing the dynamic operation of the FCS by one-third results in an additional hydrogen consumption of only about 0.8 %.
Steindl, Christoph, Hofmann, Peter
On-Road CO 2 and NO x Emissions for a Heavy-Duty Truck with Hydrogen-Diesel Co-Combustion2023-01-02814/11/2023
Heavy-duty diesel trucking is responsible for 25%-30% of the road transportation CO2 emissions in North America. Retrofitting class-8 trucks with a complementary hydrogen fuelling system makes it possible to co-combust hydrogen and diesel in the existing internal combustion engine (ICE), thus minimizing the costs associated with switching to non-ICE platforms and reducing the barrier for the implementation of low-carbon gaseous fuels such as hydrogen. This retrofitting approach is evaluated based on the exhaust emissions of a converted truck with several thousand kilometres of road data. The heavy-duty truck used here was retrofitted with an air-intake hydrogen injection system, onboard hydrogen storage tanks, and a proprietary hydrogen controller enabling it to operate in hydrogen-diesel co-combustion (HDC) mode. The hydrogen controller operates on the J1939 network, similar to the OEM Controller Area Network (CAN) and determines the hydrogen injection rate from hydrogen energy share ratio (RH2) tables based on engine-related parameters. The cycle-total RH2 for the considered in-use operation ranged from 15% to 28%, with a maximum instantaneous value of close to 40%. This range of RH2 has been explored in engine-dynamometer studies in the literature showing promising results without negative combustion anomalies. Here, the real-drive exhaust CO2 and NOx emissions during the HDC operation were compared to those for the neat diesel operation. The OEM sensors were used for on-road exhaust NOx measurement, and their accuracy and cross-sensitivity to interfering gaseous species were examined in controlled laboratory experiments. The road data shows that the exhaust NOx emissions during the HDC operation are reduced compared to the neat diesel baseline, and the tailpipe CO2 reductions are directly correlated to the hydrogen substitution rates.
Kheirkhah, Pooyan, Steiche, Patrick, Whyte, Tyson, Guan, Mang, Kirchen, Patrick
Modeling and Analysis of Fully Electric and Hydrogen-Powered Bradley Fighting Vehicles2023-01-01194/11/2023
As the U.S. Army moves to electrify portions of its vehicle fleet, it is worth considering the heavier combat vehicles. However, the high power demand of these vehicles coupled with the relatively low energy density of modern batteries result in electric vehicles with limited range and functionality. Hydrogen-based fuel cells are an alternative to batteries that can provide many of the same environmental and logistical benefits associated with electrification. This study models the energy consumption for two variants of the M2A4 Bradley Fighting Vehicle (BFV). The first variant is powered by a hydrogen-based Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell; the second variant is powered through lithium-ion batteries. These models account for vehicle weight, accelerative forces, drag, road grade, tractive losses, and ancillary equipment and are compared against a conventional M2A4 BFV. The analysis also considers the weight and volume restrictions for the powertrain especially as they relate to the storage of hydrogen and batteries. In doing so, the range of the vehicle with each powertrain can be determined. Furthermore, the study looks at the logistical needs associated with such vehicles. In particular, it approximates the quantity of fuel, water, and solar panels required to produce enough electricity to recharge batteries or electrolyze water for hydrogen production. The analysis then evaluates the trade-offs between vehicle range and logistical footprint associated with the different powertrains. The study then concludes with a discussion on the technical challenges associated with each powertrain.
Mittal, Vikram, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam
Revision of Modeling Scenario for Hydrogen Fueling Protocol under MC-MM2023-01-04894/11/2023
A new hydrogen fueling protocol called MC Multi Map (MC-MM) was developed to reduce hydrogen station operating costs. With the MC-MM, the number of fueling control maps has increased from before and precise switching among them according to circumstances has achieved relaxation of precooling temperatures. Fueling control maps for hydrogen stations are created in accordance with Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) protocol, but with the MC-MM, greater accuracy of mapping is necessary, so steps were taken to revise the boundary conditions prescribed by the SAE. The creation of fueling control maps for a hydrogen fueling protocol used to require outsourcing of map analysis. However, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory research institute in the US has made a hydrogen fueling simulation called H2FillS publicly available on the Web so that analysis of fueling control maps can now be performed by anyone. Therefore, revision of the SAE boundary conditions was examined on the assumption that analysis would be performed using H2FillS. With regard to the fueling control maps newly added with the MC-MM, since the boundary conditions are not indicated by the SAE, those conditions were specified independently in this research. The fueling control maps created for use with the MC-MM were compared with the fueling control maps of existing protocols to confirm the influence from revising boundary conditions and switching to H2FillS as the analysis tool. Finally, the accuracy of the fueling control map created in this research was verified by conducting fueling tests in accordance with the MC-MM protocol using that fueling control map.
Yamaguchi, Shigehiro, Handa, Kiyoshi
Hydrogen expands applications as a commercial-vehicle fuel23TOFHP02_092/1/2023
While several commercial vehicle OEMs, including Tesla and Nikola, are in the latter phase of testing battery-electric semi-tractors on the road, action in the hydrogen space continues to grow as it relates to transport vehicles. A few recent product introductions and partnership arrangements are detailed below.
Macaulay, Steven
Recommended Practice for General Fuel Cell Vehicle SafetyJ2578_202301 (Current)1/9/2023
This SAE Recommended Practice identifies and defines requirements relating to the safe integration of the fuel cell system, the hydrogen fuel storage and handling systems (as defined and specified in SAE J2579) and high voltage electrical systems into the overall Fuel Cell Vehicle. The document may also be applied to hydrogen vehicles with internal combustion engines. This document relates to the overall design, construction, operation and maintenance of fuel cell vehicles.
Fuel Cell Standards Committee
Safety Distance Determination Methods for Hydrogen Refueling Stations: A Review13-04-01-000612/30/2022
Hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs) have been widely built in many countries to meet the requirements of the rapidly developing hydrogen-fueled vehicle industry. Safety distances are key parameters for HRS designs, but the codes and standards used for determining safety distances vary in different countries. The two main methods for determining the safety distances for HRSs are the consequence-based method and the quantitative risk assessment (QRA)-based method. This article reviews the two methods to show state-of-the-art research on determining safety distances globally. This review shows that the harm criteria in the consequence models differ greatly in the literature and the QRA-based method is a more reasonable way to determine the HRS safety distances. In addition, the QRA models lack reliable frequency data and uniform risk acceptance criteria. Future standardized QRA models should be developed with unified regulations and standards for hydrogen infrastructure.
Zhang, Jiaxin, Kong, Xiangling, Ba, Qingxin, Wang, Ping, Li, Xuefang
Numerical Study of Hydrogen Releases and Explosions in a Skid-Mounted Hydrogen Refueling Station13-04-01-000712/30/2022
Many countries are developing hydrogen energy systems for fuel cell vehicles to embrace the low-carbon economy. Hydrogen refueling stations are one of the key infrastructure components for the hydrogen-fueled economy. Skid-mounted hydrogen refueling stations have smaller footprints and lower costs than traditional hydrogen refueling stations, so they can be more easily commercialized. The present work modeled hydrogen releases from a skid-mounted hydrogen refueling station using the flame acceleration simulation (FLACS) software. The hydrogen releases and dispersion were modeled for unintended leakages from the storage tube bundles of a skid-mounted hydrogen refueling station for 5 mm and 10 mm leak diameters in three different release directions. Hydrogen explosions were modeled for flammable clouds ignited at different instants after the hydrogen leakage. The results show that the hydrogen concentrations in the personnel operating area are lower than in other areas, but the flammable clouds still have an ignition risk. When the flammable cloud is ignited, both the people and the equipment suffer serious thermal radiation damage with additional damage due to the overpressures. When the hydrogen concentrations approach the stoichiometric ratio, the explosion will cause serious injuries to personnel and equipment inside the container. This work provides guidance for the structural design of skid-mounted hydrogen refueling stations.
Zhao, Zeying, Xiao, Guoping, Zhang, Xu, Ba, Qingxin, Wang, Jianqiang, Li, Xuefang
Developing Fuel Cell Electric Powertrain Architectures for Commercial Vehicles13-04-01-000412/7/2022
This article addresses the architecture development for a commercial vehicle fuel cell electric powertrain by establishing a clear multi-step formalized workflow that employs a unique technoeconomic solution for architecture selection. The power capability of the fuel cell, the energy capacity and chemistry of the electrical energy storage (battery), the DC-DC converter (including the input current rating and isolation resistance requirements), the traction drive solution, the on-board hydrogen storage solution, and the real-time power-split management of the fuel cell and the battery are all considered and developed in this effort. The methods were used to select architecture for Class 8 urban, regional, and line haul applications. When compared to traditional load-following power-split controllers, an energy management power-split controller can increase system energy efficiency by up to 19.5%. The energy-efficient power-split controller may increase the required battery capacity for an equivalent life by up to 2.6 times. The impact on the total cost of ownership (TCO) for a variety of financial cases demonstrates that high C-rate capable batteries have the potential to provide better TCO solutions over a six-year vehicle life than low C-rate capable batteries. To achieve TCO parity with the 600 A non-isolated DC-DC converter case, the specific choice of the fuel cell DC-DC converter to achieve a target power output based on current levels (from 500 A to 2400 A) shows that efficiency decreases and cost increases due to the higher current, requiring fuel cell prices to decrease by $50–$100/kW, $60–$110/kW, and $100–$220/kW for urban, regional, and line haul applications, respectively. Key recommendations for powertrain system architectures are provided, with specifics based on vehicle dynamics, mission and application characteristics, end customer use-case profile, critical powertrain component costs, and architecture selection cost function. This study rigorously demonstrates the interplay of the above parameters, with a focus on TCO, and provides application decision-makers with a mechanism and well-defined set of impact factors to consider as part of their architecture selection process.
Sujan, Vivek Anand
Fueling Protocol for Gaseous Hydrogen Powered Industrial TrucksJ2601/3_202209 (Current)9/16/2022
This document establishes safety limits and performance requirements for gaseous hydrogen fuel dispensers used to fuel Hydrogen Powered Industrial Trucks (HPITs). It also describes several example fueling methods for gaseous hydrogen dispensers serving HPIT vehicles. SAE J2601-3 offers performance based fueling methods and provides guidance to fueling system builders as well as suppliers of hydrogen powered industrial trucks and operators of the hydrogen powered vehicle fleet(s). This fueling protocol for HPITs can support a wide range of hydrogen fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles including fork lifts, tractors, pallet jacks, on and off road utility, and specialty vehicles of all types. The mechanical connector geometry for H25 and H35 connectors are defined in SAE J2600 Compressed Hydrogen Surface Vehicle Refueling Connection Devices. Multiple fueling methods are described in this document and include: 1 Fill to Service Pressure with fixed area flow-limiting device 2 Fill to Target Pressure with fixed area flow-limiting device 3 Fill to Target Pressure with variable area flow-limiting device These three dispensing methods are detailed in Section 6 and include a schematic of control components for vehicle fueling. These methods allow for market differentiation with varied target fill pressures relative to 100% SOC. These methods are examples of how dispensers may function but are not intended to limit options for new dispenser technologies or fueling methods, provided they meet the performance based requirements. This document is suitable for all vehicle tank fueling systems above 18 L water volume and may be used for fueling of all types of Hydrogen Powered Industrial Trucks (HPIT’s), and Battery Replacement modules (BRM’s). The fueling limits shown in Section 5 are harmonized with the fueling assumptions used for on-board fuel systems that comply with CSA HPIT-1.
Fuel Cell Standards Committee
On the Thermal Integration of Metal Hydrides with Phase Change Materials: Numerical Simulation Developments towards Advanced Designs2022-24-00189/16/2022
Hydrogen plays a crucial role towards the decarbonization of the transport sector, whilst most of the challenges for a widespread diffusion of hydrogen-based technologies are related to storage technologies. The use of Metal Hydrides (MH) has been widely recognized as a potential solution thanks to their advantages in terms of high degree of safety, high volumetric storage density, comparatively low operating pressure, the possibility of operation at room temperature and relatively low cost. Since the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of MH are respectively highly exothermic and endothermic reactions, thermal management of the storage tank is one of the most critical issues to ensure safe and effective operations. The integration of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) in the MH tank design is a potential solution for the self-contained thermal management of MH-based hydrogen storage systems, aiming at substantial charge/discharge performance improvements and ease of integration with the other hydrogen system sub-components. Although several simulation-based studies have been recently proposed about the integration of MH and PCM storage systems, most of them typically include engineering-grade assumptions that oversimplifies the thermo-chemical and thermo-physical phenomena occurring within the MH and PCM domains. Typical examples include: the thermal equilibrium assumption within the heterogeneous (gas + metal alloy) MH bed; neglecting buoyancy-driven convection during the PCM melting phase; neglecting the variation of PCM thermophysical properties with temperature and between phases. The current work aims to propose an improvement in the numerical simulation framework for a better dissection of the physical phenomena occurring while integrating PCM and MH technologies and their effects towards transport-oriented advanced designs. More specifically, User Defined Functions (UDFs) have been implemented within the state-of-the-art ANSYS® Fluent commercial CFD package in order to model thermochemistry and heat transfer within the MH bed and to efficiently couple its operation with a PCM-based thermal buffer. In this initial development stage, the study has been oriented towards the analysis of a full set of parameters related to the thermal buffer configuration, including: buoyancy (i. e. natural convection) characteristics with respect to the optimal temperature difference design, PCM thermophysical properties, geometry of the containment volumes and heat transfer surfaces. Results show that including parameters such as buoyancy is crucial for a comprehensive performance evaluation of the MH/PCM storage system, especially during MH charging/PCM heating.
Bartolucci, Lorenzo, Krastev, Vesselin Krassimirov
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