The growth of the electric vehicle market has driven the advancement of technologies related to energy storage and lithium-ion cells, which stand out for their fast charge and discharge capabilities, high energy density, and long service life. This paper proposes a thermal control strategy for lithium-ion battery packs using the Active Disturbance Rejection Control (ADRC) method. The model is developed in Simcenter Amesim software, using cylindrical 21700 cells in a pack equipped with a water-cooling system, and was adapted for export in FMU format and integrated into MATLAB/Simulink, where the control algorithms were designed and simulated. From step input tests, a first-order transfer function was identified with a fitting of 97.67%, supporting the adoption of a first-order ADRC. The tests involved scenarios with changes in temperature reference and current disturbances typical of vehicle operation. Results indicate that ADRC performs satisfactorily in temperature tracking, even

Leal, Gustavo Nobre, Fernandes, Lucas Pasqual, Ebner, Eric Rossini, Neto, Cyro Albuquerque, Leonardi, Fabrizio

A Simulation and Design Approach of Battery Pack for Formula SAE Vehicles

2025-36-0141

12/18/2025

The objective of this article is to present an approach for simulating and analyzing the battery pack in the Matlab/Simulink environment. The proposed approach investigates the expected performance of the vehicle with a given battery pack and powertrain configuration. For this purpose, an equivalent circuit model of a commercially available cell was used in the simulation. Additionally, track data from previous projects was employed, consisting of speed logs from Formula SAE competition test tracks, including the battery pack’s behavior in those same competitions. Based on these results, data processing was performed to estimate the expected behavior of a battery pack, considering weight, size, power, capacity, and other constraints. Since the goal is to observe the battery pack’s performance in the various Formula SAE events, past competition data was used to estimate the current car’s behavior. Therefore, the main contribution of this work is the presentation of a proper simulation

Zackiewicz, Felipe Petrillo Fici, Trentin, Fernando Santos, Dias, Gabriel Henrique Rodrigues, Eustaquio, Rodrigo, Ribeiro, Santos Neto, Pedro José dos, Guerreiro, Joel Filipe

Control Strategies for a Hybrid Electric-Combustion Powertrain Applied to a Test Bench

2025-36-0246

12/18/2025

This paper presents the design and implementation of a test bench intended for the development and validation of control strategies applied to a hybrid-electric powertrain. The setup combines a 48 V SEG BRM electric machine with a small-displacement internal combustion engine (ICE), the HONDA GX160, operating in a parallel hybrid configuration. The platform was developed to improve energy efficiency in comparison to a conventional ICE-only system. Modifications were carried out on an existing test bench at Instituto Mauá de Tecnologia, including the fabrication of a new enclosure for the battery pack and its battery management system (BMS), as well as the integration of a Vector VN8911 real-time controller. A custom control strategy was implemented and experimentally evaluated using a predefined drive cycle under two conditions: (I) ICE-only operation and (II) hybrid-electric operation with the proposed strategy. Results showed a fuel consumption reduction of approximately 13% with the

Polizio, Yuri, Zabeu, Clayton, Pasquale, Gian, Pinheiro, Giovana, Vieira, Renato

Constraint Enforcement of a Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Safety-Critical System for Electric Hybrid Vehicles

2025-36-0160

12/18/2025

System robustness and performance are essential considerations in controller design to ensure reference tracking, disturbance rejection, and resilience to modeling uncertainties. However, guaranteeing that the system operates within safe bounds becomes a priority in safety-critical applications, even if performance must be compromised temporarily. One prominent example is the thermal management of lithium-ion battery packs, where temperature must be strictly controlled to prevent degradation and avoid hazardous thermal runaway events. In these systems, temperature constraints must consistently be enforced, regardless of external disturbances or control errors. Traditional strategies, such as Model Predictive Control (MPC), can explicitly handle such constraints but often require solving high-dimensional optimization problems, making real-time implementation computationally demanding. To overcome these limitations, this study investigates the use of a Constraint Enforcement strategy to

Ebner, Eric Rossini, Fernandes, Lucas Pasqual, Leal, Gustavo Nobre, Neto, Cyro Albuquerque, Leonardi, Fabrizio

SAE TOMORROW TODAY BRIEFS - Perfecting Solid-State Battery Production

1350611/25/2025

When it comes to electrification, Honda has been focused on long-term strategy, emphasizing that the transition to EVs is a marathon, not a sprint. Recently, however, the company has been bullish on solid-state battery technology. By using a solid electrolyte instead of a liquid one, solid-state batteries offer advantages like higher energy density, reduced weight, and improved safety compared to liquid lithium-ion batteries. After perfecting the production of solid-state batteries in a lab environment, Honda is now focused on mass production. The company recently opened a test factory to produce battery packs for future EVs and to refine the production process. To learn more, Roberto Baldwin, Sustainability Editor, SAE Sustainable Mobility Solutions, sat down with Chris Martin, Technological Director of Communications, to discuss Honda's advancements in solid-state battery technology and the company's future plans for electrification. For more information on the evolution of

Hineman, Marcie

Safety Model for Battery Resistance Monitoring and Lifecycle Optimization

2025-01-0515

11/25/2025

This work proposes a novel framework for evaluating the second- and third-life viability of lithium-ion battery packs through the development of the RISE Index—a comprehensive metric based on Resistance growth, Integrity, Safety, and End-of-life usability. While previous research focuses on singular indicators such as residual capacity or State of Health (SoH), these approaches lack a unified, safety-informed structure for reuse qualification. This paper distinguishes itself by integrating multiple aging indicators, including resistance evolution, degradation theory, and thermal safety considerations, into a consolidated decision-making tool designed for practical deployment. The novelty lies in the formulation of the RISE Index, which fuses empirical data with electrochemical degradation mechanisms such as SEI formation, lithium plating, calendar aging, and cycling-induced impedance growth. The methodology includes a comparative analysis of Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) and Lithium

Prakashkumar, Balagopal

Current Research Progress and Future Perspectives of Early Fire Prediction Modeling for Electric Vehicles

14-15-01-0001

11/21/2025

With the wide application of electric vehicles (EVs) around the world, the increase in battery pack energy density and the growing complexity of electrical systems have gradually heightened the risk of vehicle fires. Therefore, achieving efficient and timely fire risk prediction is essential to minimize the probability of fires in EVs. However, the development of EV prediction models requires multidisciplinary integration to address complex safety challenges. This article provides a detailed discussion on the mechanisms and combustion characteristics of EV fires, followed by an investigation into the high-risk factors that trigger such fires. Based on the above content, this article conducts an in-depth analysis of the characteristics of different models for high-risk factors such as batteries, electrical systems, and collision damage, offering insights to bridge the gap between different disciplines. Finally, it explores the future development direction of predictive models for EVs

Shao, Yuyang, Cong, Beihua, Jianghong, Liu

Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal Management under Extreme Fast Charging with Deep Reinforcement Learning

14-14-03-0022

11/20/2025

The increasing importance of electric vehicles requires addressing challenges related to fast charging, safety, and battery range. Thermal management ensures safety, prolongs battery life, and enables extremely fast charging. In this regard, this article proposes a novel battery thermal management system (BTMS) optimization approach based on a model-free deep reinforcement learning (RL) for a battery pack of an electric vehicle under extreme fast-charging conditions considering the detailed dynamics of vehicle-level BTMS. The objective of the proposed approach seeks to minimize the battery degradation and power consumption of the underlying BTMS. In this respect, the dynamic equations of the thermal system model are constructed considering the air-conditioning refrigerant loop and indirect battery liquid cooling loop. Further, the proposed methodology is implemented on a battery pack, and the results are compared with those of model predictive control (MPC) and proportion–integral

Arjmandzadeh, Ziba, Hossein Abbasi, Mohammad, Wang, Hanchen, Zhang, Jiangfeng, Xu, Bin

A Methodology to Develop 25-kWh Battery Pack Model with Its Cooling System for Off-Highway Application

2025-28-0240

11/06/2025

This study presents a methodology to develop a new 25kWh battery pack for off-highway application. Initially an enclosure space is extracted from tractor model maintaining minimum space with adjacent components. Based on available space, various combination of cell form factors and different cell chemistries are evaluated considering operating ambient temperature range (-20 to 45 deg C) and charge/discharge rate 1C. Cylindrical NMC type cell with indirect cooling system fulfils all our technical requirements. However, complete battery pack thermal simulation is carried out for ensuring battery pack safety and limited deterioration with different discharge rate and wider temperature range. The battery pack model contains multiple cells, bricks, and modules with numerous coolant pipes and flow channels. Cell characterization experimental data is used for estimating cell thermal capacity and IR behavior. Battery pack model is tested with different Charge/discharge rates. Five

Nain, Ajay, Lamba, Shamsher, jayagopal, S, dhir, Anish

Performance Investigation of Air Conditioning System in Electric Vehicle by Fault Detection and Diagnosis

2025-28-0353

10/30/2025

The study emphasizes on detection of different faults and refrigerant leakage as well as performance investigation of automobile air conditioning system for an electric vehicle by varying various operating conditions. A refrigerant leak in an EV isn't just an inconvenience; it's a potential threat to vehicle range and usability, lifespan and health of the expensive battery pack, overall vehicle performance, passenger safety and comfort, component longevity (motor, power electronics), environmental responsibility. Due to the refrigerant leakage, the cooling system performance degrades, and components tend to fail. Because of that this study is focusing on deriving an algorithm to have an early detection of fault and leakage in the vehicle. The performance of the system is predicted for actual conditions of operation encountered by the automobile air conditioning system. The objective of the present work includes predicting the causes and effects of refrigerant leakage in AC system of

Bezbaruah, Puja, Yadav, Ankit, Pilakkattu, Deepak

Location Based Predictive Capabilities for Thermal System Control

2025-28-0413

10/30/2025

In the realm of electric and hybrid vehicles (EVs, HEVs), the intelligent thermal system control unit is essential for optimizing performance, safety, and efficiency. Unlike traditional internal combustion engines, EVs rely heavily on battery performance, which is significantly influenced by temperature. An intelligent thermal management system helps battery packs to operate within their optimal temperature range, enhancing energy efficiency, extending battery life, and maximizing driving range. Furthermore, it plays a crucial role in managing the thermal dynamics of power electronics and electric motors, preventing overheating, and ensuring reliable operation. As the demand for high-performance and efficient electric vehicles grows, the integration of advanced thermal control strategies becomes increasingly vital, paving the way for innovations in EV design and functionality. One of the key aspects of an intelligent thermal system control is their prediction capability. These

Golgar, Samrat, Boobalan, Anand

Thermal Management in Electrified Transportation: A Comparative Study of Different Powertrain Technologies

2025-28-0412

10/30/2025

The transition towards sustainable transportation necessitates the development of advanced thermal management systems (TMS) for electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), and hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles (HICEVs). Effective thermal control is crucial for passenger comfort and the performance, longevity, and safety of critical vehicle components. This paper presents a rigorous and comparative analysis of TMS strategies across these diverse powertrain technologies. It systematically examines the unique thermal challenges associated with each subsystem, including cabin HVAC, battery packs, fuel cell stacks, traction motors, and power electronics. For cabin HVAC, the paper explores methods for minimizing energy consumption while maintaining thermal comfort, considering factors such as ambient temperature, humidity, and occupant load. The critical importance of battery thermal management is emphasized, with a focus on

K, Neelima, K, Anisha, Ch, Kavya, C, Somasundar, Satyam, Satyam, P, Geetha

Thermal Analysis and Effect of Cell Arrangement on Air Cooled Cylindrical Cell Battery Pack Performance

2025-28-0361

10/30/2025

The arrangement of multiple cells within a battery pack is crucial to have an optimized thermal performance and pressure drop. This paper presents a comparative analysis of thermal battery cooling performance of an air-cooled battery pack using inline and staggered arrangement of 18650 sized cylindrical cells with different cell spacings. The key parameters such as air pressure drop and cell (average/maximum/minimum) temperatures are compared for operations at different C-rates, air inlet temperature, and air inlet velocities. The results demonstrate that the staggered configuration with optimal spacing offers better thermal performance and temperature distribution compared to the inline one. Specifically, the staggered setup with optimal gap achieves a lower cell average and maximum temperatures indicating more efficient cooling and uniform thermal distribution. This study highlights the advantages of battery spacing and configuration for improved thermal and pressure drop performance

Bharsakale, Yash, Nadge, Pankaj, Manna, Suvankar

Analysis of a Battery Bicycle with a Sliding Mechanism for Need-Based Adjustments for Luggage Space

2025-28-0405

10/30/2025

A battery bicycle with luggage space is designed and developed to have variable luggage space available to the rider. The developed design with bicycle frame has an innovative sideway moving frame for variable need-based space. The design was prepared for an e-commerce delivery application, suppling products through an easy, quick, and low-cost mode of transport with variable spacing options. The design was prepared for 160 kg weight, with 210 cm, 90 cm, and 35 cm as length height and width, respectively. The designed bicycle can carry luggage up to 100 kg. The design is powered by a 250-watt electric motor and can move with a maximum speed of 24 km/hr. The steering mechanism, cargo bucket, and the base frame are made in two parts for commuter convenience. The cargo bucket is front-mounted, on a sliding frame that enables one half of the bucket to be slid into the other half through sideways movement by fitted channels. The design has both electric and non-electric driving modes. The

Vashist, Devendra, Satti, Harsh, Awasthi, A.K, MUKHERJEE, SOURAV

Method for Rapid Prediction of Electric Vehicle Battery Temperature for the Early Design Phase

2025-01-0419

10/07/2025

Thermal management of electric vehicle (EV) battery systems is critical for ensuring optimal performance, user safety, and battery longevity. Existing high-fidelity simulation methods provide detailed thermal profiles, but their computational intensity makes them inefficient for early design iterations or real-time assessments. This paper introduces a streamlined, physics-based one-dimensional transient thermal model coded in MATLAB for efficiently predicting battery temperature behavior under various driving cycles. The model integrates vehicle dynamics to estimate power demands, calculates battery current output and heat generation from electrochemical principles, and determines the battery temperature profile through a 1D conduction model connected to a thermal resistance network boundary condition that incorporates the effect of coolant heat capacity. The model achieved prediction errors below 1% when compared to analytical solutions for conditions of no heat generation and steady

Builes, Isabel, Medina, Mario, Bachman, John Christopher

ML-Based System Level Optimization of EV Cooling Circuit

2025-01-0376

10/07/2025

Efficient thermal management is vital for electric vehicles (EVs) to maintain optimal operating temperatures and enhance energy efficiency. Traditional simulation-based design approaches, while accurate, are often computationally expensive and limited in their ability to explore large design spaces. This study introduces a machine learning (ML)-based optimization framework for the design of an EV cooling circuit, targeting a 5°C reduction in the maximum electric motor temperature. A one-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (1D-CFD) model is utilized to generate a Design of Experiments (DOE) matrix, incorporating key parameters such as coolant flow rate and heat exchanger dimensions. A Radial Basis Function (RBF) neural network is trained on the simulation data to serve as a surrogate model, enabling rapid performance prediction. Optimization is performed using the Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA2), yielding three distinct design solutions that meet the thermal

Paul, Kavin, Ganesan, Arul, Mansour, Youssef

Revolutionizing EV battery safety: advanced coatings and composite solutions

25AUTP10_10

10/01/2025

Thermal runaway in electric vehicle (EV) batteries is rare, but it can happen, producing smoke, fire, and explosions. This uncontrollable, self-heating state can transfer intense heat to adjacent cells and cause pressure buildups that exceed the mechanical limits of cell casings. Since the gases that can form inside a battery cell are flammable, a spark or other ignition source could propagate fire or lead to an explosion and cause the violent venting of shrapnel or particulates, putting vehicle occupants and emergency responders at risk. To support EV safety, silicone thermal management materials are placed between battery cells and between battery modules. For battery pack enclosures, however, mica sheets traditionally have been used as protective barriers. Mica provides thermal and electrical insulation, but sheets made of this mineral are limited in terms of thermal performance, mechanical durability, processability, and sustainable sourcing. To address these challenges, advanced

1D Thermo-Fluid Model for Electric Vehicle Traction Inverter

2025-01-5062

09/19/2025

Thermal management solutions in power electronics applications are of prime importance to meet the needs of the ever-increasing demands on higher power and torque density of the traction motor and controller. Traction inverters are essential power electronic devices that convert direct current (DC) supply from the battery pack of the vehicle to three-phase alternating current (AC) output and vice versa. Estimation of die junction temperatures and cooling system pressure drop is necessary for assessing the maximum heat load capacity of the traction inverter system and coolant pump capacity requirements. The system comprises of a power module and a water–glycol–based cooling domain with heat sink. This article proposes a 1D model for accurate predictions of junction temperatures on the SiC die, temperature rise of the cooling medium, and pressure drop across a custom heat sink fluid domain. The model is built to handle steady-state and transient conditions for varying heat loads on the

Ravindra, Vidyasagar, Prasad, Praveen, Singh, Ishan, Sureka, Sumit

Multilevel Control Strategy Design and Optimization for Fuel Cell Hybrid Heavy-Duty Vehicles

2025-24-0107

09/07/2025

The heavy-duty transportation sector is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, highlighting the urgent need for zero-emission solutions. This research develops a multilevel control architecture that optimizes fuel economy and minimizes emissions in fuel cell hybrid heavy-duty vehicles, equipped with proton exchange membrane fuel cell and battery pack as main power sources. The detailed fuel cell system model incorporates reactants and thermal dynamics, including air supply, hydrogen flow, water management and their effects on reaction kinetics, membrane conductivity, water balance, performance and durability. The low-level control strategy is designed using a physics-based approach that accounts for critical constraints, including temperature, membrane water content and differential pressure between the cathode and anode. By identifying optimal setpoints for key control variables, this methodology enables the development of accurate control maps for actuator management

Bove, Giovanni, Aliberti, Paolo, Simone, Christian, Sorrentino, Marco, Pianese, Cesare

A Critical Assessment of Phase Change Materials for Boosting EV Efficiency

2025-24-0147

09/07/2025

Effective thermal management in battery packs is a key technology for enhancing the efficiency and longevity of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Traditional active cooling systems can consume significant amounts of energy, thereby impacting the vehicle's overall efficiency. This paper explores the use of phase change materials (PCMs) as a complementary cooling technology, enabling both an improved active and an extended passive conditioning of battery packs. By leveraging the unique properties of PCMs, it is possible to partially operate the battery system without active cooling, thus reducing the overall energy consumption and improving vehicle autonomy. The phase change phenomenon further offers the benefit of a homogeneous temperature distribution within the battery pack. This study addresses the potential of PCMs as a thermal management solution for battery packs by firstly identifying suitable materials meeting requirements specific to such application. In addition, the paper

Fandakov, Alexander, Nolte, Oliver, Herzog, Alexander, Sens, Marc

Items per page:

1 – 50 of 1149