Browse Topic: Battery packs

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A Comprehensive Analysis of Sealing Methods for EV Battery Packs: Trends and Insights.2026-26-0180To be published on 01/16/2026
The widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has brought about unique engineering challenges, particularly in the design of battery packs, which are central to vehicle performance, safety, and longevity. One critical requirement is maintaining ingress protection (IP) ratings of IP67 or higher to safeguard against water and dust exposure. These ratings are essential to ensure compliance with homologation standards and to meet the demands of diverse terrains and operating conditions. Achieving effective sealing of EV battery packs is thus a key aspect of their design and engineering. This study presents an in-depth analysis of sealing technologies employed in EV battery packs, focusing on four primary types: Adhesive-based sealants, Cure-In-Place Gaskets (CIPG), Foam Cut seals, and Rubber Gaskets. Benchmarking data gathered from more than 90 vehicle models across 20+ brands provide insights into adoption trends, historical shifts, evolution and interface requirements of different
Varambally, Vishakha, Sithick basha, Abubakker, Chalumuru, Madhu, Yaser, K U Syed, Sasikumar, K
Design of the BIW structure for battery pack protection in case of side pole impact.2026-26-0025To be published on 01/16/2026
Electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming more popular than Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) powered vehicles, but their battery and motor components elevate their Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW), posing unique collision risks. Manufacturers strategically mount the high voltage (HV) battery packs under the passenger compartment to lower the Centre of Gravity and shield them from the front impacts. However, side impacts remain a concern, as the battery deformation in such instances could trigger fires or explosions, endangering occupants. To address this, crashworthiness designs adhere to New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) standards, particularly against side pole impact and side mobile barrier impact. Unlike the frontal section of BIW, which typically has larger crush space to absorb the crash energy, extensive design attention is required to the vehicle's side structure to absorb pole impacts without transmitting excessive force to the battery pack. Utilizing aluminium extrusions and sheet
Nivesh, Dharun, NAMANI, Prasad, Ramaraj, Rajasekar
Enhancing EV Battery Safety: Progressive Crushing and Energy Absorption Techniques2026-26-0189To be published on 01/16/2026
• The paper presents and provides a crash energy absorption assembly and method for enhancing the safety and structural integrity of battery packs in electric vehicles during collision events adhering to global regulations. • One of our novel analyses is described here, in which the assembly comprises a battery housing designed to mount one or more battery cells, at least one crash member coupled to the side surface of the battery housing, flexural members coupled to the crash member. The flexural members are designed to absorb impact forces, deform, and store potential energy during sudden impacts. This innovative approach ensures that the energy is stored within the flexural elements rather than being transferred to the battery cells, thereby reducing almost cell intrusion for example by 50% under a 100kN which is EC100R requirement. The design effectively delays intrusion, enhances battery safety and minimizes cell-level damage. • Also, the strategic placement of flexural members
Amberkar S, Sunil, Lakshman singh, Meenakumari, Bodaindala, Anil Kumar
Analysis of Energy Consumption for Heating City Electric Buses and Ways to Reduce It2026-26-0156To be published on 01/16/2026
For regions with cold climates, the driving range of electric buses becomes a significant obstacle to the broader adoption of this type of transport. The increased energy consumption affects not only the range of autonomous operation but also the lifespan of battery packs, the scheduling of bus departures, and the load on the charging infrastructure. In this context, finding ways to reduce the energy consumption of the climate control system is an actual issue. The aim of the presented research is to experimentally and computationally determine the energy consumption for heating the driver's cabin and passenger compartment of an electric bus during the autumn-winter operation period, as well as to identify and analyze ways to reduce this energy consumption. To determine the air temperature in the passenger compartment, a mathematical model based on heat balance equations was used. This model was validated using data from real-world tests. The research was conducted at a proving ground
Kozlov, Andrey, Terenchenko, Alexey, Stryapunin, Alexander
Predictive Modelling of Battery Behavior for Enhanced Energy Management in Electric Vehicles2026-26-0385To be published on 01/16/2026
As electric vehicles (EVs) and smart energy systems continue to evolve, optimizing energy usage and ensuring system reliability has become critical. However, battery pack modelling remains challenging due to its highly dynamic and nonlinear behavior due to the temperature variations, aging, and variable load conditions. This paper presents a 1D digital twin framework designed for predictive monitoring of the battery parameters, including State of Charge (SoC), terminal voltage, temperature, and an indicative assessment of State of Health (SoH). The battery is modelled using a Thevenin equivalent circuit that covers both steady-state and dynamic electrical characteristics. Key parameters such as open-circuit voltage (OCV), internal resistance, and dynamic characteristics were derived through pulse testing conducted in our laboratory. A thermal modelling is done to capture the heat generation and cell temperature. SoC estimation is carried out using the Coulomb counting method and
G, Ayana, Gumma, Muralidhar
Battery Thermal Management Approach for 2-Wheeler Electric Vehicles – An Indian Case Study2026-26-0151To be published on 01/16/2026
India's electric 2-wheeler (E2W) market has witnessed fast growth, driven by lucrative government policies. Two-wheeler market captures 73% volume of total Indian automotive market, representing the largest segment (Greaves Electric Mobility Limited report 2024). Consequently, all manufacturers of 2-wheelers are developing new electric vehicles (EV) tailored for the Indian market. However, the Indian EV market has witnessed multiple fire accidents in recent years, raising safety concerns among consumers and industry stakeholders. These incidents highlight key weakness in battery thermal management systems (BTMS), particularly during charging. Most existing E2W BTMS relies on passive air cooling, which has been associated with fire incidents due to its inefficiency in heat dissipation, particularly charging in India's high-temperature environment. Therefore, it is imperative to build thermally viable and economical BTMS for the growing E2W vehicles with fast charging capability. The
Emran, Ashraf, Sankhla, Harsh, Garg, Shivam, Raut PhD, Ankit, Hiremath, Vinodkumar, Berry, Sushil
The selection of a two-speed gearbox for small commercial electric vehicles aims to optimize powertrain efficiency2026-26-0417To be published on 01/16/2026
In response to the significant environmental challenges posed by climate change driven by global warming, the automotive industry is accelerating the transition toward electrification. While electric vehicles offer considerable potential for mitigating CO₂ emissions, their elevated upfront costs pose a notable challenge to large-scale market penetration. Energy efficiency improvement of electric vehicles is emerging field of research to reduce total cost of ownership. Electric vehicle powertrain component selection in small commercial vehicles including three and four wheelers is a complex process which has to fulfil multiple requirements Range, performance, drivability, packaging, total cost of ownership of vehicle and comfort. In addition, powertrain configuration including battery, motor and transmission ratio selection plays a fundamental role in cost of electric vehicle. Hence, The task of selecting the right powertrain configuration, encompassing architecture, motor selection
Wani, Kalpesh, Jadhav, Vaibhav, Shendge, Raman, Warule, Prasad
Optimization and Evaluation of Thermal Interface Material Thickness and Distribution Patterns for Improved Heat Transfer in Liquid-Cooled Battery Pack2026-26-0432To be published on 01/16/2026
Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMS) play a critical role in ensuring the longevity, safety, and efficient operation of lithium-ion battery packs. These systems are designed to effectively dissipate the heat generated by the cells during vehicle operation, thereby maintaining a uniform temperature distribution across the battery modules, preventing overheating and mitigating the risk of thermal runaway. However, one of the primary challenges in BTMS design lies in achieving effective thermal contact between the battery cells and the cooling plate. Non-uniform or excessive application of Thermal Interface Materials (TIMs) without ensuring robustness and uniformity can increase interfacial thermal resistance, leading to significant temperature variations across the battery modules, which may trigger power limitations via the Battery Management System (BMS) and these thermal gradients can cause inefficient cooling, ultimately affecting battery performance and lifespan. In this study
K, Mathankumar, Jahagirdar, Manasi, Kumbhar, Makarand Shivaji
Accelerating EV Thermal Controls Development: A Rapid controls prototyping framework using Speedgoat2026-26-0685To be published on 01/16/2026
In the era of software-defined vehicles, the complexity and requirements of automotive systems have increased significantly. Thermal management systems have become more complicated, incorporating multiple functions and strategies within software frameworks. This shift poses substantial challenges, increased development efforts and extending timelines in creating an efficient thermal management system for EVs. Fulfilling them in the early stages of design makes it more challenging due to the unavailability of key components such as fully developed ECU hardware, the battery pack, and the motor. To address this, a novel framework has been designed that combines virtual simulation with physical emulation, enabling the testing and validation of thermal control strategies without fully matured system and ECU hardware. The framework uses the Speedgoat platform as the central controller which hosts the control and thermal models developed in Simulink and Simscape. Speedgoat is physically
Chothave, Abhijeet, S, Bharathan, S, Ananth, Gangwar, Adarsh, Khan, Parvej, Gummadi, Gopakishore, Kumar, Dipesh
Simplified Simulation of Electric Vehicle Battery packs Using deep learning based Reduced Order Models2026-26-0403To be published on 01/16/2026
Accurate yet computationally efficient simulation of electric vehicle (EV) batteries is essential for system design, performance evaluation, and real-time control applications. This paper presents a simplified simulation framework for lithium-ion EV battery systems using reduced order models (ROMs) that balance fidelity and computational speed. The EV system simulation environment has been developed in MATLAB/Simulink environment to analyze Battery Management System (BMS) control system design and EV system performance. This simulation platform consists of BMS and other important EV controller models and high-fidelity plant models for battery and powertrain systems, which are modelled using Simulink and Simscape library blocks. Performing virtual testing, control design and system-level analysis with such high-fidelity plant models poses significant computational challenges and poor simulation performance. The focus of this paper is to enhance system level simulation performance by
Vernekar, Kiran
State of Health correction based on dynamic cell behaviour in EVs.2026-26-0183To be published on 01/16/2026
In electric vehicle (EV) applications, accurate estimation of State of Health (SOH) of lithium-ion battery packs is critical for ensuring performance reliability, operational safety and user confidence. SOH is a key parameter monitored by Battery Management System (BMS) to assess the remaining usable life of the battery and to make informed decisions regarding charging, discharging, power delivery, and maintenance scheduling. In traditional SOH estimation techniques often rely on simplistic full-cycle charge-discharge data or single-parameter tracking (such as voltage or internal resistance and other method like coulomb counting and kalman filter ), which do not account for variable field conditions such as partial and full state-of-charge usage condition, dynamic load profiles, and non-uniform aging. As a result, these methods can produce significant deviations in SOH prediction, potentially causing premature system-level shutdowns, inaccurate range estimation, and delayed detection
Nikam, Ashish, Tiwari, Awanish Shankar, Sodha, Nirav, Hariyani, Ganesh, Ambhore, Yogesh Gajanan
Driving performance impact analysis on EV components for efficient, safe, and intelligent mobility2026-26-0655To be published on 01/16/2026
Electric vehicles (EVs) are the cornerstone of sustainable transportation, but their performance and component longevity are heavily influenced by driving behaviors. This study proposes a comprehensive analytical framework to assess how different driving styles affect the operational health of key EV components such as the battery pack, motor, and DC-DC converter. Various driving styles such as aggressive, moderate, and economical are discriminated against using dynamic vehicle operation signatures including acceleration and braking intensity, turning profiles, and load variations. These behavioral patterns are reflected in the electrical responses, namely current and voltage waveforms across power electronic systems. By analyzing these electrical signatures, a range of KPIs can be estimated for each component, offering insights into their operational stress and degradation trends. Experimental analysis using real-time EV datasets validates the framework’s ability to predict and
Deole, Kaushik, Kumar, Pankaj, Hivarkar, Umesh
Design and Validation of UDS Application Software for Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle within AUTOSAR Framework2026-26-0253To be published on 01/16/2026
Affordable and clean energy has been one of the major objectives adopted by United Nations under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. In this direction, fuel cell electric vehicles have gained popularity in recent times due their efficiency and environmental friendliness. Fundamentally, it uses compressed hydrogen from the vehicle-mounted tank and combines with ambient air to generate DC electricity. Water is created as a by-product and expelled through the tailpipe. The technology being integrated on powertrain architecture, along with battery pack can prove to be an efficacious approach for zero emission automotive system. However, hydrogen being the primary fuel, and being stored at high pressure, the system involves handling and potential hazards of hydrogen, and possibility of explosions due to hydrogen leaks. Hence, safety is the key issue in handling fuel cell vehicles. This paper discusses about role of Unified Diagnostic Services (UDS) in providing safety and
PRASAD, Dr. P SHAMBHU, Jacob, Joe, Hadke, Tanmay, Wagh, Priyanka, Achanur, Mallappa
Enhanced Integrated Cooling-Protection Plate for Battery pack Underbody Impact Resistance in Electric Vehicles2026-26-0169To be published on 01/16/2026
In the quest for enhancing electric vehicle performance and safety, this paper presents a comprehensive investigation into the design and performance of high-voltage (HV) battery cooling plates featuring dedicated cooling channels, integrated with structural bottom protection members positioned at the bottom. The study aims to address the dual challenges of effective thermal management and enhanced crash protection in electric vehicles. Through a combination of Design iterations, Thermal performance evaluation and Crash simulations, the research evaluates the cooling efficiency and structural resilience of the proposed design. Findings reveal that the integrated cooling plates not only maintain optimal battery temperatures under various operating conditions but also significantly improve the vehicle's crashworthiness. The paper concludes with the results of numerical simulations, rigorously validated against the robust design requirement globally accepted for series components to
DUSAD, SAGAR, Kummuru, Srikanth, Joshi, Amarja
A strategic approach to the selection of switchgear and busbars for EV battery packs2026-26-0165To be published on 01/16/2026
With the rising adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), the need for robust and efficient power distribution systems has become increasingly important. This paper outlines a strategic method for selecting switchgear and busbars in EV battery packs, emphasizing key factors such as safety, energy efficiency, thermal control, and future scalability. Proper optimization of these components can significantly improve performance, minimize power losses, and ensure durability under demanding operating conditions. The design and selection of battery conducting components, such as switchgears and busbars, are typically based on the maximum continuous and peak current capabilities of the EV battery pack. While this approach ensures that the components can withstand extreme conditions, it often leads to over-engineering, resulting in unnecessary costs and added weight. However, this method overlooks the dynamic power demands of the vehicle, which fluctuate based on driving conditions and usage. Real
Soman, Anu, satheesh, Goutham, K, Mathankumar
Integrated Simulation of Electric Vehicle Model Using the ROM Approach2026-26-0369To be published on 01/16/2026
The growing demand for Electric Vehicles (EVs) has highlighted the importance of efficient and accurate simulation tools for design and performance optimization. The architecture of electric vehicles is distinct from that of internal combustion engine vehicles. It consists of on-board charger, DC-DC converter, Lithium ion battery pack, Inverter, electric motor, controllers and transmission. The battery pack supplies electric current to the traction motor, which then converts this electrical energy into mechanical energy, resulting in the rotational motion needed to drive the vehicle. Wide range of Multiphysics is involved in the simulation which involves Power electronics, Electromagnetics, Fluid Mechanics, Thermal engineering. This paper presents an integrated simulation and range prediction methodology for Electric Vehicles (EVs) using the Reduced Order Model (ROM) approach. The methodology includes simulation in both 3D and 1D domain. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation is
Shandilya, Anand, Kumar, Vivek
Simulation Based Approach to Optimize Electric Vehicle Battery Thermal System2026-26-0376To be published on 01/16/2026
The performance and longevity of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles are significantly influenced by the cell temperature. Hence, efficient thermal management techniques are essential for battery packs. Simulation based optimization approaches can enhance these techniques during early product development and life cycle. In this work, a method to optimize the battery thermal system comprising of cooling plate and external insulation is described. The first part is to optimize the cell heat extraction by the cooling plate. The heat transfer coefficient of the coolant is a parameter which can indicate the thermal efficiency of a cooling plate. At the same time, it's important to keep the coolant pressure drop within a reasonable limit. A 1D simulation methodology is described to optimize the cooling channel height based on pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient targets. This methodology is based on empirical correlations and multi-objective pareto optimization. The advantage of
U, Reghunath, P S, Shebin
Preventing thermal run-away using shape memory alloy2026-26-0009To be published on 01/16/2026
Title: Preventing thermal run-away using shape memory alloy Rini Reginald, Ashish Chauhan, Saswat Rout, Venkatesh Muthukrishnan Mercedes-Benz Research and Development, India Key words: Thermal Runaway, Active and Passive Safety, Shape Memory Alloy, Nitinol, Literature Survey, Structural Simulation Abstract The present disclosure pertains to advancements in battery modules for electric vehicles (EVs). Addressing the critical issue of thermal runaway in high-voltage battery packs, this invention introduces a novel battery module designed to enhance safety of the vehicle. The battery module comprises a plurality of battery cells housed within an enclosure, electrically connected to the vehicle's circuit via busbars and innovative connectors made of Shape Memory Alloy (SMA). These connectors are engineered to transition between two states: a first state where they facilitate electrical coupling and a second state where they isolate the battery cells upon detecting temperatures exceeding a
Reginald, Rini, Rout, Saswat, VENKATESH, Muthukrishnan, Chauhan, Ashish Jitendra, Selvaraj, Elayanila
Structural design and simulation of Composite Metal Hybrid based battery enclosure for an electric vehicle2026-26-0300To be published on 01/16/2026
Addressing the critical need for lightweight and safe energy storage solutions in electric vehicles, this paper presents the design and optimization of a novel Composite Metal Hybrid (CMH) battery pack structure. A computer aided simulation using Abaqus software was done to optimize the weight of battery pack. The structural integrity and crash worthiness of the optimized lightweight design were rigorously evaluated under various load cases like side impact (crush), shock loading and underfloor impact. Manufacturing aspects were discussed to ensure feasibility and integration. Modal analysis and load tests addressed demonstrate the CMH battery pack as a viable and promising lightweight solution for electric vehicle applications.
Shah, Bijay Kumar, Singh, Pundan Kumar, G., Manikandan
Coupled Thermo-Mechanical Simulation Framework for Structural Evaluation of Battery Pack2026-26-0414To be published on 01/16/2026
With the rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), ensuring the structural integrity and thermal safety of lithium-ion battery pack has become a critical priority. Battery failures resulting from mechanical abuse, thermal stress, internal pressure build up or electrical faults may lead to structural failure. To address these challenges, it is essential to understand the coupled thermal and mechanical responses of battery structure under extreme conditions. Thermo-mechanical simulation serves as a powerful tool for predictive safety assessment and design optimization, particularly in addressing thermal propagation and pressure-induced failure events. This study presents a comprehensive coupled thermo-mechanical simulation framework designed to evaluate the structural performance of EV battery enclosures under worst-case thermal and overpressure conditions. The methodology involves high-fidelity three-dimensional modeling of the battery pack enclosure, incorporating realistic material
BHAT, SADASHIV C, Sugumar, Mohanraj
Integrated Side Fairing and Crash Protection System for High Voltage EV Battery Safety2026-26-0028To be published on 01/16/2026
The paper presents a well-engineered and novel structural solution for side impact protection of high-voltage battery packs in electric trucks. While electric vehicles offer benefits like zero emissions and independence from fossil fuels, in turn present challenges in meeting crashworthiness standards and safety regulations. The device addresses the critical need for effective battery protection & styling of battery electric vehicles. The integration of a hybrid corrugated panel system with plastic side fairings is innovative, combining crashworthiness with aerodynamic and aesthetic benefits. The crash protection features two hat-section steel channels at the top and bottom and corrugated steel sheet with alternating ridges is attached to these channels. Corrugated panels are enforced with help of backing strips. This assembly is mounted on shear plates at both ends, secured to the vehicle's frame rail. During a side impact event, the plastic side fairings absorb the initial impact
Badgujar, Prathamesh, Devendra, Awachare, Hansen, Benjamin
Performance Evaluation of Battery Pack With E-Rickshaw on Chassis Dynamometer by Using In-House Developed Driving Cycle2026-26-0148To be published on 01/16/2026
The present work highlights a case-study that aims to determine the performance (power input/output) and battery temperature on in-house developed e-rickshaw battery pack. With the rise of e-rickshaws in Indian market, the demand for the batteries have also increased and being the largest state-run energy company of India, R&D Centre of Indian Oil Corporation Limited (IOCL) has developed a chemically modified nanomaterial-based lead acid battery. The lab scale experiments, which are not presented in the study due to confidentiality and intellectual property obligations, indicated that the nanomaterial doped lead acid battery pack performs better than the control (reference) and leading commercial batteries in terms of lifecycle, capacity etc. Subsequently, this paper highlights the performance with IOC R&D Centre manufactured 12V/100AH chemically modified (nanomaterial) lead acid battery pack for e-rickshaw on duty cycle developed indigenously based on the city driving experiences. The
Saroj, Shyamsher, Sithananthan, M, Kumar, Prashant, Arora, Ajay, Sundaram, P, Kalita, Mrinmoy
Optimizing Busbar Design by Investigating Critical Parameters and Their Influence on Electrical and Thermal Behaviors for Reliable Electric Vehicle Battery Packs.2026-26-0474To be published on 01/16/2026
With the rise of EVs, researchers are focusing on optimizing busbar design to meet the demands of high energy density, fast charging, and compact battery packs. The busbar design starts with selecting the cross-sectional area based on current-carrying capacity and material type. The width matches or exceeds the battery cell terminal size, while the length is optimized based on space constraints. The research also highlights the risk of busbars to oxidation and corrosion, which increases resistance and decreases thermal conductivity for which Plating and coating techniques are applied to improve surface hardness, durability, and thermal conductivity while minimizing heat loss. Using simulations and experimental validation, the study examines three key design parameters: weld diameter, electrical resistance, and contact resistance. A detailed analysis investigates how weld diameter influences electrical resistance and temperature rise, as well as the impact of contact resistance between
Nogdhe, Yogesh, Singh, Shobit Kumar, Paul, Jibin, Mishra, Mukesh, MENON, Praveen
Analysis of Second-Life electric vehicle batteries value maximizing through repurposing and resale, ways to achieve optimal performance and standardization challenges for testing and certification2026-26-0193To be published on 01/16/2026
As electric vehicle (EV) adoption accelerates globally, a growing volume of lithium-ion batteries are reaching end-of-life in their primary automotive application—despite retaining 60 to 80% of their original capacity. This presents a significant opportunity to extend battery utility through second-life applications such as stationary energy storage, microgrid support, and commercial backup systems. This paper analyzes the strategies for maximizing the residual value of second-life EV batteries through repurposing and resale, while also addressing the challenges associated with performance optimization and standardization of testing and certification procedures. The study evaluates the techno-economic viability of second-life batteries compared to new systems, emphasizing cost savings, environmental impact, and emerging market demand. Techniques for enhancing second-life performance are examined, including advanced state-of-health (SoH) diagnostics, machine learning models for usage
Agarwal, Pranjal, Penta, Amar
Innovative Friction Locking Mechanism for High Voltage Busbar Connections in EV Batteries2026-26-0155To be published on 01/16/2026
In the development of high-voltage (HV) batteries, ensuring secure connections between HV conductors and maintaining the safety and performance of the battery pack is paramount. Therefore, In the pursuit of enhancing efficiency and reliability in electrical connections, this paper explores the innovative alternate for a traditional screwing method with a friction locking mechanism for connecting busbars. The novel design reimagines the busbar as a Friction clamp (Female part) that securely holds the male part of the Busbar, significantly increasing the contact surface area up to 50%. This enhanced surface area not only improves electrical conductivity but also reduces heat generation, addressing common issues associated with traditional screw-based connections. By eliminating the need for screws, the new design streamlines the assembly process, resulting in reduced cycle times and improved overall assembly line efficiency. This study presents the design methodology, performance
Venkatesh, Murali, Raghu, Arun, Bhramanna, Amol
Safety Model for Battery Resistance Monitoring and Lifecycle Optimization2025-01-0515To be published on 11/25/2025
This paper presents a risk assessment framework to evaluate the safety implications of internal resistance growth in EV batteries, focusing on NMC and LFP chemistries. How the resistance growth affects performance, efficiency, and thermal stability, posing safety risks during the battery lifecycle. The framework integrates empirical and model-based estimation methods, including DCIR, EIS, historical regression, equivalent circuit models, and physics-based approaches. Simulations incorporate temperature, depth-of-discharge, and cycle count to predict resistance trends and their impact on power output and efficiency. A scoring system that evaluates safety risks based on state-of-resistance, state-of-health, and risk indicators, aiding battery pack selection for second and third life applications. Results show that NMC and LFP cells exhibit distinct resistance growth patterns, emphasizing the need for chemistry-specific safety strategies. The scoring system is a weightage based equation
Prakashkumar, Balagopal
A Methodology to Develop 25-kWh Battery Pack Model with Its Cooling System for Off-Highway Application2025-28-024011/06/2025
This study presents a methodology to develop a new 25kWh battery pack for off-highway application. Initially an enclosure space is extracted from tractor model maintaining minimum space with adjacent components. Based on available space, various combination of cell form factors and different cell chemistries are evaluated considering operating ambient temperature range (-20 to 45 deg C) and charge/discharge rate 1C. Cylindrical NMC type cell with indirect cooling system fulfils all our technical requirements. However, complete battery pack thermal simulation is carried out for ensuring battery pack safety and limited deterioration with different discharge rate and wider temperature range. The battery pack model contains multiple cells, bricks, and modules with numerous coolant pipes and flow channels. Cell characterization experimental data is used for estimating cell thermal capacity and IR behavior. Battery pack model is tested with different Charge/discharge rates. Five
Nain, Ajay, Lamba, Shamsher, jayagopal, S, dhir, Anish
Performance Investigation of Air Conditioning System in Electric Vehicle by Fault Detection and Diagnosis2025-28-035310/30/2025
The study emphasizes on detection of different faults and refrigerant leakage as well as performance investigation of automobile air conditioning system for an electric vehicle by varying various operating conditions. A refrigerant leak in an EV isn't just an inconvenience; it's a potential threat to vehicle range and usability, lifespan and health of the expensive battery pack, overall vehicle performance, passenger safety and comfort, component longevity (motor, power electronics), environmental responsibility. Due to the refrigerant leakage, the cooling system performance degrades, and components tend to fail. Because of that this study is focusing on deriving an algorithm to have an early detection of fault and leakage in the vehicle. The performance of the system is predicted for actual conditions of operation encountered by the automobile air conditioning system. The objective of the present work includes predicting the causes and effects of refrigerant leakage in AC system of
Bezbaruah, Puja, Yadav, Ankit, Pilakkattu, Deepak
Location Based Predictive Capabilities for Thermal System Control2025-28-041310/30/2025
In the realm of electric and hybrid vehicles (EVs, HEVs), the intelligent thermal system control unit is essential for optimizing performance, safety, and efficiency. Unlike traditional internal combustion engines, EVs rely heavily on battery performance, which is significantly influenced by temperature. An intelligent thermal management system helps battery packs to operate within their optimal temperature range, enhancing energy efficiency, extending battery life, and maximizing driving range. Furthermore, it plays a crucial role in managing the thermal dynamics of power electronics and electric motors, preventing overheating, and ensuring reliable operation. As the demand for high-performance and efficient electric vehicles grows, the integration of advanced thermal control strategies becomes increasingly vital, paving the way for innovations in EV design and functionality. One of the key aspects of an intelligent thermal system control is their prediction capability. These
Golgar, Samrat, Boobalan, Anand
Thermal Management in Electrified Transportation: A Comparative Study of Different Powertrain Technologies2025-28-041210/30/2025
The transition towards sustainable transportation necessitates the development of advanced thermal management systems (TMS) for electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), and hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles (HICEVs). Effective thermal control is crucial for passenger comfort and the performance, longevity, and safety of critical vehicle components. This paper presents a rigorous and comparative analysis of TMS strategies across these diverse powertrain technologies. It systematically examines the unique thermal challenges associated with each subsystem, including cabin HVAC, battery packs, fuel cell stacks, traction motors, and power electronics. For cabin HVAC, the paper explores methods for minimizing energy consumption while maintaining thermal comfort, considering factors such as ambient temperature, humidity, and occupant load. The critical importance of battery thermal management is emphasized, with a focus on
K, Neelima, K, Anisha, Ch, Kavya, C, Somasundar, Satyam, Satyam, P, Geetha
Thermal Analysis and Effect of Cell Arrangement on Air Cooled Cylindrical Cell Battery Pack Performance2025-28-036110/30/2025
The arrangement of multiple cells within a battery pack is crucial to have an optimized thermal performance and pressure drop. This paper presents a comparative analysis of thermal battery cooling performance of an air-cooled battery pack using inline and staggered arrangement of 18650 sized cylindrical cells with different cell spacings. The key parameters such as air pressure drop and cell (average/maximum/minimum) temperatures are compared for operations at different C-rates, air inlet temperature, and air inlet velocities. The results demonstrate that the staggered configuration with optimal spacing offers better thermal performance and temperature distribution compared to the inline one. Specifically, the staggered setup with optimal gap achieves a lower cell average and maximum temperatures indicating more efficient cooling and uniform thermal distribution. This study highlights the advantages of battery spacing and configuration for improved thermal and pressure drop performance
Bharsakale, Yash, Nadge, Pankaj, Manna, Suvankar
Analysis of a Battery Bicycle with a Sliding Mechanism for Need-Based Adjustments for Luggage Space2025-28-040510/30/2025
A battery bicycle with luggage space is designed and developed to have variable luggage space available to the rider. The developed design with bicycle frame has an innovative sideway moving frame for variable need-based space. The design was prepared for an e-commerce delivery application, suppling products through an easy, quick, and low-cost mode of transport with variable spacing options. The design was prepared for 160 kg weight, with 210 cm, 90 cm, and 35 cm as length height and width, respectively. The designed bicycle can carry luggage up to 100 kg. The design is powered by a 250-watt electric motor and can move with a maximum speed of 24 km/hr. The steering mechanism, cargo bucket, and the base frame are made in two parts for commuter convenience. The cargo bucket is front-mounted, on a sliding frame that enables one half of the bucket to be slid into the other half through sideways movement by fitted channels. The design has both electric and non-electric driving modes. The
Vashist, Devendra, Satti, Harsh, Awasthi, A.K, MUKHERJEE, SOURAV
ML-Based System Level Optimization of EV Cooling Circuit2025-01-037610/07/2025
Efficient thermal management is vital for electric vehicles (EVs) to maintain optimal operating temperatures and enhance energy efficiency. Traditional simulation-based design approaches, while accurate, are often computationally expensive and limited in their ability to explore large design spaces. This study introduces a machine learning (ML)-based optimization framework for the design of an EV cooling circuit, targeting a 5°C reduction in the maximum electric motor temperature. A one-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (1D-CFD) model is utilized to generate a Design of Experiments (DOE) matrix, incorporating key parameters such as coolant flow rate and heat exchanger dimensions. A Radial Basis Function (RBF) neural network is trained on the simulation data to serve as a surrogate model, enabling rapid performance prediction. Optimization is performed using the Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA2), yielding three distinct design solutions that meet the thermal
Paul, Kavin, Ganesan, Arul, Mansour, Youssef
Method for Rapid Prediction of Electric Vehicle Battery Temperature for the Early Design Phase2025-01-041910/07/2025
Thermal management of electric vehicle (EV) battery systems is critical for ensuring optimal performance, user safety, and battery longevity. Existing high-fidelity simulation methods provide detailed thermal profiles, but their computational intensity makes them inefficient for early design iterations or real-time assessments. This paper introduces a streamlined, physics-based one-dimensional transient thermal model coded in MATLAB for efficiently predicting battery temperature behavior under various driving cycles. The model integrates vehicle dynamics to estimate power demands, calculates battery current output and heat generation from electrochemical principles, and determines the battery temperature profile through a 1D conduction model connected to a thermal resistance network boundary condition that incorporates the effect of coolant heat capacity. The model achieved prediction errors below 1% when compared to analytical solutions for conditions of no heat generation and steady
Builes, Isabel, Medina, Mario, Bachman, John Christopher
Revolutionizing EV battery safety: advanced coatings and composite solutions25AUTP10_1010/01/2025
Thermal runaway in electric vehicle (EV) batteries is rare, but it can happen, producing smoke, fire, and explosions. This uncontrollable, self-heating state can transfer intense heat to adjacent cells and cause pressure buildups that exceed the mechanical limits of cell casings. Since the gases that can form inside a battery cell are flammable, a spark or other ignition source could propagate fire or lead to an explosion and cause the violent venting of shrapnel or particulates, putting vehicle occupants and emergency responders at risk. To support EV safety, silicone thermal management materials are placed between battery cells and between battery modules. For battery pack enclosures, however, mica sheets traditionally have been used as protective barriers. Mica provides thermal and electrical insulation, but sheets made of this mineral are limited in terms of thermal performance, mechanical durability, processability, and sustainable sourcing. To address these challenges, advanced
1D Thermo-Fluid Model for Electric Vehicle Traction Inverter2025-01-506209/19/2025
Thermal management solutions in power electronics applications are of prime importance to meet the needs of the ever-increasing demands on higher power and torque density of the traction motor and controller. Traction inverters are essential power electronic devices that convert direct current (DC) supply from the battery pack of the vehicle to three-phase alternating current (AC) output and vice versa. Estimation of die junction temperatures and cooling system pressure drop is necessary for assessing the maximum heat load capacity of the traction inverter system and coolant pump capacity requirements. The system comprises of a power module and a water–glycol–based cooling domain with heat sink. This article proposes a 1D model for accurate predictions of junction temperatures on the SiC die, temperature rise of the cooling medium, and pressure drop across a custom heat sink fluid domain. The model is built to handle steady-state and transient conditions for varying heat loads on the
Ravindra, Vidyasagar, Prasad, Praveen, Singh, Ishan, Sureka, Sumit
Multilevel Control Strategy Design and Optimization for Fuel Cell Hybrid Heavy-Duty Vehicles2025-24-010709/07/2025
The heavy-duty transportation sector is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, highlighting the urgent need for zero-emission solutions. This research develops a multilevel control architecture that optimizes fuel economy and minimizes emissions in fuel cell hybrid heavy-duty vehicles, equipped with proton exchange membrane fuel cell and battery pack as main power sources. The detailed fuel cell system model incorporates reactants and thermal dynamics, including air supply, hydrogen flow, water management and their effects on reaction kinetics, membrane conductivity, water balance, performance and durability. The low-level control strategy is designed using a physics-based approach that accounts for critical constraints, including temperature, membrane water content and differential pressure between the cathode and anode. By identifying optimal setpoints for key control variables, this methodology enables the development of accurate control maps for actuator management
Bove, Giovanni, Aliberti, Paolo, Simone, Christian, Sorrentino, Marco, Pianese, Cesare
A Critical Assessment of Phase Change Materials for Boosting EV Efficiency2025-24-014709/07/2025
Effective thermal management in battery packs is a key technology for enhancing the efficiency and longevity of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Traditional active cooling systems can consume significant amounts of energy, thereby impacting the vehicle's overall efficiency. This paper explores the use of phase change materials (PCMs) as a complementary cooling technology, enabling both an improved active and an extended passive conditioning of battery packs. By leveraging the unique properties of PCMs, it is possible to partially operate the battery system without active cooling, thus reducing the overall energy consumption and improving vehicle autonomy. The phase change phenomenon further offers the benefit of a homogeneous temperature distribution within the battery pack. This study addresses the potential of PCMs as a thermal management solution for battery packs by firstly identifying suitable materials meeting requirements specific to such application. In addition, the paper
Fandakov, Alexander, Nolte, Oliver, Herzog, Alexander, Sens, Marc
Use of Model-Based Datasets and Neural-Networks to Support Real-Time Driving Suggestions System for Components Preservation in Battery Electric Vehicles2025-24-011509/07/2025
Nowadays, Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are considered an attractive solution to support the transition towards more sustainable transportation systems. Although their well-known advantages in terms of overall propulsion efficiency and exhaust emissions, the diffusion of BEVs on the market is still reduced by some technical bottlenecks. Among those, the uncertainty about the expected durability of the vehicle's onboard battery packs plays a key role in affecting customer choice. In this context, this paper proposes the use of model-based datasets for training a driving support system based on machine learning techniques to be installed on board. The objective of this system is to acquire vehicle, environmental, and traffic information from sensor’ networks and provide real-time smart suggestions to the driver to preserve the remaining useful life of vehicle components, with particular reference to the battery pack and brakes. For the generation of the training dataset, first, a set
Bernardi, Mario Luca, Capasso, Clemente, Iannucci, Luigi, Sequino, Luigi
Methodological Approach to Battery Electric Vehicle Design: Energy-Based Model Development from a Detailed Digital Twin2025-24-009809/07/2025
On the path to the decarbonization of the transport sector, the development of electric vehicles (EVs) is crucial to meeting the targets set by international regulatory bodies. EVs operate with zero tailpipe emissions and offer high energy efficiency and flexibility; however, challenges remain in achieving a fully sustainable electricity supply. In this context, powertrain design plays a fundamental role in determining vehicle performance and mission feasibility, which are strongly influenced by operating conditions and application characteristics, such as driving profiles and ambient temperature. A key challenge is the optimal sizing of components, particularly the battery pack and the electric motor. Therefore, a structured and methodological approach to powertrain design is essential to ensuring an optimal configuration. To this end, the project focuses on an integrated approach based on a master-and-slave modeling framework applied to a light-duty commercial vehicle at two levels
Bartolucci, Lorenzo, Cennamo, Edoardo, Grattarola, Federico, Lombardi, Simone, Mulone, Vincenzo, Tribioli, Laura, Aimo Boot, Marco
Simulation Driven Thermal Optimization of an Innovative Battery System2025-24-013809/07/2025
BATSS project objective is to design a safe, effective and sustainable battery pack. To achieve this, the battery system (BS) will be mechanically, electrically and thermally optimized using cutting edge technology. Consequently, the battery system includes innovative 4695 cylindrical cells and advanced thermal management, carried out with the Miba FLEXCOOLER®. This work focuses on the BS thermal optimization using system simulation tools. First a simplified version of the BS is simulated with all physical phenomena involved in thermal behavior to identify first order parameters. It appears that various BS component and heat transfer can be neglected in comparison with the heat transfer due to cooling system. Then the simulation of the full battery system is conducted under nominal condition. Cooling system appears to be performant as it allows a controlled averaged temperature and very low cell-to-cell temperature variability. Finally, impact of both design and operating parameters is
Chevillard, Stephane, Popp, Hartmut, Galarza, Igor, Petit, Martin
Effects of the Battery Pack Temperature on the Energy Management Strategy and Fuel Consumption of a Series Hybrid Quadricycle2025-24-010109/07/2025
Nowadays, a push towards decarbonisation to reduce the problem of the environmental pollution is increasingly pressing. In the current automotive context, a tendency among the cars manufacturer to consider the development of hybrid vehicles is growing. Indeed, thanks to the battery downsizing due to the addition of the range extender (REx), a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) allows to overcome the limitations of pure electric vehicles (EV) such as the infrastructure which is linked to the battery charging process. Moreover, the performance of battery in terms of efficiency and operating limits are strictly related with the temperature of the battery pack and with the energy management strategy (EMS). The proposed work aims to analyse the performance of a Plug-In series hybrid vehicle (Plug-In HEV) depending on the temperature of battery pack and the EMS. The considered Plug-In HEV is equipped with a hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine that is used as REx. First, a lumped dynamic
Cervone, Davide, Sicilia, Massimo, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare
Active Temperature Control Strategies with Liquid Cooling Thermal Management System for Li-Ion Batteries2025-24-014809/07/2025
Nowadays, electric vehicles (EVs) are considered one of the most promising solutions for reducing pollutant emissions related to the road transportation sector. Although these vehicles have achieved a high level of reliability, various challenges about Li-ion storage systems and their thermal management systems remain unresolved. This work proposes a numerical and experimental study of a lithium-ion storage cell with a scaled battery thermal management system (BTMS). In particular, a channel plate for liquid cooling is specifically designed and manufactured for the cell under test. The BTMS is based on the development of an indirect liquid cooling system with optimal control of the coolant flow rate to fulfill the thermal requirements of the system. A lumped parameters approach is used to simulate the electro-thermal behavior of the system and to analyze the effects of real-time control strategies on the temperature of the cell under test. An ad-hoc experimental test rig is set up for
Capasso, Clemente, Castiglione, Teresa, Perrone, Diego, Sequino, Luigi
When Electric Vehicles Sleep: Investigating Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Precooling in Extreme Temperature Conditions2025-24-014609/07/2025
Effective thermal management is essential for optimizing the performance and longevity of lithium-ion battery packs, particularly in electric vehicles facing extreme temperature conditions. This study investigates the performance of an indirect liquid cooling system used for pre-cooling stationary electric vehicle battery packs, focusing on scenarios such as vehicle sleep mode in high-temperature conditions. The cooling system, which utilizes a water-glycol mixture flowing at 1.2 L/min, was tested on a battery pack consisting of 36 prismatic battery cells in a thermally isolated chamber, subjected to initial temperatures of 50.0°C, 60.0°C, and 69.5°C. To assess the thermal behavior, 25 thermocouples were strategically positioned on the battery surface, and inlet coolant temperature was monitored via an additional thermocouple. An exponential cooling response was observed across all temperature cases, with maximum temperature difference between the hottest and coldest cells reaching 7.6
Darvish, Hossein, Carlucci, Antonio Paolo, Ficarella, Antonio, Laforgia, Domenico
Energy Prediction for Hotel Loads in Mild-Hybrid Heavy-Duty Vehicle02-18-03-002008/29/2025
Long-haul truck drivers are mandated to take off-duty time of 10 h (a.k.a. hoteling) before driving. During the hotel phase, drivers spend time inside their trucks (sleeper cabs) and idle the internal combustion engine for comfort by utilizing the heating, ventilation, air-conditioning (HVAC), and other onboard appliances. For one 10-h period, the average cost is about $40, which can be a lot when considering a million truck drivers idling overnight. SuperTruck II is a 48 V mild-hybrid heavy-duty truck with auxiliary loads powered by an onboard battery pack. An optimal control algorithm is developed to charge the battery pack during the drive phase up to a certain state-of-charge (SOC) level, sufficient to meet the power demands of the auxiliary load during the hotel phase. This article captures the research done to predict energy consumption in a mild-hybrid heavy-duty sleeper truck during hoteling. Physics-based gray box models are developed to estimate the power consumption of an
Khuntia, Satvik, Hanif, Athar, Ahmed, Qadeer, Lahti, John, Jorgensen, Iner
TOC99-07-04-0TOC08/19/2025
TOC
Tobolski, Sue
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - How Battery Chemistry Is Changing the EV Game1353008/15/2025
The key to unlocking EV efficiency lies in the chemistry of the battery itself -- and emerging technologies like lithium manganese iron phosphate (LMFP) and lithium iron phosphate (LFP) tackling range anxiety head-on. Leading the way is Integrals Power, a UK-based company pushing the boundaries of battery innovation by engineering cells that offer up to 20% more range compared to conventional chemistries. LMFP serves as a drop-in replacement, making it easier for manufacturers to adopt while maintaining safety and extending battery life. By improving cathode chemistry -- where up to 30% of battery pack costs lie -- the company is positioning itself as a leader in scalable, cost-effective solutions for EV makers. To learn more, we sat down with Behnam Hormozi, CEO and Founder, to discuss how Integrals Power's approach to battery design is boosting EV range, cutting costs, and transforming the UK into a global battery powerhouse. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions
Patterson, Lori
Optimal Onboard Battery Charging Strategy for Hotel Load Management in Mild-Hybrid Heavy-Duty Truck02-18-03-001706/12/2025
Heavy-duty trucks idling during the hotel period consume millions of gallons of diesel/fuel a year, negatively impacting the economy and environment. To avoid engine idling during the hotel period, the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) and auxiliary loads are supplied by a 48 V onboard battery pack. The onboard battery pack is charged during the drive phase of a composite drive cycle, which comprises both drive and hotel phases, using the transmission-mounted electric machine (EM) and battery system. This is accomplished by recapturing energy from the wheels and supplementing it with energy from the engine when wheel energy alone is insufficient to achieve the desired battery state of charge (SOC). This onboard battery pack is charged using the transmission-mounted EM and battery system during the drive phase of a composite drive cycle (i.e., drive phase and hotel phase). This is achieved by recapturing wheel energy and energy from the engine when the wheel energy is
Huang, Ying, Hanif, Athar, Ahmed, Qadeer
Application of a Chemical Kinetic Modeling Approach within a Fully Coupled Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation of Battery Cells during Thermal Runaway14-14-02-001406/11/2025
The objective of the current study is to systematically evaluate the battery thermal runaway heat release rate through chemical kinetics and then study its effect on battery module and pack level. For this purpose, a chemistry solver has been developed, capable of simultaneously solving the thermal runaway kinetics in multiple battery cells with the cell-specific chemistry model and battery active material compositions. This developed solid body chemistry (SBC) solver assumes a homogeneous system in the specified geometrical selection. A 3D representation can be achieved by setting up multiple solver selections in one solid domain (battery cell) as the SBC solver is capable of handling multiple selections, chemistry models, and battery active material compositions. Further, the SBC solver is fully integrated in a commercial three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (3D-CFD) code. Thus, enabling to simulate the real-life thermal runaway applications covering the battery module and
Chittipotula, Thirumalesha, Eder, Lucas, Uhl, Thomas
Wire Feed Laser Welding for Battery Pack Aluminum Enclosure Manufacture in EVsTBMG-5321006/01/2025
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