Browse Topic: Energy storage systems

Items (6,118)
Find
A Study on Energy Management Strategies for Range-Extended UAVs Based on A-ECMS2026-99-2333To be published on 10/30/2026
An adaptive equivalent consumption minimization strategy (A-ECMS) is proposed for a hydrogen fuel-cell range-extended UAV hybrid power system composed of a PEM fuel cell, a lithium-ion battery and a supercapacitor. The equivalent factor is updated online by a PID-based SOC feedback mechanism to improve the adaptability of conventional ECMS under variable flight loads. Under the same mission profile and the same initial and terminal SOC constraints, A-ECMS consumes 4.6277 g of hydrogen, reducing hydrogen consumption by 46.90%, 67.51% and 58.42% compared with PID control, conventional ECMS and state-machine control, respectively. Fuel-cell power fluctuation and battery SOC deviation are also reduced.
Li, Mengda, Liu, Zitong
Experimental Study on Two-Phase Flow and Heat Transfer Characteristics in Rectangular Enhanced Channels2026-99-2326To be published on 10/30/2026
22
Shao, Yawei, Li, Benke, Li, Li, Qian, Jiyu, Wei, Tao
Research on Nonlinearity of Interface ASIC for MEMS Accelerometer with Switched-Capacitor Closed-Loop Feedback2026-99-296910/19/2026
This paper investigates the nonlinearity issues in the interface ASIC system for capacitive MEMS accelerometers. First, the sources of nonlinearity in the mechanical structure of the accelerometer and the switched-capacitor interface circuit are analyzed, including the nonlinearity of mechanical displacement-to-capacitance conversion, harmonic distortion caused by parasitic capacitance, and the contradiction between range and linearity due to a low-stiffness proof mass in open-loop mode. To suppress the nonlinearity, PID control is adopted to realize closed-loop electrostatic force feedback, a loop error model is established, and a capacitor array compensation circuit is introduced to eliminate the output offset caused by parasitic capacitance. The interface ASIC is designed in a 0.18 μm BCD process, and the layout design and tape-out are completed. Pre-simulation results show a nonlinearity of 0.0124% within a 0–50 g range; post-simulation nonlinearity is 0.0657%. In actual tests, the accelerometer achieves a scale factor of 0.091 V/g over the 0–50 g range, the maximum residual of the least-squares fitting is 0.000645 V, and the nonlinearity is 0.0728%, approximately 160 ppm. This study verifies the effectiveness of closed-loop PID control and capacitance compensation in suppressing nonlinearity, providing a theoretical basis and engineering reference for the design of high-linearity MEMS accelerometers.
Gao, Zhi, Li, Zhaohan, Hao, Zhiwen, Liu, Guowen, Gao, Naikun, Zhang, Wenbo, Fu, Qiang, Yin, Liang
A Multi-dimensional Evaluation System for Satellite Constellations: Health and Efficiency Assessment2026-99-291110/19/2026
This paper presents a multi-dimensional evaluation system designed for the health and efficiency assessment of satellite constellations. Aiming at addressing the core demands of on-orbit satellite operation monitoring, performance evaluation, and maintenance decision-making, the system constructs a hierarchical and multi-dimensional index system with a tree structure for constellations, satellites, subsystems, and devices to realize hierarchical assessment. For health assessment, the system includes various algorithms including expectation envelope, multi-interval, and expert scoring, and adopts Gaussian basis function to realize continuous and smooth scoring. For efficiency assessment, the system is built on the ADC algorithm framework, defining Availability vector and Dependability matrix based on fault statistics, and designs five Capability models for key efficiency indicators such as power supply capacity, energy storage capacity and attitude stability. Validated by a series of real cases, the system achieves accurate calculation of evaluation indicators, providing valuable support for on-orbit operation and maintenance.
Gao, Haoran, Yang, Zelong, Liu, Peng, Zhang, Xiangyan, Han, Hongbo
Recommended Practices for Shipping, Transport, and Handling of Automotive-Type Battery System - Lithium IonJ2950_202610 (Current)10/9/2026
This SAE Recommended Practice (RP) aids in the identification, handling, and shipping of lithium batteries to and from specified locations. It is the specific intent of this RP to identify, utilize, and reference existing U.S. and international hazardous materials (dangerous goods) transportation regulations, which are the only methodologies to be used to establish transportability. It is also the intent of this RP to provide recommendations to be used by service and shipping personnel for the purpose of determining a possibly damaged/defective battery’s transportability. In support of the service and shipping personnel, these recommendations seek to use standard tools of the trade and avoid laboratory-type equipment.
Battery Transportation and Storage Committee
Automotive Engineering: October 202626AUTP1010/8/2026
Why cars need hearing before they need more vision An engineering perspective on faster intent, lower compute, and better in-cabin UX. Improved laser welding for automotive seat structures and recliners When it comes to automotive seats, regulatory pressures aren't the only challenge. Of ladders and limits Why supply chain leaders still can't scale their warehouse technology. Lidar at $200: The competitive inflection point Western OEMs can't ignore Chinese suppliers Hesai and Robosense show one way to make rapid advances in sensor technology. Accelerating air suspension development with a deep-learning surrogate for FEA A bespoke AI tool compressed a typical air spring development cycle from several weeks to around an hour and uncovered a feasible design solution that manual iteration had previously ruled out. Trailblazing innovators: Meet Rising Star winner Qiang Li Meet the winner of the third annual SAE Media Group's Women in Engineering: Rising Star Awards program, which proudly honors women engineers who are driving innovation and making significant contributions to the engineering profession. Editorial AI, Automechanika, and a Rising Star The Navigator 2027 could be the Year of the EREV in America Automechanika Frankfurt: re-thinking automotive materials with INDRA Clarios' battery management system for fleets now in 2,000 trucks Advanced Manufacturing Commercialization Center holds open house for potential partners Designing flash storage platforms with an eye to SDVs LGES opens first-of-its-kind battery plant in Michigan Mercedes Maybach S-Class first drive: V12 pampering for all occupants Product Briefs Spotlight: Plastics & composites; electrification technology Q&A Faster than anyone else thanks to H2 ICE
A Shared-Hardware Battery Management System for Solar-Assisted and Capacitive Balancing in Unmanned Surface Vehicles12-10-01-000110/7/2026
This article presents a hybrid battery management system for unmanned surface vehicles, integrating three operational modes: solar-to-cell balancing, capacitive balancing, and solar-to-pack charging—within a shared architecture. The system prioritizes solar-to-cell balancing when solar energy is available, capacitive balancing when charging without solar input, and solar-to-pack charging when cells are balanced. This approach eliminates additional hardware by utilizing a shared-hardware architecture. A 14.8 V battery pack composed of four 3.7 V Li-ion modules was simulated and prototyped to validate the system. Experimental and simulation results confirm improved cell balancing, reduced state-of-health deviation, and extended operational time, demonstrating superior performance, sustainability, and adaptability over conventional battery management system solutions for unmanned surface vehicles and similar platforms.
Blair, Raymond, Kyger, Kenton, Duan, Chen
Battery Management System: Surface Vehicle Battery Diagnostic Technical Information ReportJ3356_202609 (Current)9/28/2026
The purpose of this document is to expressly describe the required diagnostics (DIAG) related to the on-road traction battery management systems (BMS). This document will attempt to clearly educate and explain four key areas of BMS DIAG: (1) fault identification, (2) fault classification, (3) system reaction, and (4) diagnostic data and reporting.
Battery Management Systems Committee
Battery Management System: Surface Vehicle Battery SOC Technical Information ReportJ3356/1_202609 (Current)9/28/2026
The purpose of this document is to expressly describe the method of calculating state of charge (SOC) related to the on-road traction battery management systems (BMS). This document will attempt to clearly educate and explain four key areas of BMS SOC: (1) basic SOC definition, (2) SOC calculation methods, (3) influence items for SOC, and (4) SOC warnings.
Battery Management Systems Committee
Battery Management System: Surface Vehicle Battery SOH Technical Information ReportJ3356/2_202609 (Current)9/28/2026
The purpose of this document is to expressly describe the method of calculating state of health (SOH) related to the on-road traction battery management systems (BMS). This document will attempt to clearly educate and explain four key areas of BMS SOH: (1) basic SOH definition, (2) SOH calculation methods, (3) influence items for SOH, and (4) SOH reporting.
Battery Management Systems Committee
Time-Dependent Power Flow Modeling for Non-Passive Loads in Battery Electric Propulsion Architectures2026-01-75639/22/2026
Traditional Linear Circuit Analysis (LCA) relies on steady-state voltage assumptions that are fundamentally incompatible with battery-exclusive propulsion architecture. Whilst LCA remains valid for hybrid systems, where an auxiliary source actively regulates the State-of-Charge (SOC), it fails when analyzing non-passive, constant-power loads. In pure electric architecture, the time-dependent decay of the discharge voltage forces a continuous, non-linear increase in current to satisfy mechanical power demands. A time-dependent power flow methodology is introduced to resolve this theoretical divergence. Using the conservation of energy operating explicitly within the power domain, the time-dependent coupling of current and voltage can be modeled. This approach supersedes steady-state approximations for higher fidelity predictions for component efficiency, system heat generation, and battery capacity requirements for pure electric propulsion systems. Citation: N. Ingarra, K. J. Kobus, J. G. Kobus “TIME-DEPENDENT POWER FLOW MODELING FOR NONPASSIVE LOADS IN BATTERY ELECTRIC PROPULSION ARCHITECTURES” In Proceedings of the Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS), NDIA, Novi, MI, Aug. 11-13, 2026.
Ingarra, Nicholas A., Kobus, Krzysztof (Chris) J., Kobus, Jadon G.
Integrating MBSE with High-Fidelity Crash Simulation2026-01-75429/22/2026
Modern electrified ground vehicles introduce complex, multi-domain safety requirements, such as post-crash thermal runaway prevention, that expose the traceability limitations of Document-Based Systems Engineering (DBSE). This paper proposes a four-layer, bidirectional digital thread architecture that integrates Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) with high-fidelity, non-linear Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) crash simulations. Leveraging SysML, System-Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA), and Python-based orchestration middleware, the framework automates the translation of descriptive safety requirements into explicit finite element boundary conditions. The architecture programmatically extracts key performance indicators from massive binary solver outputs and injects them back into the SysML environment for automated compliance verification. Demonstrated through a simplified electric vehicle side-pole impact case study utilizing LS-DYNA and a 1D thermal model, the framework successfully eliminates manual data handoffs, accelerates multidisciplinary design optimization, and ensures robust, risk-driven requirement traceability across the engineering lifecycle.
Rye, Patrick J.
Deriving Instantaneous Electro-Thermal Parameters and Heat Generation from Constant-Current Discharge Data2026-01-75629/22/2026
Early-stage Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) design can be constrained by limited manufacturer data, resulting in the use of steady-state thermal assumptions. An analytical methodology is introduced to extract the real-time cell resistance, instantaneous efficiency, and transient heat generation directly from standard constant-current discharge curves, and Open Circuit Voltage (OCV) profiles. By evaluating the time-dependent voltage differential against current, equivalent cell resistance and transient heat generation are computed without explicit ohmic measurement or calorimetric testing. This enables direct, real-time coupling of electrical and thermal models. Application to an NMC chemistry cell demonstrates concentration losses dominate below a 20% State-of-Charge (SOC), increasing transient heat generation, and decreasing instantaneous efficiency. Extracting the time-dependent electro-thermal parameters provides the required quantitative inputs for benchmarking cells & accurately sizing BTMS cooling capacities. Citation: N. A. Ingarra, K. J. Kobus, J. G. Kobus, “Deriving Instantaneous Electro-Thermal Parameters and Heat Generation from Constant-Current Discharge Data,” In Proceedings of the Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS), NDIA, Novi, MI, Aug. 11-13, 2026.
Ingarra, Nicholas A., Kobus, Krzysztof (Chris) J., Kobus, Jadon G.
Connecting Standard LI-ION Batteries in Series to form a High Voltage Array2026-01-75669/22/2026
The principles of high voltage (HV) battery array design, which is based on existing, off-the-shelf Li-Ion batteries (e.g., certified Lithium 6T Batteries), is presented. The battery array includes, besides the series connected battery modules, an HV switch controlled by a controller unit and additional safety components. The paper first reviews all the safety hazards associated with Li-Ion batteries and HV systems which generate design requirements and constraints. Then the basic design together with the principal components are described. Citation: O. Kost, “Connecting Standard Li-Ion Batteries in Series to Form a High Voltage Array,” In Proceedings of the Ground Vehicle Systems Engineering and Technology Symposium (GVSETS), NDIA, Novi, MI, Aug. 11-13, 2026.
Kost, O.
Cost and Emission Aware Strategic Optimization: A Fleet-Level Tool to Support Scenario-Oriented Design2026-24-00349/21/2026
The transition toward low-emission transport systems requires not only technologically optimized Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) but also integrated methodologies capable of supporting industrial stakeholders throughout the deployment phase. In particular, for logistics operators, fleet sizing and charging infrastructure planning are tightly coupled with vehicle configuration and mission scheduling. Therefore, decision-support tools are required to minimize total operational costs and environmental impact while ensuring service continuity. Building upon a previously developed two-level BEV design framework, this work introduces a higher-level optimization tool aimed at extending powertrain design outcomes toward fleet-level decision-making, providing an integrated methodology capable of determining not only the optimal vehicle configuration but also the optimal number of vehicles and charging stations required to satisfy operational scheduling constraints. The proposed tool performs fleet charging management optimization under customizable objective functions. Two BEV configurations, equipped respectively with 7 and 10 battery packs, are selected as candidate solutions from the upstream two-level design framework. Starting from these configurations, the tool simultaneously optimizes fleet size, charging infrastructure dimensioning, and charging scheduling strategy. In the first case study, the objective is the minimization of fleet operational costs, primarily associated with charging energy, while introducing a tunable penalty factor on mission time-shifting for schedule flexibility. In the second case study, a CO2-based term is incorporated into the objective function through an equivalent emission cost. By varying its weighting factor, the analysis quantifies how environmental prioritization influences the optimal fleet and infrastructure configuration. Across all the examined scenarios, the optimal fleet size consistently converges to 3 vehicles with a single 50 kW DC charging station. The key difference between cost-driven and environmentally-oriented optimization lies in the battery configuration: in the cost-driven scenario, the 10-packs configuration achieves the lowest Total Cost of Ownership (1134 EUR/week), as its larger energy buffer reduces weekly grid energy demand and thus charging costs. Conversely, under CO₂-prioritized optimization, the optimal configuration shifts to the 7-packs, yielding a lower TCO of 1008 EUR/week and a 15% reduction in CO₂ emissions (127 vs 149 kgCO2/week). The proposed fleet-level optimization framework represents a scalable extension of the vehicle design methodology, enabling logistics companies to support electrification strategies through data-driven, application-specific, and sustainability-oriented decision-making.
Bartolucci, Lorenzo, Cennamo, Edoardo, Cordiner, Stefano, Donnini, Marco, Grattarola, Federico, Lombardi, Simone, Mulone, Vincenzo, Tribioli, Laura
Business Approach to Cope with Automotive Market Uncertainty2026-24-00249/21/2026
The global automotive industry is facing an unprecedented convergence of uncertainties driven by geopolitical tensions, evolving trade policies, emissions related regulations, and increasingly volatile consumer demand. Shifting emissions legislation, including the EU’s tightened CO2 targets and long-term plans to phase out internal combustion engines, is imposing strategic and financial pressures on automakers and suppliers as they navigate divergent regional regulatory trajectories. Demand side volatility further complicates the landscape. Consumer preferences are fluctuating due to economic pressures, infrastructure constraints, and uneven EV adoption patterns. While some markets show stagnation in battery electric vehicle uptake, hybrids are rising as consumers seek cost efficient alternatives amid uncertain energy and regulatory environments. Within this unstable context, the transition toward Software Defined Vehicles (SDVs) is emerging as a critical strategic response. SDVs, characterized by centralized computing, updatable software architectures, and over the air feature deployment, offer automakers greater adaptability in addressing regulatory shifts and market dynamics. By decoupling hardware from software cycles, SDVs enable faster innovation, reduced development risk, and new digital revenue models, while virtualization and AI driven analytics enhance development efficiency and lifecycle value.
Cavanna, Filippo, Potenza, Luca
Experimental Comparison Between Real and Simulated Battery Pack Efficiency in Light Quadricycles Using a Custom Inertia Dynamometer2026-24-00089/21/2026
This study compares the energy efficiency of a real battery pack and a simulated battery pack using a hardware-in-the-loop battery emulator, through experimental testing on a dedicated inertia dynamometer for light quadricycles. The investigated LiFePo4 battery pack has a nominal voltage of 48 V and a nominal capacity of 100 Ah. Initial characterization identified a reduced State of Health based on capacity (SOHC), with a measured usable capacity of 48 Ah (from the nominal 100 Ah) and a corresponding reduction in charge acceptance capability. The emulator was configured to replicate the degraded battery characteristics, including the open-circuit voltage (OCV)-SOC relationship, internal resistance, and current limitations, enabling a direct comparison between simulated and experimental dynamic behavior. The experimental setup was designed to overcome the limitations of conventional chassis dynamometers for low-mass, independent four-wheel-drive quadricycles operating without mechanical friction braking systems. Multiple driving cycles were reproduced using a PLC-based closed-loop control system, with data acquisition performed via CAN communication. The comparative analysis highlights significant differences during regenerative braking events. While the emulator accurately reproduces baseline electrical behavior under mild operating conditions, the aged battery exhibits strong limitations during both high-power acceleration and severe deceleration phases. In particular, increased internal resistance and transient electrochemical polarization lead to premature saturation of charge acceptance, resulting in rejection of high-frequency current transients. Consequently, the experimentally observed energy recovery is significantly lower than the theoretical values predicted by the emulator. In addition, due to the absence of mechanical braking, the reduced regenerative capability directly leads to speed tracking deviations, as the required braking torque cannot be fully achieved. These results identify battery degradation as a key physical constraint affecting both energy efficiency and dynamic braking performance, highlighting the importance of improved electro-thermal and aging-aware model calibration for realistic system-level simulations.
Sementa, Paolo, Vaglieco, Bianca Maria, Altieri, Nunzio
EKF-Based Machine Learning Approach for Battery SOH Prediction in Commercial Vehicles Fleet2026-24-00029/21/2026
Estimating battery state of health (SOH) from field data is essential to ensure successful operation and increase the uptime of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Most studies in the literature propose methods relying on datasets acquired under controlled laboratory conditions. However, SOH estimation becomes significantly more challenging when dealing with real-world data due to the increased variability and complexity of operating conditions. In this work, CAN telematics data, sampled at 1 Hz, were collected over approximately 20 months of operation from 10 electric commercial vehicles. During this period, a maximum battery degradation of 4% is observed within the fleet. Firstly, a model-based framework was introduced, in which a second-order battery equivalent circuit model (ECM) was coupled with an extended Kalman filter (EKF) to estimate the battery SOH. Results confirmed that the EKF is able to accurately capture the battery's physical behavior and degradation trend, yielding a maximum root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.23% when compared with the SOH signal provided by the onboard BMS. However, a Kalman filter requires accurate model parameter identification and high-frequency measurement data, leading to increased computational costs. To bridge these gaps, this paper utilizes the SOH estimates obtained from the EKF to train and validate a feedforward neural network (FNN) model, specifically designed to operate on aggregated metrics. The FNN model can provide accurate SOH estimates, with a RMSE as low as 0.26% during the testing phase. The approach proposed in this work combines the interpretability of model-based methods with the scalability and reduced data dimensionality of machine learning (ML) ones, making it more suitable for monitoring battery SOH in large fleets of BEVs.
D'Agostino, Valerio, Pulvirenti, Luca, Shanker, Anirudh, Cardone, Massimo, Rizzoni, Giorgio, Vitale, Francesco
Multi-Level CFD and System Simulation Approach for Optimization of Cooling Circuits in High Power Density Powertrains2026-24-00099/21/2026
This paper presents a CFD-based optimization workflow for the simulation and development of automotive cooling circuits, integrating three-dimensional steady-state analyses with one-dimensional transient modeling. The objective of the activity is to establish a robust methodology that links detailed component-level thermal characterization to system-level dynamic simulations, enabling the assessment of cooling performance under both driving and charging operating conditions. The thermal behavior of the cooling circuit components was first investigated using three-dimensional steady-state simulations performed with Ansys Fluent. For each relevant operating point, the fluid flow and heat transfer were resolved in full 3D, and temperatures were monitored at multiple locations within the components and along the circuit. The steady-state analyses provided spatially resolved temperature fields and heat transfer characteristics for a range of boundary conditions representative of real operating scenarios. From these results, temperature and performance maps were generated, describing the relationship between operating conditions, heat loads, and thermal responses of the components. These maps were then used for the calibration of one-dimensional models implemented in GT-Suite. The calibrated 1D models reproduce the thermal behavior observed in the 3D CFD simulations while allowing efficient simulation of the entire cooling system under transient conditions. This multi-level approach enables the combination of detailed local physics from CFD with the computational efficiency required for system-level dynamic analyses. Transient simulations were carried out in GT-Suite to evaluate the thermal response of the cooling circuit during both driving and charging phases. The driving phase accounts for variable thermal loads and flow conditions associated with vehicle operation, while the charging phase represents operating conditions specific to battery recharging scenarios. The calibrated 1D models were used to simulate the evolution of temperatures throughout the system over time, considering the interactions between components and the overall thermal inertia of the circuit. The results show that the designed cooling system is capable of maintaining component temperatures within the targeted limits across the analyzed operating conditions. The thermal containment is achieved for all components included in the cooling circuit under both dynamic driving and charging scenarios. The electric motor is oil-cooled and therefore is not part of the water-based cooling circuit addressed in this study. The proposed CFD-to-1D workflow provides a consistent and transferable methodology for the thermal development of cooling systems of high power density electrified powertrains. The novel contribution lies in (i) the application of the multi-level framework to a heavy-duty platform with SiC-based power modules and dedicated on-board charger developed within the Horizon Europe POWERDRIVE project, (ii) a DOE-based map generation strategy that preserves the conjugate heat transfer interactions between actively cooled components (power modules, OBC) and passively cooled neighbors (busbar, capacitors) within the reduced-order representation, and (iii) the integration of the reduced-order maps within a single transient system-level model covering both vehicle-at-rest charging and dynamic driving operating modes. This activity is carried out within the framework of the Horizon Europe project POWERDRIVE.
Chiappini, Daniele, Tribioli, Laura, Rodionov, Artem
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle-to-Home Strategy for Residential Power Supply Continuity and Load Management2026-24-00269/21/2026
Power supply continuity for household appliances during high-demand peaks or periods of low solar generation remains a critical challenge for modern residential energy systems. Hydrogen-powered Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) offer a compelling solution by extending their role from sustainable mobility to versatile mobile energy storage units. This study investigates the Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) operation of a high-performance fuel cell vehicle designed to provide backup power and peak-shaving capabilities in a domestic environment during high-demand or grid overload conditions. To evaluate this integration, a comprehensive MATLAB/Simulink simulation model was developed for a residential microgrid. The system comprises a photovoltaic array, a parallel battery energy storage system, and a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle modeled according to the technical specifications of the Toyota Mirai, equipped with a high-efficiency 128 kW fuel cell stack (330 cells) and a dedicated 5.6 kg hydrogen storage system. The domestic electrical installation is designed for a maximum power absorption of 6 kW, operating at a standard voltage of 230 V and a frequency of 50Hz. The simulation incorporates a realistic residential load profile representative of a typical working day, characterized by distinct morning and evening consumption peaks that challenge service stability under overload conditions. The implemented control algorithm optimizes energy resource allocation by prioritizing the stationary residential battery for standard peak shaving operations. The Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle is dispatched as a secondary high-capacity power source during critical overload phases, such as the simultaneous activation of multiple high-power appliances, or when low solar irradiance prevents the photovoltaic system from adequately recharging the battery storage system. Simulation results demonstrate that the Toyota Mirai-based FCEV effectively ensures service continuity, mitigating domestic overloads and compensating for the inherent capacity limitations of stationary storage. The findings show that the fuel cell system can fully sustain the 6 kW demand during prolonged deficit periods. In conclusion, the study confirms that integrating hydrogen-based mobility into the domestic energy mix significantly enhances the resilience and operational flexibility of renewable-powered residential applications, transforming the vehicle into a strategic asset for household energy security.
Federici, Leonardo, Pistritto, Antonino, Cozzolino, Raffaello
Comparative Analysis of BEV Performance from Simulated Environment and Physical Hardware Platform2026-24-00059/21/2026
The proliferation of simulation environments has accelerated technological progress across various scientific domains by offering a cost-effective and time-efficient framework for data acquisition and analysis. In the automotive sector, high-fidelity modelling of vehicle components and driving scenarios bypasses the logistical constraints associated with hardware procurement and the intensive requirements of large-scale testing infrastructures. However, pre-calibrated or native software models often imply simplified hypotheses, missing relevant aspects of the entire powertrain-to-wheel energy chain. This study presents a comparative analysis of battery performance within a battery electric vehicle (BEV) by synchronizing virtual simulations with experimental hardware at the test bench. The methodology involves the concurrent modelling of the driving environment, the vehicle chassis, and the propulsion system, followed by the execution of identical driving cycles on a physical platform. The experimental setup comprises a fully instrumented BEV featuring an integrated electric motor and battery pack, specifically configured for high-precision signal acquisition. The virtual section starts with the development of a digital twin within a commercial simulation suite, parameterized according to the vehicle specific dynamic and energy requirements. This is followed by the integration of the electric propulsion system and a battery pack model based on the equivalent circuit model method. To ensure high fidelity, the battery model is experimentally calibrated via multi-step pulse discharge tests performed on the physical hardware. Subsequently, various driving scenarios from the simulated environment are translated into speed-time profiles and are replicated on the real vehicle using a PID-controlled actuator on the accelerator pedal. The battery pack that serves the vehicle is monitored during the cycle to collect information on the electrical performance. Finally, a comparison between the simulated and real battery behaviour is performed. This dual approach used in the present work, which compares the simulation accuracy against real-world performance, provides critical insights into the inherent advantages and technical boundaries of digital modelling in electromobility applications.
Sequino, Luigi, Sementa, Paolo, Altieri, Nunzio, Vaglieco, Bianca Maria, Sorrentino, Chiara
Computational Electro-Thermal and Degradation Modeling Framework for Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles2026-24-00119/21/2026
This paper presents an integrated computational framework that couples electro-thermal and degradation dynamics for lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles (EVs). The model is implemented using Python. At the cell level, the model describes charge and discharge behavior, state of charge (SOC), terminal voltage, internal resistance losses, and heat generation. An energy balance equation is used to estimate temperature variation during operation. Temperature-dependent resistance and capacity are included to represent nonlinear battery behavior under different load conditions. At the system level, feedback relationships between SOC, temperature, state of health (SOH), and degradation rate are modeled using system dynamics. Battery aging is represented through mathematical functions that relate capacity loss to temperature and usage cycles. This allows simulation of long-term performance under different driving scenarios. The model enables parametric and sensitivity analyses to evaluate the effects of discharge rate, ambient temperature, and degradation parameters. Results show the strong interaction between thermal behavior and battery aging. Model validation against experimental data is not performed in this study and remains an important direction for future research. The current work focuses on the derivation and parametric analysis of the modelling framework. The proposed framework provides a clear, low-cost, and scalable computational approach for EV battery analysis, design studies, and engineering education.
Gutierrez, Marcos, Taco, Diana
Life Cycle Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle with Different Powertrain Configurations in Europe2026-24-00199/21/2026
Plug in hybrid electric vehicles play an important role in transportation decarbonization. Compared with battery electric vehicles, plug in hybrid electric vehicles generally have a lower production carbon footprint due to their smaller batteries, which require far less raw material. Despite their smaller capacity, these batteries are typically sufficient to cover most daily travel distances in pure electric mode. The hybrid powertrain can be configured in multiple ways depending on the number and position of electric machines within the driveline. These configuration differences significantly influence both the total carbon footprint and the use phase greenhouse gas emissions. In this study, we evaluate the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with various powertrain configurations in the European context. All configurations share the same premium mid-size sport utility vehicle glider. Battery capacity ranges from 20 kWh to 45 kWh, enabling an electric range of over 200 km under the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle. The number of electric machines varies from one, as in the P2 configuration, to three, as in the P1+P3+P4 configuration. Use phase emissions for each configuration were estimated in accordance with the latest European Union emission legislation. The P2 powertrain exhibited the lowest weighted fuel and electricity consumption, whereas the P1+P3+P4 layout demonstrated the highest overall electric and fuel consumption. A sensitivity analysis of use phase emissions was performed, followed by projections for scenarios with increased renewable energy shares in both electricity generation and liquid fuel production. Finally, an extreme scenario assuming 100 % renewable electricity and fuel was analyzed.
Nguyen, Duc-Khanh, Andersson, Simon, Kristoffersson, Annika
Simulation-Based Development and Evaluation of Heat-Quantity-Based Thermal Operating Strategies for Automotive Applications2026-24-00129/21/2026
Thermal management of hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) powertrains requires the simultaneous conditioning of multiple components operating at fundamentally different temperature levels. For thermal management systems, which directly couple the thermal circuits of the internal combustion engine (ICE), electric motor and inverter (EMINV), and traction battery (BAT) for example via controllable three-way valves and a ring-circuit, the decision of when and which components to couple has a direct impact on overall powertrain efficiency. Existing thermal operating strategies rely on empirically defined temperature thresholds and fixed component priority rankings, without quantifying the actual efficiency benefit associated with each coupling decision. This paper presents the development and simulation-based evaluation of a heat-quantity-based thermal operating strategy for a prototype HEV at TU Darmstadt. The strategy introduces three new computational modules — a Q-Indicator quantifying the thermal surplus or deficit of each component, an η-Indicator evaluating real-time component efficiencies as a function of temperature and operating point, and a Δη module computing the combined efficiency gain of each potential coupling pair prior to actuation. Coupling is executed only when the combined efficiency delta is positive, replacing empirical prioritization with a quantitative, efficiency-driven decision mechanism. The strategy is evaluated against an uncoupled baseline (REF-0) and a temperature-threshold-based predecessor strategy (REF-1) across a representative commuter cycle at ambient temperatures of −10 °C, 0 °C, and +30 °C using a co-simulation environment comprising a 1D ring-circuit fluid model in AVL Cruise M and a backward-facing 0D drivetrain model in MATLAB/Simulink. The results demonstrate measurable improvements in battery preconditioning and system efficiency at cold and moderate ambient temperatures. The heat-quantity-based strategy achieves comparable or superior thermal outcomes to the threshold-based approach while activating ring-circuit coupling more selectively. At warm ambient conditions, the strategy correctly withholds intervention based on a negative efficiency delta evaluation, confirming robust scenario-adaptive behavior. The findings highlight the potential of efficiency-driven coupling logic as a generalized and physically grounded basis for thermal operating strategy development in electrified powertrains.
Stenger, Erik, Fiore, Luis, Weimer, Niko, Beidl, Christian
Linkages and Propagation Mechanisms of Risk Sources during Electric Vehicles Transportation2026-99-15289/11/2026
This study addresses safety issues in three representative logistics scenarios for electric vehicles (EVs) as cargo-car carriers, roll-on/roll-off (Ro-Ro) vessels, and containers. To address the heterogeneity across these modes, we develop an integrated “process–spatiotemporal load–risk factor” framework that embeds operational steps and confinement conditions into the indicator system, overcoming the limitations of single-scenario or single-factor studies in explaining chain-type propagation. Building on process mapping and spatiotemporal load characteristics, we develop a risk indicator system spanning “person-equipment-transported object-operation & environment-system management.” Expert judgments are then analyzed using an integrated DEMATEL-ISM approach to quantify inter-factor linkages and transmission pathways. The results indicate that regulatory oversight and carrier-side emergency equipment constitute the deep root causes of thermal runaway. The most hazardous transmission route is “regulatory oversight, procedural compliance and skill-experience match”, while “battery type, road/sea conditions and hoisting impacts” forms the shortest path. These findings reveal weaknesses in management and equipment that are amplified by operational execution and limited personnel capability, ultimately precipitating severe transportation incidents.
Yuan, Libo, Jiang, Huifu, Qin, Xiao
Design and Analysis on a Traction-type Power-assisted Follow-up Vehicle for Emergency Rescue2026-99-15479/11/2026
To address problems in China’s emergency rescue scenarios—such as limited functionality, insufficient mobility, poor adaptability to complex terrain, the labor-intensive nature of manual carrying, and the lack of flexibility of fully automatic carts—a traction-type emergency rescue power-assisted follow-up vehicle was designed and developed. With the core design goals of “lightweight, high mobility, and human-machine collaboration”, this power-assisted follow-up vehicle has multiple advantages. At the structural level, it supports rapid folding and unfolding, enabling convenient operation and adaptation to transportation needs in various emergency rescue scenarios. In terms of material selection, it balances strength and lightweight properties, and its key components possess anti-cutting and flame-retardant capabilities, allowing adaptation to the harsh environment of emergency rescue. The power system adopts modular replaceable batteries and is equipped with a high-performance control unit, motor, and shock-absorbing suspension design. This enables normal operation in a variety of complex terrains. The control system is centered on human-machine collaboration. It features simple operation and automatic adjustment of operating status, effectively reducing the operational burden and physical exertion of rescuers. Meanwhile, it supports the master-slave expansion function, allowing flexible switching from a two-wheel structure to a four-wheel structure to meet diverse rescue needs such as material transportation and casualty transfer. This power-assisted follow-up vehicle can effectively solve the material transportation problem in the “last few kilometers” of emergency rescue.
Xu, Jiang, Hou, Yumeng, Yang, Han
Recommended Practice of a Common Set of Tests for Sodium-Ion Battery Cells for the Propulsion of Battery Electric Road VehiclesJ3335_202609 (Current)9/9/2026
This document provides a recommended test guideline for secondary sodium-ion cells used for propulsion of electric vehicles including battery electric vehicles (BEV), hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), and other similar propulsion applications (e.g., forklift trucks). The objective of this document is to define common test procedures covering electrical performance, mechanical safety performance, thermal safety performance, and electrical safety performance. The results of these procedures can be used for comparative purposes. Requirements for pass/fail criteria are not defined in this document but are to be defined by the users of the document.
Battery Standards Testing Committee
Numerical Investigation of Spiral Tubes and Turbulators for Enhanced Metal Hydride Reactors2026-99-12589/4/2026
Solid-state hydrogen storage is severely limited by poor thermal performance of storage reactors, which leads to non-uniform temperature fields and slow reaction kinetics. A numerical model for metal hydride hydrogen storage technology was implemented by means of COMSOL Multiphysics 6.3, based on hydrogen sorption behavior for LaNi5-based material. After experimental validation, a spiral-wound tube with embedded turbulators was introduced into the reactor. The influence of turbulator cross-sectional ratio and shape on hydrogen-absorption performance was then investigated. When the turbu-lator occupied 1/40 of the cross-section, the temperature distribution became more uniform and the reaction rate increased markedly; the time to achieve 80% conversion was reduced by approximately 9.29%. The study demonstrates that tailoring the turbulator geometry (circular vs. square) and exploiting its synergy with the spiral tube accelerates reaction kinetics and balances the temperature field. Under 0.8 MPa and 313 K, a hydrogen uptake of 1.4 wt% was achieved. The simple structure can be mass-produced by CNC (Computer Numerical Control) tube-bending, making it attractive as a portable hydrogen source for mobile devices such as unmanned aerial vehicles.
Lin, Jiangnan, Jin, Tingxiang
Purdue Engineers Unlock Key to Combining Exceptional Strength with Plasticity for ‘Intermetallics’26AERP09_119/1/2026
Materials engineers have developed the ability to manipulate structure and matter at the nanoscale for solid-state alloys called intermetallics, making it possible to alter their properties for extra performance characteristics. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN Intermetallics, which consist of two or more metallic elements in an ordered, crystal structure, are especially good candidates for these enhanced physical and chemical properties, owing to the critical role they play in demanding applications and products such as jet engines, gas turbines, and energy storage and automotive systems. The remarkable strength, high melting temperatures and superior creep resistance of intermetallics make them indispensable for structural usage in extreme environments. In a paper published in Science Advances, Purdue University engineers demonstrated a way to achieve simultaneous high strength and plasticity in cobalt aluminum (CoAl) intermetallics.
Improvement of Cyclic Stability of P2-Na 0.67 Co 0.67 Mn 0.33 O 2 Cathode Material by Al 2 O 3 Coating2026-99-04228/28/2026
P2-type layered oxides are good cathode materials in high-performance sodium-ion batteries since they have desirable two-dimensional ion migration pathways. However, their instability at interfaces and their attenuation as cycles persist also remain a significant challenge. To increase their electrochemical stability, surface coating is also a good plan, but the balance between the coating and ionic conductivity is one of the key challenges. This study constructed an immensely thin layer of alumina (Al2O3) coating, and the influence of the amount of the coating (0.3-1.2 wt percent) on the working of the material was methodically examined. Electrochemical analysis showed that the lowest levels of Al2O3 (0.3 wt) provide the greatest improvement in performance. The optimized sample showed a retention capacity of 96.35 after 100 cycles of operation at 1C, significantly higher compared with samples that had increased coating contents. An analysis of cyclic voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy was subsequently done to corroborate the presence of a 0.3 wt% coating, which infected the electrode-electrolyte interface by inhibiting side reactions but minimally obstructing sodium-ion transport and thus promoting reaction reversibility and improved interfacial kinetics. These results highlight the importance of a less-is-more rule when it comes to surface coating and provide a novel understanding of how long-life sodium-ion battery cathodes can be designed by carefully engineered interfaces.
Hu, Chao, Peng, Rui, Zhou, Yu, Zhou, Dengmei, Tian, Liangliang
Design, Simulation, and Experimental Evaluation of an R290-Based Dual Secondary Loop Thermal Management System for Electric Vehicles14-15-03-00188/28/2026
The transition toward low global warming potential (GWP) refrigerants, driven by increasingly stringent environmental regulations and carbon reduction targets, has imposed new requirements on thermal management systems (TMSs) for electric vehicles (EVs). These systems must ensure efficient operation across a wide range of ambient conditions while maintaining high energy efficiency and environmental compatibility. Among potential alternatives, R290 (propane) has emerged as a promising natural refrigerant due to its favorable thermophysical properties and low environmental impact. In this study, an R290-based dual secondary loop TMS is proposed and evaluated for wide-temperature-range EV applications. A one-dimensional system model was developed using Dymola and validated through experimental testing on a dedicated performance test bench. TMS performance was investigated under multiple steady-state operating conditions, including high-load cooling, battery fast charging, and low-temperature heating, and benchmarked against a conventional R1234yf-based direct TMS. The results demonstrate that the R290-based dual secondary loop system achieves improved performance compared to a conventional R1234yf direct system, with a coefficient of performance (COP) increase of 4.29% under high-load cooling conditions at 43°C and up to 27.27% under high-load heating conditions at −10°C. Furthermore, under extreme low-temperature conditions (−18°C), the system delivers a heating capacity of 7 kW with a COP of 1.8, demonstrating strong low-temperature adaptability without the need for auxiliary heating. The results confirm that the proposed R290-based dual secondary loop system provides significant advantages in energy efficiency and wide-temperature adaptability, offering a promising solution for next-generation EVTMSs.
Zhang, Yunpeng, Mohammed, Mustafa Mudassir, Gu, Yiliang, Zhou, Guoliang
Simulation Study on the Equilibrium Strategy and Thermal Runaway Suppression of Lithium Iron Phosphate Module Based on SOC Inconsistency Regulation2026-99-10138/7/2026
With the rapid development of the new energy vehicle energy storage industry, lithium-ion battery technology is undergoing a phase of rapid technological advancement. Enhancing battery energy density and safety remains a core challenge in overcoming industrial bottlenecks. During long-term cycling operations, deviations in state of charge (SOC), voltage, and temperature of individual cells inevitably occur, leading to reduced energy utilization efficiency. These deviations may also induce local overcharging and internal short circuits in individual cells, ultimately triggering thermal runaway incidents. While existing battery balancing strategies primarily focus on uniformity regulation, they fail to adequately address the coupling mechanisms of heat generation, heat storage, and thermal runaway propagation during balancing processes. Furthermore, the poor coordination between these strategies and thermal management systems makes it difficult to meet the complex safety requirements of high-energy-density batteries. To enhance the safety and energy utilization efficiency of battery systems during operation, this study focuses on the synergistic optimization of balancing strategies and thermal runaway prevention control. By establishing computer models of individual cells and battery packs in CATIA software, the research analyzes the evolution mechanisms of thermal runaway triggered by system state inconsistencies, while exploring the regulatory patterns of balancing parameters on thermal safety. Utilizing the ANSYS simulation platform, the study systematically examines the impact of three critical parameters—ambient temperature, discharge rate, and coolant flow rate—on battery temperature rise, providing theoretical support and technical references for the design of high-reliability lithium-ion battery pack systems.
Yu, Zheng, Gong, Ji, Fan, Yi, Liang, Wei, Li, Yuewei, Liu, Fashen, Xie, Maojun, Cen, Zucai
Research on Parameter Matching of Electric Vehicle Powertrain System2026-99-09058/7/2026
This paper focuses on the parameter matching of key components and the improvement of overall vehicle performance for a certain front-wheel drive pure electric vehicle. Firstly, based on the target performance of the vehicle, the rated/peak power, speed, and torque of the permanent magnet synchronous drive motor, as well as the capacity, voltage, and series-parallel scheme of the LiFePO4 power battery, are systematically calculated. Meanwhile, the gear ratio of the transmission system is determined based on the dual constraints of the maximum speed and the maximum gradeability. Subsequently, the vehicle model is built using AVL Cruise, and the maximum speed, 0-100 Km/h acceleration time, maximum gradeability, and NEDC range are simulated and verified under steady-state and transient conditions. The results show that the maximum speed of the prototype vehicle reaches 139 Km/h, the 0-100 Km/h acceleration is 7.98 s, the maximum gradeability is 33.2%, the power consumption per 100 Km is 12.12 KWh, and the range is 485 Km, all of which are superior to the design indicators. The research verifies the rationality of the proposed parameter matching scheme and can provide a theoretical basis and engineering reference for the forward development of the power system of pure electric vehicles of the same level.
He, Yuefan, Zhang, Baoping, Tang, Shujian, Chen, Hanbang, Jin, Biao
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - SAE JA1016: Scaling the Future of UAVs with Battery Interoperability135798/6/2026
From drone delivery to public safety and defense, the next generation of uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) will be powered not just by better batteries, but by better battery standards. Listen in as we sit down with Jeff Yambrick, Chair of the SAE Battery Cell Size Standardization Committee, and Lisa King, Director of Advanced Battery Strategy at Leap Manufacturing, to discuss SAE JA1016 -- a new standard designed to simplify battery integration, accelerate commercialization, and strengthen the UAV supply chain. During this conversation, you'll learn why common battery formats are essential for reducing development costs and creating greater interoperability across commercial and defense applications. We also explore the importance of domestic battery manufacturing, supply chain resilience, and how standardization can accelerate innovation without limiting future battery technologies. To join the SAE Battery Cell Size Standardization Committee, email Dante Rahdar at Dante.Rahdar@sae.org. We'd love to hear from you! Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, X, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, X, and Instagram.
Patterson, Lori
Hazard Identification and Planning for Generic LFP, NMC, and NCA Li-Ion Chemistries during Thermal Runaway EventsWP-00168/5/2026
Schroeder, Beth
GM Energy places bets on sodium batteries26AUTP08_118/1/2026
At an event in San Francisco, GM Energy announced that its bidirectional charging system now supports vehicle-to-grid (V2G) in addition to vehicle-to-home and load (V2H). The energy division of the automaker also announced that it was teaming up with multiple utility companies to make these features a reality. One of those partners is California's PG&E. The utilities CEO, Patti Poppe, took the stage with GM Energy executives to tell the assembled press, “I'm here to say, to set the record straight, our grid desperately needs EVs, particularly bi-directional EVs that we can optimize and contribute to the grid.”
Baldwin, Roberto
Multi-Layer, Reconfigurable Batteries That Can Bend, Adapt, and Tune Their Own VoltageTBMG-555508/1/2026
A research team led by Professor Lin Gui at the Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, reports the first fabrication of multi-layer flexible batteries using a combination of liquid metal microfluidic perfusion and plasma-based reversible bonding techniques.
SAE International Publishes New Technical Information Report to Advance Battery Interoperability for Small Uncrewed Aerial Systems26AERP08_078/1/2026
SAE JA1016 establishes common specifications for lithium-ion pouch cells for small uncrewed systems in both ground and aerial applications. SAE International, Warrendale, PA SAE International has published a new Technical Information Report (TIR), SAE JA1016™, Performance and Dimensional Specification for Lithium-Ion Pouch Cells for Group 1 Small Uncrewed Aerial Systems (sUAS). The TIR establishes the industry's first standardized framework for battery cell dimensions, performance characterization, safety verification, and manufacturer reporting for Group 1 sUAS applications in both ground and aerial applications. As electrification expands across aerospace, defense, automotive, and industrial sectors, varied battery cell geometries, qualification methods, and reporting practices have increased development costs, extended qualification timelines, and limited supply-chain flexibility. SAE JA1016 addresses these challenges by providing a common framework for evaluating, qualifying, and integrating lithium-ion pouch cells.
Experimental Study on Suppression of Lithium-Ion Battery Fires Using Clean and Efficient Aqueous Fire Extinguishing Agents2026-99-01337/31/2026
This study investigates the suppression of lithium-ion battery (LIB) fires using composite aqueous extinguishing agents, with a 20 Ah lithium iron phosphate battery as the experimental subject. Based on the functional selection of coverage-isolation and cooling-smothering, three aqueous extinguishing agents, S-E-1, S-E-2, and S-E-3, were designed and developed using hydrocarbon surfactants. The results indicate that all three aqueous fire extinguishing agents can effectively suppress LIB fires. Through a comprehensive evaluation of extinguishing time, cooling rate during extinguishing agent release, and physical and chemical parameters of the extinguishing agents, the optimal formulation was determined to be 2% SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate), 1% SDBS (sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate), 3.5% CAB (cocamidopropyl betaine), 1% APG0810 (alkyl polyglycoside), 1% CDEA (coconut oil acid diethanolamine), 0.32% CH4N2O (urea), 1.5% NH4H2PO4 (ammonium dihydrogen phosphate), 0.5% C2H6O2 (glycol), 1.5% Na3PO4 (sodium phosphate), and deionised water, demonstrated the best performance. Reducing the extinguishing time to 14 seconds, a 41.7% reduction compared to pure water, and increasing the cooling rate to 0.816 °C·s^–1, which is 4.4 times that of pure water, with no reignition observed. This work contributes to the theoretical principles needed to engineer next-generation fire suppression materials for lithium-ion batteries that are both efficient and eco-friendly.
Yu, Tao, Zhu, Shunbing, Li, Ke, Zhang, Menglan
Research on Structural Simulation Design of Lithium-Ion Battery Liquid Cooling Plates Based on Multi-Objective Topology Optimization2026-01-50477/31/2026
As the energy density of electric vehicle power batteries continues to increase, efficient and uniform heat dissipation has become critical to their safety and performance. The liquid cooling plate serves as the core component of the battery thermal management system, with its flow channel structure directly impacting heat dissipation efficiency and system energy consumption. Current liquid cooling plate flow channel designs often rely on empirical methods, making it challenging to simultaneously optimize both heat dissipation uniformity and flow resistance performance. This paper focuses on a single lithium battery as the research subject, employing a topology optimization approach to design the liquid cooling plate flow channel structure. Optimization targets include minimizing pressure drop at the inlet/outlet and minimizing temperature difference across the contact surface between the plate and the battery. Under constant inlet cross-sectional dimensions and flow velocity, numerical simulation of fluid heat transfer processes revealed an 11.17% reduction in temperature difference across the contact surface. This enhances lithium battery heat dissipation uniformity while reducing inlet/outlet pressure drop by approximately 10.98%. This approach reduces the system energy consumption of liquid cooling. It enables multi-objective co-optimization design for power battery liquid cooling plate structures. It provides new technical references for the refined design of cooling systems in automotive power battery packs.
Ma, Honghui, Zheng, Yuqing, Yang, Minghao
Analysis of Underbody Impact Scenarios in New Energy Vehicles2026-99-08277/30/2026
In recent years, with the rapid increase in the market penetration of new energy vehicles, safety issues in electric vehicles, particularly those characterized by thermal runaway of power batteries, especially fire incidents caused by mechanical abuse from underbody impacts, have become a major focus of industry attention and social concern. This paper systematically compiles key data from electric vehicle underbody collision incidents, covering core parameters such as impact location, geometric features of obstacles (shape and size), and vehicle speed during accidents. Based on this data, the study further reviews existing underbody scraping evaluation protocols both domestically and internationally, with a focused comparison of the differences in mechanical load and battery pack response between two typical test methods: horizontal underbody scraping and 3° inclined underbody scraping. The findings of this research aim to provide data support for the refinement of relevant evaluation standards and to offer theoretical foundations and practical references for automotive manufacturers in optimizing the design and validation strategies for underbody protection of battery packs.
Wang, Qinggui, He, Qike, Li, Wenbo, Li, Chun, Li, Xiaodong
Three-Dimensional Transient Thermal-Fluid Coupling Numerical Simulation of the Molten Pool in Aluminum Alloy Laser Welding2026-99-08547/30/2026
Laser welding technology for aluminum alloy electrode and busbar connections: addressing challenges in battery module assembly. In this work, a CFD framework was built in ANSYS Fluent using a Gaussian rotating heat-source representation, while a VOF approach was used to capture the transient gas–liquid interface in deep-penetration welding. A three-dimensional, transient, thermal-fluid coupled numerical model of the dual-layer heterogeneous aluminum alloy laser deep penetration weld pool was established concurrently with laser deep penetration welding experiments. Results indicate: Peak flow velocities in the weld pool during welding are concentrated along the weld centerline, with flow vectors predominantly directed axially along the weld. Once a quasi-steady keyhole regime is established, vaporization-induced recoil pressure becomes the primary driver governing melt circulation. The liquid metal first impinges on the pool bottom along the keyhole wall and then recirculates upward near the pool boundary, producing strong vortical motion. These findings are intended to support parameter selection and process optimization for laser welding of layered dissimilar aluminum components used in battery tab–busbar assemblies.
Lv, Wenjun, Wu, Yan
Modeling and Simulation Analysis of Liquid Hydrogen and Power Systems Based on Amesim2026-99-16087/24/2026
Hydrogen-powered aircraft primarily utilize the conversion of liquid hydrogen into gaseous hydrogen to replace aviation kerosene, where hydrogen is directly combusted to provide propulsion. This study applied Amesim software to establish a complicated model simulating the liquid hydrogen to gaseous hydrogen conversion and ignition combustion processes. The simulation contains converting liquid hydrogen into gaseous hydrogen through a heat exchanger and simulating the mixture of gaseous hydrogen and air in the engine combustion chamber, and then igniting the mixture. The pressure, temperature, and flow rate of gaseous hydrogen and air during the ignition and combustion process in the engine combustion chamber, as well as the outlet temperature of the combustion chamber, are simulated and analyzed. The results demonstrate that during the simulation process, the internal pressure of the liquid hydrogen storage tank, the outlet pressure and flow rate of the liquid hydrogen pump, and the pressure and flow rate of gaseous hydrogen meet the requirements of the ignition combustion test. In addition, varying gaseous hydrogen flow rates had significant impacts on the temperature of the combustion chamber during combustion.
Gao, Pengfei, Wang, Lijian
Analysis and Experimental Research on The Impact of the BangBang Valve Switch on the Flow Rate of the Storage and Supply System2026-99-16157/24/2026
This article focuses on a wide range of high-precision storage and supply systems. Under the rated flow rate of 2.928 mg / s of the proportional flow controller, the instantaneous flow fluctuation range of the BangBang valve reaches 2.963 mg / s, exceeding the control accuracy requirement of 1% for the proportional flow controller. By establishing mathematical models of the BangBang valve, proportional valve, and proportional flow controller for simulation analysis, the trend of the simulation results is consistent with the experimental results. Furthermore, considering the spatial layout and weight of the storage and supply system, this paper proposes a method to improve the accuracy of flow output by adding 180 mL of air capacity between the proportional valve and the proportional flow controller. Ultimately, the maximum flow fluctuation of the proportional flow controller at the moment of the BangBang valve opening and closing is 2.941 mg / s, which meets the control accuracy of the proportional flow controller. Moreover, the error between the output flow rate of the proportional flow controller and the rated working flow rate is minor after increasing the air capacity.
Li, Zhong, Li, Zongliang, Yan, Zelong, Huang, Tiankun
Starter Battery Identification and ClassificationJ2981_202607 (Current)7/15/2026
This document provides recommendations to identify battery group sizes and dimensions for 6 V, 8 V, 12 V, and 24 V lead acid batteries.
Starter Battery Standards Committee
RESS Cell Package Integrity Requirements and TestsJ3337_202607 (Current)7/14/2026
This recommended practice (RP) presents a methodology to evaluate RESS Cells Closure Integrity (Leak Tightness) requirement. This RP applies to two types of RESS Cells, each containing liquid electrolyte: Lithium ion (Li-ion) Cells and Sodium ion (Na-ion) Cells. The Equivalent Channel Method is used as a suggested cell closure integrity requirement for a given RESS Cell design during its production and product validation phases. The Closure Integrity requirements intended to assure no electrolyte leakage and no excessive moisture ingress during the usage of these cells as part of the RESS (Battery Pack), which is crucial to assure the safety and performance of these RESS. This RP specifies non-destructive Integrity (leak) testing processes of the Cell Closure. It describes approved leak testing technologies, testing procedures, tooling requirements, and leak test systems validation/verification requirements. This document may be applied to RESS Cell Closure Integrity testing during their initial product validation and their in-line 100% of production integrity/leak testing. This RP applies to RESS Cells with rigid packaging (cylindrical or prismatic) or flexible packaging (pouch).
Battery Standards Testing Committee
Research on Battery Environment Heat Dissipation Control System2026-99-05357/10/2026
Batteries generate a large amount of heat during operation, and if it cannot be dissipated in a timely and effective manner, it will seriously affect the performance, lifespan, and even safety of the battery. Therefore, battery heat dissipation has become a key challenge in the development of new energy vehicles. The traditional liquid cooling system has problems such as complex design and control, and the need to improve heat dissipation efficiency. To address these issues, this study proposes an optimized design scheme for battery environment heat dissipation control system based on liquid cooling heat dissipation system. This study first conducted an in-depth analysis of the thermal generation mechanism of lithium-ion batteries and studied existing examples of thermal management schemes. On this basis, an innovative forward and reverse circulation device was designed, combined with a liquid cooling heat dissipation structure. The Keil uVision4 programming software was used to write the microcontroller control program, and the circuit was simulated and verified using Proteus simulation software. This study established an experimental platform and conducted physical testing and thermal imaging detection. By collecting temperature change data under different heat dissipation modes and analyzing the experimental data, the results show that the optimized liquid cooling heat dissipation system significantly improves the heat dissipation efficiency. The system exhibits good performance under different cooling modes.
Ding, Xvqiang, Ni, Yiwei, Gu, Chen, Zhang, Jin, Chen, Mingyang, Jiao, Yunxiao
Knowledge Is Battery PowerTBMG-554527/2/2026
Modern electric vehicles can go hundreds of miles without a recharge, but that long range can diminish faster if battery health isn’t properly tracked and managed. And to do that, you need some smart software — and some smarts from working with NASA.
Model-Based Sensitivity Study of Thermal Runaway Onset and Severity in Lithium-Ion Cells: Effects of Geometry and Thermal Boundary Conditions2026-01-07557/1/2026
Thermal runaway assessment in automotive battery development is still largely driven by isolated abuse tests, while design decisions require quantitative insight into how cell geometry, material thresholds, and thermal boundary conditions influence thermal runaway onset and severity. This paper presents a systematic sensitivity study using a coupled electrochemical and thermal model augmented with Arrhenius-based decomposition reactions to represent the dominant exothermic pathways. Thermal runaway onset is defined using a temperature rise-rate criterion to distinguish gradual heating from runaway acceleration. Two trigger modes are considered: an internal short circuit initiated by nail penetration and an external heating trigger. Four parameter groups are investigated: cell length scaling, separator decomposition temperature, external heating power, and the convective heat transfer coefficient to the environment. For the nail-triggered internal short circuit, larger cells exhibit lower peak temperatures but longer times to reach the maximum, indicating a geometry-driven shift from rapid escalation to a slower, more moderated evolution. In the external heating case, increasing cell size significantly delays onset, while peak temperature shows a nonlinear trend and approaches saturation rather than scaling inversely with size. Increasing the separator decomposition temperature also shows a saturation effect because alternative reactions can dominate the triggering sequence. External heating power exhibits a threshold: below a critical level, convective losses balance the input and prevent runaway. Even when external heating is stopped at an intermediate temperature, higher preheating power can still lead to higher peak temperatures due to a larger remaining reactive inventory when the internal short circuit occurs. Improved heat rejection consistently delays onset, reduces peak temperature, and accelerates cool-down. Overall, the study extends prior trigger-specific analyses by providing a unified reduced-order sensitivity view across two abuse pathways and by identifying threshold and saturation behaviors that translate directly into design-relevant robustness levers.
Ceylan, Deniz, Kulzer, André Casal, Winterholler, Nina, Giek, Michael, Weinmann, Johannes
Multi-Scale Modelling of Localized Battery Degradation in Heavy-Duty Series Hybrids: From Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy to Powertrain and Battery Pack Performance2026-01-07477/1/2026
Hybrid electric vehicles rely heavily on battery pack power capability, which is often compromised by non-uniform aging and thermal gradients. Conventional battery models typically use bulk state-of-health metrics, failing to capture localized degradation that leads to current imbalances and reduced pack utility. This paper presents a multi-scale modelling framework that integrates Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy data into a fractional-order equivalent circuit model to simulate localized degradation in Lithium Iron Phosphate cells. Results show that the terminal voltage of LFP cells can be accurately modelled using the proposed fractional-order equivalent circuit with a discrete transfer-function implementation, maintaining root-mean-square errors below 20 mV across most state-of-health and state-of-charge conditions. The validated cell model is then extended to a degradation-aware battery pack representation. The battery pack in this work utilizes a 200-kWh, 800 V architecture consisting of five modules connected in parallel, each module composed of 13 parallel strings of 250 series cells, evaluated under multiple degradation scenarios. By integrating this pack model into a Class-8 series hybrid powertrain simulation, this study quantifies how cell-to-cell heterogeneity impacts vehicle performance under the VECTO regional delivery drive cycle. At the vehicle level, these battery constraints influence engine duty cycles and battery pack stress metrics. When localized degradation reaches up to 40% in one module while the remaining modules degrade up to 20% to 30%, such inhomogeneous degradation reduces the minimum pack terminal voltage by approximately 27% and increases peak discharge current by more than 30%, resulting in more rapid degradation. These battery-level limitations translate into higher fuel consumption by up to 6% in a charge-sustaining scenario.
Safavi, Seyed Reza, Homayouni, Hooman, Shoa, Tina, Wang, Jason, McTaggart-Cowan, Gordon
Items per page:
1 – 50 of 6118