Browse Topic: Energy storage systems

Items (5,543)

Integrating for Safety – A Proposed Approach to the Integration of Propulsion Battery Systems in Hybrid Electric Aviation

2025-01-0148To be published on 04/25/2025

In the last year we have witnessed a notable surge in the designs and in the guidance material for electric and hybrid aircraft. FAA and EASA have continued to evaluate the safety of Propulsion Battery Systems (PBS), with a focus on thermal runaway containment testing. As a result, a harmonization white paper was issued to provide a certification path for Thermal Runaway (TR) Hazards, followed by an EASA certification memorandum on the acceptable approaches for the certification of Electric/Hybrid Propulsion Systems (EHPS). And just recently, an FAA Advisory Circular (draft) was issued for the “powered-lift” aircraft that feature these propulsion battery systems. In spite of the advances made by electric/hybrid aircraft manufacturers and the aviation authorities, there is still a missing piece of the puzzle. Mainly, we are still not confident in our ability to properly integrate the PBS into the EHPS architecture, in such a way where safety is never compromised, no matter the hazard

Hanna, Michael, Walker, Cherizar

Sustainable Design of Automotive Batteries

2025-01-0001To be published on 04/18/2025

A consequence of the automotive industry's shift to electrification is that a significantly higher percentage of a vehicle's lifecycle CO₂ emissions occur during the production phase. As a result, vehicle manufacturers and suppliers must shift the focus of product development from the 'in-use phase only' to optimizing the complete product lifecycle. The proper design of a battery has the highest impact to all other phases following in the life-cycle. It influences the selection of materials, the manufacturing, in-use and end of life, respectively the recycling and recycling yield for a circular economy. Using real-life examples the paper will explain what are the main parameters necessary for designing a sustainable battery. What are the low hanging fruits to be considered? In addition, it will elaborate on the relation as well as the impacts to other KPIs like safety, costs and life-time of the battery. Finally it will round up in an outlook on how batteries will evolve in the future

Braun, Andreas, Rothbart, Martin

Enhancement in Cabin Comfort and Overall Energy Utilization of an Electric Reverse Trike Car by Optimizing the System Layout

2025-01-8150To be published on 04/01/2025

As the emissions norms are getting stringent and stricter, the use of all electric vehicles is widespread and becoming mainstream mobility both in urban and rural areas. However, lack of good charging infrastructure and high energy density cells limiting the overall electric mobility eco-system. Eventually the shorter range and high charging time of the vehicle is becoming the key challenge of e-mobility. Energy consumption by one of the key auxiliary systems e.g. air-conditioning (AC) system is adding further concerns over the range anxiety. It is the most energy consuming system among all others. Hence the need of the hour is to improve and enhance the AC system performance by means of redefining and optimizing the system layout in order to reduce power drawn by system. The present paper evaluates the improvement of cabin comfort and reduce the energy consumption of an electric car AC system by optimizing the layout and position of condenser and compressor. The experiments were

Sen, Somnath, Jadhav, Yash, Singh, Karamjeet, Sorte, Swapnil, Anwar, Md Tahir

Cloud Based Digital Twin Development for High-Voltage Battery Systems in Commercial Vehicles

2025-01-8214To be published on 04/01/2025

Over recent years, BorgWarner has intensified its efforts to explore and leverage trending technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) to enhance products and processes. The digital twin technology has potential use cases on system behavior analysis, product optimization and predictive maintenance. As the high-voltage battery is the most valuable component in any electric vehicle understanding the mechanisms of battery aging and failure, along with their dependencies, is crucial for improving performance, battery lifespan, and residual value. A digital twin not only aids in comprehending the impacts of user behavior on the battery's state of health but also facilitates further fault diagnosis and analysis. This paper outlines the development process of a digital twin for a commercial vehicle battery. A cloud-based digital twin demonstrator was developed, which integrates vehicle telemetry data with physics-based battery electric and thermal models, and

Bongards, Anita, Liu, Xiaobing, Beemer, Maria, Gajowski, Daniel, Rama, Neeraj, Shah, Keya, Fallahdizcheh, Amirhossein

Concept of on-board diagnostic system of vehicle electric drive

2025-01-8095To be published on 04/01/2025

The problem of monitoring parametric failures of a traction electric drive unit consisting of an inverter, a traction machine and a gearbox when interacting with a battery management system has been solved. The strategy for solving the problem is considered for an electric drive with three-phase synchronous and induction machines. The drive power elements perform electromechanical energy conversion with additional losses. The losses are caused by deviations of the element parameters from the nominal values during operation. Monitoring gradual failures by additional losses is adopted as a key concept of on-board diagnostics. Deviation monitoring places increased demands on the information support and accuracy of mathematical models of power elements. The first harmonics of currents and voltages of a three-phase circuit, which are the dominant energy source, were taken into account. Higher harmonics of PWM appear as harmonic losses. Mechanical losses in the rotor and gearbox can be many

Smolin, Victor, Gladyshev, Sergey, Topolskaya, Irina

Research on heat dissipation of cabinet of electrochemical energy storage system

2025-01-8193To be published on 04/01/2025

When lithium batteries are charged and discharged in electrochemical energy storage systems, significant internal electrochemical reactions occur, generating substantial heat and causing a rise in battery temperature. This can adversely affect battery performance and lifespan, and in severe cases, lead to thermal runaway, threatening the safety of the entire system. Research on the thermal modeling of lithium-ion batteries, accurate description and prediction of temperature rise, and the design of thermal management systems based on numerical heat flow simulations are crucial for ensuring safe and reliable battery operations. These efforts are vital for advancing new energy technologies. However, most existing research on heat dissipation in energy storage systems focuses solely on single air-cooled or liquid-cooled systems, which often have simple structures and poor heat dissipation effects. Based on the actual size of an energy storage products, this thesis establishes a

Chen, Jianxiang, Li, Liping, Zhou, Fupeng, Li, Chuncheng, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Impact of Thermal Gradients on Calorimetry Testing of Battery Cells

2025-01-8175To be published on 04/01/2025

Detailed modeling of battery thermal runaway and propagation often requires a source term that represents the chemical heat release of the cell as a function of temperature. The shape of this heat release trend typically comes from cell testing data. Accelerating rate calorimetry (ARC) tests provide concise information on cell self-heating, since the cell is kept nearly isothermal and adiabatic. Also, compared to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) tests of battery component materials, it contains all interactions between components. Converting the temperature rise rate data to heat release rate is theoretically very simple, only requiring the heat capacity of the cell. Practically, however, careful analysis is required to avoid artifacts arising from limitations of the test setup. This study uses a simple one-dimensional transient heat transfer model to illustrate the runaway process inside a cell and describe two error sources present in many ARC tests. As the cell temperature

Vanderwege, Brad, Petersen, Ben

Impact of Thermal Imbalances on Energy Availability, State of Power, and aging in Immersion-Cooled Batteries

2025-01-8170To be published on 04/01/2025

This study investigates the impact of thermal imbalances on energy delivery and Battery State of Power (SoP) in immersion-cooled battery cells. It explores how these imbalances, which arise when cells within a module operate at different temperatures, lead to variations in internal resistance and inefficiencies in energy storage and discharge. Such imbalances critically affect the battery's SoP, representing the maximum charge or discharge power the system can support over specific time intervals. By analyzing SoP over 2-second and 10-second durations, we assess how thermal imbalances influence both short-term and medium-term power capabilities. Temperature significantly impacts cell aging, and imbalances can accelerate degradation in some cells, ultimately affecting serviceability. To address these issues, we employ a high-level simulation framework that integrates advanced tools. GT-SUITE software optimizes thermal performance by adjusting coolant temperature and flow rate to manage

Meshginqalam, Ata, Negro, Sergio, Atluri, Prasad, Tyagi, Ramavtar, Suzuki, Jorge, K B, Anjusha, Cao, Yuyuan

3D Modeling of Thermal Runaway in Pouch Cells: Effects of Surface Heating and Heating Rates

2025-01-8559To be published on 04/01/2025

Thermal runaway in battery cells presents a critical safety concern, emphasizing the need for a thorough understanding of thermal behavior to enhance battery safety and performance. This study introduces a newly developed AutoLion 3D thermal runaway model, which builds on the earlier AutoLion 1D framework and offers significantly faster computational performance compared to traditional CFD models. The model is validated through simulations of the heat-wait-search mode of the Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (ARC), accurately predicting thermal runaway by matching experimental temperature profiles from peer-reviewed studies. Once validated, the model is employed to investigate the thermal behavior of 3D LFPO cells under controlled heating conditions, applying heat to one or more surfaces at a time while modeling heat transfer from non-heated surfaces. The primary objective is to understand how these localized heating patterns impact temperature profiles, including average core temperatures

Hariharan, Deivanayagam, Gundlapally, Santhosh

Analysis of Coolant Flowing and Heat Transfer Performance in High Voltage Heater System

2025-01-8194To be published on 04/01/2025

A method for performance calculation and experimental method of a high voltage heater system in electric vehicles is proposed. This system is critical for the thermal management of electric vehicle batteries, especially in low-temperature environments. It provides essential heating support to maintain optimal battery performance and safety, thereby improving overall efficiency and reliability.Firstly, heater outlet temperature and pressure drop of the heater are used as metrics to compare simulation results with experimental data, thereby validating the established model. Then, simulations are performed on two heater flow channel configurations: a cavity flow channel and a cooling fin flow channel. It is observed that the latter significantly reduces the heating plate temperature. This reduction enhances the protection of heating elements and extends their operational lifespan, demonstrating the advantages of incorporating cooling fins into the flow channel structure. The optimization

Gong, Ming, Wang, Xihui, Wang, Dongdong, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Comprehensive mechanical characterization of prismatic lithium-ion cells

2025-01-8129To be published on 04/01/2025

As electric vehicles (EVs) become increasingly prevalent, ensuring the safety of their battery systems is paramount. Lithium-ion batteries present unique safety challenges due to their high energy density and the potential for failure under certain conditions. There is an extensive amount of research on pouch and cylindrical cells, however, prismatic cells have not received similar attention. This study presents an extensive series of experimental tests conducted on prismatic cells from two different manufacturers. These tests include flat punch, hemispherical punch, axial compression and three-point bending tests, all designed to assess the cells’ mechanical properties and failure behavior. A model was developed simulating the behavior of the cell under local loading scenarios. While this paper focuses primarily on testing methodologies, initial findings and an introductory FEA model, future work will incorporate these experimental results into detailed FEA models across all loading

Patanwala, Huzefa, Song, Yihan, Sahraei, Elham

Overview of Battery-Integrated Modular Multilevel Converter Topologies for Automotive Applications

2025-01-8557To be published on 04/01/2025

The rise in global temperatures due to greenhouse gas emissions has led to a transition to alternative energy carriers especially in automotive applications. A key component in this transition is the battery pack, which contains several parallel and/or series-connected cells. The available energy and power of the battery pack are determined not only by the cell type, size, and configuration but also by the battery management system. To improve the control and energy utilization of the pack, battery-integrated modular multilevel converters (BI-MMCs) are presented. Five BI-MMC topologies for three main battery-integrated system configurations, namely, 3-phase, 6-phase low voltage, and 6-phase high voltage systems are evaluated for a 400 kW 40-ton commercial vehicle. The evaluation includes a comparative assessment of the number of submodules, battery, capacitor, and semiconductor losses for all BI-MMC topologies with 1 to 12 cascaded cells per submodule against a conventional 2-level

Balachandran, Arvind, Jonsson, Tomas, Eriksson, Lars

Optimal usage of engine torque to engage a disconnect device in situations where battery power is not available

2025-01-8578To be published on 04/01/2025

This paper introduces a novel approach to optimize battery power usage and optimal engine torque for wheel end disconnect device engagement under power constrained scenarios for range extended hybrid vehicles. Range extended hybrid architecture provides benefits of BEV architecture and relief the range anxiety that BEV drivers often have. The wheel end disconnect device helps improve the efficiency of the battery power usage when it is disconnected and provides better drivability and performance to fulfill driver demand when it is connected. Under power constraint scenario, the disconnect device engagement could take too long or eventually fail to engage and result in degradation for drivability and vehicle level performance. This novel approach is utilizing engine to either generate more power to spin up the disconnect motor faster under discharge limited case or generate less power to allow the disconnect motor to spin down under charge limited case. The effectiveness of this

Sha, Hangxing, Madireddy, Krishna Chaitanya, Banuso, Abdulquadri, Khanal, Shishir, Rock, Joe, Patel, Nadirsh

Application of Model-based Horizon Prediction to Enhance Control Algorithm Performance by Compensating for Time Delays in Automotive Drivelines

2025-01-8574To be published on 04/01/2025

Accurate estimation of crucial quantities in automotive drivetrain systems is essential for optimizing performance, durability, and emissions. However, the presence of time delays, arising from tasks scheduling and communication latency between control units, can significantly hinder the effectiveness of advance control algorithms. Closed-loop performance is often limited by the equivalent time delay between the control action command, its effect on the system, and the measurement of the reaction. Frequently, commands and measurements originate from different sources, requiring precise coordination to accurately estimate the driveline response. This paper presents a novel model-based approach that integrates Kalman filtering with horizon prediction techniques to effectively address time-delay compensation. By leveraging the descriptive capabilities of physics-based models, the proposed method enables to overcome synchronization misalignment between commands, actuations and measurements

Rostiti, Cristian, Patel, Nadirsh, Catkin, Bilal

Hyperparameter-Optimized Neural Network for Precise Battery State of Charge Estimation

2025-01-8210To be published on 04/01/2025

Accurate estimation of the state of charge (SOC) of battery cells is crucial for the efficient management and longevity of battery systems, particularly in electric vehicles and renewable energy storage. This paper presents an approach utilizing a Feedforward Neural Network (FNN) to estimate the SOC of battery cells. The proposed method leverages hyperparameter optimization to determine the optimal configuration of the neural network, including the number of neurons, the number of hidden layers, the best activation function, and the most effective learning rate. The primary objective of this research is to minimize the estimation error of the SOC to within 2%, thereby enhancing the reliability and performance of battery management systems. The hyperparameter optimization process involves a systematic search and evaluation of various configurations to identify the most effective neural network architecture. This process is critical as it directly impacts the accuracy and efficiency of

Saini, Sandeep, Admane, Chinmay

Impact of Thermal and Electrical Dissimilarities on Battery Module Aging

2025-01-8173To be published on 04/01/2025

Battery cell aging and loss of capacity are some of the many challenges facing the widespread implementation of electrification in mobility. One of the factors contributing to cell aging is the dissimilarities of individual cells connected in a module. This paper reports the results of several aging experiments using a mini-module consisting of seven 18.2 Ah 21700 Lithium-ion battery cells connected in parallel. The aging cycle comprised a constant current-constant voltage charge cycle at a 0.7C C-rate, followed by a 0.2C constant current discharge, spanning the useful voltage range from minimum to maximum according to the cell manufacturer. Charge and discharge events were separated by one-hour rest periods and were repeated for four weeks. Weekly reference performance tests were executed to measure static and pulse power capacity as well as discharge impedance. All diagnostics were normalized with respect to their starting numbers to achieve a percentage change over time. Both

Swarts, Andre, Salvi, Swapnil S., Juarez Robles, Daniel

Study of High-Power and High-Energy Lithium-ion Batteries: From Parameter Analysis to Physical Modeling and Experimental Validation

2025-01-8372To be published on 04/01/2025

This study presents a comparative analysis of high-power (HP) and high-energy (HE) INR21700 lithium-ion batteries, which are Samsung 30T (3.0Ah) and 50E (4.9Ah) respectively, examining their design differences and performance characteristics. First, this paper conducted a literature review about battery teardown data, summarized key parameters and revealed that the HP cell has higher porosity, thicker current collectors, and thinner electrode coatings compared to the HE cell. Additionally, this HE cell incorporates approximately 6% silicon oxide in its graphite anode to increase energy density. Second, extensive cell-level tests were conducted, including High Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) and constant-current discharge tests at various C-rates (0.05C, 0.5C, 1C, and 2C) across temperatures from -20°C to 40°C, as well as aging tests. Results demonstrated that the HP cell maintains a low terminal voltage drop (<0.2V) during 2C discharge from open circuit voltage at 25°C and 40°C

Yao, Qi, Kollmeyer, Phillip, Chen, Junran, Panchal, Satyam, Gross, Oliver, Emadi, Ali

Modeling of Battery and Fuel Cell Powered Systems with Their Real-World Applications

2025-01-8553To be published on 04/01/2025

Today’s communication, transportation, and power delivery systems, all depend on an extensive use of batteries to keep them functioning in a safe and reliable manner. While battery cell technology has its origins in the late 1700’s, and fuel cells were not available commercially until the mid-20th century, today’s batteries and fuel cells are an amazing combination of applications of principles of chemistry and electrical engineering! The standard approach today is that when a battery is the only power source of an electrical system (referred to as “primary power” sources), analysis techniques are normally applied to characterize the battery as being able to supply constant input voltage to its load. As we have all experienced in our daily lives, in reality, constant input voltage conditions do not exist unless there is an additional power source to maintain the state of charge of the battery. Unfortunately, this results in a potential divergence of the expected results of electrical

Ingarra, Nicholas

Battery Thermal Management System for PHEV by using Air Conditioning Heater System

2025-01-8172To be published on 04/01/2025

At Toyota Motor Corporation, we are pursuing an omnidirectional strategy that includes BEVs, PHEVs, and FCEVs to accelerate electrification. One of the technical challenges with our xEV batteries, which feature good degradation resistance and long battery life, is that regenerative braking cannot be fully effective due to the decrease in regenerative power in some situations, such as low battery temperature. For the electrified vehicles with an internal combustion engine such as PHEVs, the solution has been starting the engine to increase deceleration through engine braking during coasting. In this context, PHEVs are expected to extend their cruising range and enhance EV driving experience as "Practical BEVs". While several manufacturers including us are increasing battery capacity and enhancing convenience, restrictions on EV driving opportunity due to low battery temperature will affect the appeal of these electrified vehicles. However, introducing a battery heater is considered

Hoshino, Yu

A data-driven, synthetic-population approach to predict durability loads for electric vehicle propulsion systems

2025-01-8295To be published on 04/01/2025

Designing for the durability of motor vehicles requires accounting for various stress factors, including tractive loads, electrical loads, thermal loads, and structural loads. For electric vehicle propulsion systems, it is crucial to consider not just the magnitude and repeats of these loads but also their temporal sequence throughout the vehicle’s lifespan. The order and timing of these loads influence factors such as, charge and discharge cycles or active motor heating, which ultimately impact the damage to the propulsion system components like the cell and the motor. Traditionally, lifetime loads for durability assessments are derived from a single-user load profile consisting of a set of ‘representative’ drive cycles accounting for the cumulative damage equivalent to the real-world damage covered under warranty. This profile is typically based on historical usage data, user scenarios, and industry experience, but may not capture the diverse failure modes of the different propulsion

Ramakrishnan, Sankaran, Khapane, Prashant

Methods for fatigue under Random Vibration excitation for components of an Electric Vehicle

2025-01-8233To be published on 04/01/2025

A vehicle travels on roads with various profiles of surface roughness that are best characterized by a random process. The random vibration not only subjects passengers to the unpleasant physical shakes and noises perceived, but also imparts the fatigue damage to components installed on it. The ability to predict fatigue damage at the early design stage to prevent unwanted durability problems down the road is very important in today’s design process, especially for an electronic vehicle. Although the random vibration analysis for a dynamic response for a linear system subjected to random excitations is fairly straightforward in the frequency-domain, the prediction of the fatigue damage as a result of those random responses is still an arena drawing a lot of research efforts. Different from the conventional approach to deal with the damage based on the stress or strain responses in a time-domain, the most effective method of predicting the fatigue in random vibration is to obtain the

Yang, Zane, Fouret, Charles

Understanding Forming Characteristics of 980 MPa and 1180 MPa strength level AHSS with various Microstructures

2025-01-8222To be published on 04/01/2025

For electrical vehicle (EV) automotive body-in-white (BIW) structures, protection of passengers and battery in crash event becomes critically important. In addition to energy absorption, intrusion protection for battery and vehicle becomes extremely important and Advanced high strength steels (AHSS), like dual phase (DP)/multi-phase (MP)/complex phase (CP)/retained austenite bearing (GEN3) steels and Press hardened steels (PHS), have become material of choice for design for these components. Higher yield strength materials especially in 980/1180MPa MP and CP category are chosen for part design over conventional low yield strength DP to meet crash and performance targets. In this study, the forming characteristics including both global and local formability are evaluated and compared among 980 DP/MP/CP grades. Formability tests, such as forming limit curve (FLC), true fraction strain, V bend, half dome, and hole expansion tests are conducted. Microstructure analysis to understand the

Shih, Hua-Chu, Pednekar, Vasant, Shi, Ming, Singh, Jatinder, Tedesco, Sarah, Wu, Wei

On the potentially misleading evaluation of CO2 emissions for hybrid-electric vehicles

2025-01-8537To be published on 04/01/2025

The adoption of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) is becoming more popular during the last few years due to government incentives and favourable legislation both for automotive companies and final users. This type of vehicle claims very low carbon dioxide emissions while eliminating the range anxiety associated with battery electric vehicles thanks to the on-board range extender being able to recharge the battery throughout the journey. Unfortunately, the low emissions values are more representative of the particular mathematical model implemented by the legislation than the measured real driving emissions. Specifically, the legislation does not take into account the CO2 embedded in production of the batteries or of the electrical energy stored in it. This work analyses these aspects by means of a numerical model of the BMW i3 94Ah vehicle. The results obtained are collected from simulations conducted over the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) by using the commercial

Turner, James, Vorraro, Giovanni

Modelling and Simulation of a Fuel Cell Powertrain for Extreme H Applications

2025-01-8008To be published on 04/01/2025

This paper aims to model and simulate a design specification for a fuel cell electric powertrain tailored for Extreme H motorsport applications. A comprehensive numerical model of the powertrain was constructed using GT-Suite, integrating the 2025 Extreme H regulations, which include specifications for the fuel cell stack, electric motors, hydrogen storage, and battery systems. A detailed drive cycle representing the real-world driving patterns of Extreme E vehicles was developed, utilising kinematic parameters derived from literature and real-world data. The performance of the Extreme H powertrain was benchmarked against the Toyota Mirai fuel cell vehicle to validate the simulation accuracy under the same racing conditions. The proposed design delivers a maximum power output of 400 kW, with 75 kW supplied by the fuel cell and 325 kW by the battery, ensuring optimal performance within the constraints set by the Extreme H 2025 regulations. Additionally, the design maintains an optimal

Moreno Medina, Javier, Samuel, Stephen

Analysis of the design space for battery and fuel cell powered electric trucks

2025-01-8600To be published on 04/01/2025

A diverse set of solutions will likely be needed to decarbonize the commercial truck sector in US. Battery powered vehicles definitely has a predominant role in this, but there are several areas where fuel cell trucks are more advantageous for the consumer. This study examines several prominent medium and heavy duty applications, designed for different driving range requirements to identify the design space where battery and fuel cell trucks are attractive. The impact of purchase price, fuel cost, vehicle usage are also considered in this analysis. Since future costs cannot be accurately predicted, this study includes parametric sweeps with certain high and low values to examine the uncertainty of the observations. This work examines the top 10 truck classes based on vehicle population, fuel usage and driving distances. It also considers some of the bus applications such as coach, transit and school buses. The vehicle usage information taken from VIUS as well as inputs from the 21CTP

Vijayagopal, Ram, Birky, Alicia

Optimization method of phase change energy storage device for electric vehicle batteries based on numerical simulation

2025-01-8603To be published on 04/01/2025

Phase change energy storage devices are extensively utilized in latent heat thermal energy storage and hold significant potential for application in the thermal management of automotive batteries. By harnessing the high-density energy storage capabilities of phase change materials to absorb heat released by the batteries, followed by timely release and utilization, there is a substantial improvement in energy efficiency. This approach aligns with the objective of promoting low-carbon environmental protection and presents an opportunity to enhance the operational performance and energy utilization efficiency of electric vehicle batteries in low-temperature conditions. However, the thermal conductivity of medium and low temperature phase change materials is poor, leading to its inefficient utilization. This paper focuses on optimizing the structure of a phase change heat exchanger in a phase change energy storage device to improve its performance. A basic design of the phase change heat

Zhang, Haonan, Sun, Mingzhe, Zheng, Haoyun, Zhang, Tianming

Barrier Weight Prediction for Vehicle Compatibility in North America Market using Finite Element Analysis

2025-01-8621To be published on 04/01/2025

The proliferation of the electric vehicle (EVs) in the US market led to an increase in the average vehicle weight due to the integration of the larger high-voltage (HV) batteries. To comply with this weight increase and meet stringent US regulations and Consumer Ratings requirements, Vehicle front-end rigidity has substantially increased. This increased stiffness in the larger vehicles (Large EV pickups/SUVs) may have a significant impact during collision with smaller vehicles. To address this issue, it is necessary we consider adopting a vehicle compatibility test like EuroNCAP MPDB in North American market as well. This study examines the influence of mass across vehicle classes and compares the structural variations for each impact class. The EuroNCAP MPDB (Moving Progressive Deformable Barrier) protocol was referenced for this analysis. Our evaluation approach comprises of two sections: the impact of the barrier mass on to the vehicle structure (V2B) and vehicle-to-vehicle impact

Kusnoorkar, Harsha, Koraddi, Basavaraj, Guerrero, Michael, Sripada, Venu Vinod, Tangirala, Ravi

Comprehensive Techno-Economic Analysis of Battery-Electric Trucks: Evaluating Battery Aging Impact for Regional Delivery Missions

2025-01-8591To be published on 04/01/2025

This study offers a comprehensive techno-economic assessment of battery-electric trucks, accounting for battery aging in the total cost of ownership (TCO) model. Due to the pressing regulations regarding emissions, battery electric vehicles are emerging as a solution for trucks, especially in Europe. Given the profit-oriented perspective of the customers purchasing these vehicles and the high uncertainty surrounding the cost-effectiveness of battery-electric trucks, several studies have focused on estimating their TCO. However, these studies overlook or overly simplify the impact of battery aging. This work introduces cost terms associated with aging, quantified over the vehicle's lifetime through an empirical battery degradation model. These often neglected costs include payload loss, battery residual value, and battery replacement. A case study was developed with a truck from VECTO group 9 for regional delivery missions, considering different payloads and battery pack sizes. To

Costantino, Trentalessandro, Acquarone, Matteo, Miretti, Federico, Spessa, Ezio

Model-Predictive Control for Heat Pump-Based Battery Thermal Management in Off-Road Autonomous Electrified Vehicles During Transient Operation

2025-01-8184To be published on 04/01/2025

The shift towards hybrid and electric powertrains in off-road vehicles aims to enhance mobility, extend range, and improve energy efficiency. However, heat pump-based thermal management systems in these vehicles continue to consume significant energy, impacting overall range and efficiency. Effective thermal management is essential for maintaining battery performance and safety, particularly in extreme conditions. Although high-fidelity models can capture the complex dynamics of heat pumps, real-time control within model-based optimization frameworks often depends on simplified models, which can degrade system performance. To address this, we propose a novel data-driven grey box control-oriented model (COM) that accurately represents the thermal dynamics of a vapor-compression refrigeration-based heat pump system. This COM is integrated into a model-predictive control (MPC) framework, optimizing thermal management during transient and burst-power operations of the battery pack. We

Sundar, Anirudh, Ghate, Atharva, Zhu, Qilun, Prucka, Robert, Ruan, Yeefeng, Figueroa-Santos, Miriam, Barron, Morgan

Development of Ceramic Humidity Regulator (CHR) Using Honeycomb Type PTC Heater to Improve Electric Vehicle Driving Range in Winter

2025-01-8177To be published on 04/01/2025

With Rapid growth of Electric Vehicles (EVs) in the market, challenges such as driving range, charging infrastructure, and reducing charging time needs to be addressed. Unlike traditional Internal combustion vehicles, EVs have limited heating sources and primarily uses electricity from the running battery, which reduces driving range. Additionally, during winter operation, it is necessary to prevent window fogging to ensure better visibility, which requires introducing cold outside air into the cabin. This significantly increases the power consumption for heating and the driving range can be reduced to half of the normal range. This study introduces the Ceramic Humidity Regulator (CHR), a compact and energy-efficient device developed to address driving range improvement. The CHR uses a desiccant system to dehumidify the cabin, which can prevent window fogging without introducing cold outside air, thereby reducing heating power consumption. A desiccant system typically consists of two

Hamada, Takafumi, Shinoda, Narimasa, Konno, Yoshiki, Ihara, Yukio, Ito, Masaki

Design of an Air-Liquid Coupled Thermal Management System for Battery Packs in Energy Storage Cabinets

2025-01-8168To be published on 04/01/2025

Efficient thermal management is critical for ensuring the performance and safety of large-capacity battery packs. Traditional air or liquid cooling methods often fail to provide sufficient cooling and to maintain uniform temperature distribution. To address these limitations, a novel hybrid air-liquid cooling system was developed in this study. A 3D model of the proposed cooling structure was constructed. Heat transfer and fluid flow resistance were analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations based on the developed model. The model was validated through experimental measurements. These included discharge temperature rise measurements on individual battery cells and flow resistance tests on the liquid cooling plate. The thermal performance of the air-liquid hybrid cooling system was evaluated at various discharge rates and compared with only air or liquid cooling methods. Results indicated that the hybrid cooling system significantly enhanced heat dissipation. At a

Li, Hao, Guo, Yiming, Zhou, Fupeng, Li, Kunyuan, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Reducing Temperature-related Aging Inhomogeneities in Battery Modules Using a Switchable Thermal Management System

2025-01-8167To be published on 04/01/2025

The operating temperature of lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells significantly influences their degradation behavior. In indirect liquid cooling systems, temperature variations within a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) LIB module are inevitable due to the increasing downstream temperature of the cooling medium as it absorbs heat. This leads to reduced temperature differentials between the cooling medium and the LIB cells. As a result, LIB cells located further along the flow path experience higher average temperatures than those at the front. Typically, a maximum average cell temperature difference of 5 K within LIB modules is considered acceptable. However, results from a conventional cooling system indicate that, when fast charging is exclusively used, this can lead to a 15.5 % difference in the total ampere-hours passed before the End-of-Life (EOL) is reached for the front and back LIB cells. To address this issue, a switchable thermal management system for the traction battery is

Auch, Marcus, Weyershäuser, Konstantin, Kuthada, Timo, Wagner, Andreas

Experimental Analysis of Battery Thermal Management Techniques for Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries Using MATLAB Simulink, Simscape, and Stateflow Simulations

2025-01-8165To be published on 04/01/2025

The integration of lithium-ion batteries into electric vehicles represents a significant advancement in the automotive industry. These batteries are widely utilized in energy storage systems. The extended life cycle, low self-discharge rates, high energy density, and eco-friendliness of lithium-ion batteries are well-known. However, Lithium-ion batteries are highly sensitive to temperature, adversely affecting their performance, lifespan, and safety. Therefore, effective thermal management is critical to ensuring optimal operating conditions and mitigating the risk of thermal runaway. To address this, experimental study was conducted on various battery thermal management techniques, including active, passive, and hybrid approaches. These techniques were investigated for their cooling efficiencies under different operating conditions. The study utilized MATLAB Simulink, Simscape, and Stateflow to simulate the electro-thermal behavior of cylindrical lithium-ion battery cells, battery

Thangaraju, Shanmuganathan, N, Meenakshi, Ganesan, Maragatham

Research on the Thermal Performance of Thick Film Heater for Electric Vehicle Battery

2025-01-8154To be published on 04/01/2025

The life of power battery and its discharge efficiency in electric cars will be significantly reduced in a low temperature environment. Therefore, in order to ensure its working mileage and safety, heating the power battery is required. Heat pump air conditioners and PTC-based onboard heaters are usually way to heat the power battery under lower temperature so far. In low temperature environment, due to the lower heating efficiency of the heat pump air conditioner, onboard heaters are widely used in electric cars. A specific thick film heater(TFH) for electric vehicles is investigaed in this study, and its three dimensional heat tansfer analysis model is established. The heat transfer and fluid performace of the TFH is analied using a computational fluid dynamics software. The performance of TFH is measured on a test bench, and the measured data is used to validate the developed model. Using the established model, the heating efficiency of TFH is studied for different inlet

Guan, Wenzhe, Guo, Yiming, Wu, Xiaoyong, Wang, Dongdong, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

A Study on the Influence of Compression Pads on the Safety and Life of a Lithium-ion Cell Module

2025-01-8132To be published on 04/01/2025

The demand for eco-friendly electric powertrains has increased significantly in recent years. Cells are the most crucial component of a battery pack, directly influencing the dimensions, range, lifespan, performance, and cost of electric vehicles. Lithium-ion cells outperform other cell chemistries due to their higher energy density, allowing for more compact and lightweight designs while providing longer operational ranges. It is crucial that lithium-ion cell packaging complies with assembly requirements to maximize its lifespan and ensure operational safety. Assembly force requirements of lithium-ion cells are critical to ensure optimal cell performance throughout its lifetime & enhance the longevity of the battery pack. The compression pad between cells ensures appropriate cell assembly pressure. The service life is how long a lithium-ion cell can operate effectively, while the cyclic life refers to the number of charge-discharge cycles before cell functional degradation. The cell

Varambally, Vishakha, Sithick basha, Abubakker, Chalumuru, Madhu, Sasikumar, K

A framework for modeling mechanically induced thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries

2025-01-8134To be published on 04/01/2025

Battery safety is a paramount concern in the development of electric vehicles (EVs), as failures can lead to catastrophic consequences, including fires and explosions. With the rapid global adoption of EVs, understanding how battery cells perform under extreme conditions such as mechanical or thermal abuse is crucial for ensuring vehicle safety. This study investigates the abuse response of lithium-ion batteries under high-speed mechanical loading. Our research systematically examines the response of these cells at different states of charge (SOC) through controlled dynamic tests. These tests offer insights into the failure response of the cells. By analyzing the data, we gain a deeper understanding of the conditions that could trigger thermal runaway under mechanical abuse loadings, representative of EV crashes, a critical safety concern in EV battery systems. The experimental setup and methodologies are presented in this paper, alongside key findings that highlight the importance of

Patanwala, Huzefa, Kong, Kevin, Challa, Vidyu, Darvish, Kurosh, Sahraei, Elham

Multi-disciplinary Electric Cargo Scooter Battery Design, Simulation and Validation

2025-01-8123To be published on 04/01/2025

Evaluating the structural strength & thermal performance of electric vehicle battery pack is crucial for enhancing safety & performance. For electric cargo scooter, the battery pack must withstand significant vibrational forces, shocks from impacts & accidental drops all of which can compromise the battery's structural integrity. A failure in this regard could lead to dangerous outcomes such as short circuits, fire, or even explosions, making the robustness of the battery pack crucial for both safety and performance. Conducting physical vibration, shock, and drop tests on a battery pack can result in hazardous situations, necessitating stringent safety measures and specialized equipment, which can be prohibitively expensive and time consuming. The present work focuses on computer-aided virtual simulations at design stage to evaluate the structural integrity, thermal safety & ease of manufacturing of a battery pack assembly, to optimize battery design and reduce prototyping and physical

Shinde, Pranav, Balachandran, Karthik, Gandhi, Chaitanya, Mishra, Sonu, Deshmukh, Harish, Karve, Madhura, Chittur, Srikrishna, Das, Alok

Investigation of Impedance Evolution for Lithium Plating Detection during Multi-Stage Constant Current Fast Charging of Lithium-Ion Batteries

2025-01-8124To be published on 04/01/2025

The lengthy charging time of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) significantly affect their acceptance. Reducing charging time requires high-power fast charging. However, such fast charging can trigger various side reactions, leading to safety and durability issues. Among these, lithium plating is a major concern as it can reduce battery capacity and potentially cause internal short circuits or even thermal runaway. Currently, multi-stage constant current charging (MCCC) protocols are widely adopted. However, the difficulty in effectively detecting lithium plating during the MCCC process significantly limits the charging power. Therefore, it is urgent to explore a method to detect lithium plating during the MCCC process. In this study, the impedance evolution during the MCCC procedure was first investigated. Then a method based on the impedance variation patterns was proposed to detect lithium plating. Besides, the reason for the behavior of impedance changes was further

Shen, Yudong, Wang, Xueyuan, Wu, Hang, Wei, Xuezhe, Dai, Haifeng

Impact of Temperature and Current Rate Protocols on the Aging of Lithium-Ion Batteries from Capacity Testing and Impedance Analysis

2025-01-8131To be published on 04/01/2025

This study looks into the impact of temperature on the aging of lithium-ion batteries, which are an important component of energy storage systems in electric vehicles. To evaluate battery capacity over time, experiments were carried out at two temperatures, 25°C and 50°C, imitating real-world vehicle circumstances. Pristine cells were initially assessed in terms of capacity and internal resistance. Aging results from cycling indicate that higher operating temperatures, particularly under aggressive conditions (fast charging), lead to accelerated battery degradation due to heat accumulation. Charging at 2C resulted in fast degradation at both temperatures, with the battery reaching its End Of Life (EOL), 80% capacity, in fewer than 200 cycles. Surprisingly, cycling at 50°C resulted in a longer lifespan than 25°C for 1C charge/discharge rates. The 1C charge and 2C discharge regimen at 50°C produced the best results, retaining more than 80% capacity even after 600 cycles. This shows that

Garcia, Antonio, Monsalve-Serrano, Javier, Egea, Juan Manuel H., Bekaert, Emilie, Herran, Alvaro, Marco-Gimeno, Javier

Lithium battery health status and lifespan prediction based on deep learning

2025-01-8126To be published on 04/01/2025

Rechargeable lithium batteries are widely used in the electric vehicle industry due to their long lifespan and high energy density. However, after long-term repeated charging and discharging, various electrochemical reactions inside lithium batteries can lead to performance degradation and even cause battery fires. Estimating the health status and predicting the remaining life of lithium batteries can provide insights into their future operating conditions, which is crucial for achieving fault warnings and ensuring the safe operation of battery-related equipment. In terms of predicting the health status of lithium batteries, this paper proposes a method based on an improved LSTM for health status estimation. This method first employs nearest neighbor component analysis to eliminate feature redundancy among the multidimensional health factors of the battery. Then, the differential grey wolf optimization algorithm is used to globally optimize the hyperparameters of the LSTM. The

K, Meng Zi

Effectiveness of Nail Penetration for Thermal Propagation Test in Battery Packs and Vehicles

2025-01-8128To be published on 04/01/2025

The number of electric vehicles (EVs) has increased significantly in recent years. Consequently, incidents of EV fires have been reported. To protect passengers and evaluate battery robustness, thermal propagation tests are conducted. Typically, these tests initiate a cell in a battery pack using either a heater or a nail. While the heater method is commonly used, the nail method faces restrictions when selecting an initiation cell, especially for battery pack and vehicle testing. For battery pack testing, vertical penetration against the vehicle's travel direction does not have cell selection restrictions. However, for horizontal penetration, the initiation cells are limited to the outermost cells in the battery pack. In vehicle testing, horizontal penetration is unfeasible, whereas vertical penetration from bottom to top is possible. To demonstrate the feasibility of the nail method for battery pack and vehicle testing, especially in vehicles, nail tests were conducted on an electric

Maeda, Kiyotaka, Takahashi, Masashi

Cost Analysis of Battery Electric and Fuel Cell Powertrains for Class 8 Heavy-Duty Trucks in Real-World Scenarios: A 2024, 2035 and 2050 Perspective

2025-01-8592To be published on 04/01/2025

This study evaluates the performance of alternative powertrains for Class 8 heavy-duty trucks under a variety of real-world driving conditions, cargo loads, and operating ranges. Energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and the Levelized Cost of Driving (LCOD) were assessed for different powertrain technologies in 2023, 2035, and 2050, considering anticipated technological advancements. The analysis was conducted using simulation models that accurately reflect vehicle dynamics, powertrain components, and energy storage systems, leveraging real-world driving data. The Argonne National Laboratory's POLARIS, SVTrip, Autonomie, and TechScape software were used in an integrated simulation workflow for this analysis. Additionally, a sensitivity analysis was conducted on fuel and battery costs to understand their impact on economic outcomes. The study considered a hydrogen cost of $4/kg in 2035 and 2050, three AEO2023 low, medium, high diesel cost scenarios, and electricity costs ranging

Mansour, Charbel, Bou Gebrael, Julien, Kancharla, Amarendra, Freyermuth, Vincent, Islam, Ehsan Sabri, Vijayagopal, Ram, Sahin, Olcay, Zuniga, Natalia, Nieto Prada, Daniela, Alhajjar, Michel, Rousseau, Aymeric, Borhan, Hoseinali, El Ganaoui-Mourlan, Ouafae

Driver-Centric Direct Current Fast Charging of Electric Vehicles via Energy Optimal Thermal Management

2025-01-8374To be published on 04/01/2025

Charging a battery electric vehicle at extreme temperatures can lead to battery deterioration without proper thermal management. To avoid battery degradation, charging current is generally limited at extreme hot and cold battery temperatures. Splitting the wall power between charging and the thermal management system with the aim of minimizing charging time is a challenging problem especially with the strong thermal coupling with the charging current. Existing research focus on formulating the battery thermal management control problem as a minimum charging time optimal control problem. The current control strategy forces the driver to charge with minimum time and higher charging cost irrespective of their driving schedule. This paper presents a driver-centric DCFC control framework by formulating the power split between thermal management and charging as an optimal control problem with the goal of improving the wall-to-vehicle energy efficiency. Proposed energy-efficient charging

Gupta, Shobhit, Kang, Jun-Mo, Zhu, Yongjie, Lee, Chunhao, Zanardelli, Wesley

Technology Package Optimization for Power, Cost, and Efficiency in a Dedicated Range Extender Engine for Electrified Vehicles

2025-01-8373To be published on 04/01/2025

A reemergence of manufacturer interest in range-extended electric vehicles is being driven by increasing diversification of consumer interest in low carbon-intensity technologies in the passenger vehicle and other markets. A major advantage of range-extended electric vehicles is that they curtail consumer vehicle range anxiety while maintaining a lower vehicle cost when compared with battery electric vehicles (BEV). By incorporating a small liquid-fueled internal combustion engine (ICE), the range and “refueling” time of electrified vehicles can be significantly improved while overcoming issues with cost and weight faced by long-range battery packs. Compared to ICEs designed for non-hybrid and mild hybrid vehicles, the ICE in a range-extended electric vehicle has a unique set of requirements focused on compact size, low cost, and efficient operation within a limited engine map. The MAHLE Range Extender (REx) is a dedicated engine design for such applications, prioritizing these

Peters, Nathan, Marion, Joshua, Pothuraju Subramanyam, Sai, Hoth, Alexander, Bunce, Mike

Learning-Based Cell Level Battery Digital Twin for Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8386To be published on 04/01/2025

Electric vehicles rely on accurate estimation of battery states to operate safely and efficiently. Traditionally, the state estimation is pack level and based on empirical models developed to capture the dynamics of a representative battery pack and hence fall short in accounting for cell-to-cell variations. These variations become more pronounced as the cells age within a battery pack under non-homogeneous mechanical, thermal, manufacturing, and electrical conditions. It is challenging to adapt the traditional physics-based model to changing battery dynamics in real-time. To improve the state estimation at the cell level, a data-driven approach utilizing streamed data from vehicles enabled by connectivity has been shown in this paper. While traditional data-driven approaches result in large models and require large quantities of data for training, the proposed method relies on combining the underlying physics of the electrochemical model with novel data-driven modeling techniques. The

Gupta, Shobhit, Hegde, Bharatkumar, Haskara, Ibrahim, Shieh, Su-Yang, Chang, Insu

Research on Crash Simulation and Safety of Automotive Power Battery

2025-01-8226To be published on 04/01/2025

In order to analyze the safety performance of the power battery pack of a certain model and optimize it. The finite element model of the battery pack is constructed by Hyperworks software, and then the pre-processing of the finite element model is carried out, which includes the simplification of the model, mesh partitioning, parameter selection and so on. The processed model is used to simulate and analyze the mechanical impact, random vibration, and side rigid column collision of the battery pack, and explore the specific situation of the damage of the power battery pack. Under the current GB, in combination with E-NCAP, a simulation program is provided for the battery pack to be subjected to side rigid column collision. In order to reduce the mass of the automotive power battery pack under certain working conditions, parametric modeling of its components and parameter optimization combined with multi-objective genetic algorithms are carried out, and the results show that the mass of

Wang, Zhi

Multiphysics-Multiscale Reduced Order Model Based Design Optimization of an Immersion Cooled Battery System

2025-01-8185To be published on 04/01/2025

A vital aspect of Ultra-Fast Charging (UFC) Li-Ion battery packs is their thermal management system, which directly influences safety, performance, and cell longevity. Immersion cooling technology offers superior effectiveness compared to indirect cold plate cooling, as it allows for faster heat dissipation and has the potential to significantly mitigate thermal runaway propagation, enhance overall pack performance, and extend cell life. To achieve faster design optimization and deeper insights, high-fidelity Multiphysics-Multiscale simulations are essential. In this study, Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) based electro-thermally coupled CFD simulations are utilized to optimize an innovative busbar design that facilitates the removal of individual cells. Additionally, high-fidelity 3D transient flow-thermal simulations have been employed to optimize coolant flow direction, inlet positions, cell spacing, and separator design, ensuring efficient flow distribution within the module. While

Tyagi, Ramavtar, Negro, Sergio, Baranowski, Alex, Atluri, Prasad

Performance Analysis of Cooling Plates for Battery Packages Based on Biomimetic Leaf-Vein Structures

2025-01-8174To be published on 04/01/2025

The liquid-cooled plate is a critical component of the liquid-cooled system for battery packages.Battery overheating problem under charging and discharging can be solved effectively by a liquid-cooled plate with superior thermal performance.A liquid-cooled plate with a leaf-vein-like structure aiming to enhance the cooling performance was proposed and designed. A test bench of the battery pack cooling system was built,and an experimental for battery pack cooling system was carried. The maximum temperature,temperature difference of batteries inside a module and flow resistance the liquid-cooled plate were measured. A model for thermal analysis of the liquid-cooled plate was established,and the model was validated by the data obtained from the experiment.The effects of parameters such as the number of main and secondary flow channels,the inclination angle of the secondary flow channels and the inlet flow distribution on the fluid and temperature characteristics of the battery pack

Liao, Changsheng, Wang, Xihui, Zhou, Fupeng, Li, Kunyuan, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Extreme-Fast Charging Performance Optimization of Immersion-Cooled Battery Systems with Cylindrical Cells

2025-01-8169To be published on 04/01/2025

Efficient and robust optimization frameworks are essential to develop and parametrize battery management system (BMS) controls algorithms. In such multi-physics application, the tradeoff between fast-charging performance and aging degradation needs to be solved while simultaneously preventing the onset of thermal runaway. To this end, a multi-objective optimization framework was developed for immersion-cooled battery systems that provides optimal charging rates and dielectric flowrates while minimizing aging and charging time objectives. The developed production-oriented framework consists of a fully coupled, lumped electro-thermal-aging model with core-to-surface and immersion-cooling heat transfer, the latter controlled by the dielectric fluid flowrate. The modeled core temperatures are inputs to a semi-empirical aging degradation model, in which a fast-aging solver computes the updated capacity and internal resistance over multiple timescales, and feedback into the electrical and

Suzuki, Jorge, Tran, Manh-Kien, Tyagi, Ramavtar, Meshginqalam, Ata, Zhou, Zijie, Nakhla, David, Atluri, Prasad

Development of the Power- and Usage-based Simulator for evaluating Off-road Mobile Machinery Energy Consumption

2025-01-8595To be published on 04/01/2025

This paper presents the development of a new vehicle simulation software, the Power- and Usage-Based Simulator Tool (referred to as the Power-Based Model), designed to predict fuel consumption and evaluate advanced powertrain technologies for off-road mobile machinery. The Power-Based Model integrates current research on fuel consumption simulation in the off-road vehicle sector and serves as a platform to pilot the development of advanced powertrain technologies such as battery-electric and fuel cell powertrains. The tool is aimed at predicting the necessary battery capacity and hydrogen storage requirements when transitioning to these advanced powertrains, thereby facilitating component sizing and fuel consumption reduction calculations. The Power-Based Model was developed with a strong focus on the unique operational characteristics of off-road machinery, ensuring that it realistically reflects real-world energy consumption and the competitive advantages of various fuel-saving

Kim, Namdoo, Seo, Jigu, Vijayagopal, Ram, Burnham, Andrew, makarczyk, David, Freyermuth, Vincent

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