Browse Topic: Energy storage systems

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Comprehensive Review on Strategies for Preventing and Managing Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles2025-32-0099To be published on 11/03/2025
The rapid growth of electric vehicle adoption has elevated lithium-ion batteries as a cornerstone of modern transportation. However, this advancement is accompanied by increasing incidents of thermal runaway, a hazardous failure process involving uncontrolled temperature rise, combustion, or explosion. Particularly in space-constrained platforms such as electric two-wheelers, the risk is intensified due to limited thermal buffers and cost-driven design constraints. This study presents a comprehensive review and experimental investigation into strategies for preventing and managing thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries. It begins by analyzing global incident trends and correlating them with the expanding electric vehicle market. The research examines the fundamental mechanisms of thermal runaway, emphasizing the roles of battery aging, material degradation, internal defects, and abuse conditions. A range of thermal safety enhancement approaches is critically reviewed, including
Jain, Gaurav, PREMLAL, P, Pathak, Rahul, Gore, Pandurang
Technical Paper
Machine Learning-Enhanced Electrical Circuit Model Parametrization for Battery Cells: Reducing Experimental Workload Through GITT Testing with Altair RapidMiner®2025-32-0097To be published on 11/03/2025
This study addresses the challenge of reducing the experimental workload involved in characterizing battery cell behavior as a function of state of charge and temperature. Galvanostatic Intermittent Titration Technique tests were carried out in a climate chamber across a wide temperature range, from -20 °C to 70 °C, with 10 °C intervals. The voltage and current response data collected from these tests were used to train several machine learning algorithms. The trained models could then be used to predict the cell voltage response every 5 °C from -15 °C to 55 °C. While the models were experimentally validated at 15 °C, 25 °C, and 35 °C, the predicted voltages across this range contribute to enhancing the characterization process. In particular, the inclusion of these predicted voltage profiles—combined with the experimental data collected every 10 °C from -20 °C to 70 °C—allows for the creation of more accurate lookup tables for the parameters of the equivalent circuit model. These
Giuliano, Luca, Peretto, Lorenzo, Canella, Nicholas, Nefat, Damir
Technical Paper
Development of a Fuel Cell System for Small Mobility Applications with Severe Load Fluctuations2025-32-0038To be published on 11/03/2025
In recent years, small electric mobility powered by fuel cells have been proposed as a way to achieve a carbon neutral society. One reason for the proposal is that fuel cells have an advantage over battery electric vehicle (BEV) in traveling range and refueling time. This study develops a hybrid system combining a fuel cell and a lithium-ion capacitor (LiC) for small electric mobility applications with severe load fluctuations. The proposed system achieves a 53% reduction in size, a 50% reduction in weight, and a 23% improvement in acceleration performance compared to a configuration using a lithium-ion battery (LiB) as the secondary battery, while also reducing load fluctuations in the fuel cell. Although LiCs tend to be compact, lightweight, and capable of high output, they have limited discharge capacity. To address this, a prototype hybrid system combining a fuel cell and an LiB was initially constructed to verify the system’s ability to suppress load fluctuations through current
suzuki, masaya, Nakata, Nobuhiro
Technical Paper
Strategies for Improving Energy Consumption for Electric Vehicles.2025-32-0092To be published on 11/03/2025
The global transition toward sustainability and decarburization has positioned Electric Vehicles (EVs) at the forefront of future mobility. While EVs inherently offer lower emissions compared to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, optimizing their energy efficiency remains a critical challenge to ensure their viability, affordability, and widespread adoption. With global EV sales surpassing 10 million units in 2022 representing over 14% of the global vehicle market. Energy efficiency has emerged as a cornerstone in addressing key concerns such as range anxiety, charging infrastructure, operational costs and overall environmental impact. This paper embarks on a comprehensive journey, beginning with the historical evolution of EVs and identifying the multifaceted energy losses that occur during vehicle operation. By mapping the energy distribution within a typical EV, the study lays a foundational understanding of where and how inefficiencies arise. It then explores current
Jain, Gaurav, PREMLAL, P, Pathak, Rahul, Gore, Pandurang
Technical Paper
Development of Electronic Control in Strong Hybrid Motorcycle2025-32-0091To be published on 11/03/2025
In response to the growing demand for environmental performance, the mobility industry is actively developing electrification, and in particular, the use of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) in commuting motorcycles is advancing. However, in the case of vehicles for leisure, which require high riding performance, there are problems such as cruising range and charging time, and there are currently few mass-produced models. Therefore, we proposed a hybrid motorcycle to achieve both environmental performance and high riding performance by means other than BEV. The proposed vehicle is equipped with a strong type hybrid system in which an engine and a drive motor are connected in parallel via a hydraulic electronically controlled clutch. It is possible to run only by the motor (EV driving) or by a hybrid running powered by both the engine and the motor (HEV driving). In order to improve environmental performance, it is necessary to develop a function for switching between EV and HEV driving
Obayashi, Kosuke, Terai, Shohei, Jino, Kenichi, Kawai, Daisuke
Technical Paper
Electrification potential of Small ICE Powertrain Applications2025-32-0094To be published on 11/03/2025
The reduction of the CO2 footprint of transport vehicles is a major challenge to minimize the harmful impact of technology on the environment. Besides passenger cars and light and heavy-duty vehicles, this affects also the two-wheeler category and the non-road mobile machinery (NRMM). One promising path for the de-carbonisation is the transition from fossil-fuel powered ICE powertrains to electric powertrains. Several examples of electrified powertrains showcase possibilities for small hand-held powertools or small mopeds and scooters. As the powertrain categories two-wheeler and NRMM are very diversified and consist of various sub-categories and sub-classes with many different applications, the feasibility of electrification for the whole category cannot be judged by few examples. In this publication a methodology for assessing the electrification potential of small NRMM and two-wheelers is shown. The method uses 4 different factors, which determine the feasibility for electrification
Schmidt, Stephan, Schacht, Hans-Juergen, Weller, Konstantin, Absenger, Johann Friedrich
Technical Paper
Passive solution for Battery Disconnect Unit thermal management for electric vehicle fast charging: numerical study and experimental validation2025-01-0420To be published on 10/07/2025
Charging time is a major problem with electric vehicles development and use. The difficulty of finding a charging station and especially the duration needed for a full charge are becoming more and more important topics in electric vehicles selling points. Fast-charging is more and more used on new developed vehicles but also on existing vehicles. One of the limits of fast-charging electric vehicles is the overheating of the different components in the car, the station, and the charging system. One of the key components in this system is the battery disconnect unit. This element is responsible for monitoring, activating and deactivating the high voltage battery system. It is essential to maintain it at convenient temperatures and prevent it from overheating. These components are designed today for normal charging power, but with increasing charging powers and reducing charging time, thermal management of these components become essential. This paper presents a passive way to allow the
Salameh, Georges, Goumy, Guillaume, Chalet, David, Dubouil, Rémi, Frecinaux, Anthony, Palluel, Marlène, Ratajczack, Christelle, Noiseau, Pascal
Technical Paper
Development of a virtual test rig to evaluate thermal management of a battery-electric vehicle under a heating-cooling mode2025-01-0413To be published on 10/07/2025
This work presents a systematic approach to developing a virtual test rig for evaluating the thermal performance of battery electric vehicles. A mass-produced battery-electric sport utility vehicle is tested in a chassis dynamometer, and the measured vehicle performance data are used as boundary conditions for the complete vehicle model. The detailed lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack model with its cooling system was developed and calibrated with various transient driving cycle data. The HVAC model is developed using a simplified controller to maintain the cabin temperature at 25 °C during both heating and cooling modes. The complete vehicle model is used to compare the thermal performances of the BEV under cabin heating and cooling modes for various transient driving cycles. The simulated results show that using an external cabin air circulation model can reduce the battery energy consumption and dissipated heat by 9.9% and 2.4%, respectively.
Sok, Ratnak, Kusaka, Jin
Technical Paper
Efficient Prediction of Electric Vehicle Battery Temperature2025-01-0419To be published on 10/07/2025
Maintaining the temperature of lithium-ion batteries within electric vehicles across a wide range of driving scenarios and ambient temperatures is critical for ensuring both safety and long battery life. However, accurately predicting the temperature of batteries that thermally interact with dynamic systems—such as drive cycles, cooling systems, and vehicle components—can be computationally expensive and too slow for the iterative nature of design processes. To address this, our research employs a combination of 1D thermal modeling, a modified lumped capacitance approach, and experimental testing to develop a fast and reliable framework for analyzing battery thermal performance. The model captures the interaction between the drive cycle, cooling plate, coolant flow, thermal interface material, and battery geometry and properties. This hybrid approach balances accuracy and computational efficiency, enabling rapid exploration of thermal design strategies during early-stage vehicle
Builes, Isabel, Bachman, John Christopher, Medina, Mario
Technical Paper
ML-Based System Level Optimization of EV Cooling Circuit2025-01-0376To be published on 10/07/2025
Efficient thermal management is vital for electric vehicles (EVs) to maintain optimal operating temperatures and enhance energy efficiency. Traditional simulation-based design approaches, while accurate, are often computationally expensive and limited in their ability to explore large design spaces. This study introduces a machine learning (ML)-based optimization framework for the design of an EV cooling circuit, targeting a 5°C reduction in the maximum electric motor temperature. A one-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (1D-CFD) model is utilized to generate a Design of Experiments (DOE) matrix, incorporating key parameters such as coolant flow rate and heat exchanger dimensions. A Radial Basis Function (RBF) neural network is trained on the simulation data to serve as a surrogate model, enabling rapid performance prediction. Optimization is performed using the Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA2), yielding three distinct design solutions that meet the thermal
Paul, Kavin, Ganesan, Arul, Mansour, Youssef
Technical Paper
The Role of EV Charging Infrastructure in Shaping Energy Pricing and Consumer Behavior – Case Study in Saudi Arabia2025-01-0421To be published on 10/07/2025
As the electric vehicle (EV) industry grows rapidly in Saudi Arabia, driven by the development of companies such as Ceer, Lucid, and Tesla, there is an increasing need to evaluate and adapt electricity tariff structures to address changing demand patterns. This study explores the interaction between EV charging infrastructure, electricity pricing strategies, and consumer behavior, aiming to provide insights that support the sustainable expansion of the electric mobility ecosystem in the Kingdom. The methodology incorporates demand-supply analysis, energy consumption forecasting, and comparative assessments of tariff models implemented in other countries, with Saudi Arabia serving as a case study aligned with Vision 2030 objectives. Although EV adoption is expected to increase electricity demand, the Kingdom’s generation capacity, which reached 453 TWh in 2023 and is projected to exceed future consumption, ensures a stable and sufficient supply. Currently, public EV charging services
AlJuhani, Haneen Radi A, Bedywi, Lama Mohammed A, AbdulNour, Bashar
Technical Paper
Impact of the Range Extender Engine Configuration on Powertrain Performance and Vehicle Integration2025-01-0386To be published on 10/07/2025
The light-duty transportation sector is experiencing a worldwide push towards reduced carbon intensity. One pathway that has been developed focuses on replacing internal combustion engine-based vehicles with full-electric battery electric vehicles (BEV), which offer local CO2-free mobility. However, batteries offer a limited mobility range and require unfavorable long recharging times, leading to a limited range perception among some customers. Range-extended electric vehicles (REEV) utilize a small internal combustion engine to mitigate the range concerns of BEVs, while also enabling a battery size reduction with its associated improvements in cost, weight, and manufacturing CO2 intensity. A previous study by the authors discussed evaluation criteria for range extenders and compared additive technology options to enable cost-, efficiency, or power-optimized REEV applications using a modular approach. This study contrasts the dedicated range extender engine and associated modular
Hoth, Alexander, Marion, Joshua, Silvano, Peter, Peters, Nathan, Pothuraju Subramanyam, Sai Krishna, Bunce, Mike
Technical Paper
Enhancing Robustness of Electro-Hydraulic Brake-by-Wire Actuators via Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control2025-01-0341To be published on 09/15/2025
In recent years, motorsport has increasingly focused on environmental concerns, leading to the rise of hybrid and fully electric competitions. In this scenario, electric motors and batteries take a crucial role in reducing the environmental impact by recovering energy during braking. However, due to inherent limitations, motors and battery cannot fully capture all braking power, necessitating the use of standard friction brakes. To achieve an efficient balance between electric motors and friction brakes, the brake pressure can no longer be directly controlled by the driver. Instead, it must be computed by the Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) and sent to a smart actuator, i.e. the Brake-By-Wire (BBW), which ensures that the required pressure is applied. The standard approach to achieve precise pressure control is to design a nested Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control architecture, which requires an accurate nominal model of the system dynamics to meet the desired tracking
Gimondi, Alex, Dubbini, Alberto, Riva, Giorgio, Cantoni, Carlo
Technical Paper
An Investigation of a Battery Module Thermal Behaviour Based on CFD Simulations and Experimental Tests2025-24-0144To be published on 09/07/2025
Battery management systems are the key component in electric vehicles (EVs), which are increasingly replacing internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in the automotive industry. Battery management systems mainly focus on battery thermal management, efficiency, battery life and the safety conditions. Generally, lithium-ion batteries have been chosen in EV cars. Therefore, the internal resistance of Li-ion batteries plays a crucial role in the thermal behaviour. Most of the published studies rely on 0D-1D models to analyse single cell thermal behaviour depending on the internal resistance at different ambient temperatures and charging/ discharging rates, and on the cooling system However, these models, though fast, cannot provide detailed information about the temperature distribution within a cell or a module. Full 3D CFD-CHT simulations on the other hand, are very time consuming and require highly qualified computers, but allow a deeper understanding of the cell/module thermal
Karaca, Cem, Olmeda, Pablo, Margot, Xandra, Postrioti, Lucio, Baldinelli, Giorgio
Technical Paper
Practical Mixed Parameter Obtention Framework for Li-Ion Battery Electrochemical and Degradation Models Based on Parameter Classification and Physical Measurement2025-24-0141To be published on 09/07/2025
Prediction of EV performance through lifetime is a crucial task. However, accurate prediction of states of LIBs remains a challenge due to the complexity of detailed electrochemical models, absence of a single universally accepted approach for the identification of model parameters and limitations in invasive and non-invasive parameter obtention methods. Classification and estimation of the most relevant parameters under different steps will enhance the identifiability of parameters in P2D models operating under various conditions. On the other hand, reliable estimation of the internal state of batteries can be drawn with proper integration of material parameters into the battery model. In this study, a systematic classification framework of parameter obtention was proposed through multi-steps for P2D electrochemical and degradation models. Furthermore, a practical mixed approach is developed for parameter obtention of P2D models with optimization-based calibration methodology and
Mehranfar, Sadegh, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Garcia, Antonio, Micó, Carlos, Elkourchi, Imad, Bekaert, Emilie, Herran, Alvaro, Konno, Juho
Technical Paper
Multilevel control strategy design and optimization for fuel cell hybrid heavy-duty vehicles2025-24-0107To be published on 09/07/2025
The heavy-duty transportation sector is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, highlighting the urgent need for zero-emission solutions. This research develops a multilevel control architecture that optimizes fuel economy and minimizes emissions in fuel cell hybrid heavy-duty vehicles, equipped with proton exchange membrane fuel cell and battery pack as main power sources. The detailed fuel cell system model incorporates reactants and thermal dynamics, including air supply, hydrogen flow, water management and their effects on reaction kinetics, membrane conductivity, water balance, performance and durability. The low-level control strategy is designed using a physics-based approach that accounts for critical constraints, including temperature, membrane water content and differential pressure between the cathode and anode. By identifying optimal setpoints for key control variables, this methodology enables the development of accurate control maps for actuator management
Bove, Giovanni, Aliberti, Paolo, Simone, Christian, Sorrentino, Marco, Pianese, Cesare
Technical Paper
Battery datasets for neural network-based State-of-Health estimators: a review and implementative workflow2025-24-0139To be published on 09/07/2025
Correct management of the battery systems for electric vehicles, at pack, module and cell level, has critical importance to ensure safe and efficient operation. Proper control at cell level, requires estimation of battery statuses, such as the State-of-Charge and the State-of-Health, as they cannot directly measured during vehicle operation. With the increasing advances in sensor availability, edge computing and the development of big data, data-driven approaches have gained increasing interest. In particular, due to their great flexibility and potential in mapping non-linear relations within data, application of machine learning (ML) and neural networks (NNs) in SoH estimation have been thoroughly investigated. The numerous studies available in literature leveraged extracted different features from data to train NNs, or directly used measurements signal as input. Additionally, many studies available in literature are based on a limited number of publicly available datasets, which
Chianese, Giovanni, Capasso, Clemente, Veneri, Ottorino
Technical Paper
Use of Model-Based Datasets and Neural-Networks to support Real-Time Driving Suggestions System for Components Preservation in Battery Electric Vehicles2025-24-0115To be published on 09/07/2025
Nowadays, Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) are considered an attractive solution to support the transition towards more sustainable transportation systems. Although their well-known advantages in terms of overall propulsion efficiency and exhaust emissions, the diffusion of BEVs on the market is still reduced by some technical bottlenecks. Among those, the uncertainty about the expected durability of the vehicle's onboard battery packs plays a key role in affecting customer choice. In this context, this paper proposes the use of model-based datasets for training a driving support system based on machine learning techniques to be installed on board. The objective of this system is to acquire vehicle, environmental, and traffic information from sensor’ networks and provide real-time smart suggestions to the driver to preserve the remaining useful life of vehicle components, with particular reference to the battery pack and brakes. For the generation of the training dataset, first, a set
Bernardi, Mario Luca, Capasso, Clemente, Iannucci, Luigi, Sequino, Luigi
Technical Paper
Evaluating safety behavior of Li-ion batteries regarding negative electrode composition2025-24-0149To be published on 09/07/2025
Li-ion battery performance is highly dependent on the electrode materials. The composition of the negative and positive electrodes influences crucial aspects of the Li-ion cell, including energy density, ageing behavior and thermal stability. Recent Li-ion technologies include the use of composite graphite-silicon negative electrodes to improve the energy storage capacity of the otherwise graphite-only negative electrode. This article evaluates the impact of negative electrode composition (standard graphite vs. Si-Gr) on the performance of two recent technologies of Li-ion batteries from the same manufacturer, focusing on electrical performance and safety behavior. The studied technologies are the LG M50LT and LG M58T, the latest one introducing a considerable increase of capacity, passing from 4.80 to 5.65 in nominal capacity. This article abords the comparison of both technologies in electric performance, electrode composition, cell design and thermal stability. Electrical
Cruz Rodriguez, Jesus Armando, Lecompte, Matthieu, Redondo-Iglesias, Eduardo, Pelissier, Serge, Abada, Sara
Technical Paper
A comprehensive electro-thermal and fluid-dynamic model for liquid-cooled lithium-ion cells: development and experimental validation2025-24-0145To be published on 09/07/2025
The temperature evolution of lithium-ion cells under operation has a significant impact on their performance, efficiency, and aging. Modeling the thermal status of lithium-ion cells is crucial to predict and prevent undesired working conditions or even failures. In this context, this paper presents a mathematical model to predict the transient temperature distributions of a lithium-ion polymer battery (LiPo) cooled by forced convection via a specially designed channel plate for liquid cooling. For the battery modeling, Newman’s pseudo-2D approach was used to perform a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. It assumes that the porous electrode is made of equally sized, isotropic, homogeneous spherical particles, which results in smooth, uniform intercalation/de-intercalation of lithium inside the electrode. Also, the channel plate geometry and the cooling liquid fluid-dynamic behavior were simulated with a commercial code based on the finite volume method. The model has been set
Ferrari, Cristian, Magri, Luca, Sequino, Luigi
Technical Paper
Methodological approach to Battery Electric Vehicle design: Energy-Based model development from a detailed Digital Twin2025-24-0098To be published on 09/07/2025
On the path to the decarbonization of the transport sector, the development of electric vehicles (EVs) is crucial to meeting the targets set by international regulatory bodies. EVs operate with zero tailpipe emissions and offer high energy efficiency and flexibility; however, challenges remain in achieving a fully sustainable electricity supply. In this context, powertrain design plays a fundamental role in determining vehicle performance and mission feasibility, which are strongly influenced by operating conditions and application characteristics, such as driving profiles and ambient temperature. A key challenge is the optimal sizing of components, particularly the battery pack and the electric motor. Therefore, a structured and methodological approach to powertrain design is essential to ensuring an optimal configuration. To this end, the project focuses on an integrated approach based on a master-and-slave modeling framework applied to a light-duty commercial vehicle at two levels
Bartolucci, Lorenzo, Cennamo, Edoardo, Grattarola, Federico, Lombardi, Simone, Mulone, Vincenzo, Tribioli, Laura, Aimo Boot, Marco
Technical Paper
ACTIVE TEMPERATURE CONTROL STRATEGIES WITH LIQUID COOLING THERMAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR LI-ION BATTERIES2025-24-0148To be published on 09/07/2025
Nowadays, electric vehicles (EVs) are considered one of the most promising solutions for reducing pollutant emissions related to the road transportation sector. Although these vehicles have achieved a high level of reliability, various challenges about Li-ion storage systems and their thermal management systems remain unresolved. This work proposes a numerical and experimental study of a lithium-ion storage cell with a scaled battery thermal management system (BTMS). In particular, a channel plate for liquid cooling is specifically designed and manufactured for the cell under test. The BTMS is based on the development of an indirect liquid cooling system with optimal control of the coolant flow rate to fulfill the thermal requirements of the system. A lumped parameters approach is used to simulate the electro-thermal behavior of the system and to analyze the effects of real-time control strategies on the temperature of the cell under test. An ad-hoc experimental test rig is set up for
Capasso, Clemente, Castiglione, Teresa, Perrone, Diego, Sequino, Luigi
Technical Paper
When Electric Vehicles Sleep: Investigating Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Precooling in Extreme Temperature Conditions2025-24-0146To be published on 09/07/2025
Effective thermal management is essential for optimizing the performance and longevity of lithium-ion battery packs, particularly in electric vehicles facing extreme temperature conditions. This study investigates the performance of an indirect liquid cooling system used for pre-cooling stationary electric vehicle battery packs, focusing on scenarios such as vehicle sleep mode in high-temperature conditions. The cooling system, which utilizes a water-glycol mixture flowing at 1.2 L/min, was tested on a battery pack consisting of 36 prismatic battery cells in a thermally isolated chamber, subjected to initial temperatures of 50.0°C, 60.0°C, and 69.5°C. To assess the thermal behavior, 25 thermocouples were strategically positioned on the battery surface, and inlet coolant temperature was monitored via an additional thermocouple. An exponential cooling response was observed across all temperature cases, with maximum temperature difference between the hottest and coldest cells reaching 7.6
Darvish, Hossein, Carlucci, Antonio Paolo, Ficarella, Antonio, Laforgia, Domenico
Technical Paper
Effect of PEM Fuel Cell Technology Advancement on the Energy Efficiency of a Heavy-Duty Vehicle2025-24-0111To be published on 09/07/2025
Advancements in fuel cell stack technology—such as improved power density, catalyst utilization, and durability—have significantly enhanced system efficiency and reduced hydrogen consumption in heavy-duty fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). In parallel, innovations in auxiliary subsystems, including air supply management, thermal regulation, and energy storage integration, have minimized parasitic losses, optimized fuel usage, and improved battery state-of-charge dynamics. These technological improvements collectively influence vehicle operation under varying load conditions, affecting both transient response and overall energy efficiency. To systematically assess these impacts, this study evaluates key performance metrics such as compressor-related energy losses, fuel utilization, and battery performance. The current vehicle simulation model relies on an outdated fuel cell system based on technology from 20 years ago, which no longer accurately reflects the efficiency potential of
Dursun, Beyza, Johansson, Max, Tunestal, Per, aronsson, Ulf, Eriksson, Lars, Andersson, Oivind
Technical Paper
Development and parametrization of a physics-based ageing model for Li-ion battery cells2025-24-0140To be published on 09/07/2025
Although significant progress has been made on developing electrochemical models of Li-ion batteries performance, there is a significant gap in predictive, physics-based modelling of the degradation mechanisms. In this work, we perform a systematic experimental and modelling study to explore the potential of predictive battery ageing models. A commercial NMC pouch cell is initially characterized in detail using tear-down analysis, electrical and electrothermal tests to obtain the electrochemical model parameters and validate its fidelity in a large range of operating conditions in terms of temperature, state-of-charge and load. The cell is then exposed to accelerated ageing operating conditions and its performance is monitored regularly to obtain its degradation rate in terms of capacity and resistance. The aged cell is also characterized by tear-down and optical techniques. The experimentally obtained test database is used to develop and validate the mathematical models that describe
Koltsakis, Grigorios, Spyridopoulos, Spyridon, Chatziioannou, Panteleimon, Tentzos, Michail
Technical Paper
Effects of the battery pack temperature on the energy management strategy and fuel consumption of a series hybrid quadricycle2025-24-0101To be published on 09/07/2025
Nowadays, a push towards decarbonisation to reduce the problem of environmental pollution is increasingly pressing. In the current automotive context, a tendency among the cars manufacturer to consider the development of hybrid vehicles is growing. Indeed, thanks to the battery downsizing due to the presence of the range extender (REx), a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) allows to overcome the limitations of pure electric vehicles (EV) such as the infrastructure which is linked to the battery charging process. Moreover, the performance of battery in terms of efficiency and operating limits are strictly related to the temperature of battery pack and to the energy management strategy (EMS). The proposed work aims to analyse the performance of a series hybrid vehicle (S-HEV) depending on the temperature of battery pack and the EMS. The considered S-HEV is equipped with a hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engine that is used as REx. First, a lumped thermal model of the battery pack is
Cervone, Davide, Sicilia, Massimo, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare
Technical Paper
Methanol cold start for a serial hybrid powertrain2025-24-0074To be published on 09/07/2025
Green methanol is a renewable fuel with many advantages when used in a spark ignition combustion process. Methanol has a comparatively high enthalpy of vaporization, leading to lower combustion temperatures (com-pared to gasoline combustion) and, hence, lower wall heat losses as well as a reduced tendency to pre-ignition. Therefore, a brake efficiency of more than 40 % and furthermore minimal emissions are possible. The serial combination with an electric powertrain provides a disconnection of the load demand of the powertrain and the operating point of the combustion engine. In this case, a high volumetric and gravimetric power density, easy energy storage, and proven infrastructure of fuel distribution is combined with electric driving, high efficiencies, minimal emissions and a closed carbon cycle for the energy provision. Nevertheless, the high flash point of methanol at 11°C indicates a challenging cold start. The described procedure enables the cold start of pure methanol down to
Dobberkau, Maximilian, Werner, Ronny, Atzler, Frank
Technical Paper
An eco-charging strategy for heavy-duty electric vehicles via graph optimization2025-24-0116To be published on 09/07/2025
The adoption of heavy-duty electric vehicles (HDEVs) presents significant challenges in trip planning due to high energy consumption, limited battery capacity, and the reduced availability of high-power charging stations. Unlike passenger EVs, HDEVs require careful coordination of routing and charging decisions to ensure both operational efficiency and feasibility. This work proposes a graph-based optimization framework for eco-charging strategies that jointly optimizes energy consumption, travel time, and charging costs while considering road, traffic, and infrastructure constraints. The methodology relies on constructing first a routing graph, where nodes represent waypoints, and edges represent road links with attributes such as speed limits, traffic conditions, and energy consumption. This graph is then extended into a hypergraph, where nodes incorporate information about both vehicle location and state-of-charge (SOC), while edges represent either driving or charging actions. The
Zonetti, Daniele, Sciarretta, Antonio, De Nunzio, Giovanni
Technical Paper
A Critical Assessment of Phase Change Materials for Boosting EV Efficiency2025-24-0147To be published on 09/07/2025
Effective thermal management in battery packs is a key technology for enhancing the efficiency and longevity of battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Traditional active cooling systems can consume significant amounts of energy, thereby impacting the vehicle's overall efficiency. This paper explores the use of phase change materials (PCMs) as a complementary cooling technology, enabling both an improved active and an extended passive conditioning of battery packs. By leveraging the unique properties of PCMs, it is possible to partially operate the battery system without active cooling, thus reducing the overall energy consumption and improving vehicle autonomy. The phase change phenomenon further offers the benefit of a homogeneous temperature distribution within the battery pack. This study addresses the potential of PCMs as a thermal management solution for battery packs by firstly identifying suitable materials meeting requirements specific to such application. In addition, the paper
Fandakov, Alexander, Nolte, Oliver, Herzog, Alexander, Sens, Marc
Technical Paper
A 0D Methodology for Estimating Critical Parameters in Thermal Runaway Tests of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Closed Volumes2025-24-0150To be published on 09/07/2025
The growing push for electrification, driven by the need to reduce emissions associated with combustion engines, has accelerated the adoption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, this rapid development raises significant safety concerns, particularly regarding thermal runaway events. This study presents a zero-dimensional (0D) methodology for estimating critical parameters during thermal runaway tests conducted in sealed volumes, such as canister-based experiments where both gas composition and pressure are analyzed. The proposed methodology relies on 0D combustion calculations, incorporating experimentally observed vent gas compositions and vented mass quantities. The primary results establish approximate values for critical parameters, providing an order-of-magnitude estimation of overpressure during tests. These findings are crucial for the proper pre-dimensioning of test facilities designed for thermal runaway experiments in confined volumes. As a key conclusion, this study
Garcia, Antonio, Micó, Carlos, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Gómez-Soriano, Alejandro
Technical Paper
Thermal Characterization of a High-Power Lithium-Ion Pouch Cell and Surface Temperature Prediction for Motorsport Applications2025-24-0142To be published on 09/07/2025
Accurate cell thermal characterisation is vital for battery modelling and thermal management, especially in motorsport, where minor temperature estimation errors can have severe consequences. Conventional methods for determining key thermal parameters, such as the specific heat capacity, often require costly calorimeters or destructive testing. Recent studies propose an alternative approach using a 1D lumped thermal network to solve the thermal balance of a heat-generating cell. However, these studies often overlook critical aspects of the heat generation equation, particularly the entropic term, which is essential for capturing nonlinear thermal behaviour, especially under dynamic cycling conditions. This study presents a cost-effective approach for rapid cell thermal characterisation and accurate surface temperature prediction. A pouch LCO cell was first tested to determine the entropic coefficient, followed by experiments under two convective conditions to evaluate its specific heat
Sciortino, Davide Domenico, Schommer, Adriano, Costa, Andre
Technical Paper
In situ DRIFT-MS insight into the thermal evolution of battery materials2025-24-0151To be published on 09/07/2025
Currently, the Li-ion battery is the reference technology adopted by most of automotive manufacturers (OEMs) to ensure the energy storage required for electrified vehicles. However, these batteries can be the source of incidents with potentially severe consequences, commonly referred to as thermal runaway (TR). Thermal runaway mechanisms are generally studied at the macroscopic scale through the analysis of the gases and heat emitted during this event. However, the chemical reactions occurring at the surface, interface, and interphase of the battery's constituent materials remain poorly documented. Obtaining information on the thermal decomposition processes of battery materials is challenging and rarely accessible. In this work, we propose an analytical approach to characterize the evolution of battery materials during a temperature increase from 20 to 350 °C in controlled atmosphere. The developed experimental setup combines diffuse reflectance infrared FT (DRIFT) analysis at the
Lecompte, Matthieu, Rivallan, Mickael, Girod, Nicolas, Clemencon, Isabelle, Chaudoy, Victor, Tant, Sylvain
Technical Paper
Simulation Driven thermal optimization of an innovative battery system2025-24-0138To be published on 09/07/2025
BATSS project objective is to design a safe, effective and sustainable battery pack. To achieve these goals the final battery system (BS) will be mechanically, electrically and thermally optimized using cutting edge technology. Consequently, the battery system includes innovative 4695 cylindrical cells and advanced thermal management, carried out with the Miba FLEXCOOLER®. This work will focus on the BS thermal optimization using simulation tools. This numerical approach includes both system simulation and 3D modeling of the battery pack. First 0D model ability to satisfactorily represent electro-thermal behavior of the chosen cells will be demonstrated. The retained modeling approach is an empirical equivalent circuit model. This model parameters are calibrated thanks to dedicated experiments conducted in the framework of BATSS project. Then, 0D simulation of a downscaled module will be presented. This simulation includes all thermally relevant BS components cells, FLEXCOOLER® and
Chevillard, Stephane, Popp, Hartmut, Galarza, Igor, Petit, Martin
Technical Paper
Self-Controlled Electrically Powered Semitrailer02-19-01-000207/28/2025
In this article, the hybrid drive is discussed of the combination of conventional tractors with electrified trailers, usually referred to as E-trailer. We demonstrate that this approach offers the possibility of achieving fuel savings exceeding 20%. For regional trips, about half of this reduction is achieved without offline charging, i.e., without applying electric energy from the E-trailer battery. For motorway dominant trips, more use is required of the battery energy. A new control strategy is proposed, validated through simulations, in which only three control parameters are required, which can be tuned effectively to achieve maximum fuel reduction under certain trip and loading conditions. This control strategy adjusts the E-trailer torque request, based on the requested power for the tractor diesel engine, being estimated through a smart kingpin sensor. It ensures that the E-trailer supports the tractor propulsion when significant power is required, and recovers energy when the
Pauwelussen, Joop, Kural, Karel, Hetjes, Bas
Journal Article
Design of a Wide-Input Single-Phase Full-Bridge Power Converter for a Free-Piston Engine2025-01-505407/21/2025
Free-piston engines are new and efficient energy conversion devices that eliminate mechanical crankshafts. A wide-input power converter was needed as an electronic crankshaft for a free-piston engine to achieve efficient power generation control. A 20 kW single-phase full-bridge power converter that can operate over a wide-input voltage range was proposed in this paper to solve this problem. A current controller was designed by discussing the current flow of the power converters in four working modes, including forward electric, reverse electric, forward generation, and reverse generation. A model that considers the parasitic inductance on the wires in the circuit and the parasitic inductance and capacitance of each pole of the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) switch was established in this paper, and the accuracy of the model was verified through simulation in MATLAB/Simulink. The main parameters of the power converter, such as the absorption resistance and capacitance of the
Li, Mengfei, Xu, Zhaoping, Liu, Liang
Technical Paper
SAE TOMORROW TODAY UNPLUGGED: What Happens When EV Tax Credits End?1352607/18/2025
The signing of the "Big Beautiful Bill" by President Trump is poised to end both the $7,500 new EV tax credit as well as the $4,000 used EV tax credit on September 30. If these EV tax credits go away, what happens? Do EV sales slow down dramatically? Or do they hold steady? How with automakers and battery manufacturers react? In this Unplugged episode of SAE Tomorrow Today, host Grayson Brulte discusses how the end of EV tax credits could impact new and used EV sales, consumer behavior, and the broader battery manufacturing industry. Have your own thoughts on this topic? We'd love to hear from you! Share your comments, questions or ideas for future topics with Grayson on Twitter or send them to podcast@sae.org. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, Twitter, and Instagram.
Patterson, Lori
Podcast
Thermal Interaction Based on Battery Electrochemical Modeling for In-Wheel Hub Motor Electric Vehicles: A Performance Analysis14-14-03-001607/09/2025
As the adoption of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) continues to rise, analyzing their performance under varying environmental conditions that affect energy consumption has become increasingly important. A critical factor influencing the efficiency of BEVs is the heat loss from the operation and interaction between the vehicle components, such as the battery and motor, and the surrounding temperature. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the thermal interaction in BEVs by integrating hub motor vehicle and battery electrochemical model with environmental factors. It explores how ambient temperature variations influence the performance of EV components, particularly the motors and battery systems, in both hot and cold weather conditions. The simulations also consider the passenger comfort inside the cabin as it investigates the effects of operating the air-conditioning system on overall energy consumption, revealing significant energy consumption shifts during extreme ambient
Abdullah, Mohamed, Zhang, Xi
Journal Article
Upgradeable Mechatronic Systems – Integration of Upgrade Planning and Design for Increasing Sustainability in Vehicle Development2025-01-029007/02/2025
The automotive industry faces the challenge of developing vehicles that meet current customer needs while being future-proof. Surveys conducted for this study show that customers are concerned about the financial risks of essential components such as energy storage systems, mainly due to aging and performance degradation, which significantly affect vehicle lifespans. Based on vehicle developer surveys, a clear need for action was identified. Given the rapid technological advancements in electrified drive systems, there is a need for innovative approaches that can easily adapt to changing requirements. Therefore, this paper presents a strategy combining foresight-based planning of system upgrades with product architecture design to create adaptable and sustainable vehicles through modularity. First, dynamic subsystem characteristics are identified to establish future energy storage technology requirements. Subsequently, future energy storage system technologies are examined to determine
Fehrenbacher, Rüdiger, Kuebler, Maximilian, Zeng, Yunying, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert, Nootny, Fabio, Kolbe, Lucia, Jung, Luca
Technical Paper
Thermal Simulation of CCS Charging Inlet at High Charging Currents with various Optimisation Approaches2025-01-027807/02/2025
Problem definition: Battery-electric commercial vehicles in particular have large battery capacities with several hundred kilowatt hours, some of which do not have enough energy for an entire working day, which is why they need to be recharged if necessary. High charging power with correspondingly high charging currents is required to recharge the electrical energy storage in an acceptable time. Due to the electrical losses, waste heat is generated, which places a thermal load on the charging components. In particular, the CCS charging inlet is subject to high thermal loads and, for safety reasons, must not exceed the maximum temperature of 90°C according to DIN EN IEC 62196-1. Depending on the ambient temperature, the charging inlet in the charging path often represents a thermally limiting component, as the charging current must be reduced before the maximum temperature is reached. Solution: Three general solution approaches are used to investigate how the CCS charging inlet can be
Krings, Jochen, Reuss, Hans-Christian, Ziegler, Peter, Steinmetz, Paul
Technical Paper
Design and Analysis of a Battery Thermal Management System for Fast Charging in Extreme Hot Condition2025-01-032207/02/2025
Fast charging of lithium-ion batteries presents significant thermal management challenges, due to the high demanding conditions of high C-rates, particularly at extreme ambient temperatures. This study explores the thermal behavior of a cylindrical lithium-ion cell during fast-charging scenarios designed to achieve a full charge in 15 minutes or less (SOC: 0%–100%), across a wide range of ambient temperatures. The analysis covers a broad spectrum of ambient temperatures, from 303 K to 333 K, addressing real-world operational challenges faced by electric vehicles and energy storage systems. A validated thermal model, calibrated with experimental data on the open circuit voltage (OCV) and internal resistance of the cell across varying conditions, is employed to accurately predict the temperature distribution of the cell at different states of charge (SOC). The model also includes scenarios involving high initial cell temperatures to assess their effect on thermal performance during fast
Jahanpanah, Jalal, Mahmoudzadeh Andwari, Amin, Babaie, Meisam, Konno, Juho, Akbarzadeh, Mohsen
Technical Paper
Modular Thermal Management Framework for Electric Drive System Development2025-01-026207/02/2025
The automotive industry is undergoing a major shift from internal combustion engines to hybrid and battery electric vehicles, which has led to significant advancements and increased complexity in drivetrain design and thermal management systems. This complexity reflects the growing need to optimize energy efficiency, extend vehicle range, and ensure system reliability in modern electric vehicles. At the Institute of Automotive Engineering, a specialized synthesis tool for drivetrain optimization is used to identify the best drivetrain configurations based on specific boundaries and requirements. Building up on this toolchain a modular and adaptable thermal management framework has been developed, addressing another critical aspect of vehicle and drive development: efficient thermal circuit layout and its impact on energy consumption and overall system reliability. The thermal framework emphasizes the dynamic interactions between key components, such as electric machines, power
Notz, Fabian, Sturm, Axel, Sander, Marcel, Kässens, Christoph, Henze, Roman
Technical Paper
Experimental Investigation of Factors Influencing Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Battery Cells2025-01-030607/02/2025
Experimental testing in automotive development sometimes relies on ad hoc approaches like ‘One Factor at a Time’, particularly in time- and resource-limited situations. While widely used, these approaches are limited in their ability to systematically capture parameter interactions and system complexities, which poses significant challenges in safety-critical applications like high-voltage battery systems. This study systematically investigates the factors influencing thermal runaway in lithium-ion battery cells using a statistical full-factorial experimental design. Key parameters, including state of charge, cell capacity and heating trigger power, have been analyzed under controlled conditions with an autoclave setup, enabling precise measurement of thermal and mechanical responses. The use of automotive-grade lithium-ion cells ensures relevance for next-generation applications. By employing factorial regression and statistical analysis, the study identifies critical temperatures
Ceylan, Deniz, Kulzer, André Casal, Winterholler, Nina, Weinmann, Johannes, Schiek, Werner
Technical Paper
Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus2025-01-026607/02/2025
Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of
Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias
Technical Paper
Lifecycle Assessment of Battery Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Internal Combustion Engine-Powered Cars in India13-06-02-001206/28/2025
Battery electric vehicles have gained popularity in the transport sector of late and are considered to emit lower greenhouse gas emissions than their internal combustion engine-powered counterparts. This study conducted a “cradle-to-grave” lifecycle assessment for two sets of battery electric, hybrid electric, and internal combustion engine vehicles sold in India to assess which powertrain emits lower greenhouse gas emissions during their lifetime. The system boundaries of the “cradle-to-grave” analysis consist of vehicle manufacturing, usage, maintenance, recycling of components, and finally, disposal. The “well-to-wheel” analysis includes oil extraction, feedstock cultivation, transportation, refining, fuel production, blending, and supply. This study considered India’s electricity generation mix from thermal, nuclear, solar, wind, and hydropower plants in different regions for 2020–2021. Greenhouse gas emissions from all three categories of vehicles were calculated for a lifespan of
Agarwal, Avinash Kumar, Singh, Rahul Kumar, Biswas, Srijit
Journal Article
Research on Multi-Material Lightweight of Electric Vehicle Battery Box13-06-02-001306/23/2025
To select appropriate lightweight materials and optimize their integration with battery enclosure components for enhanced performance and weight reduction, this study proposes a material selection strategy driven by mechanical property indices combined with the CRITIC-weighted TOPSIS method. Initially, a decision matrix incorporating bending stiffness indices was established based on the deformation characteristics of battery enclosures, focusing on commonly used metallic materials. The CRITIC-weighted TOPSIS method was employed to standardize data dimensions, determine objective weight coefficients, and calculate relative closeness coefficients for candidate material screening. Subsequently, sensitivity analysis identified critical components significantly influencing operational conditions, followed by integrated material and dimensional optimization to determine the optimal solution. The optimized battery enclosure achieved a weight reduction of 15.56 kg, with a reduction rate of
Liu, Junfeng, Kang, Yuanchun
Journal Article
Effect of Ignition Condition and Fuel Octane Number on Knock Intensity in a Small 2-Stroke Engine2025-01-021106/16/2025
Internal combustion engines (ICEs) remain widely used in automotive transportation for their high energy storage system efficiency and economic benefits. The 4-stroke engine has dominated all other forms to date, because the Otto cycle is relatively simple to understand. However, the significant benefits such as less pumping work and friction, lighter construction of 2-stroke engine, are attractive for applications that prioritize the simplicity and power density as well as meet the emission regulations. The disadvantages of the 2-stroke engine are mainly caused by the lack of sufficient scavenging process. Also, the overlap of the intake and exhaust phases results in charge short-circuiting, more fuel consumption and high unburned hydrocarbon emissions. For these reasons, it is difficult for 2-stroke engines to achieve stoichiometric combustion, making them incompatible with three-way catalyst to control emissions. The residual exhaust gas in the cylinder makes the spark ignition
Liu, Jinru, Yamazaki, Yoshiaki, Otaki, Yusuke, Kato, Hayato, Yokota, Takumi, Iijima, Akira
Technical Paper
SAE TOMORROW TODAY - The Hidden Role of Battery Vents in EV Safety and Adoption1351906/13/2025
One failure can reshape public trust in EVs overnight. That's why every detail matters--and why collaboration across the entire EV ecosystem is critical. Even small components like battery pack vents play an outsized role in preventing thermal runaway events, explosions, and fires. The SAE Battery Pack Venting Committee understands this challenge and answered the call with the new SAE J3325(TM) Technical Information Report a guide to designing, testing, and integrating battery vents that perform when it matters most. To dive deeper, we spoke with Dr. Michael Harenbrock, Principal Expert of Electric Mobility at MANN+HUMMEL GmbH, and chair of the SAE Battery Pack Venting Committee about how SAE J3325 is helping engineers enhance EV battery safety--and how their work evolves to keep pace with emerging ventilation technologies and trends. Want to help shape the future of EV safety? Join an SAE Committee today! Contact Standards Specialist Dante Rahdar at dante.rahdar@sae.org. We'd love to
Hineman, Marcie
Podcast
Optimal Onboard Battery Charging Strategy for Hotel Load Management in Mild-Hybrid Heavy-Duty Truck02-18-03-001706/12/2025
Heavy-duty trucks idling during the hotel period consume millions of gallons of diesel/fuel a year, negatively impacting the economy and environment. To avoid engine idling during the hotel period, the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) and auxiliary loads are supplied by a 48 V onboard battery pack. The onboard battery pack is charged during the drive phase of a composite drive cycle, which comprises both drive and hotel phases, using the transmission-mounted electric machine (EM) and battery system. This is accomplished by recapturing energy from the wheels and supplementing it with energy from the engine when wheel energy alone is insufficient to achieve the desired battery state of charge (SOC). This onboard battery pack is charged using the transmission-mounted EM and battery system during the drive phase of a composite drive cycle (i.e., drive phase and hotel phase). This is achieved by recapturing wheel energy and energy from the engine when the wheel energy is
Huang, Ying, Hanif, Athar, Ahmed, Qadeer
Journal Article
Application of a Chemical Kinetic Modeling Approach within a Fully Coupled Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation of Battery Cells during Thermal Runaway14-14-02-001406/11/2025
The objective of the current study is to systematically evaluate the battery thermal runaway heat release rate through chemical kinetics and then study its effect on battery module and pack level. For this purpose, a chemistry solver has been developed, capable of simultaneously solving the thermal runaway kinetics in multiple battery cells with the cell-specific chemistry model and battery active material compositions. This developed solid body chemistry (SBC) solver assumes a homogeneous system in the specified geometrical selection. A 3D representation can be achieved by setting up multiple solver selections in one solid domain (battery cell) as the SBC solver is capable of handling multiple selections, chemistry models, and battery active material compositions. Further, the SBC solver is fully integrated in a commercial three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (3D-CFD) code. Thus, enabling to simulate the real-life thermal runaway applications covering the battery module and
Chittipotula, Thirumalesha, Eder, Lucas, Uhl, Thomas
Journal Article
Automotive Engineering: June 202525AUTP0606/05/2025
Balancing the scales in Dakar Here's how M-Sport engineers removed some weight - and added some elsewhere - to produce a podium-winning vehicle. Sealing the future of in-wheel motors: low friction and maximum protection V-seals and cassette seals offer critical protection from environmental influences and are helping in-wheel motors set new benchmarks. Taiwan suppliers look around the world for solutions Tariffs are forcing Taiwanese companies to rethink their plans, but it could be worse. U.S. states focus on Taiwan as trade war continues Taiwan's role in the global automotive supply chain continues to increase, which is one reason so many U.S. states are on site. Tariff challenges, EV advances at 360 Mobility We check in on Foxconn, Master Bus, PEWC and NUK at Taiwan's big trade show for the transportation industry. Editorial Off we go Supplier Eye Investment certainty is critical GM picks LMR as its future affordable battery technology Slate unveils bare-bones EV mini truck for
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