Browse Topic: Voltage regulators

Items (235)

Scaled-Down Strategy Analysis of Typical Components in Aircraft Power Supply Systems

2026-99-1627

To be published on 07/24/2026

Due to the constraints of manufacturing costs and cycles, it is difficult to simulate the full-scale operating conditions of aircraft electrical power systems. Usually, scaled-down low-power systems are used for prototype development and experimental research. This paper puts forward a systematic framework for developing scaled physical models of aircraft electrical power systems by using similarity theory. In this paper, according to the general design principles of DC-DC converters, a 10-kW low-power DC-DC converter and a 250-kW high-power DC-DC converter are designed. Mathematical models for both systems are developed, and a time-domain performance index analysis is carried out using the per-unit dynamic equivalence principle. A metric conversion model is established and equivalently mapped to a high-power DC-DC converter simulation model. The waveform consistency between the converted model and the aforementioned 250-kW high-power model is verified, which shows the validity of the proposed conversion method.

Ma, Huan, Ai, Fengming, Bi, Wenyan, Pei, Xiaoning, Liu, Liangliang

Enhancing Efficiency in Megawatt-Scale EV Charging via Adaptive Multi-Agent Control of DC/DC Converters

2026-01-0769

7/1/2026

The rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) with longer driving range demands high-power charging solutions that are efficient, scalable, and reliable. This work introduces a comprehensive simulation framework for megawatt-scale charging systems, focusing on the integration and control of multiple DC/DC converters. With the primary objective of maximizing overall system efficiency during megawatt-scale charging operations. A multi-agent adaptive control strategy is implemented to dynamically optimize operating points and allocate charging currents across converters in real time so that each participating converter operates at its optimal operating point where the maximum possible efficiency is delivered. This multi-agent adaptive control strategy allocates not only the individual optimal operating points of the multiple DC/DC converters but rather determines the optimal number of participating DC/DC converters at each time instance during the charging session. In addition to that, the strategy provides the option of delivering the optimal charging current during each time instance, so that maximized system efficiency is guaranteed during the charging process. Simulation results demonstrate that even a small efficiency improvement of 0.5% can yield substantial environmental benefits at a scale, where a 10 MW charging park avoids nearly 0.9 GWh of energy use and more than 350 t of CO₂ emissions over 10 years. By fully passing these efficiency gains to customers, charging becomes more affordable without compromising service provider margins, while the resulting climate benefits scale directly with utilization, installed capacity, electricity prices, and system lifetime. The proposed approach enables intelligent supervisory control for next-generation high-power charging stations, combining efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability. These findings support the development of modular, resource-efficient infrastructure for future EV ecosystems.

Salah, Alia, Abu Mohareb, Omar

A Hierarchical Distributed Architecture for Power Sharing and Average Voltage Regulation in AC/DC Microgrids

2026-99-0706

5/15/2026

With the rapid growth of renewable energy sources such as photovoltaics, energy storage systems, and wind power, hybrid AC/DC microgrids (H-MGs) are gradually emerging as a key technology for achieving efficient interconnection between generation units and load demands. However, issues such as communication delays, unequal power sharing, and the restoration of voltage and frequency in hybrid microgrids have posed serious threats to the stable operation of microgrids. We also need to appropriately adjust the simulation parameters to ensure that the proposed control framework maintains sufficient flexibility under different load conditions and achieves high operating efficiency in simulation. To tackle these challenges, this paper proposes a distributed secondary control strategy grounded in coordinated consensus and combined with droop-based interlinking converters (ICs) to realize power coupling between the AC and DC subgrids. The proposed method enables precise active-power sharing among AC and DC distributed generators, balanced reactive-power sharing between AC subgrid and ICs, and effective restoration of system frequency and voltage. By introducing consensus indices into the IC control scheme—relying only on key indicators from both sides—the power-coupling capability of ICs is enhanced while communication complexity is reduced. All control objectives, including frequency /voltage restoration and proportional power sharing, are achieved at the secondary-control level. Based on the simulation results, the effectiveness of the proposed method is validated in this paper. Compared with existing methods, the proposed strategy not only achieves accurate power sharing and stable frequency /voltage restoration, but also rapidly recovers system stability under load variations, thereby enhancing the overall stability, reliability, and operational flexibility of hybrid AC/DC microgrids.

Yu, Peijie, Zhang, Fanghai, Sun, Wei, Yuan, Weibo, Peng, Bo

Secondary Control Method for Parallel DC-DC Converters under FDI Attacks Based on Sliding Mode Observer

2026-99-0708

5/15/2026

Currently, with the continuous development of electric vehicles, DC microgrids have attracted widespread attention due to their flexible access methods and high energy transmission efficiency. However, since the distributed secondary control of DC microgrids relies on information exchange through communication networks, false data injection (FDI) attacks on these networks may cause control algorithms to fail, leading to voltage deviations, output current imbalance, and in severe cases, system instability. This study focuses on DC microgrids based on parallel DC–DC buck converters and proposes a distributed secondary control strategy based on a sliding mode observer to address FDI attacks. By treating the system's FDI attack signals as an extended state, an extended sliding mode observer is designed to track the attack signals. Based on the observed attacks, a control algorithm is proposed that compensates the control inputs through the observer, ensuring proportional sharing of bus voltage and converter output currents. The stability of the system under the proposed control method is proven using the Lyapunov method and verified through MATLAB simulations. Simulation results show that the sliding mode observer (SMO) can quickly and accurately estimate FDI attack signals under various types of attacks, including periodic and step disturbances, and under load changes, while the system maintains stable bus voltage and current sharing. This research provides a potential technical approach to ensure the safe and stable operation of DC systems in future smart charging stations and grids with high renewable energy penetration.

Sun, Wei, Chen, Jing, Yu, Jinzhu, Yuan, Weibo, Peng, Bo, Lin, Fei

A Study on Fail-Safe and Limp-Home Strategies for Electric Drive Failures in P1-P2 (P)HEVs

2026-01-0427

4/7/2026

Hyundai Motor Company’s TMED-II hybrid system adopts a P1–P2 parallel motor layout, which improves power distribution flexibility but increases reliance on electric drive components. Failures in motors, inverters, or other power electronics can critically affect drivability and safety, making robust Fail-Safe strategies essential. This study proposes a three-stage, sequential Limp-Home strategy for P1–P2 HEVs under P2 motor system failure. Unlike conventional methods that open the main relay and rely solely on the engine, the proposed approach keeps the high-voltage (HV) system active whenever possible to maintain performance, safety, and comfort. Stage 1 – P1 motor-based State of Charge (SOC) control: Keeps the main relay closed and uses the P1 motor to maintain SOC within set limits. Overcharge is mitigated by operating the motor in discharge mode, and overdischarge is mitigated through regenerative operation. Engine torque is adjusted to match motor torque demand, preserving launch performance and gradeability. Stage 2 – Engine speed-limiting control: At higher speeds, Stage 1 alone may be insufficient to manage SOC. This stage limits engine speed (and consequently P1 motor speed as they are mechanically coupled) to suppress overcharge caused by back electromotive force (back-EMF). Coordinated control applies gearshift intervention and fuel cut to prevent rapid engine speed rises, reducing overcharge risk at the source. Stage 3 – HV Battery main relay-off mode: If overcharge or overdischarge risks remain after Stage 2, the HV system is cut off as the final safeguard. After cutoff, the P1 motor’s back-EMF powers essential loads such as HVAC, electric oil pump, and the low-voltage DC–DC converter, and the vehicle transitions to engine-only Limp-Home driving to avoid shutdown. Production-vehicle tests confirmed the stepwise, software-only strategy maintains SOC within safe limits, preserves key loads, sustains drivability, and is patented in production models.

Rho, Jeongwon, Park, Sangcheol, Oh, Sung Hwan

Ford announces 48-volt architecture for future electric truck

26AUTP04_10

4/1/2026

Ford is seeding bits of information about its electric mid-size pickup that is slated to land in 2027. The vehicle is the brainchild of the company's skunkworks division and is set to become the standard by which other new electric vehicles from the blue oval are constructed. The underlying UEV (Universal Electric Vehicle) platform is meant to reduce the cost of EVs so they are comparable with gas vehicles. During a presentation focused on efficiency and how Ford plans to eke every mile it can out of the upcoming vehicle, the automaker shared that the vehicle would have a 48-volt architecture instead of the traditional 12-volt system via a DC-to-DC converter. The converter will step down the power from the 400-volt battery system to 48 volts to power ancillary items in the vehicle.

Baldwin, Roberto

Airport Electrical Power System Harmonics

AIR5387 (Current)

2/17/2026

This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is intended to cover all airport 50 or 60 Hz electrical systems as well as all electrical utilization equipment that is attached to those systems.

AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee

Common Mode Voltage Reduction in Quasi-Z Source Inverter for Electric Vehicle Applications Using MBPWM Technique

2026-28-0102

2/12/2026

Unlike traditional voltage source or current source inverters, ZSI/qZSI can boost and invert DC power in a single stage, making them attractive for applications like EVs where battery voltage may vary. Common mode Voltage (CMV) is the voltage between the neutral point of the motor and ground. High CMV in motor drive systems can cause: Higher leakage currents, Electromagnetic interference (EMI), Insulation stress, bearing currents, leading to premature motor failure. Reducing CMV is essential for reliable and safe EV operation. Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is used to control the QZSI output voltage. The QZSI offers several advantages over traditional inverters, including improved efficiency, reduced cost, and increased reliability. The proposed system is designed to reduce the CMV through a combination of passive LC filtering and shoot-through (ST) modulation techniques. The LC filter is designed to attenuate high-frequency components of the CMV while the ST modulation is used to discharge the CMV to the DC bus. MBPWM reduces the common mode voltage due to the optimized distribution of shoot through states across switching period compared to conventional SBPWM technique. So combining LC filtering with MBPWM effectively mitigate the common mode voltage in inverter fed electric drives. The performance of the proposed system is evaluated through simulations using MATLAB/Simulink. The results show that the proposed system can effectively reduce the CMV and voltage regulation of the QZSI output.

N, Kalaiarasi, R, Rajarajeswari, D, Anitha

A Nature-Inspired Optimization Approach for Vienna Rectifier Control in EV Fast Charging Applications

2026-28-0112

2/12/2026

The growing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), particularly those utilizing High-Voltage battery systems, demands fast-charging infrastructure that ensures high efficiency and power quality. The proposed GJO algorithm is employed to optimize the control and switching parameters of the Vienna rectifier, thereby improving harmonic performance and conversion efficiency without altering the converter hardware. This paper focuses solely on control optimization of the Vienna rectifier topology and does not include DC–DC isolation or galvanic separation. Filter components are modeled with equivalent series resistance (ESR) to account for incremental losses. Simulation results demonstrate that the Golden Jackal optimization (GJO) based control reduces input current THD to 2.09%, has a power factor of 0.998, and achieves an efficiency of 98.53%, representing a fractional but consistent improvement over conventional control methods such as SSA, ALO, and PSO. These findings highlight the effectiveness of GJO in enhancing the performance of vienna rectifier-based chargers, establishing it as a promising solution for next-generation high-voltage EV fast-charging infrastructure. However, since the vienna rectifier is a unidirectional converter, the proposed system is limited to grid-to-vehicle operation and does not support reverse power flow (vehicle-to-grid).

R, Mohammed Abdullah, N, Kalaiarasi

Integrated Powertrain Domain Controller Using Wide Band Gap Devices for EV Applications

2026-26-0055

1/16/2026

The rapid evolution of electric vehicles (EVs) has amplified the demand for highly integrated, efficient, and intelligent powertrain architectures. In the current automotive landscape, EV powertrain systems are often composed of discrete ECUs such as the OBC, MCU, DC-DC Converter, PDU, and VCU, each operating in isolation. This fragmented approach adds wiring harness complexity, control latency, system inefficiency, and inflates costs making it harder for OEMs to scale operations, lower expenses, and accelerate time-to-market. The technical gap lies in the absence of a centralized intelligence capable of seamlessly managing and synchronizing the five key powertrain aggregates: OBC, MCU, DC-DC, PDU, and VCU under a unified software and hardware platform. This fragmentation leads to redundancy in computation, increased BOM cost, and challenges in system diagnostics, leading to sub-optimal vehicle performance. This paper addresses the core issue of fragmented control architectures in EV powertrains by proposing a domain controller based integrated solution for EV powertrain referred as Integrated Powertrain Domain Controller (IPDC).

Kumar, Mayank, Deosarkar, Pankaj, Inamdar, Sumer, Tayade, Nikhil

Applicability of EMC Validation for EV Powertrain Components

2026-26-0197

1/16/2026

The technology in the automotive industry is evolving rapidly in recent times. An electric vehicle is a complex and dynamic system consisting of numerous components interacting with each other. With increase in number of EVs on Indian roads, EV makers to produce innovative and pragmatic concept of electric vehicle features. This electrification in automobile has brought new dimension to Electro Magnetic Compatibility (EMC). Considering all these, EMC Testing of all power train components with real case scenarios is utmost important. This paper will put a light on applicability of various EMC tests for EV components like Traction Battery, Traction Motor and Inverter, DC to DC Converter, 3 in 1 Unit, 4 in Unit, BTMS unit, HVAC system, On Board Charger etc. With ICE vehicles, all components were connected to only 12V battery but with the EV era, Components are getting connected to HV battery or LV battery or sometimes both. With this change, all ISO and CISPR standards were undergone with major revisions. It is important to consider these changes while performing EMC test. This paper will provide all such details and its practical demonstration. This paper will also illustrate typical instances where real world scenarios and bench level setup results differ. This paper will certainly help OEMs and tier 1 suppliers to not only design their DVPs but also decide on compliance requirements as per regulatory standard.

Yeola, Mayur, Mulay, Abhijit B, Swaminathan, Ganeshan

Dynamic Voltage EV System (DVEVS): Achieving Enhanced Electric Vehicle Efficiency and Performance through a Switchable Series-Parallel Battery Configuration

2026-26-0203

1/16/2026

The electric vehicle (EV) industry is relentlessly pursuing advancements to enhance efficiency, extend driving range and improve overall performance. A notable limitation of conventional EVs is their fixed-voltage battery architecture, which necessitates compromises in powertrain design and can result in suboptimal efficiency under varying driving conditions. The Dynamic Voltage EV System (DVEVS) presents a transformative solution, allowing the battery pack to dynamically reconfigure its cells between series and parallel connections. This review explores the core principles of DVEVS, including battery topology, power-electronics-based switching, and the integration of hybrid energy storage solutions such as electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs). We explore the foundational concepts of battery reconfiguration, delve into specific implementation strategies such as power-electronics-based switching and hybrid energy storage systems and address the critical need for adaptive thermal management and advanced charging infrastructure. This review synthesizes a holistic understanding of the DVEVS concept as a transformative approach to achieving reliability, adoptability along with greater efficiency and promising future research in next generations of electric mobility

Amberkar S, Sunil, Raool, Anuj Rajesh, M G, Shivanag, Rajapuram, Bheema Reddy

Driving Performance Impact Analysis on EV Components for Efficient, Safe, and Intelligent Mobility

2026-26-0655

1/16/2026

Electric vehicles (EVs) are the cornerstone of sustainable transportation, but their performance and component longevity are heavily influenced by driving behaviors. This study proposes a comprehensive analytical framework to assess how different driving styles affect the operational health of key EV components such as the battery pack, motor, and DC-DC converter. Various driving styles such as aggressive, moderate, and economical are discriminated against using dynamic vehicle operation signatures including acceleration and braking intensity, turning profiles, and load variations. These behavioral patterns are reflected in the electrical responses, namely current and voltage waveforms across power electronic systems. By analyzing these electrical signatures, a range of KPIs can be estimated for each component, offering insights into their operational stress and degradation trends. Experimental analysis using real-time EV datasets validates the framework’s ability to predict and correlate driving patterns with component degradation trends. By evaluating these impacts, the study bridges the gap between driving behaviors and their consequences on EV performance in real-time operation. The research culminates in generating prescriptive and descriptive analytics, offering actionable insights and tailored recommendations for driving behavior improvement. Real-time suggestions empower drivers to adopt safer, more efficient styles, while actionable strategies provide a roadmap for EV manufacturers and policymakers to promote sustainable and efficient transportation systems. This study underscores the critical interplay between driving behavior and EV component health, paving the way for smarter, data-driven mobility solutions

Deole, Kaushik, Kumar, Pankaj, Hivarkar, Umesh

HIL Simulation of Power Electronics Switching Circuit for Automotive Software Application

2026-26-0516

1/16/2026

Power electronics switching applications are essential for energy management and conversion in automotive electric vehicles (EVs). This paper focuses on DC-DC converters, particularly the integration of 48V DC-DC converters in modern automotive systems. These converters are crucial for efficient power delivery to auxiliary systems such as infotainment, lighting, safety electronics, and thermal management units. In mild hybrid electric vehicles (MHEVs), 48V systems support advanced features like regenerative braking, electric turbocharging, and start-stop functionality. To ensure the reliability, safety, and performance of these converters, Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing has emerged as a powerful validation technique. HIL enables real-time simulation of the converter’s electrical environment and load conditions, allowing comprehensive testing of the control system without high-level voltage, significantly reducing development time, cost, and risk. The methodology involves utilizing HIL testing to simulate the electrical environment and load conditions of 48V DC-DC converters in real-time. Various control algorithms, such as Voltage Mode Control, Current Mode Control, Digital PID, and Model Predictive Control (MPC), are employed to ensure voltage regulation, load response, and system stability under dynamic operating conditions. Key parameters simulated using HIL for software closed-loop operation include output voltage and current regulation, efficiency, and power loss, switching frequency behavior, closed-loop stability and dynamic response, power quality, ripple, diagnostic and fault-handling capabilities by adhering to ISO26262 safety standards. By simulating various conditions, potential software issues dependent on hardware can be identified and addressed early in the development cycle, ensuring seamless integration of hardware and software components. The advantages of HIL testing include safe and repeatable fault injection, real-time performance analysis, early-stage software validation, and the ability to simulate complex load profiles and environmental conditions. As automotive systems become more electrified and software-driven, HIL testing is indispensable for accelerating innovation while ensuring compliance with safety and performance standards.

Yadav, Vikaskumar, Wakure, Vinod

High-Efficiency SiC-Based PSFB DC-DC Converter Using Peak Current Control with Digital Slope Compensation for LV Battery Charging In EV Applications

2026-26-0422

1/16/2026

This paper presents the design, implementation, and evaluation of a high-efficiency Phase-Shifted Full-Bridge (PSFB) DC-DC converter utilizing Silicon Carbide (SiC) MOSFETs for low-voltage (LV) battery charging in electric vehicle (EV) applications. The converter operates with Peak Current Mode Control (PCMC), enhanced by a digitally implemented slope compensation technique to ensure control loop stability, counter subharmonic oscillations and accurate current regulation across a wide load range. The use of SiC devices enables high switching frequencies operation with reduced conduction losses, contributing to improved efficiency and power density of converter. The hardware design utilizes a planar transformer with shim inductance to enable Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) of the primary switches, thereby reducing switching losses and mitigating transformer flux imbalance. The secondary stage employs diode rectification, while the overall PCB layout is optimized to minimize parasitics and ensure reliable high-frequency operation. A 2.2 kW prototype was developed and tested, converting 320 V to 14 V with experimental validation performed using NXP S32E278 domain controller. The proposed control scheme demonstrates fast dynamic response, stable operation under varying load conditions. Additionally, the converter’s performance under both steady-state and dynamic conditions was simulated and validated using PSIM environments. This novel work highlights the advantages of implementing digital Peak Current Mode Control (PCMC) using a domain controller, combined with SiC technology, for next-generation EV charging systems.

Kumar, Mayank, Deosarkar, Pankaj, Tayade, Nikhil, Inamdar, Sumer

A Systematic Debugging Methodology for Identifying Electric Vehicle Level EMC Issues

2026-26-0525

1/16/2026

Electric vehicles present unique challenges in electromagnetic compatibility testing due to compact packaging, high-frequency switching systems. This paper presents a systematic debugging methodology for identifying radiated emission and radiated immunity issues in these EV platforms. A comprehensive approach is outlined, covering radiated emission measurement; Bulk Current Injection based immunity simulation, and near-field probing techniques. For RI evaluation, BCI testing in the 20 to 400 MHz range is used to simulate radiated threats on the vehicle's power and signal harnesses and handy transmitter near field injections for higher frequency simulation. For RE diagnosis, conducted emission measurements on vehicle harnesses are performed using current probes to capture high-frequency currents. Additionally, near-field electric probes are used at the component to identify dominant noise sources such as DC-DC converters, Motor control unit, and improperly grounded shielding. Case studies on various EV vehicles highlight common failure modes. This practical diagnostic workflow provides an efficient toolkit for EMC engineers to accelerate compliance readiness, reduce test iterations, and enhance vehicle-level EMC performance for electric vehicles.

M, Gokul, Patel, Jinay, Mulay, Abhijit B

Totem-Pole PFC and LLC Resonant Converter based 6.6kW On-Board Charger for LEV Applications

2026-26-0160

1/16/2026

As light electric vehicles (LEVs) gain popularity, the development of efficient and compact on-board chargers (OBCs) has become a critical area of focus in power electronics. Conventional AC-DC topologies often face challenges, including high inrush currents during startup, which can stress components and affect system reliability. Furthermore, DC-DC converters often have a limited soft-switching range under light load conditions, leading to increased switching losses and reduced efficiency. This paper proposes a novel 6.6 kW on-board charger architecture comprising a bridgeless totem-pole power factor correction (PFC) stage and an isolated LLC resonant DC-DC converter. The main contribution lies in the specific focus on enhancing startup behavior and switching performance. In PFC converters, limiting inrush current during startup is crucial, especially with fast-switching wide-bandgap devices like SiC or GaN. Conventional soft-start techniques fall short in of ensuring smooth voltage transitions. Moreover, maintaining stable operation across a universal input voltage range and achieving a high-power factor under light load conditions remain persistent challenges. Although resonant converters are widely used for their natural soft-switching ability, achieving zero voltage switching (ZVS) over a wide range of loads, especially at light load conditions, is still a technical challenge. Existing solutions rely on complex control strategies or hardware modifications, which increase cost and design complexity. The proposed architecture was modeled and simulated using MATLAB/Simscape to assess dynamic and steady-state behavior under a range of operating conditions. Results demonstrated high input power factor, line/load regulation, and switch-node waveforms to confirm ZVS operation. Additionally, the proposed charger exhibits low harmonic distortion, ensuring compliance with IEC 61000-3-2 power quality standards. These findings confirm the topology’s effectiveness for high-performance LEV charging and set a strong foundation for future experimental validation and hardware development.

Patil, Amruta, Bagade, Aniket

Development of an Optimized XCP Software Stack for Real-Time Validation of Vehicle Control Units Using Next-Generation Communication Protocols

2026-26-0190

1/16/2026

With the rapid adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), ensuring the reliability, safety, and cost-effectiveness of power electronic subsystems such as onboard chargers, DC-DC converters, and vehicle control units (VCUs) has become a critical engineering focus. These components require thorough validation using precise calibration and communication protocols. This paper presents the development and implementation of an optimized software stack for the Universal Measurement and Calibration Protocol (XCP), aimed at real-time validation of VCUs using next-generation communication methods such as CAN, CAN-FD, and Ethernet. The stack facilitates read/write access to the ECU’s internal memory in runtime, enabling efficient diagnostics, calibration, and parameter tuning without hardware modifications. It is designed to be modular, platform-independent, and compatible with microcontrollers across different EV platforms. By utilizing the ASAM-compliant protocol architecture, the proposed system significantly reduces dependency on expensive proprietary tools, offering a cost-effective alternative for the Indian EV industry.

Uthaman, Sreekumar

Powering the Future: Addressing Power Architecture Bottlenecks in Next Gen Automotive Platforms

2026-26-0688

1/16/2026

As the automotive industry moves from conventional function oriented embedded ECU-based systems to Code-driven system, the core electrical and electronic (E&E) architecture is also being redesigned to support more software-driven functionality. Modern and centralized architectures promise scalability and software-driven flexibility, but they also introduce significant challenges in power distribution—an area that remains underexplored despite its critical role in overall vehicle safety and performance. Our paper aims at the adoption of the traditional power distribution approach for Next Gen vehicle architecture. It requires a fresh look at how power is distributed. In a novel E&E architecture, a single power harness supplies battery voltage to each zone. If there's a failure or voltage drop, it can affect multiple functions within that zone at once, and management of voltage regulation, thermal dissipation, and EMI/EMC compliance becomes crucial. Adding to the complexity, safety-critical systems need power redundancy and isolation to meet Functional Safety standards. Mixed-criticality designs further complicate power management, as they demand strict segregation between critical and non-critical power loads to preserve functionality under fault conditions. The integration of software-controlled power switching and dynamic power management introduces additional failure modes previously unrecognized. Consequently, real-time monitoring and power fault detection are becoming vital for maintaining the health of a vehicle’s power distribution network. Traditional diagnostics, such as On-Board Diagnostics, offer limited checks and periodic alerts, primarily for engine and transmission faults. Advanced capabilities are essential. Through an investigative lens, this paper identifies the key bottlenecks in power distribution and proposes areas for further research and innovation aimed at ensuring resilience, safety, and performance in next-generation vehicles.

Borole, Akash, Warke, Umakant, Chakra, Pipun, Jaisankar, Gokulnath

Review on the Flyback Converter Design for Multi-Output

2026-26-0200

1/16/2026

With the increasing demand for DC loads, DC-DC converters have become indispensable in modern power electronic architectures. With high-voltage applications typical DC-DC converter topologies are required which include isolation for safety and voltage level conversion. Among various isolated converter topologies, the flyback converter is widely favored for low-power applications, typically under 100 W, due to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness. Like other DC-DC topologies, the flyback converter can operate in either continuous conduction mode or discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). The work has focused on the design and performance analysis of a flyback converter operating in DCM, with a specific emphasis on magnetic component design and loss evaluation. A 55 W multi-winding flyback converter employing a passive snubber circuit is studied and implemented. The loss analysis is done with switch losses around 3.4W and the coupled inductor core losses around 1.5W and copper losses around 0.8W. Furthermore, a comparative analysis of passive voltage clamping techniques is presented to address voltage spikes across the primary switch. The most common passive snubbing techniques in the primary side switch node which includes the Resistor Capacitor Diode Clamping and Transient Voltage Suppressor Diode clamping is discussed. Using LTspice, an open-loop simulation is developed to validate operation. The necessity of primary snubbing and the implementation of valley switching are described and validated through simulation results. A hardware prototype is developed to validate the same for the input voltage varying from 90V to 400V, and with three output voltage of 12V, 16V and 18V.

S, Denis, Deshpande, Prathamesh Pravin, Deshpande, Rohan

SEooC- Based Design Framework Integrated EV Power Conversion Systems under ISO-26262 Compliance

2026-26-0192

1/16/2026

The work completed on “System level concepts to test and design integrated EV system involving power conversion to satisfy ISO26262 functional safety requirement” is included in the paper. Integrating power conversion and traction inverter subsystems in EVs is currently popular since it increases dependability and improves efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Maintaining safety standards is at danger due to the growing safety requirements, which also raise manufacturing costs and time. The three primary components of integrated EV systems are the PDU, DC-DC converter, and onboard charger. Every part and piece of software is always changing and needs to be tested and validated in an economical way. Since the failure of any one of these components could lead to a disaster, the article outlines the economical approaches and testing techniques to verify and guarantee that the system meets the functional safety criterion.

Uthaman, Sreekumar, Mulay, Abhijit B, Gadekar, Pundlik

Developments in 2-Wheeler Electric Vehicle Architecture

2026-26-0199

1/16/2026

Electric vehicles are becoming more popular due to the low-cost investment for individual daily usage, such as traveling to nearby places, offices, and schools. There are environmental benefits that make them green and produce less pollution compared to traditional vehicles. Two-wheeler electric vehicles (EVs) have more electronic components compared to two-wheeler internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. The major components in two-wheeler EVs are the motor and battery. The traction motor is driven by the battery, Battery is a primary energy source in 2Wheeler electric vehicle. An electric vehicle comprises different major electronic components such as the battery management system (BMS), motor control unit (MCU), human-machine interface (HMI), and, in some cases, a vehicle control unit (VCU) as well. Considering a 48V architecture or less than 60V provides advantages of low system cost as it requires less effort for safety measures. Furthermore, this paper explores diverse architectural options for contemporary two-wheeler electric vehicles, offering a range of designs that cater to both simple and complex models. This paper elaborates on different types of electric vehicle architecture based on the vehicle battery (primary, auxiliary) and types of batteries such as fixed, removable, swappable batteries, DC-DC converters (active/passive), charging interfaces, types of motor integrated into the vehicle, types of position sensors on the motor, and functional safety levels to consider in EVs.

Karunakar, Praveen, K R, Amogh

Power Electronics: The Backbone of Sustainable Electrification

2025-28-0228

11/6/2025

Power electronics are fundamental to sustainable electrification, enhancing energy, efficiency, integrating renewable energy sources, and reducing carbon emissions. In electric vehicles (EVs), power electronics is crucial for efficient energy conversion, management, and distribution. Key components like inverters, rectifiers, and DC-DC converters optimize power from renewable sources to meet EV system requirements. In EVs, power electronics convert energy from the lithium-ion battery to the electric vehicle motor, with sufficient propulsion and regenerative braking. Inverters is used to transfer DC power from the lithium-ion eEV battery to alternating current for the motor, while DC-DC converters manage voltage levels for various vehicle systems. These components maximize EV energy efficiency, reduce energy losses, and extend driving range. Power electronics also support fast and efficient battery charging, critical for widespread EV adoption. Advanced charging solutions enable rapid charging times and connecting with renewable energy sources, enhancing transportation sustainability. Vehicle to grid (V2G) capabilities allow Electric vehicles to act as storage devices, providing grid support and contributing to energy stability. Key components in EVs include wide band semiconductors like Silicon Carbide and Gallium Nitride, which offer superior efficiency, higher temperature tolerance, and better thermal management compared to current silicon semiconductors. These materials are effective in high-power applications and revolutionize power electronics technologies. In summary, power electronics is necessary for integrating renewable energy, electrifying transportation, and optimizing energy use in EVs. Its impact drives the transition to a low-carbon future and supports the sustainability of modern transportation systems.

Pipaliya, Akash Pravinbhai, Hatkar, Chetan

SAE Truck & Off-Highway Engineering: October 2025

25TOFHP1010/9/2025

Lifelike simulation accelerates middle-mile autonomy The Gatik Arena platform integrates NVIDIA Cosmos models to create closed-loop, ultra-realistic digital environments that address real-world limitations. JCB heads to the front line The United States Marine Corps enlists the JCB 4CX backhoe loader as its latest recruit. Rethinking vehicle controls Smarter control architectures including CAN- and LIN-based multiplexing can elevate operational efficiency, customization and end-user experience. Editorial COMVEC covers the tech landscape Grease innovation adapts to meet new demands of heavy equipment Deutronic DC/DC converter streamlines off-highway electrification The economics of lightweighting in heavy-duty vehicles Monarch unveils AI vehicle platform ZM Trucks plants its flag in North America, pushes ahead with electric ZM8 Class 4/5 truck Product Briefs SPOTLIGHTS: Connectors; Hydraulics and Flow Control Q&A AVL addresses path to greater hybridization

Deutronic DC/DC converter streamlines off-highway electrification

25TOFHP10_06

10/1/2025

Thanks to the continued growth of electrified machines in the off-highway segment, DC/DC converters are rapidly becoming a crucial component in the supply chain for numerous OEMs for a wide array of applications. Deutronic recently unveiled a new line of DC/DC converters intended for the mass electrification needs of today's off-highway commercial vehicles. The converter's design is said to be durable and compact with high power density that also offers protection from environmental factors such as vibration, shock, and high temperatures. Deutronic's DVCHx3 converter also provides an interlock function, as well as short-circuit, overtemperature and no-load/self-protection features.

Wolfe, Matt

DC-DC Converter Unifies Power Switches on a Single Chip

TBMG-53920

10/1/2025

University of California San Diego and CEA-Leti scientists have developed a ground-breaking piezoelectric-based DC-DC converter that unifies all power switches onto a single chip to increase power density. This new power topology, which extends beyond existing topologies, blends the advantages of piezoelectric converters with capacitive-based DC-DC converters.

Active Temperature Control Strategies with Liquid Cooling Thermal Management System for Li-Ion Batteries

2025-24-0148

9/7/2025

Nowadays, electric vehicles (EVs) are considered one of the most promising solutions for reducing pollutant emissions related to the road transportation sector. Although these vehicles have achieved a high level of reliability, various challenges about Li-ion storage systems and their thermal management systems remain unresolved. This work proposes a numerical and experimental study of a lithium-ion storage cell with a scaled battery thermal management system (BTMS). In particular, a channel plate for liquid cooling is specifically designed and manufactured for the cell under test. The BTMS is based on the development of an indirect liquid cooling system with optimal control of the coolant flow rate to fulfill the thermal requirements of the system. A lumped parameters approach is used to simulate the electro-thermal behavior of the system and to analyze the effects of real-time control strategies on the temperature of the cell under test. An ad-hoc experimental test rig is set up for model and control validation purposes, operating under both steady-state and dynamic conditions in a controlled environment. The temperature management is implemented by using an ARDUINO UNO board, regulating the cooling plate water supply through a variable mass flow rate pump. The overall system model was validated and optimized under various environmental conditions, taking into account the actual on-board behavior of the storage cell under study. Experimental and simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed system in maintaining the battery temperature within the optimal range, even under harsh temperature conditions. Although the results are based on a single Li-ion battery cell, they can be suitably extended to a complete vehicle battery pack by considering cell-to-cell thermal and electrical interactions.

Capasso, Clemente, Castiglione, Teresa, Perrone, Diego, Sequino, Luigi

Analysis of DC Current and Voltage Ripples of Electrical Drivetrains for HV Electrical System Emulation

2025-24-0135

9/7/2025

State-of-the-art testing of traction inverters is conducted using PHIL-based testbeds. These systems, which include a battery emulator and an e-motor emulator (EME), offer significant advantages over dynamometer testbeds in terms of test duration, reproducibility, parameterization and protection of the unit under test. In these advanced systems, the physical modeling of the AC side (e-motor) is highly detailed, accounting for factors such as iron saturation effects, current harmonics, and loss models. State-of-the-art DC side models are limited to a constant voltage and an internal resistance model, as outlined in [1], neglecting other components like additional traction inverters or DC/DC converters connected to the HV electrical system and their impact on voltage and current ripples – high-frequency oscillations in the current that can arise from power electronic systems. This research project aims to address this gap by developing an HV electrical system emulator that considers these influences. This contribution explores the modeling of electric powertrains, focusing on the ripple currents impressed by traction inverters and DC/DC step-down converters and their propagation within the HV electrical system. Initially, the system approach of the HV electrical system emulator is outlined. The fundamental components of HV electrical systems containing various models, such as batteries, traction inverters and motors, are then discussed. Special attention is given to the modeling of ripple currents. Experimental studies based on simulations are presented to illustrate the ripple currents, the impressed frequency components, and their propagation within the HV electrical system of a selected example. The research also discusses strategies for mitigating ripple currents to protect electrical components. Finally, future trends in electric powertrains are examined, along with the next steps and upcoming work related to the emulation of the HV electrical system. The challenges that need to be addressed are also discussed.

Merath, Stefan, Winzer, Patrick, Reick, Benedikt

Comparing Different Electrical Architectures for a Parallel PEMFC-Battery Hybrid Electric Lightweight Vehicle

2025-24-0110

9/7/2025

In the field of hybrid powertrains for sustainable mobility, fuel cells are a promising solution to improve the performance of battery electric vehicles by implementing PEMFCs as REx. The selection of proper power electronics, such as converters, is fundamental to guarantee tight control and electrical stability. In this paper, a comparison between different electrical architectures of an electric hybrid PEMFC/battery vehicle is proposed: a light battery electric quadricycle (EU L6e) with four in-wheel motors is hybridized with a 3 kW open-cathode PEMFC as REx in parallel layout. The battery accounts for a bi-directional DC/DC converter to stabilize the voltage at 48V, needed by EMGs. A passive architecture is firstly considered, with the PEMFC stack connected to the battery poles; the second architecture is a semi-active one, with the PEMFC connected after the battery DC/DC converter; the last considered layout is active, with a unidirectional DC/DC converter between PEMFC and electrical system. In the first case, the lack of a dissipative component improves the energy efficiency of the powertrain; however, the stack cannot be directly controlled, following instead the battery voltage. The semi-active layout is similar to the passive one, with a constant voltage set by the battery converter. Active architecture offers an additional degree of freedom: the PEMFC stack can work around optimal operating points, while guaranteeing the power requested by control strategy; on the other hand, the additional converter is a passive element that absorbs energy from the system, worsening powertrain final efficiency. Results show that passive architecture is preferrable when no optimal control strategies are considered, reaching a fuel consumption of 0.24 kg/100 km; the semi-active layout shows little worsening of 1%. The active layout shows best performances implementing optimal control strategies, reducing fuel consumption down to 4% and increasing the final powertrain efficiency by 1%.

Sicilia, Massimo, Cervone, Davide, Polverino, Pierpaolo, Pianese, Cesare

Model-Based Design and Energy Management of an Aeronautical Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell System

2025-01-0150

5/2/2025

The growing demand for air transport requires efficient and sustainable power systems to meet the pressing need for decarbonizing the sector. A hybrid unit, consisting of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell system and a lithium-ion battery, is a suitable option due to the advantages of reduced gravimetric and volumetric impacts, along with the flexibility of energy management strategies. This work addresses, using a model-based approach, the issue of integrating these electrochemical devices into the aircraft’s electrical architecture considering both design and energy management aspects. A literature derived DC-DC converter bi-dimensional power map is exploited to investigate scenarios differentiated by the fuel cell system power rating and number of stacks working in parallel such that the DC bus line voltage requirements can be respected. These maps relate the converter’s maximum deliverable power to the input and desired output voltage. The combined design and energy management problem is tackled via a multi-objective optimization supported by a design space exploration based on a full factorial parametric analysis. Therefore, a Pareto front is derived by considering the hydrogen consumption and overall hybrid unit mass as objective functions. As additional contributions, the auxiliaries’ power absorption, heat generated by the stack and resulting cooling load are also estimated, thus providing information for the preliminary sizing of the thermal management system. For the mission profile under consideration, the hydrogen consumption exhibited a variation ranging from 7 kg to 6.7 kg as the fuel cell system rated power increased. On the other hand, a smaller fuel cell system lowers the hybrid unit’s total mass. Particularly, when considering a configuration featuring a 70.5 kW fuel cell system, a single stack and two DC-DC converters, the total mass is estimated to be approximately 237 kg. Therefore, for the reduced impact on the aircraft’s maximal mass, the latter design choice is deemed as the most suitable option to be installed on hybrid aircraft with more electric onboard systems.

Aliberti, Paolo, Sorrentino, Marco, Cuomo, Fabrizio, Napolitano, Ciro

Analysis of Back-EMF Protection Strategies for PM Synchronous Motor Based 2W/3W Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8565

4/1/2025

The use of electric vehicles (EVs) has been on the rise in recent years and this trend is expected to continue in the upcoming years. There are several reasons for the increasing popularity of EVs, including environmental concerns, advances in technology, and government incentives. The 2W/3W EV powertrain comprises components such as the battery, traction motor, motor controller, charger, and DC-DC converter, etc. Essential components which impact the power, efficiency, and range of the vehicle are a motor (generally PMSM or BLDC) and a motor controller. PMSMs can produce more output power than BLDC motors of the same size, making them suitable for high-power applications. While the EV powertrain allows for greater flexibility in designing electric vehicle architectures, it also exhibits new challenges in meeting all the essential requirements. When a motor rotates, as per Lenz’s law, an opposing voltage (Back-EMF) is generated in a motor whose magnitude is proportional to its angular velocity and does not exceed the applied voltage by a motor controller in normal working conditions. However, when a motor experiences an uncontrolled generator fault, sudden change in its direction, decelerates, or stops abruptly, the magnitude of Back-EMF induced goes above the supply voltage of the motor controller [5]. This may cause the motor power supply and the associated components in the circuit to be subjected to conditions that are outside of their maximum ratings and may get damaged. There exist several methods such as shunting of the back-EMF, Series thyristors in phases, delta connected thyristors in motor winding, and chopper-based shunting to mitigate the failures in motor controllers caused by an unintended back-EMF. Through the MATLAB-based simulation, this piece of work describes these Back-EMF protection strategies and aims to compare their performance, and ease of implementation for a permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) controller.

Mohan, Midhun, Shinde, Rushikesh, Magar, Pradip, Deo, Mayank Pramod, Deshmukh, Nachiketa, Chaudhary, Pramod

Research on Boost Control for Powertrain Control System

2025-01-8514

4/1/2025

In the domain of new energy vehicles, the role of the bidirectional DC/DC converter holds great significance. Based on the two-phase interleaved parallel BOOST topology, this paper adopts the approach of combining the double-loop PI controller with the feedforward control algorithm respectively from the aspects of following the target voltage and response speed, and conducts research on the performance of the DC/DC converter in BOOST mode in terms of output voltage overshoot, steady-state error, and system adjustment time. The test results fully validate the feasibility and effectiveness of the design scheme. The test results indicate that the double-loop PI control + feedforward control method accelerates the circuit response speed, reduces the steady-state error, and significantly reduces the input/output current ripple, fully verifying the feasibility and effectiveness of the control method. Furthermore, regarding the overvoltage issue that occurs after a large accelerator pedal in the hybrid vehicle with BOOST, the influence of post-overvoltage processing is analyzed emphatically, and the calibration strategy for the overvoltage problem is introduced. Among them, the fault handling mechanism for the BOOST software output overvoltage is that the BOOST upper and lower bridge software is blocked, and the P1/P2 software performs zero torque processing after receiving the BOOST software output overvoltage signal; after waiting for the BOOST fault to recover and enter the working mode, P1/P2 can operate in accordance with the current available power. Optimization calibration and real vehicle tests have been carried out. The test results demonstrate that the overvoltage problem can be effectively addressed by the adopted calibration method, and the drivability has been significantly enhanced.

Jing, Junchao, Liu, Yiqiang, Zuo, Botao, Huang, Weishan, Dai, Zhengxing

Consideration of Boost DC-DC Converter Losses in the Torque Control System of a Hybrid Supervisory Controller

2025-01-8575

4/1/2025

As the complexity of electrified powertrains and their architectures continue to grow and thrive, it becomes increasingly important and challenging for the supervisory torque controller to optimize the torque commands of the electric machines. The hybrid architecture considered in this paper consists of an internal combustion engine paired with at least one electric motor and a DC-DC switching converter that steps-up the input voltage, in this case the high voltage battery, to a higher output voltage level allowing the electric machines to operate at a greater torque range and increased torque responsiveness for efficient power delivery. This paper describes a strategy for computing and applying the losses of the converter during voltage transformation to determine the optimal engine and electric motor torque commands. The control method uses a quadratic fit of the losses at the power limits of the torque control system and on optimal motor torque commands, within the constraints of the motors and electrical components. This method increases the torque control system’s efficiency, maintains motor torque responsiveness for noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) mitigation, and optimizes the hybrid supervisory processor’s computation without extra optimization loops. The magnitude of the boost converter losses is typically estimated to be about 10-20% of the overall losses from other electrified components like, electric motors, inverters, low-voltage converters, etc.

Venkataramu, Achyut, Walsh, McKenzie, Tischendorf, Christoph, Sullivan, Mary, Patel, Nadirsh, Huo, Shichao, Sharma, Ashay

A Minimalist High-Power Boost Charging Solution Integrated into Electric Drives

2025-01-8560

4/1/2025

The driving capability and charging performance of electric vehicles (EVs) are continuously improving, with high-performance EVs increasing the voltage platform from below 500V to 800V or even 900V. To accommodate existing low-voltage public charging stations, vehicles with high-voltage platforms typically incorporate boost chargers. However, these boost chargers incur additional costs, weight, and spatial requirements. Most mature solutions add a DC-DC boost converter, which results in lower charging power and higher costs. Some new methods leverage the power switching devices and motor inductance within the electric drive motor to form a boost circuit using a three-phase current in-phase control strategy for charging. This approach requires an external inductor to reduce charging current ripple. Another method avoids the use of an external inductor by employing a two-parallel-one-series topology to minimize current ripple; however, this reduces charging power and increases the risk of torque control during charging. This paper presents an innovative integrated boost charging solution that utilizes a three-phase phase-shift control algorithm. This method eliminates the need for additional external inductors. In addition, intelligent voltage regulation strategies, low-loss motor design, and improved cooling schemes are implemented to address thermal risks associated with motor magnets. Compared to traditional approaches, this method offers advantages in terms of minimal cost increase, reduced space occupation, maximum boost charging power, and safest zero torque output.

Yuan, Baocheng, Ma, Yong, Xie, Xi, Liu, Shaowei, Guan, Tianyu, Ge, Kai, Zheng, Lifu, Xu, Xu

PRODUCT BRIEFS

25AUTP03_11

3/1/2025

Quantifying the Impact of Electric Vehicles and Distributed Energy Resources on Load Profile Sensitivity: A Comprehensive Analysis

13-06-01-0008

2/27/2025

This research investigates how distributed energy resources (DERs) and electric vehicles (EVs) affect distribution networks. With sensitivity analysis, the research focuses on how these integrations affect load profiles. The research focuses on sizing of various DERs and EV charging/discharging strategies to optimize the load profile, voltage stability, and network loss minimization. System parameters including load profile, EV charging pattern, weather conditions, DER sizes, and electricity pricing are analyzed to quantify their individual and combined impacts on load variability. However, with increased capacity of DERs, network losses increase. A mathematical model with system and operational constraints has been developed and simulated in MATLAB Simulink environment, validation of the proposed approach in improving the load profile, and reduction in network losses, with the intermittent power generation from DERs and EV integration. Simulation result shows that optimal capacity of DERs and optimized EV integration improve the load profile, improve voltage regulation at various nodes across the distribution network and reduction in network losses considerable.

Khedar, Kamlesh Kumar, Goyal, Govind Rai, Singh, Pushpendra

Auxiliary Power Unit Electrical Interface Requirements for Class Eight Trucks

J2891_202502 (Current)

2/8/2025

This SAE Recommended Practice covers the design and application of a 120 VAC single phase engine based auxiliary power unit or GENSET. This document is intended to provide design direction for the single phase nominal 120 VAC as it interfaces within the truck 12 VDC battery and electrical architecture providing power to truck sleeper cab hotel loads so that they may operate with the main propulsion engine turned off.

Truck and Bus Electrical Systems Committee

DC-DC Converters for High Reliability eVTOL Auxiliary Power Systems

TBMG-52147

12/1/2024

PRODUCT BRIEFS

24TOFHP10_12

10/1/2024

Electromagnetic Compatibility Assessment of Electric Vehicles during DC-Charging with European Combined Charging System

2024-01-3008

7/2/2024

The ongoing energy transition will have a profound impact on future mobility, with electrification playing a key role. Battery electric vehicles (EVs) are the dominant technology, relying on the conversion of alternating current (AC) from the grid to direct current (DC) to charge the traction battery. This process involves power electronic components such as rectifiers and DC/DC converters operating at high switching frequencies in the kHz range. Fast switching is essential to minimise losses and improve efficiency, but it might also generate electro-magnetic interferences (EMI). Hence, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing is essential to ensure reliable system operations and to meet international standards. During DC charging, the AC/DC conversion takes place off-board in the charging station, allowing for better cooling and larger components, resulting in increased power transfer, currently up to 350 kW. The EMC requirements for this charging method are outlined in IEC 61851-21-2. This paper presents possible test setups supporting the standard. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for measurements not only in controlled laboratories, but also at real charging stations within their specific environments. Therefore, a mobile test setup is introduced and validated. It can be connected to any public DC charging station using a European standard plug CCS-2 (Combined Charging System 2). In addition, the emerging concept of Vehicle to Grid (V2G) is gaining prominence. The objective is to leverage electric vehicles as mobile energy storage for grid optimization and stabilization. The proposed test setup also allows to take these operating states into account concerning conducted interference emissions. As the transition to electric mobility progresses, these investigations contribute ensuring the seamless integration of EVs into the evolving energy landscape.

Supa Stölben, Inti Runa, Beltle, Michael, Tenbohlen, Stefan

Mapping an Optimum DC-Link Voltage across the Entire SiC-Based EV Drive Regions Using a Synchronous Boost DC-DC Converter

2024-01-2218

4/9/2024

When designing an electric vehicle (EV) traction system, overcoming the issues arising from the variations in the battery voltage due to the state of charge (SoC) is critical, which otherwise can lead to a deterioration of the powertrain energy efficiency and overall drive performance. However, systems are typically documented under fixed voltage and temperature conditions, potentially lacking comprehensive specifications that account for these variations across the entire range of the vehicle operating regions. To tackle this challenge, this paper seeks to adjust an optimal DC-link voltage across the complete range of drive operating conditions by integrating a DC-DC converter into the powertrain, thereby enhancing powertrain efficiency. This involves conducting a comprehensive analysis of power losses in the power electronics of a connected converter-inverter system considering the temperature variations, along with machine losses, accounting for variable DC-link voltages. The results reveal that the inclusion of a DC-DC converter into a powertrain is advantageous, particularly for low battery terminal voltages. Consequently, the powertrain system, incorporating a DC-DC boost converter, exhibits lower total loss values, with a difference of up to 5 kW loss difference for high-speed, low-torque regions compared to the case when not incorporating the DC-DC converter.

Amirpour, Sepideh, Thiringer, Torbjörn, Xu, Yu

Development of New 2.0-Liter Plug-in Hybrid System for the Toyota Prius

2024-01-2169

4/9/2024

Reducing vehicle CO2 emissions is an important measure to help address global warming. To reduce CO2 emissions on a global basis, Toyota Motor Corporation is taking a multi-pathway approach that involves the introduction of the optimal powertrains according to the circumstances of each region, including hybrid electric (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), as well as battery electric vehicles (BEVs). This report describes the development of a new PHEV system for the Toyota Prius. This system features a traction battery pack structure, transaxle, and power control unit (PCU) with boost converter, which were newly developed based on the 2.0-liter HEV system. As a result, the battery capacity was increased by 1.5 times compared to the previous model with almost the same battery pack size. Transmission efficiency was also improved, extending the distance that the Prius can be driven as an EV by 70%. System power was increased by 1.8 times in almost the same size as the previous unit by adopting a double-boost system and increasing the motor output. The same packaging as the HEV system was realized by integrating the DC-DC converter, which is mounted under the rear seat in the RAV4 PHEV, into the PCU in the engine compartment and combining the power supply into the charger. In addition, changing the location of the battery pack from the luggage compartment to under the rear seats helped to realize a low-floor sedan type PHEV with an attractive design. These developments enabled the development of a PHEV with excellent environmental performance and power. The new PHEV achieves an EV range of 45 miles (combined label value) and power of 164 kW.

Tomita, Makoto, Shibata, Ryosuke, Mizuno, Yota, Maeda, Hideki, Murasato, Kenji, Shimura, Amane, Takayama, Toshiaki, Nakado, Takashi, Tomita, Yoshiki

MPPT Control of Solar Powered UAV Photovoltaic Power Supply Based on Intelligent Sliding Mode

2023-01-7095

12/31/2023

Solar powered UAV mainly relies on solar energy for range, it uses photovoltaic cells to convert solar radiant energy into electric energy for the use of solar powered UAV energy system. In response to the issue of solar powered UAV photovoltaic power supply energy utilization efficiency, an intelligent sliding mode based MPPT control method is proposed to maximize the output power of photovoltaic power supply. Firstly, introduce and analyze the photovoltaic cell model and its output characteristics; Secondly, the DC/DC converter and its MPPT control technology are introduced. Traditional MPPT control methods such as perturbation and observation and incremental conductance have poor adaptability to external environmental changes, the intelligent algorithm has the characteristics of fast rate of convergence and global search, etc. Therefore, on the basis of sliding mode control, this article introduces genetic algorithm for multi-objective function parameter tuning of sliding mode control law, forming an intelligent sliding mode MPPT control method based on genetic algorithm, which has good adaptability; Finally, three control strategies for photovoltaic power supply MPPT control of solar powered UAV are simulated and analyzed in the MATLAB environment, the simulation results show that all three control strategies can achieve good tracking performance when external environmental conditions change, Among them, intelligent sliding mode control has obvious anti-interference ability, achieving the fastest steady-state response speed, the smallest steady-state oscillation amplitude, and the shortest steady-state oscillation time. Overall, its tracking effect is the best, and it can effectively achieve MPPT control of solar powered UAV photovoltaic power supply.

Xiao, Lingfei, Shen, Bin, Wei, Ye, Meng, Xiangshuo

Research on the Control Method of Staggered Parallel Boost Structure in Fuel Cell System

2023-01-7028

10/30/2023

Fuel cells’ soft output characteristics and mismatched voltage levels with subordinate electrical devices necessitate the use of DC/DC converters, which are an important part of the power electronic subsystem of the fuel cell system. The staggered parallel Boost topology is commonly employed in fuel cell DC/DC converters. This paper focuses on the control characteristics of the two-phase interleaved parallel Boost topology in the context of a fuel cell system. Specifically, we derive the small-signal model and output-control transfer function of the topology, and design a controller based on frequency characteristic analysis. Our proposed controller uses a cascaded double-ring structure and supports both constant current and constant voltage switching modes. To evaluate the effectiveness of our proposed control strategy, we conduct simulation and prototype testing. The simulation and DC/DC converter prototype are configured according to the output characteristics of the fuel cells, and the experimental results demonstrate the excellent transient and steady-state characteristics of the DC/DC converter under our proposed control strategy.

Ma, Tiancai, Liu, QiLin, Xie, Jiaojiao

PRODUCT BRIEFS

23TOFHP10_11

10/1/2023

Modular Multilevel GaN Based Ultra-High Power Density Electric Power Conversion and Transmission on the Lunar Surface

2023-01-1509

9/5/2023

NASA’s Watts on the Moon Challenge is seeking solutions to transfer at least 1.065 kW power from a 120 V dc source to a 24-32 V dc load over a 3-km distance under the same environmental conditions as the Lunar surface (i.e., 77 K temperature and 1 mTorr pressure). The selected solution from the author’s team proposed utilizing two modular multilevel Gallium Nitride (GaN) based isolated dc-dc converters to connect the 120 V dc source with the 24-32 V dc load bank via 1.5 kV rated dc transmission lines. The modular multilevel converters feature frequency multiplication, high step-down voltage ratio and low device voltage stress. In the converters, GaN gate injection transistor (GaN GIT) and GaN High-Electron-Mobility Transistor (GaN HEMT) devices are chosen as switching devices, due to the merits of lower power loss, radiation hardness and ability to work under cryogenic and vacuum conditions. In addition, LiFePO4 battery based energy storage with a power condition system is added in parallel with the load to provide uninterrupted power. Active heating units and passive multi-layer insulation are designed to manage the proper operation of the battery under cryogenic and vacuum conditions. Furthermore, the hardware design for the power converters has been validated at 1.5 kV/1 kW condition. The operation of submodules in the developed converter has been demonstrated at 77 K temperature and less than 10-6 Torr pressure. The efficiency of the designed converter can achieve 97.42%. In total, the proposed power conversion and transmission system has a total system mass of 103.2 kg, which is significantly lower than the 150 kg limit specified by NASA's requirement.

Yao, Yuzhou, Zhang, Zhining, Fan, Junchong, Adina, Nihanth, Bharmal, Naeem, Shah, Siddhant, Zhang, Jesse, Shi, Yifan, Hu, PhD, Boxue, Fu, PhD., Pengyu, Wang, PhD., Jin

PRODUCT BRIEFS

23AUTP09_14

9/1/2023

Study and Development of Photovoltaic Power Generation System for Hybrid Refrigeration Units Applied in Refrigerated Semi-Trailers

2023-36-0363

7/25/2023

This article presents the development of a solution that uses solar energy to power refrigerated semi-trailers. The solution employs photovoltaic cells on the surfaces of the semi-trailer, combined with a battery pack, which take advantage of a significant area with solar exposure and generate sufficient electric power to supply the refrigeration unit responsible for controlling the temperature inside the climate-controlled chamber. In addition to providing energy for the refrigeration unit, the solar system can be integrated with the auxiliary traction system used in some semi-trailers, functioning as a range extender for the battery. To achieve the main objectives of this development, studies were conducted to evaluate solar radiation through simulations considering different regions of Brazil. A hardware system was also developed for energy management and to drive the refrigeration unit, combining a high-power drive system composed of filters, DC/DC converters, and transformers to match the voltage levels of the systems, with a microprocessed circuit for functional logic control. As a result, a system capable of operating the refrigeration unit using solar energy was obtained, which can reduce diesel consumption by up to 1800 liters per year.

Pastre, Guilherme Garbossa, Boaretto, Joel, Zottis, Jonatas Lemuel Bispo, Molon, Maicon, Conrado, Paulo Henrique, Galafassi, Daniel, Corso, Leandro Luís

Electrical Power, 270 VDC, Aircraft, Characteristics and Utilization of

AS1831A (Current)

4/3/2023

This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) establishes the characteristics and utilization of 270 V DC electric power at the utilization equipment interface and the constraints of the utilization equipment based on practical experience. These characteristics shall be applicable for both airborne and ground support power systems. This document also defines the related distribution and installation considerations. Utilization equipment designed for a specific application may not deviate from these requirements without the approval of the procuring activity.

AE-7C Systems

PRODUCT BRIEFS

23AUTP02_12

2/1/2023

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