Browse Topic: Voltage regulators

Items (209)
As the complexity of electrified powertrains and their architectures continue to grow and thrive, it becomes increasingly important and challenging for the supervisory torque controller to optimize the torque commands of the electric machines. The hybrid architecture considered in this paper consists of an internal combustion engine paired with at least one electric motor and a DC-DC switching converter that steps-up the input voltage, in this case the high voltage battery, to a higher output voltage level allowing the electric machines to operate at a greater torque range and increased torque responsiveness for efficient power delivery. This paper describes a strategy for computing and applying the losses of the converter during voltage transformation to determine the optimal engine and electric motor torque commands. The control method uses a quadratic fit of the losses at the power limits of the torque control system and on optimal motor torque commands, within the constraints of
Venkataramu, AchyutWalsh, McKenzieTischendorf, ChristophSullivan, MaryPatel, NadirshHuo, ShichaoSharma, Ashay
The use of electric vehicles (EVs) has been on the rise in recent years and this trend is expected to continue in the upcoming years. There are several reasons for the increasing popularity of EVs, including environmental concerns, advances in technology, and government incentives. The 2W/3W EV powertrain comprises components such as the battery, traction motor, motor controller, charger, and DC-DC converter, etc. Essential components which impact the power, efficiency, and range of the vehicle are a motor (generally PMSM or BLDC) and a motor controller. PMSMs can produce more output power than BLDC motors of the same size, making them suitable for high-power applications. While the EV powertrain allows for greater flexibility in designing electric vehicle architectures, it also exhibits new challenges in meeting all the essential requirements. When a motor rotates, as per Lenz’s law, an opposing voltage (Back-EMF) is generated in a motor whose magnitude is proportional to its angular
Mohan, MidhunShinde, RushikeshMagar, Pradip
The driving capability and charging performance of electric vehicles (EVs) are continuously improving, with high-performance EVs increasing the voltage platform from below 500V to 800V or even 900V. To accommodate existing low-voltage public charging stations, vehicles with high-voltage platforms typically incorporate boost chargers. However, these boost chargers incur additional costs, weight, and spatial requirements. Most mature solutions add a DC-DC boost converter, which results in lower charging power and higher costs. Some new methods leverage the power switching devices and motor inductance within the electric drive motor to form a boost circuit using a three-phase current in-phase control strategy for charging. This approach requires an external inductor to reduce charging current ripple. Another method avoids the use of an external inductor by employing a two-parallel-one-series topology to minimize current ripple; however, this reduces charging power and increases the risk
Yuan, BaochengMa, YongXie, XiLiu, ShaoweiGuan, TianyuGe, KaiZheng, LifuXu, Xu
In the domain of new energy vehicles, the role of the bidirectional DC/DC converter holds great significance. Based on the two-phase interleaved parallel BOOST topology, this paper adopts the approach of combining the double-loop PI controller with the feedforward control algorithm respectively from the aspects of following the target voltage and response speed, and conducts research on the performance of the DC/DC converter in BOOST mode in terms of output voltage overshoot, steady-state error, and system adjustment time. The test results fully validate the feasibility and effectiveness of the design scheme. The test results indicate that the double-loop PI control + feedforward control method accelerates the circuit response speed, reduces the steady-state error, and significantly reduces the input/output current ripple, fully verifying the feasibility and effectiveness of the control method. Furthermore, regarding the overvoltage issue that occurs after a large accelerator pedal in
Jing, JunchaoLiu, YiqiangZuo, BotaoHuang, WeishanDai, Zhengxing
This research investigates how distributed energy resources (DERs) and electric vehicles (EVs) affect distribution networks. With sensitivity analysis, the research focuses on how these integrations affect load profiles. The research focuses on sizing of various DERs and EV charging/discharging strategies to optimize the load profile, voltage stability, and network loss minimization. System parameters including load profile, EV charging pattern, weather conditions, DER sizes, and electricity pricing are analyzed to quantify their individual and combined impacts on load variability. However, with increased capacity of DERs, network losses increase. A mathematical model with system and operational constraints has been developed and simulated in MATLAB Simulink environment, validation of the proposed approach in improving the load profile, and reduction in network losses, with the intermittent power generation from DERs and EV integration. Simulation result shows that optimal capacity of
Khedar, Kamlesh KumarGoyal, Govind RaiSingh, Pushpendra
This SAE Recommended Practice covers the design and application of a 120 VAC single phase engine based auxiliary power unit or GENSET. This document is intended to provide design direction for the single phase nominal 120 VAC as it interfaces within the truck 12 VDC battery and electrical architecture providing power to truck sleeper cab hotel loads so that they may operate with the main propulsion engine turned off.
Truck and Bus Electrical Systems Committee
The ongoing energy transition will have a profound impact on future mobility, with electrification playing a key role. Battery electric vehicles (EVs) are the dominant technology, relying on the conversion of alternating current (AC) from the grid to direct current (DC) to charge the traction battery. This process involves power electronic components such as rectifiers and DC/DC converters operating at high switching frequencies in the kHz range. Fast switching is essential to minimise losses and improve efficiency, but it might also generate electro-magnetic interferences (EMI). Hence, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing is essential to ensure reliable system operations and to meet international standards. During DC charging, the AC/DC conversion takes place off-board in the charging station, allowing for better cooling and larger components, resulting in increased power transfer, currently up to 350 kW. The EMC requirements for this charging method are outlined in IEC 61851
Supa Stölben, Inti RunaBeltle, MichaelTenbohlen, Stefan
Reducing vehicle CO2 emissions is an important measure to help address global warming. To reduce CO2 emissions on a global basis, Toyota Motor Corporation is taking a multi-pathway approach that involves the introduction of the optimal powertrains according to the circumstances of each region, including hybrid electric (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), as well as battery electric vehicles (BEVs). This report describes the development of a new PHEV system for the Toyota Prius. This system features a traction battery pack structure, transaxle, and power control unit (PCU) with boost converter, which were newly developed based on the 2.0-liter HEV system. As a result, the battery capacity was increased by 1.5 times compared to the previous model with almost the same battery pack size. Transmission efficiency was also improved, extending the distance that the Prius can be driven as an EV by 70%. System power was increased by 1.8 times in almost the same size as the
Tomita, MakotoShibata, RyosukeMizuno, YotaMaeda, HidekiMurasato, KenjiShimura, AmaneTakayama, ToshiakiNakado, TakashiTomita, Yoshiki
When designing an electric vehicle (EV) traction system, overcoming the issues arising from the variations in the battery voltage due to the state of charge (SoC) is critical, which otherwise can lead to a deterioration of the powertrain energy efficiency and overall drive performance. However, systems are typically documented under fixed voltage and temperature conditions, potentially lacking comprehensive specifications that account for these variations across the entire range of the vehicle operating regions. To tackle this challenge, this paper seeks to adjust an optimal DC-link voltage across the complete range of drive operating conditions by integrating a DC-DC converter into the powertrain, thereby enhancing powertrain efficiency. This involves conducting a comprehensive analysis of power losses in the power electronics of a connected converter-inverter system considering the temperature variations, along with machine losses, accounting for variable DC-link voltages. The
Amirpour, SepidehThiringer, TorbjörnXu, Yu
Solar powered UAV mainly relies on solar energy for range, it uses photovoltaic cells to convert solar radiant energy into electric energy for the use of solar powered UAV energy system. In response to the issue of solar powered UAV photovoltaic power supply energy utilization efficiency, an intelligent sliding mode based MPPT control method is proposed to maximize the output power of photovoltaic power supply. Firstly, introduce and analyze the photovoltaic cell model and its output characteristics; Secondly, the DC/DC converter and its MPPT control technology are introduced. Traditional MPPT control methods such as perturbation and observation and incremental conductance have poor adaptability to external environmental changes, the intelligent algorithm has the characteristics of fast rate of convergence and global search, etc. Therefore, on the basis of sliding mode control, this article introduces genetic algorithm for multi-objective function parameter tuning of sliding mode
Xiao, LingfeiShen, BinWei, YeMeng, Xiangshuo
Fuel cells’ soft output characteristics and mismatched voltage levels with subordinate electrical devices necessitate the use of DC/DC converters, which are an important part of the power electronic subsystem of the fuel cell system. The staggered parallel Boost topology is commonly employed in fuel cell DC/DC converters. This paper focuses on the control characteristics of the two-phase interleaved parallel Boost topology in the context of a fuel cell system. Specifically, we derive the small-signal model and output-control transfer function of the topology, and design a controller based on frequency characteristic analysis. Our proposed controller uses a cascaded double-ring structure and supports both constant current and constant voltage switching modes. To evaluate the effectiveness of our proposed control strategy, we conduct simulation and prototype testing. The simulation and DC/DC converter prototype are configured according to the output characteristics of the fuel cells, and
Ma, TiancaiLiu, QiLinXie, Jiaojiao
NASA’s Watts on the Moon Challenge is seeking solutions to transfer at least 1.065 kW power from a 120 V dc source to a 24-32 V dc load over a 3-km distance under the same environmental conditions as the Lunar surface (i.e., 77 K temperature and 1 mTorr pressure). The selected solution from the author’s team proposed utilizing two modular multilevel Gallium Nitride (GaN) based isolated dc-dc converters to connect the 120 V dc source with the 24-32 V dc load bank via 1.5 kV rated dc transmission lines. The modular multilevel converters feature frequency multiplication, high step-down voltage ratio and low device voltage stress. In the converters, GaN gate injection transistor (GaN GIT) and GaN High-Electron-Mobility Transistor (GaN HEMT) devices are chosen as switching devices, due to the merits of lower power loss, radiation hardness and ability to work under cryogenic and vacuum conditions. In addition, LiFePO4 battery based energy storage with a power condition system is added in
Yao, YuzhouZhang, ZhiningFan, JunchongAdina, NihanthBharmal, NaeemShah, SiddhantZhang, JesseShi, YifanHu, PhD, BoxueFu, PhD., PengyuWang, PhD., Jin
This article presents the development of a solution that uses solar energy to power refrigerated semi-trailers. The solution employs photovoltaic cells on the surfaces of the semi-trailer, combined with a battery pack, which take advantage of a significant area with solar exposure and generate sufficient electric power to supply the refrigeration unit responsible for controlling the temperature inside the climate-controlled chamber. In addition to providing energy for the refrigeration unit, the solar system can be integrated with the auxiliary traction system used in some semi-trailers, functioning as a range extender for the battery. To achieve the main objectives of this development, studies were conducted to evaluate solar radiation through simulations considering different regions of Brazil. A hardware system was also developed for energy management and to drive the refrigeration unit, combining a high-power drive system composed of filters, DC/DC converters, and transformers to
Pastre, Guilherme GarbossaBoaretto, JoelZottis, Jonatas Lemuel BispoMolon, MaiconConrado, Paulo HenriqueGalafassi, DanielCorso, Leandro Luís
This SAE Aerospace Standard (AS) establishes the characteristics and utilization of 270 V DC electric power at the utilization equipment interface and the constraints of the utilization equipment based on practical experience. These characteristics shall be applicable for both airborne and ground support power systems. This document also defines the related distribution and installation considerations. Utilization equipment designed for a specific application may not deviate from these requirements without the approval of the procuring activity.
AE-7C Systems
All electrically powered autonomous vehicles possess a system that distributes power to all the vital components of the vehicle. The U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command (DEVCOM) Army Research Laboratory (ARL) uses group 1 unmanned aerial systems (UASs) (weighing 20 lb) as the vehicle platform in several projects. Army Research Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD All electrically powered autonomous vehicles possess a system that distributes power to all the vital components of the vehicle. At the U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command (DEVCOM) Army Research Laboratory (ARL), several projects are using unmanned aerial systems (UASs) as a vehicle platform. Some UAS being used are classified as group 1, meaning they weigh under 20 lb. The group 1 UASs that ARL conducts research with are very fast and agile quadrotors. Such quadrotors typically have four rotors and light payloads and can very quickly accelerate and effortlessly reach speeds over 100 kph. To do
Transportation electrification is much needed as it can help to reduce the consumption of petroleum fuels. At the same time importance of the charging system to energize electric vehicles is also growing. Currently AC level 1 charging (120V, <2KW) and AC level 2 Charging (240V, <10KW) are used to charge the electric vehicle in residential and workplaces. The off-board chargers have significance as they can charge the vehicles in less time like gas/petrol stations. These off-board charging stations are comprised of two power conversion stages. One is for the rectification process along with power factor correction to obtain DC output from the input utility grid and DC/DC stage to get the regulated DC voltage from the rectifier output. One can reduce the charging time by increasing the output charging power at the power conversion stage. Hence, the present work deals with a novel DC-DC converter topology for fast charging applications and the novelty lies in the Electric vehicle charging
R.L., JosephineSelvan, V. Arul MozhiR, Bhanu PrakashArunachalam Rajesh, Jashwanth
This document defines the test procedures and performance limits of steady state and transient voltage characteristics for 12 V, 24 V, or 48 V electrical power generating systems used in commercial ground vehicles.
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This article addresses the architecture development for a commercial vehicle fuel cell electric powertrain by establishing a clear multi-step formalized workflow that employs a unique technoeconomic solution for architecture selection. The power capability of the fuel cell, the energy capacity and chemistry of the electrical energy storage (battery), the DC-DC converter (including the input current rating and isolation resistance requirements), the traction drive solution, the on-board hydrogen storage solution, and the real-time power-split management of the fuel cell and the battery are all considered and developed in this effort. The methods were used to select architecture for Class 8 urban, regional, and line haul applications. When compared to traditional load-following power-split controllers, an energy management power-split controller can increase system energy efficiency by up to 19.5%. The energy-efficient power-split controller may increase the required battery capacity for
Sujan, Vivek Anand
The design of complex, high-power DC-to-DC converter architectures poses some challenges to engineers developing aerospace and military-grade power systems. DC-DC converters must comply with multiple standards and stringent requirements in terms of input voltage, EMI (electromagnetic interference) environmental conditions, and thermal management. A modular approach can significantly simplify the design process, enabling engineers to design complex power conversion systems using COTS and SWaP-C optimized building blocks. Engineers can meet multiple industry standards and power requirements while optimizing their power architectures according to new industry standards such as the Sensor Open System Architecture (SOSA).
The design of complex, high-power DC-to-DC converter architectures poses some challenges to engineers developing aerospace and military-grade power systems. DC-DC converters must comply with multiple standards and stringent requirements in terms of input voltage, EMI (electromagnetic interference) environmental conditions, and thermal management.
The ability to precisely control electrical voltages on a large scale has made possible many efficient, powerful innovations, from high-speed electric trains to wind turbines to electric drive motors for everything from heavy earthmoving equipment to personal electric vehicles (EVs). But the equipment that manages this process — including power inverters, thyristors and variable-speed drives — requires high-performance power electronics cooling. As temperatures rise,the efficiency, reliability, and life spans of these devices drop, and the power electronics inside HEVs and EVs are no exception. Advancements in power electronic thermal management technologies will enable next generation automotive to fulfill increasingly demanding mission objectives. DC-DC converter and inverter systems slated for higher performances, reliable and sustainable applications. Even with very high efficiencies, the components of these systems produce kilowatts of power loss in the form of heat. The current
Sahoo, Pranati
Today the contribution of the transportation sector to greenhouse gases is evident. The fast consumption of fossil fuels and their impact on the environment have given a strong impetus to the development of vehicles with better fuel economy. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) fit into this context with different targets, from the reduction of emissions and fuel consumption to performance and comfort enhancement. Vehicles exist with various missions; super sports cars usually aim to reach peak performance and guarantee a great driving experience, but great attention must also be paid to fuel consumption. According to the vehicle mission, HEVs can differ in the powertrain configuration and the choice of an energy storage system. The electrical energy source often consists of batteries, but also capacitors could be used. The energy storage systems could be limited in energy or power density, depending on their technology. This work explores the hybridization of a super sports car by fitting
Franceschi, AlessandroCavina, NicolòParenti, RiccardoReggiani, MaurizioCorti, Enrico
Create and publish a list of terms relevant to electrified propulsion aircraft with summary text descriptions. The terms and descriptions will not provide full explanations, diagrams, and other detailed technical descriptions. These deeper descriptions will be addressed in other documents. This document defines the relevant terms and abbreviations related to the design, development, and use of electrified propulsion in aircraft. This definition is provided to enable a consistent use of technical language throughout the standards developed by the E-40 committee.
E-40 Electrified Propulsion Committee
This SAE Standard applies to all types of heavy-duty storage batteries for use on off-road machines as described in SAE J1116. Included are definitions of industry terms, test procedures, general requirements, application recommendations, standard sizes, overall dimensions, and electrical values.
Starter Battery Standards Committee
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) outlines the design and performance requirements for a battery-powered electric tow tractor for the handling of baggage or cargo trailers in airline service. The use of “shall” in this document indicates a mandatory requirement. The use of “should” indicates a recommendation or that which is advised but not required.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
This paper describes the implementation, integration, testing and performance evaluation of compact and battery-less alternator with external regulator for diesel engine for avionics application. The key responsibility of this alternator is to generate 2.8kW power with 28V regulated power supply for various loads. The alternator has been integrated and installed on the diesel engine and further tested on dynamometer and thrust cradle with propeller combination. The alternator when used in conjunction with ACU (Alternator Control Unit) that is designed to boot strap field voltage during low speed operation, has the ability to self-excite. The alternator / ACU system has the ability to generate power even in the absence of battery voltage i.e. in battery less systems or those in which the battery is not always connected to the alternator. External voltage regulator has been used which minimizes ripple up to 1.0V. The alternator rpm ranges from 3000 to 10000 for generating maximum power
TRIPATHI, S KRadhakrishna, DPatel, T S
As the climate change & CO2 emissions are becoming prime concerns over the globe, Electric Vehicles (EV) are proving to be promising eco-friendly mobility solution. In India too, the transition to electric vehicles is gaining momentum. Batteries constitute a major chunk in the cost of an EV. Battery Management Systems (BMS) are of paramount importance for safety, performance, usability & lifetime of EV. Along with fundamental function of monitoring (cell voltage, pack voltage, pack current, cell/pack temperature), BMS must perform function of controlling (charger/load connect, disconnect, pre-charge) the battery pack in case of failures. In most EVs load capacitance (traction motor controller, charger, DC-DC converter) draws high inrush current from the battery pack. This may not only damage the contactors (connect/disconnect circuits) and other load components but can also affect the lifetime of cells within battery pack. Conventionally, contactor-based cut-off & relay-based pre
Magar, PradipDeshpande, RohanShinde, RushikeshDeo, MayankChaudhary, Pramod
Circuit designs exploiting the increased energy storage provided by supercapacitors require more careful consideration of the increased power handling than that of batteries when charging these devices. The unique composition of electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLC) inherently allows them to withstand large currents. Table 1 is a brief list of AVX cylindrical (SCC) and series-connected module (SCM) SuperCapacitors, displaying peak current supply and sink current capability. These maximum specifications will typically exceed current capability of charge sources and lead to failures within the power supply system.
The purpose of this SAE Information Report is to provide an overview of special requirements and practices in fuel cell vehicle thermal management. This document is primarily directed to fuel cell applications in motor vehicles.
Cooling Systems Standards Committee
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) outlines the functional and design requirements for a b self-propelled belt conveyor for handling baggage and cargo at aircraft bulk cargo holds. Additional considerations and requirements may legally apply in other countries. As an example, for operation in Europe (E.U. and E.F.T.A.), the applicable EN standards shall be complied with.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
This paper presents a Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) powertrain development and optimization, aiming to minimize hydrogen consumption. The vehicle is a prototype that run at the Shell Eco-marathon race and its powertrain is composed by a PEM fuel cell, supercapacitors and a DC electric motor. The supercapacitors serve as an energy buffer to satisfy the load peaks requested by the electric motor, allowing a smoother (and closer to a stationary application) working condition for the fuel cell. Thus, the fuel cell can achieve higher efficiency rates and the fuel consumption is minimized. Several models of the powertrain were developed using MATLAB-Simulink and then experimentally validated in laboratory and on the track. The proposed models allow to evaluate two main arrangements between fuel cell and supercapacitors: 1) through a DC/DC converter that sets the FC current to a desired value; 2) using a direct parallel connection between fuel cell and supercapacitors. The results
Carello, Massimilianade Carvalho Pinheiro, HenriqueLongega, LeonardoDi Napoli, Luca
Owing to its advantages of high energy density, quick start-up, and no emissions, the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is one of the most promising power sources in transportation and has been used for automotive application for years. However, shortcomings in fuel cell key performances, such as lifetime and efficiency, characterized by state of health (SOH), restrict the large-scale commercialization for fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), raising demands for real-time state monitoring. Nowadays, most researchers have explored the reasons for state change from models or experiments. Nevertheless, it is in need of system-level researches on definition methods of SOH against the actual automotive application. Lacking accurate quantitative indicators, existing studies on health states are often qualitative and hence fail to consider intermediate processes. In addition, too many health indicators that describe typical physical characteristics can be used for SOH definition
Hu, XiaoZhang, Tong
This guideline is applicable to existing lead solder production products that will change to lead-free solder processes to meet the ELV Directive 2000/53/EC Annex II, exemption 8B requirements. This guideline is applicable to similar products used by multiple OEM's that have the same manufacturing processes / equipment. The intent is to streamline the supplier’s environmental testing via common qualification to reduce timing, quantities, and costs.
USCAR
This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is intended to cover all airport 50 or 60 Hz electrical systems as well as all electrical utilization equipment that is attached to those systems.
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
This SAE Recommended Practice covers the design and application of a 120 VAC single phase engine based auxiliary power unit or GENSET. This document is intended to provide design direction for the single phase nominal 120 VAC as it interfaces within the truck 12 VDC battery and electrical architecture providing power to truck sleeper cab hotel loads so that they may operate with the main propulsion engine turned off.
Truck and Bus Electrical Systems Committee
In order to reduce development cost and time, frontloading is an established methodology for automotive development programs. With this approach, particular development tasks are shifted to earlier program phases. One prerequisite for this approach is the application of Hardware-in-the-Loop test setups. Hardware-in-the-Loop methodologies have already successfully been applied to conventional as well as electrified powertrains considering various driving scenarios. Regarding driving performance and energy demand, electrified powertrains are highly dependent on the dc-link voltage. However, there is a particular shortage of studies focusing on the verification of variable dc-link voltage controls by Hardware-in-the-Loop setups. This article is intended to be a first step towards closing this gap. Thereto, a Hardware-in-the-Loop setup of a battery electric vehicle is developed. The electric powertrain consists of an interior permanent magnet synchronous machine and an inverter, which are
Etzold, KonstantinScheer, RenéFahrbach, TimmZhou, ShuangGoldbeck, RafaelGuse, DanielFrie, FabianSauer, Dirk UweDe Doncker, Rik W.Andert, Jakob
Lithium ion technology is state of the art for actual hybrid and electrical vehicles. It is well known that lithium ion performance and safety characteristics strongly depend on temperature. Thus, reliable temperature measurement and control concepts for lithium ion cells are mandatory for applications in electrical cars. Temperature sensors for all individual cells increase the battery complexity and cost of a battery management system. Normally, temperature is measured on module level in current battery packs, without observation of the individual cell temperature. Sensorless cell impedance-based temperature measurement concepts have been published and are validated in laboratory studies. Dedicated test equipment is usually applied, which is not useful for automotive series application. This work describes a practical approach to enable impedance-based sensorless internal temperature measurement for all individual cells using state-of-the art battery management system components
Haussmann, PeterMelbert, Joachim
People and power don’t mix well, and this is particularly true when people are medical patients. Aside from the more usual environment of a medical facility, patients are also increasingly using medical devices at home. Medical equipment is therefore heavily regulated by standards-based requirements and subsequent product testing to ensure the safety of patients and healthcare professionals alike.
It is the purpose of this document to present design recommendations that will provide a basis for satisfactory and safe electrical installations in transport aircraft. This document is not intended to be a complete electrical installation design handbook. However, the requirements for safety extend so thoroughly throughout the electric systems that few areas of the installation are untouched by the document. It is recognized that individual circumstances may alter the details of any design. It is, therefore, important that this document not be considered mandatory but be used as a guide to good electrical application and installation design. Transport aircraft electric systems have rapidly increased in importance over a number of years until they are now used for many functions necessary to the successful operation of the aircraft. An ever increasing number of these functions are critical to the safety of the aircraft and its occupants. The greatly increased power available in
AE-8A Elec Wiring and Fiber Optic Interconnect Sys Install
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