Browse Topic: Simulation and modeling

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Kinetic Energy Recovery: Assessment on the impact of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor and Battery Dynamic models2025-01-0303To be published on 07/02/2025
This paper examines the influence of a detailed dynamic model of a Surface Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (SPMSM) on the accurate evaluation of kinetic energy recovery during braking in a mild hybrid vehicle. The model, implemented in MATLAB Simulink, is based on the motor's DQ equivalent circuit, accounting for transient effects, inductance variability, and magnetic saturation. Also, a 2nd Order Thevenin Equivalent model of the battery is used in order to take into account the bus voltage variability. Simulations reveal that the dynamic model predicts significant variations in energy recovery potential, with differences of up to 25% compared to static models under specific braking conditions. These discrepancies are particularly pronounced during high-speed high-torque transitions, where transient electrical behaviors strongly influence energy recovery. The model’s accuracy enhances the reliability of energy simulations, especially in scenarios involving frequent or intense
Lombardi, Simone, Federici, Leonardo, Tribioli, Laura, Bella, Gino
Technical Paper
Automated Test Process for Highly Configurable Software-Defined Mobility Systems in CI/CD2025-01-0297To be published on 07/02/2025
In the pursuit of customizability and evolvability of vehicle functions, manufacturers shift towards software-defined vehicles (SDV) to enable flexible customization and over-the-air updates. This results in multiple variants and versions of a vehicle model. While shifting to SDVs adds value and flexibility for customers, manufacturers struggle with homologating new and updated functionality because existing testing processes do not scale for high-frequency release cycles that limit available testing resources. Overcoming this challenge by using a coherent test process designed for testing variant-rich systems in continuous evolution will be one of the key enablers for the future development of SDVs. This paper presents an innovative end-to-end pipeline for efficient and comprehensive testing of variant-rich vehicle functionality tailored to an application in continuous development. Our transferable test pipeline employs sample-based variant selection, a software-in-the-loop
Hettich, Lennard, Pett, Tobias, Nägele, Ann-Therese, Schindewolf, Marc, Eris, Halit, Wagner, Stefan, Sax, Eric, Schaefer, Ina, Weyrich, Michael
Technical Paper
Reducing Traffic Congestion with Reinforcement Learning-Driven Signal Control Systems2025-01-0283To be published on 07/02/2025
The road network is a critical component of modern urban mobility systems, with signalized traffic intersections playing a pivotal role. Traditionally, traffic light phase timings and duration at intersections are designed by transportation engineers using historical traffic data. Some modern intersections employ trigger-based mechanisms to improve traffic flow; however, these systems often lack global awareness of traffic conditions across multiple intersections within a network. With the increasing availability of traffic data and advancements in machine learning, traffic light systems can be enhanced by modeling them as agents operating in an environment. This paper proposes a Reinforcement Learning (RL)-based approach for multi-agent traffic light systems within a simulation environment. The simulation is calibrated using real-world traffic data, enabling RL agents to learn effective control strategies based on realistic scenarios. A key advantage of using a calibrated simulation
kalra, Vikhyat, Tulpule, Punit, GIULIANI, PIO
Technical Paper
Methodology for Fast-Running, Time-Resolved Simulation of Non-Exhaust Particle Emissions from Brake Wear Abrasion2025-01-0275To be published on 07/02/2025
Non-exhaust particle emissions, particularly those generated by brake wear, are a significant source of fine particulate matter in urban environments. These emissions contribute to air pollution and pose serious health risks, particularly in densely populated areas. While vehicle exhaust emissions have been extensively studied and regulated, the contribution of non-exhaust sources, including brake wear, remains a critical factor in air quality management. This paper presents a novel methodology for fast-running, time-resolved simulation of non-exhaust particle emissions, specifically those from brake wear abrasion. A 3D CFD model computes the turbulent flow field around the disc brake. The resulting information on the convective air cooling is applied as boundary conditions on a 3D thermal model. This thermal simulation setup is compared and verified with experimental data from literature. The 3D numerical models produce data and boundary conditions for an efficient 1D numerical
Herkenrath, Ferris, Lückerath, Moritz, Günther, Marco, Pischinger, Stefan
Technical Paper
Optimization of Metallic Substrate by 1D simulations to fulfill High Power Cold Start Conditions2025-01-0308To be published on 07/02/2025
The future of the internal combustion engine is strictly related to his capability to have Life Cycle Emission comparable to the pure Battery Electric Vehicles. To achieve this goal, it will be necessary not only to have carbon free fuels but also to increase the hybridization of the powertrain in order to have lower fuel consumption. On the other hand, it will be necessary to reduce to almost zero any further emissions of pollutants. For this reason, highly sophisticated exhaust aftertreatment must be developed. One particular use case is the so-called High-Power Cold Start. This can occur for the Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles when the transition from pure electric drive to ICE assisted drive happens during high load request, for example an acceleration on the freeway ramp. This use case has been evaluated by CARB and in many other works. Nevertheless, in this particular paper, the Authors would like to investigate which Metallic Substrate Technology fits better during a HPCS. This
Montenegro, Gianluca, Onorati, Angelo, Della Torre, Augusto, Marinoni, Andrea, Pace, Lorenzo, Konieczny, Katrin, Laurell, Mats, Klövmark, Henrik
Technical Paper
Accelerating Vehicle Usage Analysis: A Methodology for Efficient Clustering2025-01-0287To be published on 07/02/2025
Modern vehicles, increasingly electrified and automated, have effectively become "computers on wheels," intensifying product complexity and competitive pressure. Concurrently, greater digitization offers opportunities to derive customer insights from large-scale vehicle data using Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) and Data Mining (DM). Among these techniques, cluster analysis can reveal hidden subgroups that inform more customer-oriented product solutions. However, cluster analysis lacks a definitive ground truth, making it necessary to test numerous parameter settings, preprocessing steps, and clustering algorithms, and then interpret all plausible results. The complexity of real-world customer data—such as heterogeneous, privacy-constrained vehicle usage signals—further complicates the selection of appropriate methodologies. Each combination of preprocessing and clustering steps must be analyzed to uncover patterns or groups, significantly increasing the time and manual effort
Wegener, Jan, van Putten, Sebastiaan, Neubeck, Jens, Wagner, Andreas
Technical Paper
Closed-loop real-time simulation of the thermal and electromagnetic behavior in electric drive trains: Optimizing model accuracy for virtual prototyping2025-01-0320To be published on 07/02/2025
This paper presents a coupled electromagnetic and thermal simulation of Permanently Excited Synchronous Machines (PMSM) in the context of virtual prototyping in a real-time Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) environment. Particularly in real-time simulations, thermal influences are often neglected due to the increased complexity of a coupled simulation. This results in inaccurate simulations and incomplete design optimizations. The objective of this contribution is to enable a precise and realistic real-time simulation that represents the electromagnetic as well as the thermal behavior. The electromagnetic simulation is executed used a Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and parameterized by Finite Element Analysis (FEA) results. The thermal model is based on a Lumped-Parameter-Thermal-Network (LPTN), which is based on physical laws, geometry parameters and material specifications. The simulation results are validated with testbench measurements to ensure the accuracy of the overall model. By
Jonczyk, Fabian, Kara, Onur, Bergheim, Yannick, Lee, Sung-Yong, Strop, Malte, Prochotta, Fabian, Andert, Jakob
Technical Paper
Evaluation of Static and Dynamic stiffness of rubber grommet by experimental and FEA method2025-01-0274To be published on 07/02/2025
Vibration control is most important in automotive applications and generally rubbers are used to dampen these vibrations due to their inherent nature and low-cost manufacturing methods. Now to select a rubber material shore hardness is considered in engineering applications, but to additionally control the behaviour we need to understand its static and dynamic stiffness. These values help to determine the vibration isolation obtained by these rubbers. In this paper, we will discuss methods to calculate the static and dynamic stiffness of rubber grommets using experimental methods and FEA modelling. As elastomers have non-linear material properties various material modelling techniques in FEA are used to capture multiple phenomena like creep, fatigue and dynamic conditions. Rubber compounding is used to improve the physical and chemical properties which in turn would give desirable linear characteristics. Certain guidelines and thumb rules are used in the rubber industry for different
Khamkar, Prasad Subhash, Gaikwad, Vikrant C
Technical Paper
Comprehensive optical and numerical investigation of hydrogen spray formation for a commercial gasoline hollow-cone injector2025-01-0313To be published on 07/02/2025
Hydrogen produced from renewable sources offers the opportunity to reduce future emissions and enable CO2-neutral mobility by both adapting existing internal combustion engines (ICE) and developing new combustion engine systems. One challenge of hydrogen direct injection (DI) ICE is to optimize the mixture formation to ensure low engine out emissions as well as high efficiencies. In the study presented in this paper, a conventional piezo hollow-cone gasoline injector, commonly used in passenger car series, was adapted for high-pressure hydrogen direct injection applications. Therefore, optical measurements within a low pressure chamber (LPC) were conducted using a high-speed Schlieren imaging measurement technique to visualize the injection behavior and spray pattern at various injection conditions. The visualization of density gradients during the injection process showed a slightly decreased relative gaseous penetration length (GPL) of 4% for hydrogen in comparison to helium while
Fleischmann, Maximilian, Mirsch, Niklas, Ghanoum, Mohamad, Morcinkowski, Bastian, Adomeit, Philipp, Pischinger, Stefan
Technical Paper
Upgradable Mechatronic Systems – Integration of Upgrade Planning and Design for Sustainable Vehicle Development2025-01-0290To be published on 07/02/2025
The automotive industry faces the challenge of developing vehicles that meet current customer requirements while being future-proof. Surveys show that customers fear financial risks associated with essential subsystems like batteries due to aging and performance degradation, which significantly affects the service life of vehicles. Therefore, the rapid technological progress in electrified powertrain systems requires innovative approaches for high adaptability to changing demands. This paper presents an approach combining foresight-based planning of system-level upgrades with product architecture design to create adaptable and sustainable vehicles through modularity. Potential battery and energy storage technologies are identified, their market introduction is forecasted, and they are analyzed technically-functional and geometrically to create flexible design spaces within the product architecture. This enables the future integration of new, more efficient, or higher-performance
Fehrenbacher, Rüdiger, Kuebler, Maximilian, Zeng, Yunying, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert, Nootny, Fabio, Kolbe, Lucia, Jung, Luca
Technical Paper
Methodology for Real-World Automated Function Development: From Virtual to On-Vehicle Implementation2025-01-0288To be published on 07/02/2025
The automotive industry is increasingly facing challenges stemming from growing system complexities, shortened development cycles, and the demand for rapid time-to-market transitions. Reinforcement learning (RL) has emerged as a promising approach to developing advanced control functions due to its adaptive and autonomous nature. Although it has already successfully demonstrated its viability in virtualised X-in-the-Loop (XiL) environments, its application to real-world vehicle systems is inhibited by safety concerns, real-time constraints, and the integration into established software toolchains. This paper introduces a comprehensive methodology for developing such control functions with RL: starting in a virtual environment, training then transitions to a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) setup, and ultimately proceeds to a real vehicle. Utilising the open-source framework LExCI, the proposed approach facilitates seamless training across multiple development stages and showcases RL's
Badalian, Kevin, Picerno, Mario, Lee, Sung-Yong, Schaub, Joschka, Andert, Jakob
Technical Paper
Analysis of Piston Bowl Topologies in a Hydrogen-Powered Commercial Vehicle Engine: Impact on Thermal Load and Mixture Formation2025-01-0319To be published on 07/02/2025
The performance of hydrogen combustion engines can be significantly influenced by the geometry of the piston bowl. In this work, various piston bowl designs are explored to assess their effects on thermal load and mixture formation, all while maintaining a constant compression ratio. The engine, originally developed for commercial utility vehicles, has been specifically converted for hydrogen operation to accommodate the specific requirements of this fuel. To conduct the analysis, abstract piston bowl geometries are modeled and evaluated through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations using the commercial software AVL FIRE M. The configuration of the piston bowl geometry is achieved by considering shallower and deeper profiles, aiming for a balanced compromise to optimally leverage the advantages of both geometries. Special attention is placed on flow quality, particularly in relation to mixture formation using hydrogen as fuel. Potentially adverse effects of piston bowls on
Dafis, Aristidis, Rottengruber, Hermann
Technical Paper
Requirements, Methods and Models for early Electrified Drive Concept Development2025-01-0304To be published on 07/02/2025
Computer-aided synthesis and development tools are essential for discovering and optimizing innovative concepts. Evaluating different concepts and making informed decisions relies heavily on accurate assessments of drive system properties. Estimating these properties in the early stages of development is challenging due to the depth of modelling required. In addition, defined requirements play a critical role in drive system sizing. This paper presents a tool chain for the synthesis of new electrified drive concepts, with emphasis on requirements definition and modelling. The requirements definition method combines market analysis with a generalized calculation and estimation approach, providing a novel perspective. In addition, we introduce mass and cost modelling capabilities integrated into the tool chain. The mass model achieves high accuracy, with deviations of only 1.6% at the vehicle level and 6.1% at the component level. Finally, the paper examines the mass and cost
Sturm, Axel
Technical Paper
An LLM-Based Multi-Turn Task-Oriented Dialogue System for Machine Learning Algorithm Selection in Data Mining2025-01-0289To be published on 07/02/2025
For the systematic application of machine learning during data mining in product development processes, selecting a suitable algorithm is crucial for success. During an empirical study in the automotive industry, a team applying data mining to develop battery systems for battery electric vehicles was accompanied. Here, it could be observed that data mining tasks are often unique during product development processes and can differ in boundary conditions. Depending on these tasks, suitable machine learning algorithms must be selected. Because of the variety of machine learning paradigms, problems, and algorithms, it is often hard to select a suitable algorithm, especially for inexperienced data miners. This paper presents a large language model (LLM)-based, multi-turn, task-oriented dialogue system to support data miners in selecting machine learning algorithms that are suitable for their specific data mining tasks. This approach, called “Algorithm Selection Assistant” (ASA), enables
Hörtling, Stefan, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert
Technical Paper
Theory Behind a Novel Method for the Quantification of Subjective Ride Comfort Phenomena2025-01-0267To be published on 07/02/2025
In the automotive development process objective criteria are commonly used to evaluate the full vehicle ride comfort of vehicles. Based on these characteristics, vehicle concepts can be evaluated and compared at an early stage without using physical prototypes. Usually, these characteristics are determined in subjective studies using real vehicles. However, limitations in the implementation of vehicle variants, the controllability of external influences and longer intervals between the individual assessments have a negative impact on the quality of results using these approaches. Therefore, this paper presents an improved method to transfer the subjective perception and evaluation of ride comfort phenomena to objective characteristics. The corresponding procedure is shown on the basis of a one-dimensional, periodic phenomenon that is transferred to a frequency-dependent weighting function. In this process, a 6-degree of freedom driving simulator is used to overcome the limitations
Stroesser, Simon, Angrick, Christian, Zwosta, Tobias, Neubeck, Jens, Wagner, Andreas
Technical Paper
Impact of the distribution of charging and hydrogen refueling stations on their reachability for craft vehicles with a defined usage profile2025-01-0310To be published on 07/02/2025
This Paper examines the impact of the distribution of charging and hydrogen refueling stations on their reachability for craft vehicles with a defined usage profile. A simulation-based methodology is presented for this purpose. The simulation tool models daily trips for craft vehicles, taking into account amongst others the company location, the client stops, the operating radius and the average daily driving distance. Based on these inputs, the simulation tool calculates the number of charging or refueling opportunities for typical daily trips of the craft vehicle. To investigate the impact of locations on the frequency of encountering energy provisions, simulations are conducted in three regions: Ulm (urban), Stuttgart (metropolitan), and Munderkingen (rural). Furthermore, the impact of different locations within the same infrastructural area is examined by assessing multiple company locations in Ulm. The findings indicate that the urban zone of Ulm is characterized by a highly dense
Heilmann, Oliver, Müller, Julian, Heinrich, Marco, Cortès, Sven, Schlick, Michael, Kulzer, André Casal
Technical Paper
Experimental and Numerical Analysis of Direct Injection Process for Hydrogen-Fuelled Internal Combustion Engines2025-01-0307To be published on 07/02/2025
In the context of the clean transport sector, there has been growing interest in the use of hydrogen in internal combustion engines due to its potential to nearly eliminate all engine-out criteria pollutants, while maintaining high thermal efficiency through the use of a lean combustion process. Direct Injection (DI) is widely recognized as a method for enhancing thermal efficiency and minimizing the risk of abnormal combustion. However, a major challenge is the reduced time available for mixture homogenization, making injection timing a critical parameter to optimize. To address this, a comprehensive experimental campaign was conducted in a constant volume vessel to assess the performance of a hydrogen injector using the Schlieren technique. The jet behavior was analyzed by varying injector recess, injection pressure, and back pressure. Subsequently, the case study was replicated in a 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) environment, addressing the complexities associated with
Pucillo, Francesco, Piano, Andrea, Millo, Federico, Giordana, Sergio, Rapetto, Nicola, Vargiu, Luca
Technical Paper
A Modular Framework for Lateral Movement Modeling2025-01-0269To be published on 07/02/2025
The lateral movement of vehicles within their lane determines occurring occlusions, and thus decides on the range of visions of vehicle sensors used by automated driving functions and the objects detected by down-stream algorithms. As simulations play an integral role in the validation of automated driving functions, their ability to realistically model the lateral movement is crucial. However, currently applied methods such as microscopic traffic simulations and the scenario-based approach making use of maneuver-based scenario descriptions simplify or neglect the lateral movement of vehicles. For that reason, a two-level stochastic model has been introduced in earlier work. It consists of a Markov model for the systematic coarse movement and a noise model for the residual fine movement. In follow-up publications, several advancements for both model components have been presented. These follow a modular structure, thus, can be flexibly combined. This paper for the first time gives an
Neis, Nicole, Beyerer, Jürgen
Technical Paper
Partial Experimental Validation of Generalized n-Trailer Articulated Vehicle Kinematics2025-01-0272To be published on 07/02/2025
Control-oriented models for vehicle systems are necessary to develop motion planning and path tracking controllers for active safety system development. While being mathematically elegant and simple enough for control design, such models must represent real-world phenomena associated with the vehicle’s kinematic and dynamic behavior. Specifically, articulated vehicles suffer from peculiarities like rearward amplification and offtracking in their kinematic behavior that are not found in single-unit passenger vehicles. In this paper, an iterative kinematic modeling algorithm for articulated truck-trailer vehicles with an arbitrary number of vehicle units having an arbitrary number of axles on each vehicle unit is evaluated using driver input data collected from an experimental passenger vehicle on eight real-world scenarios. The experimental vehicle is considered as the tractor vehicle unit for a simulation study in which multiple trailers of various geometries are considered. The yaw
Singh, Yuvraj, Giuliani, Pio Michele, Jayakumar, Adithya, Javed, Nur Uddin, Tan, Shengzhe, Rizzoni, Giorgio
Technical Paper
Automation and Optimization of the Design and Development Process for a Formula Student Racing Car Suspension2025-01-0270To be published on 07/02/2025
The design and the development of modern suspension systems is a complex process covering several different engineering domains and disciplines. Among others, this includes vehicle dynamics simulations, tyre data analysis, 1D-lap time simulations, 3D CAD design and structural analysis including collision detection. Taking into account that the overall vehicle and suspension development including all these different disciplines is performed by several engineering departments, the design automation by process digitalization is a means to minimize the manual workload for this complex engineering design and development task. The paper illustrates how the generic suspension design and development procedure can be almost fully automized with the help of so-called graph-based design languages and an associated compiler and can be applied to a concrete Formula Student racing car. It is shown how the therefore necessary digital consistency of data, digital continuity of processes and digital
Borowski, Julian, Rudolph, Stephan
Technical Paper
DISRUPT - Decentralized Intelligent System for Road User Prediction and Tracking2025-01-0294To be published on 07/02/2025
We present DISRUPT, a research project to develop a cooperative traffic perception and prediction system based on networked infrastructure and vehicle sensors. Decentralized tracking and prediction algorithms are used to estimate the dynamic state of road users and predict their state in the near future. Compared to centralized approaches, which currently dominate traffic perception, decentralized algorithms offer advantages such as greater flexibility, robustness and scalability. Mobile sensor boxes are used as infrastructure sensors and the locally calculated status estimates are communicated in such a way that they can augment local estimates from other sensor boxes or vehicles. In addition, the information is transferred to a cloud that collects the local estimates and provides traffic visualization functionalities. The prediction module then calculates the future dynamic state based on neurocognitive behavior and a measure of a road user's risk of being involved in dangerous
Beutenmüller, Frank, Brostek, Lukas, Doberstein, Christian, Han, Longfei, Kefferpütz, Klaus, Obstbaum, Martin, Pawlowski, Antonia, Rössert, Christian, Sas-Brunschier, Lucas, Schön, Thilo, Sichermann, Jörg
Technical Paper
Numerical analysis of direct-injection and combustion inside a H2 engine2025-01-0301To be published on 07/02/2025
The direct injection of hydrogen (H2) inside internal combustion engines (ICEs) is gaining large research interest over the port-fuel injection strategy, because of several advantages as higher volumetric efficiencies, increased power output and reduced risks of abnormal combustion. However, the required high pressure ratios across the injector nozzle produce moderate-to-high under-expanded jets, characterized by complex flow structures. This poses a challenge for the numerical modelling of the mixture preparation by means of 3D computational fluid dynamic (CFD) approaches. In this work, a validated 3D-CFD methodology has been employed to simulate the closed-valve cycle of a direct injection H2 engine equipped with a centrally mounted hollow-cone injector and a non-axisymmetric piston bowl. First, injection and mixture preparation have been studied considering an early injection at the beginning of the compression stroke, and a delayed injection in the second half of the compression
Capecci, Marcolucio, Sforza, Lorenzo, Lucchini, Tommaso, D'Errico, Gianluca, Pezza, Vincenzo, Tosi, Sergio
Technical Paper
TPMS based porous media for improved reactant transport in high current density polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell operations2025-01-0196To be published on 06/16/2025
To address the challenges of water flooding and flow maldistribution in high current density operations of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), this study investigates the use of triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) based porous media for replacing conventional parallel flow-field (CPFF) patterns. The performance of fuel cells, with emphasis on reactant transport and water management, is analyzed through a multi-physical three-dimensional numerical model. To evaluate the impact of TPMS flow-fields, BPs were designed with ignorable difference in contact area ratio between BP and gas diffusion layer, ensuring comparable interfacial contact resistance. Compared to CPFF, the novel flow-field based on I-lattice promote a more uniform distribution of reactants and exhibit better liquid water saturation in porous media, thus, exhibiting greater current densities 8-15% in ohmic loss regime and nearly 22% in mass-limited regime. The flow-field based on G-lattice achieved a
Ho, Phuc Van
Technical Paper
numerical investigation into the combustion and emission characteristics of ammonia direct injection mechanism2025-01-0241To be published on 06/16/2025
Ammonia is an attractive option because of its relatively low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, high energy density, competitive cost, and ubiquitous infrastructure for manufacturing, storage, and distribution. In this work, the optimum combustion characteristics are investigated to propose an efficient ammonia engine for future investigation. The effects of ammonia addition on diesel combustion characteristics were numerically investigated in a CI engine. The investigation was conducted by structured 3D CFD modeling to analyze the combustion characteristics. The validation of the boundary condition was compared to the designed experimental ammonia engine. The direct injection timing of 10o-50oBTDC and injection pressure 300-800 bar was proposed to identify the optimum autoignition characteristics. The equivalence ratios 1, 0.75, 0.5, and 0.25 were used in order to analyze the high cetane number characteristics and the air-fuel ratio.
setiawan, ardhika
Technical Paper
Comparison of renewable methanol and gasoline fuel spray vaporization using direct-injection technology2025-01-0225To be published on 06/16/2025
Considering the large opportunity to reduce net lifecycle carbon emissions through the use renewable methanol, we address spray technologies needed to overcome the challenge of wall wetting and poor vaporization for methanol and the need for improved computational modeling of these processes. High-speed extinction imaging followed by computed tomography reconstruction is utilized to provide three-dimensional liquid volume fraction for reference fuel injectors, to be used for model validation activities. The first injector is the symmetric 8-hole Spray M injector for the Engine Combustion Network, and the second injector is an asymmetric 6-hole injector designed for lateral-cylinder mounting. The degree of plume interaction and vaporization are characterized at representive injection conditions, showing substantially higher concentrations of liquid for methanol than gasoline even with preheated fuel temperatures (90 degrees C).
Wan, Kevin, Clemente Mallada, Rafael, Oh, Heechang, Dhanji, Meghnaa, Buen, Zachary, White, Logan, Pickett, Lyle
Technical Paper
A Pich Shift Synthesis Algorithm for Electric Vehicle Sound Based on Quadratic Interpolation and Continuous Sample Indexing2025-01-0254To be published on 06/16/2025
The electric vehicle driveline generates less vibration and noise compared to a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle, making it hard-er for the driver to perceive the vehicle’s operating status through driveline sounds, thereby diminishing driving engagement and experience. To compensate for the absence of engine sound in EV drivelines, Active Sound Design (ASD) technology has become a crucial method for drivetrain sound enhancement, with sound synthesis algorithms playing a key role in this process. Although pitch-shifting algorithms based on frequency variation principles can synthesize engine sounds, they suffer from spectral leakage and stuttering caused by sound splicing. To ad-dress these issues, a pitch-shifting synthesis algorithm (QCPS) is proposed in this paper, which combines a quadratic interpolation method with a continuous audio sample indexing strategy. First, the frequency variation coefficient of the sound is calculated. Based on this coefficient
Liu, Dezhu
Technical Paper
Analysis of Diesel-Ethanol Blends: Impact on Spray Behavior and Combustion Properties under Various Injection Parameters in Compression Ignition Settings2025-01-0208To be published on 06/16/2025
With rising fuel consumption across road transportation, there is growing interest in expanding the market share of renewable fuels, such as ethanol. Ethanol can be produced from raw materials from various starch-rich plants. In compression ignition engines, ethanol cannot be utilized on its own, largely due to its low cetane number. In this study, a constant volume combustion chamber (CVCC) is employed to investigate the effects of adding ethanol in diesel with different proportions (0%, 10%, 20%, 30% in volume) on the spray, combustion, and flame characteristics. Optical techniques, such as shadowgraph and flame self-illumination direct photography using high-speed imaging methods, were employed to reveal the spray and flame development process. This thesis examines the effects of varying fuel injection pressures (50, 80, and 110 MPa) and ambient pressures (1.5 and 3 MPa) on diesel-ethanol (DE) fuel blends. The study emphasizes the impact of DE blending ratios on the spray’s
Putra, I Komang Gede Tryas Agameru
Technical Paper
Commercial Vehicle’s Exhaust Front Pipe Reliability Improvement through Virtual Simulation and Experimental Validation2025-01-0209To be published on 06/16/2025
The exhaust front pipe is a critical structural component in commercial vehicles, ensuring the leak-proof flow of exhaust gases into the exhaust after-treatment system while withstanding engine and frame vibrations. To isolate these vibrations, the front pipe is equipped with a flex connector capable of enduring various displacements at frequencies between 8-25 Hz. The position of the flex connector relative to the engine crank axis significantly impacts its structural reliability over its service life. This paper compares the existing design, which features a horizontally positioned flex connector, with a modified design that positions the flex connector vertically and changes the material from SS-304 to SS-321. Finite element analysis was conducted using Nastran software. The fatigue life of the existing flex connector design is approximately 1015 cycles. In contrast, the improved design demonstrates a fatigue life of 1727 cycles, representing a 70% increase in durability compared to
Chandel, Kushal, Paroche, Sonu, NAMDEV, AKHILESH, Jain, Shailendra, Patil, Keyur
Technical Paper
Sound Granular Synthesis Method for Science Fiction Sound Quality of Electric Vehicles2025-01-0253To be published on 06/16/2025
Since the powertrain systems of electric vehicles (EVs) lack the traditional engine sound, their NVH performance differs from that of conventional fuel-powered vehicles, making the use of active sound design (ASD) systems increasingly common to provide compensatory sound. With the increasing demand for ASD systems, sci-fi sounds are emerging as a design direction to enhance the acoustic feedback of powertrain systems and to elevate the futuristic and immersive driving experience of vehicles. A method for generating sci-fi soundscapes using a granular synthesis algorithm is proposed in this paper. First, a sci-fi sound is designed based on the characteristics of sci-fi sounds, which serves as the target sound for the synthesis algorithm. Then, it is proposed that sound grains are generated using the adaptive main frequency method, and granular synthesis is achieved through the overlap-and-add (OLA) method. In addition, a method for optimizing the composite cosine window function based
Liu, Dezhu
Technical Paper
Numerical Simulation and Parametric Optimization of Engine/Powertrain Mounts: Identifying Key Design Variables to Reduce NVH Noise2025-01-0251To be published on 06/16/2025
Abstract: Introduction: Engine and powertrain mounts are vital for isolating vibrations and reducing the transmission of Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) from the engine to the vehicle structure. Despite technological advancements, addressing NVH issues related to tribological factors continues to pose significant challenges in automotive engineering. Aim: This study aims to systematically identify and optimize design parameters of engine/powertrain mounts to minimize NVH levels using CAE tools and parametric optimization techniques in Abaqus and Isight, respectively. Purpose: The purpose of this research is to investigate the correlation between various design parameters of powertrain mounts and their impact on NVH characteristics. Specific attention is focused on noises such as clunking, banging, or thumping that emerge from the engine bay under dynamic conditions like acceleration, braking, or turning. These sounds often occur as the engine moves excessively due to worn mounts
GANESAN, KARTHIKEYAN
Technical Paper
Three-Dimensional CFD Analysis of a Flat Engine Lubrication System2025-01-0215To be published on 06/16/2025
This study presents a comprehensive, transient, 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model of a multi-cylinder flat engine's lubrication system, simulated using Simerics-MP+. Engine lubrication system is crucial for reducing friction, cooling, and cleaning engine components. Understanding its performance is essential for optimal engine operation. The model was applied to the lubrication system of a 4-cylinder, reciprocating internal combustion engine. The computational domain includes the positive displacement gear pump, pressure regulation valve, bearings, piston pins, piston cooling jets, oil cooler, oil filter, and other relevant components. Bearing deformation and orbiting due to force imbalance were prescribed in the simulations. A series of simulations were conducted under both fixed and time-dependent gear pump rotation speeds. For fixed speeds, the simulated flow pressure distributions closely matched experimental data. For time-dependent speeds, the predicted pressure buildup
Shiyi, Pan, Nan, Zhang, Jing, Liu, Mingliang, Liu, Wei, Wang
Technical Paper
CFD Study of Lubrication Pump Starvation Due to Oil Pan Sloshing2025-01-0213To be published on 06/16/2025
Dynamic vehicle operation, such as acceleration, deceleration, and tilting, can cause severe oil sloshing in the engine oil pan. This can lead to oil starvation at the pickup tube, compromising lubrication pump performance, and potentially damaging engine components. This study presents a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) multiphase model of an engine oil pan and lubrication pump, simulated using Simerics-MP+. A series of numerical simulations were conducted at various pump speeds and extreme oil pan tilt angles. Time-dependent oil distributions were visualized, and real-time oil flow rates were monitored at the pickup tube to assess the impact of pump speed and pan position on oil starvation. This CFD model provides valuable insights into oil pan and pump behavior under extreme vehicle operation conditions, aiding in the design and optimization of lubrication systems to mitigate the risk of oil starvation and improve overall engine safety and performance.
Nan, Zhang, Shiyi, Pan, Jing, Liu, Mingliang, Liu, Wei, Wang
Technical Paper
Maximizing Efficiency in Fuel Cell Electric Bicycles: The Role of Deep Learning in Performance Optimization2025-01-0197To be published on 06/16/2025
The purpose of this work is to maximize the energy consumption and performance of fuel cell electric bicycles (FCEBs) using particular key input parameters. The paper used an integrated strategy that included an artificial neural network (ANN) and a genetic algorithm (GA) to predict and determine the optimal performance and energy consumption of FCEBs. The FCEB simulation model is established and simulated in the MATLAB-Simulink environment to generate 1000 data points that are used for training, validating, and testing the artificial neural network (ANN), which consists of five input neurons, two hidden neurons, and two output neurons. Furthermore, the GA is used to determine the optimal performance and energy usage after the ANN has been precisely trained. To evaluate and verify the simulated results, the experimental approach method was performed under the identical conditions.
LE, TRONGHIEU
Technical Paper
Interconnected and Data-Driven Aircraft Cabin Systems: Consistent Integration of ARINC 853 Messaging Standard into Model-Based Aircraft Systems Development2025-01-0174To be published on 05/02/2025
Increasing digitalization of the aircraft cabin, driven by the need for improved operational efficiency and an enhanced passenger experience, has led to the development of data-driven services. In order to implement these services, information from different systems is often required, which leads to a multi-system architecture. When designing a network that interconnects these systems, it is important to consider the heterogeneous device and supplier landscape as well as variations in the network architecture resulting from airline customization or cabin upgrades. The novel ARINC 853 Cabin Secure Media-Independent Messaging (CSMIM) standard addresses this challenge by specifying a communication protocol that relies on a data model to encode provided and consumed information. This paper presents an approach to integrate CSMIM-specific communication concepts into a Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) framework using the Systems Modeling Language (SysML). This enables a streamlined
Giertzsch, Fabian, Blecken, Marvin, God, Ralf
Technical Paper
Enhancing Airworthiness Security: SysML-Based Approach to Modelling Security Scope Definitions2025-01-0172To be published on 05/02/2025
Airworthiness certification of aircraft requires an Airworthiness Security Process (AWSP) to ensure safe operation under potential unauthorized interactions, particularly in the context of growing cyber threats. Regulatory authorities mandate the consideration of Intentional Unauthorized Electronic Interactions (IUEI) in the development of aircraft, airborne software, and equipment. As the industry increasingly adopts Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) to accelerate development, we aim to enhance this effort by focusing on security scope definitions – a critical step within the AWSP for security risk assessment that establishes the boundaries and extent of security measures. However, our findings indicate that, despite the increasing use of model-based tools in development, these security scope definitions often remain either document-based or, when modeled, are presented at overly abstract levels, both of which limit their utility. Furthermore, we found that these definitions
Hechelmann, Adrian, Mannchen, Thomas
Technical Paper
Determining Worst-Case Execution Time Bounds for Multi-core Processors2025-01-0155To be published on 05/02/2025
Demonstrating deadline adherence for real-time tasks is a common requirement in all safety norms, including ISO 26262 and DO-178C. Timing verification has to address two levels: the code level (worst-case execution time) and the scheduling level (worst-case response time). Determining which methodology is suited best depends on the characteristics of the target processor. All contemporary microprocessors try to maximize the instruction-level parallelism by sophisticated performance-enhancing features that make the execution time of a particular instruction dependent on the execution history. On multi-core systems, the execution time additionally is influenced by interference effects on shared resources caused by concurrent activities on the different cores, which are not controlled by the scheduling algorithm. In the avionics domain, the new FAA AC 20-193 / EASA AMC 20-193 guidance documents formalize predictability aspects of multi-core systems and derive adequate measures for timing
Kaestner, Daniel, Gebhard, Gernot, Huembert, Christian, Pister, Markus, Wegener, Simon, Ferdinand, Christian
Technical Paper
Image Processing-Based Chip Detection by KIZKI Algorithm and Its Optimization2025-01-0168To be published on 05/02/2025
The process of producing aircraft parts involves the drilling of aluminum alloys. This creates a large amount of chips, which are removed using air, but sometimes they still remain within the holes. This is checked by inspectors through visual inspection. However, the quality of human inspection varies based on skill level and fatigue. Thus, image-based inspection should be used to stabilize and further improve inspection quality. This study aims to build a framework for chip detection based on image processing. Taking into account on-site implementation, the system must have low installation and running costs and be standalone. Therefore, we adopt the KIZKI algorithm, which satisfies these conditions. KIZKI means awareness in Japanese. This is a model of human peripheral vision and saccades. It does not require training like AI and can achieve high-speed and high-performance detection using a low-performance computer. In other words, there is no need for a computer with an expensive
Iinuma, Marin, Sato, Junya, Tsuji, Masahiko
Technical Paper
Innovative High-Performance Active Dampers for Effective Mitigation of Helicopter Main Rotor Vibrations2025-01-0163To be published on 05/02/2025
Helicopter vibrations, primarily generated by the main rotor-gearbox assembly, are a major source of concern due to their impact on structural integrity, cockpit instrument durability, and crew comfort. These vibrations are mainly transmitted through the gearbox’s rigid support struts to the fuselage, leading to increased cabin noise and potential damage to critical components. This paper presents a solution for vibration mitigation which involves replacing traditional gearbox support struts with low-weight, high-performance active dampers. Developed by Elettronica Aster S.p.A., these active dampers are designed as electro-hydraulic actuators embedded within a compliant structure. The parallel nested configuration of the system enables high power densities and effective vibration control, significantly reducing the transmission of harmful vibrations to the fuselage. The comprehensive model-based design process is detailed, describing the development and use of a high-fidelity physics
Bertolino, Antonio Carlo, Sorli, Massimo, Porro, Paolo Giovanni, Galli, Claudio
Technical Paper
Approach to Optimize the Airplane Boarding Process by using Image Recognition and Stochastic Simulation to Predict Overhead Bin Fill Levels2025-01-0164To be published on 05/02/2025
In single-aisle aircraft, the available storage space for carry-on baggage is inherently limited. When the aircraft is fully booked, this often results in insufficient overhead bin space, necessitating last-minute gate-checking of carry-on items, which delays the boarding process and reduces operational efficiency. A promising approach to mitigating this issue involves the integration of computer vision technologies with an appropriate data storage system and stochastic simulation to enable accurate and supportive predictions that enhance planning. In this work the YOLOv8 image recognition algorithm is used to identify and classify each passenger’s carry-on baggage into categories such as handbags, backpacks and suitcases. This data is then linked to passenger information stored in the NoSQL database MongoDB, which included seat assignments and the number of carry-on items per passenger. Stochastic simulation is applied to predict the occupancy levels of overhead storage bins across
Bergmann, Jacqueline, Hub, Maximilian
Technical Paper
Empirical Inflow Ratio Adjustment for Hovering Open Rotors with Experimental Validation2025-01-0162To be published on 05/02/2025
This study presents empirical modifications of Blade Element Momentum Theory (BEMT) to improve rotor performance prediction for open rotors in hovering conditions. The empirical adjustments were made to the inflow ratio, factoring in the real rotor wake area and estimated induced power losses. A comparison between experimental data and two analytical models, one using an empirical inflow formula and the other a theoretical formula (classical BEMT), was conducted for two rotors. The empirical inflow model demonstrated superior accuracy in predicting thrust and torque. These modifications are applied to the inflow ratio by accounting for the actual rotor wake area and estimated induced power losses. The findings highlight the potential for more accurate performance prediction through the integration of empirical data into theoretical frameworks.
Dayhoum, Abdallah, Ramirez-Serrano, Alejandro, Martinuzzi, Robert
Technical Paper
Machine Learning-Based Vision Mapping and Planning for Flexibility in High-Mix Robotic Manufacturing2025-01-0157To be published on 05/02/2025
Industries that require high-accuracy automation in the creation of high-mix/low-volume parts, such as aerospace, often face cost constraints with traditional robotics and machine tools due to the need for many pre-programmed tool paths, dedicated part fixtures, and rigid production flow. This paper presents a new machine learning (ML) based vision mapping and planning technique, created to enhance flexibility and efficiency in robotic operations, while reducing overall costs. The system is capable of mapping discrete process targets in the robot work envelope that the ML algorithms have been trained to identify, without requiring knowledge of the overall assembly. Using a 2D camera, images are taken from multiple robot positions across the work area and are used in the ML algorithm to detect, identify, and predict the 6D pose of each target. The algorithm uses the poses and target identifications to automatically develop a part program with efficient tool paths, including
Langan, Daniel, Hall, Michael, Goldberg, Emily, Schrandt, Sasha
Technical Paper
MBSE Framework for Developing Data-Driven Passenger Services in Aircraft Cabins2025-01-0171To be published on 05/02/2025
The aircraft cabin plays a crucial role in airline differentiation strategies, particularly when introducing novel, data-driven services. These services aim to enhance the passenger experience during the flight and to improve cabin crew efficiency in order to reduce workload and ensure continued growth of airline revenue. Digitalization and extensive exchange of information across the entire aircraft transport system have emerged as key enablers for these services. The development of aircraft and aircraft systems that realize these services is characterized by a multi-level development process. Various development levels are considered to initially identify the functions of an aircraft in the air transport system, refine its systems and break them down into their components until a level of detail is reached that allows the implementation of the component functions. In addition to the high complexity, a major challenge in this development is to ensure traceability and consistency
Blecken, Marvin, Giertzsch, Fabian, God, Ralf
Technical Paper
CFD Analysis of Pintle-Nozzle Spray for Swirl Chamber Type Small Diesel Engine -Application of Hole-Nozzle Atomization Model to Pintle-Nozzle2024-32-0109To be published on 04/18/2025
Swirl chamber combustion system is commonly used for IDI (In-Direct Injection) diesel engine. It is characterized by swirl combustion chamber arranged in cylinder head, main combustion chamber with shallow piston recess and connecting throat where fuel spray and flame mixture is ejected out from the swirl chamber to the main chamber [1]. Fuel is supplied in the swirl chamber and a pintle type nozzle is often used in this type engine as its simple structure and robustness for operating condition. In this paper, numerical simulation of a pintle nozzle spray was focused on and simulated results were compared with high speed photo data obtained in a constant volume vessel (CVV). Spray angle and tip penetration were mainly evaluated, but simulated angle and penetration could not be matched simultaneously to these characteristics of the pintle nozzle spray when conventional spray models were used for the simulation. To overcome this mismatch, “Multi-hole replacement model” was newly
Okazaki, Tadao, Fujiwara, Tsukasa
Technical Paper
Real-Time Control of Hydrogen Injection in a PFI Internal Combustion Engine based on an Online Physics-Based Model for Estimating Trapped Air and EGR2024-32-0103To be published on 04/18/2025
The use of hydrogen in port fuel injection (PFI) engines faces challenges related to abnormal combustions that must be addressed, especially in transient operation. The in-cylinder air-to-fuel ratio and the amount of trapped exhaust gas have a significant impact on the probability of abnormal combustion as well as NOx emissions, and should be real-time monitored in hydrogen engines. Thus, the real-time estimation of the composition and thermodynamic state of the trapped gas mixture is crucial during transient operations, although highly challenging. This study proposes an on-line real-time physics-based MIMO (Multi-Input-Multi-Output) model to accurately estimate the amount of trapped air and exhaust gas in the cylinder at the intake valve closing (IVC) event, based on the instantaneous in-cylinder pressure measurement. With proper estimation accuracy, the injector can be controlled to correctly provide the amount of fuel necessary to achieve the target air-to-fuel ratio (AFR) and
Galli, Claudio, Ciampolini, Marco, Drovandi, Lorenzo, Romani, Luca, Balduzzi, Francesco, Ferrara, Giovanni, Vichi, Giovanni, Minamino, Ryota
Technical Paper
3D-CFD Simulations of H2 ICEs: A Preliminary Evaluation of a Laminar Flame Speed Correction for Thermo-Diffusive Instability2024-32-0074To be published on 04/18/2025
In recent years, climate change and geopolitical instability have intensified the focus on sustainable power generation. This shift seeks alternatives that balance environmental impact, cost-effectiveness, and practicality. Specifically, in transportation and power generation, electric motors face challenges against internal combustion engines due to the high cost and mass of batteries required for energy storage. This makes electric solutions less favorable for these sectors. Conversely, internal combustion engines, when properly fueled, offer cost-effectiveness and a quasi-environmentally-neutral option. To address these challenges, researchers have explored e-fuels derived from renewable sources as a carbon-neutral supply for internal combustion engines. Among these, hydrogen is particularly promising. In hydrogen-powered internal combustion engines, 3D-CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) in-cylinder models are crucial. Once validated, these models can speed up the design process. A
Sfriso, Stefano, Berni, Fabio, Breda, Sebastiano, Fontanesi, Stefano, Cordisco, Ilario, Leite, Caio Ramalho, Brequigny, Pierre, Foucher, Fabrice
Technical Paper
Novel Statistical Modelling-Based Approach for Exhaust Mass Flow Calculation in Motorcycles2024-32-0072To be published on 04/18/2025
The exhaust mass flow measurement for motorcycles poses a unique challenge due to presence of pulsations arising from an unfavorable combination of the engine displacement-to-exhaust system volume ratio and the long or even unequal ignition intervals. This pulsation phenomenon significantly impacts the accuracy of the differential pressure-based measurement method commonly employed in on-board measurement systems for passenger cars. This paper introduces an alternative approach calculating exhaust mass flow in motorcycles, focusing on statistical modelling based on engine parameters. The problem at hand is rooted in the adverse effects of pulsations on the differential pressure-based measurement method used in the EFM. The unfavorable combination of engine characteristics specific to motorcycles necessitates a novel approach. Our proposed alternative involves utilizing readily available OBD parameters, namely engine speed and calculated engine load as there is mostly no data for intake
Schurl, Sebastian, Sturm, Stefan, Schmidt, Stephan, Kirchberger, Roland
Technical Paper
Virtual Calibration Approach to the Development of Control Systems and Strategies for Hybrid L-Category Vehicles2024-32-0066To be published on 04/18/2025
Hybrid powertrain for motorcycles has not been widely adopted to date but has recently shown significant increased interest and it is believed to have great potential for fuel economy containment in real driving conditions. Moreover, this technology is suitable for the expected new legislations, reduced emissions and enables riding in Zero Emissions Zones, so towards a more carbon neutral society while still guaranteeing “motorcycle passion” for the product [1, 2]. Several simulation tools and methods are available for the concept phase of the hybrid system design, allowing definition of the hybrid components and the basic hybrid strategies, but they are not able to properly represent the real on-road behaviour of the hybrid vehicle and its specific control system, making the fine tuning and validation work very difficult. Motorcycle riders are used to expect instant significant torque delivery on their demand, that is not properly represented in legislative cycles (e.g. WMTC); rider
Antoniutti, Christian, Sweet, David, Hounsham, Sandra
Technical Paper
Dynamic Modeling of an off-Road Vehicle with Whoops Behavior2024-32-0080To be published on 04/18/2025
Off-road vehicle demand is on the rise, particularly in North America. In connection with this trend, there is a demand for dynamic modeling to describe the behavior of off-road vehicles when driving terrains surfaces with successive bumps. However, conventional dynamic models has been insufficient in representing the situation where the tire-ground contact and detachment states switch successively during whoops behavior. Therefore, in this study, rigid-body multibody dynamics methodology was employed to model the vehicle and conduct numerical simulations. Numerical simulations were conducted using the constructed vehicle model, demonstrating that the behavior of off-road vehicles in whoops closely resembles the actual phenomenon.
Inoue, Tsuyoshi, Ejiri, Haruto, Heya, Akira, Yoshida, Masahiro
Technical Paper
Representative Point of Measurement of Engine ECU and Effect of Vortices and Ambient Wall on Forced Air-Cooling2024-32-0036To be published on 04/18/2025
The Electric Control Unit (ECU) is a crucial computing unit responsible for engine regulating various functions. However, non-airflow thermal design due to the complexity of engine bay turbulent flow simulation is limiting ECU’s potential with the increasing demand of computation power consumption, thermal design faced additional challenges. Moreover, the lack of standardized ECU design guidelines forced substantial investments in customized thermal solutions for different engine bay packaging. Through this research, the method of finding representative points of ambient temperature efficiently and reliably is investigated, so that thermal design can be achieved by estimating flow properties during the ECU design stage efficiently. This research involves studying the effects of airflow on ECU cooling using experimental and numerical analysis in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Alongside the representative points of ambient temperature uncovered from the numerical result
Zhong, Jiajun, Inaba, Kazuaki, Yamaguchi, Ryota, Yasui, Ryuta, Umeno, Masafumi
Technical Paper
Accelerating Battery Thermal Analysis by Integrating CFD Simulation and Machine Learning Techniques2024-32-0121To be published on 04/18/2025
The growing demand for sustainable transportation solutions and renewable energy storage systems has heightened the necessity for precise and effective prediction of battery thermal performance. However, achieving both precision and efficiency poses a challenge, necessitating exploration into diverse methodologies. The conventional use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) offers a comprehensive insight into thermal dynamics but prioritizes precision over efficiency. To enhance the efficiency of this traditional approach, numerous reduced-order modeling techniques have emerged, and the concept of Machine Learning (ML) presents a distinct avenue for enhancing simulation capabilities, particularly in the context of mobility solutions. This paper presents a novel approach to accelerate battery thermal analysis by integrating CFD and ML. The CFD simulations provide an intricate understanding of the thermal dynamics within batteries, encompassing fluid flow and temperature distributions
Devarajan, Gurudevan, Vaidyanathan, Ganesh, Bhave, Ajinkya, Ji, Lichao, Wang, Jiao, Zhou, Wei, He, Jiguang, Shi, Pengfei
Technical Paper
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