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Luminous Reflectance in Safety Glazing Materials for Road Vehicles

J2134_202507 (Current)

07/07/2025

The scope of this SAE performance standard is to provide a simple, practical, and broadly applicable test procedure for appraising luminous Illuminant A reflectance of reflecting safety glazing materials for road vehicles. This SAE performance standard, which provides a simple test procedure widely used in the optics field, may be used to measure the reflectivity which films applied to safety glazing materials for road vehicles may enhance. This test procedure applies to conditions where feasibility, rather than accuracy of measurement, is of prime importance. Measurements can be made outside laboratories in a quality control environment and in similar applications, when glazings, instead of small test specimens, have to be tested.

Glazing Materials Standards Committee

800P3-2 Cabin Connectors and Cables, Part 3, Specification of Cables

ARINC800P3-2 (Current)07/07/2025

This specification describes the general cable and wire characteristics recommended for use in cabin systems for commercial aircraft. Supplement 1 adds new definitions of 26 AWG 2-pair (Quad), 4-pair (Oct) data cables, and copper-fiber optic hybrid composite cables. Supplement 2 includes definitions of shielded twisted pair ethernet over single pair for data rates up to 1000Base-T1.

Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee

SAE TOMORROW TODAY - Smarter Automotive Testing with AI and Simulation

1352207/07/2025

The new test track isn't asphalt--it's AI and simulation. From hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) to real-time performance analytics, new innovations are reshaping how vehicles are designed, validated, and brought to market. At the forefront of this transformation is A&D Technology, a leader in integrated test automation and lab management solutions for the transportation and energy markets. By integrating AI-driven analytics with high-fidelity simulation environments, the company is empowering automotive engineers to streamline testing workflows, reduce physical prototypes, and accelerate innovation in everything from EV powertrains to autonomous systems. To learn more, we sat down with Mike Uhl, President & CEO, to discuss how A&D Technology's work in simulation and test automation is helping engineers bring the next generation of mobility technologies to life. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget

Hineman, Marcie

Electronic Control Units for Enhanced Safety and Monitoring

2025-01-5040

07/03/2025

The rapid evolution of electric vehicles (EVs) necessitates advanced electronic control units (ECUs) for enhanced safety, monitoring, and performance. This study introduces an innovative ECU system designed with a modular architecture, incorporating real-time monitoring, cloud connectivity, and crash sensing. The methodology includes cost-effective design strategies, integrating STM32 controllers, CAN bus systems, and widely available sensors for motor RPM and temperature monitoring. Key findings demonstrate that the proposed ECU system improves data reliability, enhances vehicle safety through crash response systems, and enables predictive maintenance via cloud connectivity. This scalable and affordable ECU is adaptable to a broad range of EV models.

Padma Priya, S.R., Santhipkumar, S., Sasipriya, S., Srivisweswara, M.S.

5Ws of an All-Electric Delivery Drone

TBMG-53386

07/02/2025

An Architecture for Vehicle Diagnostics in Software-Defined Vehicles

2025-01-0280

07/02/2025

Vehicles are evolving into Software-Defined Vehicles. The increasing use of automotive High Performance Computers (HPCs) provides more computing power and storage resources in vehicles. This opens possibilities to use more in-vehicle software. However, it also leads to challenges for vehicle diagnostics. Today's diagnostic approaches, based on Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs), are not suitable for software on HPCs. For example, this software is highly variable and updated over time, so predefined DTCs are not dynamic enough. This introduces a degree of ambiguity into the diagnostic processes. Additional diagnostic data are required. In the Cloud, observability approaches are becoming widely used for software. Observability involves examining the availability and performance of an entire software system. To detect failures early, observability data, such as logs, metrics, and traces, are used. This is of interest for vehicle diagnostics as new diagnostic approaches are needed to

Bickelhaupt, Sandra, Hahn, Michael, Weyrich, Michael, Morozov, Andrey

Modular Thermal Management Framework for Electric Drive System Development

2025-01-0262

07/02/2025

The automotive industry is undergoing a major shift from internal combustion engines to hybrid and battery electric vehicles, which has led to significant advancements and increased complexity in drivetrain design and thermal management systems. This complexity reflects the growing need to optimize energy efficiency, extend vehicle range, and ensure system reliability in modern electric vehicles. At the Institute of Automotive Engineering, a specialized synthesis tool for drivetrain optimization is used to identify the best drivetrain configurations based on specific boundaries and requirements. Building up on this toolchain a modular and adaptable thermal management framework has been developed, addressing another critical aspect of vehicle and drive development: efficient thermal circuit layout and its impact on energy consumption and overall system reliability. The thermal framework emphasizes the dynamic interactions between key components, such as electric machines, power

Notz, Fabian, Sturm, Axel, Sander, Marcel, Kässens, Christoph, Henze, Roman

Optimized Cabin Heating Strategy for Battery Electric CEP Vehicles

2025-01-0263

07/02/2025

Electromobility is gaining importance in the courier, express and parcel (CEP) sector, as parcel service providers increasingly rely on zero-emission vehicles to improve their CO₂ footprint. A common drawback of battery electric vehicles is their reduced range under cold operating conditions, due to the increased energy demand for cabin heating. Another CEP-specific factor influencing both energy consumption and cabin comfort is the frequent opening of doors during parcel delivery. Additionally, during delivery phases, the cabin cools down in the driver’s repeated absence from the cabin, as the heating is inactive. Nonetheless, a sufficient level of thermal comfort must be maintained during the driving phases between delivery stops. This paper presents an optimization-based strategy for the cabin heating of battery electric CEP vehicles. The objective is to maximize cabin comfort during driving phases while maintaining efficient energy consumption. For this purpose, a nonlinear model

Rehm, Dominik, Krost, Jonathan, Meywerk, Martin, Czarnetzki, Walter

Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus

2025-01-0266

07/02/2025

Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of

Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias

Automation and Optimization of the Design and Development Process for a Formula Student Racing Car Suspension

2025-01-0270

07/02/2025

The design, development, and optimization of modern suspension systems is a complex process that encompasses several different engineering domains and disciplines such as vehicle dynamics simulation, tire data analysis, 1D lap-time simulation, 3D CAD design and structural analysis including full 3D collision detection. Typically, overall vehicle design and suspension development are carried out in multiple iterative design loops by several human specialists from diverse engineering departments. Fully automating this iterative design process can minimize manual effort, eliminate routine tasks and human errors, and significantly reduce design time. This desired level of automation can be achieved through digital modeling, automated model generation, and simulation using graph-based design languages and an associated language compiler for translation and execution. Graph-based design languages ensure the digital consistency of data, the digital continuity of processes, and the digital

Borowski, Julian, Rudolph, Stephan

Investigation on Thermal Management of Heavy-Duty Commercial FCEV with Focus on Vehicle System Efficiency

2025-01-0265

07/02/2025

The primary approach to meet the objectives of the EU Heavy Duty CO2 Regulation involves decarbonizing the road transport sector by battery electric vehicles (BEV) or hydrogen-fueled vehicles. Even though the well-to-wheel efficiency of hydrogen-fueled powertrains like fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) and H2-internal combustion engines (H2-ICE) is much lower in comparison to BEV, they are better suited for on-road heavy-duty trucks, long haul transport missions and regions with scarce charging infrastructure. Hence, this paper focuses on heavy-duty FCEVs and their overall energetic efficiency enhancement by intelligently managing energy transfer across coolant circuit boundaries through waste heat recovery, while ensuring that all relevant components remain within required temperature boundaries under both cold and hot ambient conditions. Results were obtained using a 1D-model that comprises all thermal fluid circuits (refrigerant, coolant, air) created through GT-Suite software

Uhde, Sophia, Langhorst, Thorsten, Wuest, Marcel, Naber, Dirk

Theory behind a Novel Method for the Quantification of Subjective Ride Comfort Phenomena

2025-01-0267

07/02/2025

In the automotive development process objective criteria are commonly used to evaluate the full vehicle ride comfort of vehicles. Based on these characteristics, vehicle concepts can be evaluated and compared at an early stage without using physical prototypes. Usually, these characteristics are determined in subjective studies using real vehicles. However, limitations in the implementation of vehicle variants, the controllability of external influences and longer intervals between the individual assessments have a negative impact on the quality of results using these approaches. Therefore, this paper presents an improved method to transfer the subjective perception and evaluation of ride comfort phenomena to objective characteristics. The corresponding procedure is shown on the basis of a one-dimensional, periodic phenomenon that is transferred to a frequency-dependent weighting function. In this process, a 6-degree of freedom driving simulator is used to overcome the limitations

Stroesser, Simon, Angrick, Christian, Zwosta, Tobias, Neubeck, Jens, Wagner, Andreas

Enhancing Flexibility of Automotive Embedded Software: A Modular Reference Architecture

2025-01-0282

07/02/2025

Vehicular software is a key driver of innovation and revenue in the automotive industry. However, the increasing complexity of vehicular software, driven by shorter development cycles, more frequent updates, and tight coupling of software with hardware, presents significant challenges. Microcontroller-based vehicular software is particularly affected due to resource constraints, which limit flexibility and complicate software updates. To address these challenges, we propose a modular reference architecture that enhances flexibility for microcontroller-based vehicular software, facilitating software modifications in the context of regular updates. The reference architecture is systematically derived from general requirements for microcontroller-based vehicular software and proposes a domain-based structure. It divides embedded vehicular software into five domains: the application domain, responsible for control, regulation, and monitoring functions; the base domain, managing hardware

Griebler, Dennis, Zhai, Yi, Caggiano, Mario, Fuchss, Thomas

Variable Valve Actuation and Multiple Injections to Enhance the Gas Exchange of a Passive Pre-Chamber Igniter

2025-01-0315

07/02/2025

Pre-chambers, in general, represent an established technology for combustion acceleration by increasing the available ignition energy. Realizing rapid fuel conversion facilitates mixture dilution extension with satisfying combustion stability. More importantly, knock-induced spark retarding can be circumvented, thus reducing emissions and increasing efficiency at high engine loads. Adapted valve actuation and split injections were investigated for this study to enhance the gas exchange of a passive pre-chamber igniter in a single-cylinder engine. The findings support the development of passive pre-chamber ignition systems operable over the whole engine map for passenger vehicles. There are two configurations of pre-chamber igniters: passive pre-chambers and scavenged pre-chambers. This study focuses on the passive design, incorporating an additional small volume around the spark plug into the cylinder head. Hot jets exit this volume after the ignition onset through several orifices

Fellner, Felix, Härtl, Martin, Jaensch, Malte

A New Electrified Planetary Gear Set - The Cost- and Fuel-Efficient Alternative to Continuously Variable Transmissions

2025-01-0309

07/02/2025

In order to mitigate the effects of climate change, the global transport sector, one of the largest emitters of CO2, needs to drastically reduce its emissions. Although hybridization and electrification are becoming increasingly popular as a solution for a variety of applications, their use in two- and three-wheelers, as well as in recreational and powersports vehicles, remains limited due to their high costs and complexity compared to conventional drivetrains with continuously variable transmissions (CVTs). Despite their affordability and simplicity, CVTs suffer from low mechanical efficiency, with transmission losses ranging from 20–50 %, highlighting a significant opportunity for improvement. In response to these limitations, this study presents the development and experimental evaluation of an electrified planetary gear set (ePGS) in a lightweight off-road vehicle. It is designed to overcome the efficiency limitations of CVTs while maintaining high driving comfort and low system

Jakoby, Moritz, Engels, Michael, Fahrbach, Timm, Andert, Jakob

The Automation Concept of the U-Shift II Vehicle

2025-01-0281

07/02/2025

Autonomous driving technology enables new and innovative driverless vehicle concepts to emerge, like U-Shift. Designed from the ground up, the U-Shift II platform, called driveboard, exemplifies the advantages of separating a vehicle’s driving capability from the intended transportation task. It allows different so-called capsules, such as public transport or cargo, to be transported using the same U-shaped driving platform. The driveboard can change the capsules autonomously, thus providing high flexibility for fleet operators. This novel approach introduces new challenges to the task of autonomous driving. On one hand, changing sensor and vehicle configurations, e.g., when transporting a capsule with its own sensors to compensate for occlusions of the driveboard sensors by the capsule itself, requires an adaptive approach to environmental perception. On the other hand, different environments and driving tasks, as well as the augmented motion capabilities of the driveboard, require

Buchholz, Michael, Wodtko, Thomas, Schumann, Oliver, Authaler, Dominik

Improving Speed Trajectory Optimization for Electric Vehicles with Pre-Calculated Energy Maps and Dynamic Profile Discretization

2025-01-0318

07/02/2025

Ongoing research and development in the field of electric vehicles (EVs) have resulted in a continuous expansion of their range. Additionally, advancements in vehicle connectivity have created new opportunities for intelligent driving assistance and energy optimization, particularly through the use of cloud data. However, the integration of eco-driving assistance with numerical optimization of speed trajectories remains challenging due to the high computational demands of these methods. To address this challenge and make such a system feasible for integration into vehicle systems, the computational effort required for an optimized driving trajectory must be minimized. This paper presents a method to accelerate speed trajectory optimization using pre-calculated energy and time consumption maps. For this purpose, a dynamic discretization of the anticipated driving profile is applied. Initial results show a substantial reduction in computation time, varying with different scenarios

Schilling Johnson, Rene, Henke, Markus

Numerical Analysis of Direct-Injection and Combustion Inside a H2 Engine

2025-01-0301

07/02/2025

The direct injection of hydrogen (H2) inside internal combustion engines (ICEs) is gaining large research interest over the port-fuel injection strategy, because of several advantages as higher volumetric efficiencies, increased power output and reduced risks of abnormal combustion. However, the required high pressure ratios across the injector nozzle produce moderate-to-high under-expanded jets, characterized by complex flow structures. This poses a challenge for the numerical modelling of the mixture preparation by means of 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) approaches. In this work, a validated 3D-CFD methodology has been employed to simulate the closed-valve cycle of a direct injection H2 engine equipped with a centrally mounted hollow-cone injector and a non-axisymmetric piston bowl. First, injection and mixture preparation have been studied considering an early injection at the beginning of the compression stroke, and a delayed injection in the second half of the compression

Capecci, Marcolucio, Sforza, Lorenzo, Lucchini, Tommaso, D'Errico, Gianluca, Pezza, Vincenzo, Tosi, Sergio

Requirements, Methods and Models for Early Electrified Drive Concept Development

2025-01-0304

07/02/2025

Computer-aided synthesis and development tools are essential for discovering and optimizing innovative concepts. Evaluating different concepts and making informed decisions relies heavily on accurate assessments of drive system properties. Estimating these properties in the early stages of development is challenging due to the depth of modelling required. In addition, defined requirements play a critical role in drive system sizing. This paper presents a tool chain for the synthesis of new electrified drive concepts, with emphasis on requirements definition and modelling. The requirements definition method combines market analysis with a generalized calculation and estimation approach, providing a novel perspective. In addition, we introduce mass and cost modelling capabilities integrated into the tool chain. The mass model achieves high accuracy, with deviations of only 1.6 % at the vehicle level and 6.1 % at the component level. Finally, the paper examines the mass and cost

Sturm, Axel, Henze, Roman

Inductance Estimation of an Electric Vehicle

2025-01-0293

07/02/2025

Electric vehicles are no longer a rarity on Europe’s streets. But battery electric vehicles (BEVs) still have a long way to go to be the dominant vehicle type on the streets. In the last years, not only has the number of passenger cars risen, but also the number of electric trucks and heavy-duty vehicles. In 2023 electric trucks have share of 1.5% in the market. [1, 2] For the truck industry higher charging powers are even more important. Due to European regulations drivers of vehicles with more than 3.5t weight or buses with more than 10 passengers must rest for 45 minutes after 4.5 hours of drive. [3] Therefore, higher charging powers were needed, and the Megawatt Charging System (MCS) standard was developed. The voltage level goes up to 1250 V and currents of 3000 A are defined. [4] This allows the battery of heavy-duty vehicles to be completely charged within the driving breaks. As with the upcoming MCS standard, the charging power increases, also the failure risk rises. Higher

Grund, Caroline, Reuss, Hans-Christian

Impact of the Distribution of Charging and Hydrogen Refueling Stations on their Reachability for Craft Vehicles with a Defined Usage Profile

2025-01-0310

07/02/2025

This paper examines the impact of the distribution of charging and hydrogen refueling stations on their reachability for craft vehicles with a defined usage profile. A simulation-based methodology is presented for this purpose. The simulation models daily trips for craft vehicles, considering amongst others the company location, the client stops, the operating radius and the mean daily driving distance. Based on these inputs, the number of charging or refueling opportunities for typical daily trips of the craft vehicle is calculated. To investigate the impact of locations on the frequency of encountering energy provisions, simulations are conducted in three regions: Ulm (urban), Stuttgart (metropolitan), and Munderkingen (rural). Furthermore, the impact of different locations within the same infrastructural area is examined by assessing multiple company locations in Ulm. The findings indicate that the urban zone of Ulm is characterized by a highly dense electric fast charging

Heilmann, Oliver, Müller, Julian, Heinrich, Marco, Cortès, Sven, Schlick, Michael, Kulzer, André Casal

An LLM-Based Multi-Turn Task-Oriented Dialogue System for Machine Learning Algorithm Selection in Data Mining

2025-01-0289

07/02/2025

For the systematic application of machine learning during data mining in product development processes, selecting a suitable algorithm is crucial for success. During an empirical study in the automotive industry, a team applying data mining to develop battery systems for battery electric vehicles was accompanied. Here, it could be observed that data mining tasks are often unique during product development processes and can differ in boundary conditions. Depending on these tasks, suitable machine learning algorithms must be selected. Because of the variety of machine learning paradigms, problems, and algorithms, it is often hard to select a suitable algorithm, especially for inexperienced data miners. This paper presents a large language model (LLM)-based, multi-turn, task-oriented dialogue system to support data miners in selecting machine learning algorithms that are suitable for their specific data mining tasks. This approach, called “Algorithm Selection Assistant” (ASA), enables

Hörtling, Stefan, Bause, Katharina, Albers, Albert

A Modular Framework for Lateral Movement Modeling

2025-01-0269

07/02/2025

The lateral movement of vehicles within their lane determines occurring occlusions, and thus decides on the range of vision of vehicle sensors used by automated driving functions, and the objects detected by down-stream algorithms. As simulations play an integral role in the validation of automated driving functions, their ability to realistically model the lateral movement is crucial. However, currently applied methods such as microscopic traffic simulations, and scenario-based testing making use of maneuver-based scenario descriptions simplify or neglect the lateral movement of vehicles. For that reason, a two-level stochastic model has been introduced in earlier work. It consists of a Markov model for the systematic coarse movement, and a noise model for the residual fine movement. In follow-up publications, several advancements for both model components have been presented. These follow a modular structure, thus, can be flexibly combined. This paper for the first time gives an

Neis, Nicole, Beyerer, Jürgen

Prediction of Hazardous Gaseous Emissions from a Gasoline Engine during Cold Starts Using Machine Learning Methods

2025-01-0321

07/02/2025

Internal combustion engines generate higher exhaust emissions of hazardous gases during the initial minutes after engine start. Experimental data from a state-of-the-art turbo-charged 3-cylinder, 999 cc gasoline engine are used to predict cold start emissions using two Machine Learning (ML) models: a Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) which is a fully connected neural network and an Encoder-Decoder Recurrent Neural Network (ED-RNN). Engine parameters and various temperatures are used as input for the models and NOx (Nitrogen Oxides), CO (Carbon monoxide) and unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions are predicted. The dataset includes time series recordings from the Worldwide harmonized Light-duty vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC) and four Real Diving Emissions (RDE) cycles at ambient and initial engine temperatures ranging from -20 °C to +23 °C. In total, 21 cases are considered, consisting of eight different ambient temperatures and five distinct driving cycles. Each case consists of a sequence of 2500

Mangipudi, Manoj, Denev, Jordan A., Bockhorn, Henning, Trimis, Dimosthenis, Koch, Thomas, Debus, Charlotte, Götz, Markus, Zirwes, Thorsten, Hagen, Fabian P., Tofighian, Hesam, Wagner, Uwe, Braun, Samuel, Lanzer, Theodor, Knapp, Sebastian M.

Application of Sustainable Aviation Fuels in Compression Ignition Aviation Engines: In-Flight Investigations

2025-01-0317

07/02/2025

To achieve a significant reduction in net CO₂ emissions in the aviation sector, sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) are considered a key factor. Current research efforts are therefore focused on SAFs, which exhibit properties that differ from conventional kerosene, particularly in aspects critical to compression-ignition (CI) engines, such as cetane number, evaporation behavior or lubricity. These differences necessitate dedicated investigations to assess their suitability and performance in such engines. However, real operating conditions — such as intake air- and exhaust- pressure levels during flight — cannot be fully replicated on standard engine test benches. For this reason, real flight experiments were conducted to address these limitations. Notably, this work marks the first instance of in-flight testing of SAFs in CI aviation engines, constituting a significant milestone in this research area. In the course of these investigations, ASTM D7566 Annex A2-compliant HEFA

Kleissner, Florian, Reitmayr, Christian, Hofmann, Peter

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