Browse Topic: Trailers

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Embedded Real-Time Control of a Distributed Trailer Propulsion System with Regenerative Braking for Net Neutral Load Towing2026-01-00654/7/2026
Towing imposes substantial efficiency penalties on both battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, reducing range by 30-50%. This paper presents a proof-of-concept embedded control architecture for distributed trailer propulsion that actively regulates drawbar force to reduce towing loads. Unlike proprietary e-trailer systems requiring specialized hardware, the proposed implementation demonstrates feasibility using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components and open-source software. The distributed architecture employs dual Raspberry Pi 4B single-board computers communicating via ROS 2 at 20 Hz. The trailer-mounted controller executes a Simulink-generated control node coordinating load cell acquisition (HX711 ADC), motor CAN bus telemetry, and throttle commands to a 5 kW BLDC traction motor powered by a 5 kWh LiFePO4 battery pack. A vehicle-mounted controller logs OBD-II/CAN validation data. The control pipeline implements cascaded EWMA/Hampel digital filtering with intentional phase lag for hitch-force regulation. The system was validated through on-road testing with an ICE towing vehicle pulling a 1,000-lb trailer over standardized 2.1 km segments following SAE J1321 Type II procedures. Preliminary trials demonstrated stable control performance with drawbar force regulation with no oscillatory behavior. Fuel consumption measurements showed promising improvements (9.4% lower fuel consumption in assisted vs. baseline conditions), though limited sample size precludes definitive causal claims. The primary contribution is establishing technical feasibility of cost-effective COTS implementation (USD 5,000 hardware cost) for trailer propulsion control, providing a foundation for expanded validation studies and commercial deployment pathways.
Joshi, Gaurav, Adelman, Ian, Liu, Jun, Donnaway, Ruthie
Intersection Assist for Vehicle with Dual-Trailers using Nonlinear Model Predictive Control and Unscented Kalman Filter2026-01-00744/7/2026
This paper presents an approach utilizing Nonlinear Model Predictive Control (NMPC) and Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) to predict system state and control the trajectory of the vehicle with dual trailers in an intersection turn scenario. The UKF estimates vehicle and trailers’ lateral traversal velocity states and the NMPC controls the vehicle acceleration and steering to maintain the vehicle’s desired heading through the turn. The vehicle’s lateral traversal velocity function is formulated using Lyapunov based method which is used as a propagation function in the UKF to improve the estimation accuracy. The lateral traversal velocity is then used as one of the constraints in the NMPC problem. The overall estimation and the control scheme are formulated and assessed in the simulation environment. The simulation results show good tracking and curb avoidance performance.
Malla, Rijan
Development and Validation of a Self-Propelled Trailer: A Standards-Based Approach to Enhancing Compact Vehicle Towing2026-01-00554/7/2026
This paper presents a structured test plan for the development and validation of a Self-Propelled Trailer (SPT), an emerging concept designed to enhance the towing capacity of compact, fuel-efficient vehicles. Unlike conventional trailers, the proposed system integrates electric propulsion and autonomous sensing to actively assist the towing vehicle, reducing engine load and improving both safety and fuel economy. The methodology employs a Design Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (DFMEA) to systematically identify potential risks, while incorporating Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standards to guide environmental durability testing (dust, water ingress, gravel impact) and dynamic performance evaluations (gradeability, braking, and stability). A comprehensive set of test procedures is outlined to validate system reliability, robustness, and compliance with established towing requirements. The study demonstrates how powered trailer technology can extend the practical use of compact vehicles for heavier load applications without compromising efficiency or emissions targets. This work contributes to the advancement of autonomous trailer systems and provides a foundation for future prototype development, testing, and eventual deployment.
Reilly, Carter, Peters, Diane, Zadeh, Mehrdad
Energy Efficiency Analysis of U-Haul Truck and Trailer Systems: Impact of Tongue Weight and Load Variations2026-01-04664/7/2026
The demand for improved energy efficiency in real-world vehicle operations continues to grow with technology enhancement. When transporting large cargo loads with passenger pickup trucks and rental trailers, the interaction between vehicle payload, towing configuration, and fuel consumption becomes a key factor in overall system efficiency. Understanding how towing configurations and trailer loading influence fuel consumption and vehicle performance is critical for both consumer guidance and vehicle system design. This study investigates the energy efficiency of U-Haul truck and trailer systems, with a particular focus on the influence of trailer tongue weight. U-Haul truck and trailer simulation models were developed using AVL Vehicle Simulation Model (VSM) software, with an F-350 engine brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) map integrated to represent realistic engine performance. Two configurations with equal payload were evaluated: (1) a U-Haul truck alone, and (2) a U-Haul truck towing a trailer. Within these configurations, multiple scenarios were analyzed, including variations in payload levels and tongue weight distributions. Driving cycles were selected to capture common moving conditions such as urban stop-and-go traffic and extended highway operation. Simulation outputs quantified the interactions among vehicle dynamics, powertrain load, and fuel consumption. Results show clear differences in energy consumption between standalone and towing configurations, with tongue weight distribution exerting a significant influence on both efficiency and stability. The findings provide practical insights into the energy trade-offs between independent vehicle operation and towing scenarios. Moreover, the study highlights the importance of load distribution and driving cycle considerations in optimizing fuel consumption, offering a framework that can be extended to rental, commercial, and consumer towing applications where energy efficiency and vehicle performance are important.
Wang, Gang, Kathadi, Mohammad, Yang, William, Chen, Yan
Analysis and Determination the Time to Rollover of Tractor Semi-Trailer Vehicle Based on Multi-body System Analysis and Newton–Euler Equations02-19-03-00133/27/2026
This article aims to determine the time to rollover (TTR) of a tractor semi-trailer vehicle (TSTV). It uses a full dynamics model for assessment, specifically applying multi-body system analysis and Newton–Euler Equations with a nonlinear tire model. The model is applied to investigate velocities ranging from 40 km/h to 80 km/h and magnitude of steering angles ranging from 12.5° to 300°. The times at which the Load Transfer Ratio (LTR), Roll Safety Factor (RSF), and lateral acceleration reach their maximum values are evaluated. The survey results demonstrate the impact of velocity and steering wheel angle on the time it takes for the LTR, RSF, and lateral acceleration to reach their maximum values. The time interval between the RSF reaching 1 and the LTR reaching 1 range from 0.144 s to 0.655 s. Similarly, the time it takes for the tractor body’s lateral acceleration to peak and the LTR to reach 1 varies between 0.228 s and 1.555 s. Additionally, the time interval from when the semi-trailer body’s lateral acceleration reaches its maximum value to when the LTR reaches 1 range from 0.057 s to 1.155 s. These time intervals can be used to determine the reserve time for early warning or control systems when selecting the thresholds, based on the vehicle’s lateral acceleration during a turn.
Hung, Ta Tuan, Khanh, Duong Ngoc
Anti-Rollover Strategy for Six-Axis Semi-Trailer Based on Lateral Force Balance02-19-04-00242/24/2026
To address the rollover risk of six-axle semi-trailers due to their large mass, high center of gravity, and multi-axle articulation, a lateral force balance anti-rollover strategy based on the Ackermann steering principle is proposed. By establishing the wheel angle constraint equations for the full-wheel steering system of the six-axle semi-trailer, a rigid-body dynamic model considering the articulation characteristics is developed. The key control and observation parameters are included in the wheel angles, center of gravity lateral offset, yaw angular velocity, sideslip angle, and lateral load transfer rate. An SMC-PID joint controller is designed, in which the third axle steering angle of the tractor is optimized by the SMC controller, and the trailer’s three-axle steering angle tracking control is achieved by the PID controller. The nonlinear accumulation of centrifugal force and dynamic load transfer under high-speed emergency lane change conditions is suppressed by a hierarchical control mechanism. The joint simulation results from TruckSim and Simulink indicate that, under the double lane change scenario with 88 km/h, the lateral force balance strategy reduces the rollover angles of the tractor and trailer by 85.5% and 86.9%, respectively, and the center of gravity lateral offset is improved by 77.5% and 92.3%; under the double lane change scenario with 80 km/h, compared with the active steering strategy of the trailer, the lateral load transfer rate fluctuation is reduced to the percentile level, and the rollover angles decrease by 62.9% and 65.3%.
Zhang, Qiyuan, Zhang, Lei, Liao, Shengkun, Sun, Jinxu, He, Jing
Baggage/Cargo Trailer RequirementsARP1348B (Current)2/18/2026
This SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice (ARP) applies to airline trailer equipment with four wheel running gear pulled and steered through an integral tow bar, for use on airport ramps and other airport areas for transporting baggage, freight, and other materials. This ARP can apply to any airline/airport trailer chassis regardless of its equipment; the trailer bed can be designed to carry either bulk baggage/cargo, or a cargo unit load device by means of a rollerized conveyor system, or a piece of aircraft servicing equipment (e.g., ground power unit, air start unit, etc.).
AGE-3 Aircraft Ground Support Equipment Committee
Safety Locking and Alert System for Container Trailers with Geo Fencing2026-26-02731/16/2026
The Container trailers are used worldwide to transport goods & materials especially e-commerce applications with valuable materials. These container trailers are presently locked with a mechanical locking system and often broken and unlocked by unauthorized people. During transportation time, the driver stops the vehicle for natural calls, food or any other breakdown, the attempt is made to steal the materials. Many cases were known only after damages are done. It has become a serious issue nowadays in the transportation industry. To avoid these problems, we have designed and developed a system that operates pneumatically with digital locking control. The system is designed to ensure proper safety by rigid mechanical locking. It is actuated by a pneumatic system consisting of Directional control valve & pneumatic cylinders. The lock and unlock inputs are given through digitally and the digital controller provides the appropriate input to solenoid operated direction control valve. Based on the position of Direction control valves, the pneumatic cylinders lock or unlock the mechanical locking system. The safety system is integrated along with the digital pin locking. The system is designed with the concept of fool-proof and fail-safe. In the event of no Pneumatic or electrical supply failure, the system remains in lock condition only. Except the authorized person, others cannot open the containers without the authorization pin. Also, the system provides a technologically improved version of the safety locking system like geo-fencing. We can lock and unlock the container with geological identity. The safety locking system improves confidence among the transporters and ensures safety at the highest level.
kumaran, Rajasekar
Conventional Towing System 0 up to 9072 kg (20000 Pounds) Trailer GVWJ3352_202512 (Current)12/9/2025
This document establishes a minimum performance criteria for conventional towing systems for the towing interface between a tow vehicle and trailer up to 9072 kg (20000 pounds) Gross Trailer Weight Rating. This does not include weight distributing hitches. This creates the minimum performance criteria for the hitch, trailer attachment structure, coupling, and tow vehicle attachment structure. This standard may be used as a regulatory guide in the selection of products covered. This document is intended to be used voluntarily by the industry producing these products.
Trailer Committee
Intelligent Decision-Making and Trajectory Planning of Semi-Trailer Trains Under Multi-Vehicle Interference2025-99-012511/11/2025
Semi-trailer trains are the main force of highway freight. In a complex environment with multiple vehicles, accidents are easily caused by complex structures and driver operation problems. Intelligent technology is urgently needed to improve safety. In view of the shortcomings of existing research on its dedicated models and algorithms, this paper studies the intelligent decision-making and trajectory planning of semi-trailer trains under multiple vehicles. A local trajectory planning method based on global path planning and Frenet coordinate decoupling based on the improved A* algorithm is proposed. The smooth weight transition function and B-spline curve are introduced to optimize the global path. The polynomial function is combined with the acceleration rate to optimize the local trajectory. TruckSim, Prescan and Simulink are used to build a joint simulation platform for multi-condition verification. The simulation results show that the search efficiency of the improved A* algorithm is improved by 12.2%, and the local path planning meets the real-time and safety requirements. The algorithm in the joint simulation can enable the semi-trailer train to perform operations correctly under multiple vehicles, providing theoretical and technical support for improving its safety and traffic efficiency in complex traffic environments.
Song, Zeyuan, Geng, Shuai
Development of a Cloud Based Operating Strategy for an Electrified Trailer System2025-24-01179/7/2025
The need for greenhouse gas emission reductions leads to decreasing emission limits in road traffic. The development of efficient powertrains and the use of renewable energy sources are crucial in order to meet these targets. Electrification is one of the key technologies that can help to achieve higher efficiency and lower emissions. Besides the passenger car segment, electrification has started to play a more important role in heavy-duty applications as well. One technology that has been discussed in the last years is the electrification of heavy-duty semi-trailers. In the joint research project "evTrailer2" funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action, the potential of different technologies for electrified semi-trailer systems in long-haul applications is evaluated. The overall project goal is the development of high-efficiency technologies to help reduce the fuel consumption and therefore the greenhouse gas impact of large semi-trailer trucks. The developed trailer is equipped with an electrical powertrain consisting of two electric machines and a traction battery to allow energy recuperation during breaking and downhill driving, as well as traction support for the tractor unit. In order to maximize the fuel savings, the trailer is designed as a plug-in hybrid vehicle and allows high-power recharging of the battery. For additional energy input, solar panels are installed on the sides and the roof of the trailer. In order to control the energy flows on board, a cloud-based operating strategy was developed at the Institute for Internal Combustion Engines and Powertrain Systems at TU Darmstadt. The strategy uses a predictive approach and plans the use of electric energy for the route ahead. This paper gives a general overview of the electrified trailer and describes the working principle of the operating strategy as well as the communication between the trailer and the cloud server. A simulative potential analysis shows a fuel consumption reduction potential of 21-36 % and a potential of 14-21 % reduction in well-to-wheel CO2 emissions.
Knaup, Lars, Beidl, Christian
Self-Controlled Electrically Powered Semitrailer02-19-01-00027/28/2025
In this article, the hybrid drive is discussed of the combination of conventional tractors with electrified trailers, usually referred to as E-trailer. We demonstrate that this approach offers the possibility of achieving fuel savings exceeding 20%. For regional trips, about half of this reduction is achieved without offline charging, i.e., without applying electric energy from the E-trailer battery. For motorway dominant trips, more use is required of the battery energy. A new control strategy is proposed, validated through simulations, in which only three control parameters are required, which can be tuned effectively to achieve maximum fuel reduction under certain trip and loading conditions. This control strategy adjusts the E-trailer torque request, based on the requested power for the tractor diesel engine, being estimated through a smart kingpin sensor. It ensures that the E-trailer supports the tractor propulsion when significant power is required, and recovers energy when the demand for power is low. The control parameters consist of the maximum torque request for the E-trailer during support, the maximum negative torque request during regeneration, and the transition power between regeneration and support. Semitrailers are generally not linked to a specific tractor. The control strategy is unique in that it does not need access to the tractor data network, thus achieving optimum interchangeability. The sensitivity with respect to driving resistance parameters appears to be low and may be counteracted by tuning the control parameters. More care is needed for the assessment of the trailer mass and trailer center of gravity. Finally, the total fuel reduction is discussed in comparison to the charging costs for the E-trailer battery (cost–benefit analysis), for realistic cost levels for fuel and kWh.
Pauwelussen, Joop, Kural, Karel, Hetjes, Bas
SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine 6000 rpm Stepped Power TestJ2488_202507 (Current)7/21/2025
This SAE Recommended Practice is intended as the definition of a standard test, but it may be subject to frequent change to keep pace with experience and technical advances. This should be kept in mind when considering its use. The SAE No. 2 Friction Test Machine is used to evaluate the friction characteristics of automatic transmission plate clutches with automotive transmission fluids. It can also be used to conduct durability tests on wet friction systems. The specific purpose of this document is to define a 6000 rpm stepped power test for the evaluation of wet friction system performance variation as a function of power level. This procedure uses an initial engagement speed of 6000 rpm and is intended as a standard procedure for common use by both suppliers and end users. The only variables selected by the supplier or user of the friction system are: a Friction material b Fluid c Reaction plates These three variables must be clearly identified when reporting the results of using this test. If any of the test parameters or system hardware as described in this document are changed, other than the friction material, test fluid, or reaction plates, the data may not be reported as having been obtained using this document. This procedure is not intended to evaluate the initial coefficient or break-in characteristics. For this information, refer to SAE J2490.
Automatic Transmission and Transaxle Committee
15 Pole Connector Between Towing Vehicles and Trailers with 12 Volt Nominal SupplyJ2691_202507 (Current)7/21/2025
This SAE Standard establishes the minimum construction and performance requirements for a 15 pole connector between towing vehicles and trailers, for trucks, trailers, and dollies, for 12 VDC nominal applications in conjunction with SAE J2742. The connector accommodates both power and ISO 11992-1 signal circuits along with dual ground wires to accommodate grounding requirements within the constraints of the SAE J2691 terminal capacity.
Truck and Bus Electrical Systems Committee
Seven Conductor Cable - Truck and BusJ1067_202507 (Current)7/1/2025
This SAE Standard establishes the minimum construction and performance requirements for seven conductor 1/8-1/10-5/12 cable for use on trucks, trailers and converter dollies for 12 VDC nominal applications. Where appropriate, the standard refers to two types of cables (Type F and S, described later in the standard), due to the variation in the performance demands of cables used in flexing and stationary applications.
Truck and Bus Electrical Systems Committee
Automobile Wheel Alignment and Wheel Balancing, Second EditionR-5916/12/2025
With over thirty years of hands-on experience in designing, developing, and patenting products in the wheel alignment industry, the author brings invaluable expertise to the second edition of this essential guide. Perfectly suited for mechanics, technicians, engineers, and even vehicle owners, this book goes beyond the basics to offer a comprehensive understanding of wheel alignment and its critical role in vehicle performance. The importance of proper wheel alignment and balancing cannot be overstated—incorrect alignment leads to premature tire wear and reduced safety. This updated edition provides in-depth coverage on wheel alignment techniques for light vehicles, commercial trucks, and trailers, with clear illustrations to help readers recognize and address various types of tire wear. The book explores everything from the mechanics of alignment to the impact of air pressure and tire rotation on longevity. With the growing need for vehicle maintenance, this guide empowers professionals to deliver top-tier service, ensuring long-lasting tire life and optimal vehicle performance. Whether you're a technician aiming to refine your skills or an engineer looking to deepen your knowledge, this book offers valuable insights into the world of wheel alignment. It’s a must-read for anyone involved in vehicle maintenance, ensuring better performance, reduced costs, and enhanced safety on the road.
R., Mananathan
Analysis and Evaluation of Roll Safety Thresholds of Tractor Semi-Trailer Vehicles during Turning Maneuvers Based on the Yaw Rate of Vehicle Bodies and Roll Safety Factor02-18-04-00246/5/2025
This article aims to analyze and evaluate the roll safety thresholds (RSTs) and roll safety zones of tractor semi-trailer vehicles during turning maneuvers, using the roll safety factor (RSF) and yaw rate of the vehicle bodies. To achieve this, a full dynamics model is established using the multibody system method. This model is then used to survey and evaluate the vehicle’s motion state, using ramp steer maneuver (RSM) steering rules. In each survey case, the maximum values of RSF and yaw rate of vehicle bodies are synthesized in 3D data, with an initial velocity range of 40 km/h to 80 km/h and a magnitude of steering wheel angle range of 12.5° to 300°. These 3D data are used to determine the proposed values of RSF, which can be used as examples to set the threshold values of the yaw rate of vehicle bodies and roll safety zones. At a velocity of 60 km/h, the dynamic rollover threshold for proposed roll safety factor (RSFprop) is equal to 1, with corresponding values of 15.718°/s and 14.962°/s. Similarly, the warning threshold for RSFprop is equal to 0.6, with values of 9.514°/s and 9.404°/s, and for RSFprop equal to 0.7, the values are 10.705°/s and 10.625°/s. The control threshold for a vehicle velocity of 60 km/h and RSFprop equal to 0.9 is calculated as 13.588°/s and 13.339°/s. These results can be used as a basis for developing early warning and control systems for various vehicle operating modes.
Hung, Ta Tuan
Trailer Towing Driving Skill CertificationJ3300/2_202504 (Current)4/28/2025
This Recommended Practice is intended to establish a procedure to certify the trailer towing driving skill levels of professional drivers. This certification can be used by the individual driver to qualify their skills when seeking employment or other professional activity. These certification levels may also be used by test facilities or other organizations when seeking test or professional drivers of various skills. This document provides directions for obtaining certification through Probitas Authentication®1 and associated trailer towing driving skill examination requirements. This document is a supplement to SAE J3300, providing information specific to the trailer towing driving skill certification and clarifying the application of the rules set forth in SAE J3300 to the trailer towing certification. While the references, definitions, rules, and guidelines presented in SAE J3300 Sections 1 through 5 apply to the trailer towing certification, they are not repeated in this document.
Driving Skills Standards Committee
Development of an Advisory System for Parking a Car with Trailer2025-01-80354/1/2025
Trailer parking is a challenging task due to the unstable nature of the vehicle-trailer system in reverse motion and the unintuitive steering actions required at the vehicle to accomplish the parking maneuver. This paper presents a strategy to tackle this kind of maneuver with an advisory graphic aid to help the human driver with the task of manually backing up the vehicle-trailer system. A kinematic vehicle-trailer model is derived to describe the low-speed motion of the vehicle-trailer system, and its inverse kinematics is established by generating an equivalent virtual trailer axle steering command. The advisory system graphics is generated based on the inverse kinematics and displays the expected trailer orientation given the current vehicle steer angle and configuration (hitch angle). Simulation study and animation are set up to test the efficacy of the approach, where the user can select both vehicle speed and vehicle steering angle freely, which allows the user to stop the vehicle-trailer system and experiment with different steering inputs to see their effect on the predicted trailer motion before proceeding with the best one according to the advisory graphics, hence creating a series of piecewise continuous control actions similar to how manual trailer reverse parking is usually carried out. The advisory graphics proves to provide the driver with an intuitive understanding of the trailer motion at any given configuration (hitch angle).
Cao, Xincheng, Chen, Haochong, Aksun Guvenc, Bilin, Guvenc, Levent, Link, Brian, Harber, John, Richmond, Peter, Fan, Shihong, Yim, Dokyung
Energy Savings and Range Extension from Aerodynamic Improvements of Emerging Zero-Emission Heavy Vehicle Concepts2025-01-87874/1/2025
An energy-use analysis is presented to examine the potential energy-savings and range-extension benefits of aerodynamic improvements to tractors and trailers used in commercial transportation. The impetus for the study was the observation of aerodynamically-redesigned/optimized tractor shapes of emerging zero-emission commercial vehicles that have the potential for significant drag reduction over conventional aerodynamic tractors. Using wind-tunnel test results, a series of aerodynamic performance models were developed representing a range of tractor and trailer combinations. From modern day-cab and sleeper-cab tractors to aerodynamically-optimized zero-emission cab concepts, paired with standard dry-van trailers or low-drag trailer concepts, the study examines the energy use, and potential savings thereof, from implementing various fleet configurations for different operational duty cycles. An energy-use analysis was implemented to estimate the energy-rate contributions associated with inertial accelerations, grade forces, rolling resistances, and aerodynamic-drag forces for three types of duty cycles: Long Haul, Regional Haul, and Urban Delivery. A duty-cycle-simulation approach was implemented using speed-dependent wind-averaged-drag models, adapted for local wind-speed magnitudes representative of each duty-cycle environment. This method was validated for the long-haul cycle against a constant-speed wind-climate-simulation approach applied to a fleet-transportation network. Results demonstrate that Urban Delivery operations expend a smaller magnitude, and smaller relative proportion, of energy use to overcome aerodynamic drag, but that significant savings are nonetheless possible for these operations with aerodynamic improvements to the trucks. Over the range of tractor- and trailer-aerodynamic improvements examined, the analyses reveal the potential for 4-27% energy-rate savings and 5-37% range extension for the Long Haul cycle, 3-16% energy-rate savings and 3-18% range extension for the Regional Haul cycle, and with 2-9% energy-rate savings and 2-10% range extension estimated for the Urban Delivery Cycle. Although results show significant reductions in energy use associated with emerging zero-emission-tractor shapes, trailer-aerodynamic improvements are shown to have about twice the potential for energy savings and range reduction than do tractor-aerodynamic improvements.
McAuliffe, Brian, Ghorbanishohrat, Faegheh
SAE TOMORROW TODAY: Electrified Trailers for the Heavy-Duty Truck Market135043/3/2025
Can the commercial transportation industry move beyond diesel? Yes, and it starts with practical decarbonization that makes trailers smarter, safer, and more efficient. Range Energy is accelerating the electrification of commercial transportation via powered trailers for the heavy-duty truck market. With a solution that can easily hook up to any tow vehicle, Range's powered trailers offer offroad mobile power with an electric propulsion system that slashes fuel consumption and is compatible with dry van and refrigerated trailers. To learn more, we sat down with Ali Javidan, CEO and Founder of Range Energy, to discuss the future of the electrified trailer market, the journey from prototype to scalable commercial success, and the impact of Formula SAE on his personal growth. We'd love to hear from you. Share your comments, questions and ideas for future topics and guests to podcast@sae.org. Don't forget to take a moment to follow SAE Tomorrow Today--a podcast where we discuss emerging technology and trends in mobility with the leaders, innovators and strategists making it all happen--and give us a review on your preferred podcasting platform. Follow SAE on LinkedIn, Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube. Follow host Grayson Brulte on LinkedIn, Twitter, and Instagram.
Hineman, Marcie
Transforming Hydrogen Supply at Hydrogen Refueling Stations: Design and Analysis of LOHC for Auxiliary Hydrogen Supply2025-01-71011/31/2025
In order to give full play to the economic and environmental advantages of liquid organic hydrogen carrier(LOHC) technology in hydrogen storage and transportation as well as its technological advantages as a hydrogen source for hydrogen refueling station(HRS) supply, it promotes the change of hydrogen supply method in HRSs and facilitates its technological landing in the terminal of HRSs. In this paper, combining the current commercialization status of organic liquid technology and the current construction status of HRS in China, we establish a traditional long-tube trailer HRS model through Matlab Simulink, carry out modification on the existing process, maximize the use of the original equipment, and introduce the hydrogen production end of the station with organic liquid as an auxiliary hydrogen source. Research and design of the two hydrogen sources of gas extraction strategy and the station control strategy and the formation of Stateflow language model, to realize the verification of the LOHC technology auxiliary hydrogen supply program. Different LOHC hydrogen production quantities are set to analyze their effects on the cost of hydrogen supply, energy consumption, and high-pressure hydrogen inventory (safety) in the HRS. The results show that in the case of LOHC for auxiliary hydrogen supply, a specific amount of hydrogen production can ensure the full utilization of the trailer at the station and avoid overnight stationing. In terms of hydrogen supply costs, LOHC for auxiliary hydrogen supply is cost-effective, with overall transportation costs decreasing by 25.9%-56.1% as the amount of LOHC production increases.
Huo, Tianqing, Feng, Tianyu, Yang, Fusheng, Huang, Ye, Zheng, Huaan, Wang, Bin, Fang, Tao, Wu, Zhen, Zhang, ZaoXiao
Trailer Disengage Confirmation Alarm System for Electric Subsystems2024-28-021312/5/2024
The truck industry's primary focus is on global transportation, necessitating the efficient movement of goods and materials. There are many types of trucks designed for different purposes, and one of the most significant ones is the tractor trailer which offers great flexibility and can carry heavy loads. The tractor-trailer assembly unit consists of a complex integration of mechanical, electrical, and pneumatic connections, each serving a critical role in the overall functionality and performance of the vehicle. The disconnection of electrical interconnections between the truck trailer and tractor is crucial to prevent damage to the connectors within the wiring harness, which can lead to hazardous situations on the road. The tractor unit serves as the power source, while the trailer is responsible for carrying cargo, with the wiring harness being a crucial yet vulnerable component. When the trailer disengages from the fifth wheel coupling, it is vital to ensure that the electrical connections, which control lighting and trailer brakes, are also properly disconnected to prevent damage and potential safety risks. The proposed system employs advanced sensor technologies and intelligent algorithms to continuously monitor the status of these electrical connections. In the event of a disconnection, the system activates a robust alarm mechanism to promptly notify the driver, thus mitigating the risk of accidents and ensuring the safety of both the vehicle and other road users. This paper presents a Trailer-Tractor Disengage Alarm System (TTDAS) designed to enhance safety in the electrical connections between the tractor and trailer of commercial vehicles. Key features of the TTDAS include real-time monitoring, rapid response times, and compatibility with various trailer configurations. The paper details the system architecture, encompassing the integration of sensors, control units, and the alarm mechanism. Additionally, the paper explores the algorithmic logic utilized to accurately detect trailer disengagements, thereby enhancing the reliability of the system.
Singh, Amandeep, Kumar, Pradeep, Suresh, Karthikrajan, Kotian, Pradeep, T, Thirunavukkarasu, Chitreddy, Bharath, R, Sunilkumar
Sensata's sensors aid blind spot monitoring for tractor-trailers24TOFHP12_0812/1/2024
Sensata Technologies' booth at this year's IAA Transportation tradeshow included two of the company's Precor radar sensors. The PreView STA79 is a heavy-duty vehicle side-monitoring system launched in May 2024 and designed to comply with Europe-wide blind spot monitoring legislation introduced in June 2024. The PreView Sentry 79 is a front- and rear-monitoring system. Both systems operate on the 79-GHz band as the nomenclature suggests. PreView STA79 can cover up to three vehicle zones: a configurable center zone, which can monitor the length of the vehicle, and two further zones that can be independently set to align with individual customer needs. The system offers a 180-degree field of view to eliminate blind spots along the vehicle sides and a built-in measurement unit that will increase the alert level when turning toward an object even when the turn indicator is not used. The system also features trailer mitigation to reduce false positive alerts on the trailer when turning. The system is UN 151 compliant.
Kendall, John
Antilock Brake Systems Energy Consumption Test Procedure for Air-Brake-Equipped Truck Tractors, Buses, Trailers, and DolliesJ2255_202411 (Current)11/22/2024
This SAE Recommended Practice provides instructions and test procedures for measuring air consumption of air braked vehicles equipped with Antilock Brake Systems (ABS) used on highways.
Truck and Bus Brake Systems Committee
Performance Requirements for Determining Tow-Vehicle Gross Combination Weight Rating and Trailer Weight RatingJ2807_202411 (Current)11/21/2024
This document establishes minimum performance criteria at GCWR and calculation methodology to determine tow-vehicle TWR for passenger cars, multipurpose passenger vehicles, and trucks. This includes all vehicles up to 14000 pounds GVWR.
Tow Vehicle Trailer Rating Committee
Energy Efficiency Evaluation of a Hybrid Electric Tractor-Semi-Trailer Prototype2024-01-431911/5/2024
The objective of the project was to evaluate the energy efficiency of a hybrid electric tractor-semi-trailer combination prototype. The prototype was developed for log hauling application by integrating an existing tractor with an electric semi-trailer to improve fuel consumption and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. One of the conventional axles of the quad axle semi-trailer was replaced with a drive axle powered by an electric motor. Tests were conducted on a 105 km test route with a maximum difference in elevation of 355 m, including a hilly section with a length of 89 km. The results indicated fuel savings ranging from 10.5% to 14% per test run, with an average fuel savings of 12% when the electric drive axle was engaged. The hybrid electric tractor semi-trailer consumed 17.5% less fuel up-hill and 9.4% less down-hill. Throughout each test run, the battery’s state of charge fluctuated, averaging between 88% at the start and 52% at the end. Prior to each run, the batteries were recharged using the regenerative system’s acceleration-deceleration cycles, lasting approximately one hour. The tests showed an average GHG emission reduction of 23.3 kg/100 km when the electric drive axle was activated on the hybrid electric tractor semi-trailer. Considering an average annual mileage of 100 000 km, the prototype hybrid electric tractor semi-trailer shows a potential to reduce annual GHG emissions of 23 tonnes per vehicle. These reductions will provide the cost-benefits that are of strong interest to the forest sector as they continue the move towards reducing carbon footprint. In addition, operational benefits of having a powered rear-axle on the trailer were confirmed to provide traction benefits, and safety improvements for forestry trailers operating in challenging terrain.
Surcel, Marius-Dorin, Mercier, Steve, Bonsi, Adime Kofi
Tire Pressure and Temperature Monitoring Systems for Trailers under 26000 Pounds GVWRJ3309_202410 (Current)10/28/2024
This SAE Recommended Practice defines the system and component functions, measurement metrics, and testing methodologies for evaluating the functionality and performance of tire pressure systems for use on trailers under 26000 pounds GVWR within the known operating environments. This document is applicable to all towed trailers under 26000 pounds GVWR. Examples of towed trailers are recreational vehicle travel trailers and fifth wheels, utility trailers, cargo trailers, livestock trailers, flatbed trailers, boat trailers, and snowmobile trailers. These trailers can be equipped with one, two, or three axles with each axle supporting either two or four tires. These systems are recommended to address all tires in service as originally installed on a trailer by the OEM. This recommended practice can also be applied to external TPMS that also cover tow vehicles and trailers simultaneously. This document will focus on tire pressure systems of the monitoring type.
Trailer Committee
Simulative Potential Analysis of Electrified Trailer Systems in Long-Haul Truck Applications2024-24-00149/18/2024
As an important contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, the road freight sector plays a significant role when it comes to reaching global climate goals. Due to the requirements regarding payloads and ranges, the transition towards zero emissions is particularly challenging in this sector. A technical solution that can contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions are electrified semi-trailer systems. These vehicles can be combined with conventional tractor vehicles in order to reduce their fuel consumption and CO2 footprint, as well as with tractor vehicles with alternative powertrains to increase their driving range. In this paper, a simulation study that evaluates the potentials of different configurations for such a system is performed. In the first part the general working principle of an electrified trailer is described. This includes a cloud based predictive energy management system that was used during the simulations. Based on a general vehicle model, the potentials of using electrified trailers in combination with a conventional tractor vehicle are evaluated. The study includes different powertrain configurations and battery systems. The different configurations were evaluated regarding their potential on fuel consumption reduction, greenhouse gas emissions and their influence on the total costs of ownership. Options like public fast charging and the use of a hybrid battery storage system that combines different battery cells were also evaluated. Regardless of their specific configuration, the electrified trailer variants showed a significant potential for a reduction of fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. The results also indicated the potential to achieve lower overall costs compared to a baseline vehicle with a conventional trailer.
Knaup, Lars, Beidl, Christian
Analysis of road safety implementation strategies to support the easiest introduction of autonomous braking products for complex vehicle combinations2024-36-03198/9/2024
In contrast to passenger cars, whose regulation allowed only a simple trailer combination, the autonomous technologies implementation of Electronic Stability Control (ESC) and Advanced Emergency Braking System (AEBS) for commercial vehicles demands more application and calibration efforts. At this case, the focus is on dynamic control of towing vehicles when applying the service brakes of trailer, in special when complex combination as bi-train and road-train, allowed in North and South America. However, the major risk is present occurrence when an ESC or AEBS equipped towing vehicles is connected to a double or triple trailer combination with a conventional braking system, it means: a system that is not equipped with Anti-lock Braking System (ABS). For instance, if during autonomous control, trailers wheels lock, a jackknifing phenomenon can easily occur. Therefore, in case longer and heavier vehicles (LHV) or megatrucks as called in Europe, the strategy for safety assistance systems application should consider trailer configuration maturity level of public reading fleet. In this context, the article aims to propose strategies of implementation and product development that can support the easiest introduction of road safety technologies based on autonomous braking products, in special when it is applied in markets where towed vehicles fleet are greater participation of vehicles equipped with conventional braking system, as occur in Brazil. In order to deliver this, a bibliographic research was carried out looking the available regulation and polities from markets where ESC and AEBS were already implemented, like EU and US. In addition, it was studied an Argentine government program that introduce at same time: road safety technologies, technological fleet renewal policies, periodic vehicle inspection, however offsetting the increased costs with logistical benefits for transport business.
Guarenghi, Vinicius Mendes, Pizzi, Rafael Fortuna, Depetris, Alessandro, Pinto, Gustavo Laranjeira Nunes, Collobialli, Germano
Braking compatibility between motorvehicle and trailer: identification of impacts on braking behavior under different types of predominance pressure2024-36-03088/9/2024
In recent decades, it can be noted an advance in new technologies applied to commercial vehicles. This advancement led to the development of new functions making products more efficient and safer, benefiting the society in general. Commercial vehicle manufacturers brought their products to levels higher than those required by current legal resolutions. Among the various resolutions applied to the braking system, in CONTRAN #915/22, which specifies minimum requirements of performance of vehicles brakes, the part 7 of NBR 10966 stands out. This standard determines requirements for compatibility between towing and towed units combined as a vehicle. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the thermal balance between the brakes of a motor vehicle combined with a semi-trailer. The tests were carried out by varying the pneumatic pressure that controls the service brake of towed units during braking. Some of the pressure levels were complying with compatibility requirements, others were not. Results showed better thermal balance between the brakes of towing and towed units when using control pressures complying with the legislation. Pressures outside the limits stated in the NBR 10966, resulted on thermal imbalance between the brakes. At times, temperature gradients between the brakes of the semi-trailers were detected, indicating that the response and the releasing time of the brakes increase as the distance between their brake chambers and the towing unit increases, agreeing with previous works. In addition, tests also showed that there are differences between the pressure provided by the towing unit and the towed unit braking pressures. It was concluded that to obtain adequate thermal balance, what guarantee safe driving, good braking performance, comfort and stable braking, the pneumatic pressure provided by the towing unit in the control glad hand must be within the limits established by the applicable resolutions.
Dias, Eduardo Miranda, Travaglia, Carlos Abílio Passos, Rodrigues, André, Rudek, Cludemir, Britto, Danilo
Q&A24TOFHP08_128/1/2024
The Kenworth booth at the 2024 Advanced Clean Transportation (ACT) Expo in Las Vegas garnered much interest thanks to the reveal of its futuristic-looking SuperTruck 2. Developed over a six-year period as part of the DOE's SuperTruck program, the demonstrator vehicle improved freight efficiency by up to 136% compared to the 2009 T660 model. The team improved fuel efficiency up to 12.8 mpg and reduced the combination weight by about 7,100 lb (3,220 kg) - 4,150 lb (1,880 kg) from the tractor and 2,950 lb (1,340 kg) from the trailer. The design led to a 48% reduction in drag compared to Kenworth's baseline vehicle. A Paccar MX-11 diesel engine, rated at 455 hp (339 kW), is paired with a Paccar TX-12 automated transmission and a 48-volt electric generator, creating a mild hybrid system to operate accessories and provide engine-off “hoteling.” The 48V generator also powers the exhaust heater in an in-house-developed close coupled aftertreatment system that demonstrated CARB 2027 ultra-low NOx compliancy. TOHE interviewed Joe Adams, Kenworth's chief engineer, at ACT Expo to discuss the SuperTruck 2 in more detail.
Gehm, Ryan
PFG's template for going green involves multiple partners24TOFHP06_106/1/2024
Rooftop solar panels will soon power about 90% of PFG's Gilroy, California, operations, the starting point for cold food deliveries. The vehicles getting the various edibles and food-related products from the warehouse to restaurants, schools, hotels and other customers include new battery-electric Class 8 trucks that mate to trailers fitted with zero-emission transport refrigeration units (TRUs). “Our Gilroy, California, location is the pilot for how we intend to develop sustainable distribution centers,” said Jeff Williamson, senior vice president of operations for Richmond, Virginia-headquartered Performance Food Group (PFG). Williamson and others were recently interviewed by Truck & Off-Highway Engineering following an Earth Day open house at the Gilroy site.
Buchholz, Kami
Trailer Grade Parking Performance Test ProcedureJ1452_202405 (Current)5/29/2024
This SAE Recommended Practice establishes methods to determine grade parking performance with respect to: a Ability of the parking brake system to lock the braked wheels. b The trailer holding or sliding on the grade, fully loaded, or unloaded. c Applied manual effort. d Unburnished or burnished brake lining friction conditions. e Down and upgrade directions.
Truck and Bus Brake Systems Committee
Analysis of Low-Frequency Brake Noise for Drum Brakes on Semi-Trailers2024-01-28954/9/2024
A road test on semi-trailers is carried out, and accelerations of some characteristic points on the braking system,axles,and truck body is measured,also brake pressure and noise around the support frame is acquired.The measured data was analyzed to determine the causes of the brake noise, and the mechanism of the noise of the drum brake of semi-trailers during low-speed braking was investigated. The following conclusions are obtained: (1) Brake noise of the drum brake of the semi-trailer at low-frequency is generated from vibrations of the brake shoes, axle, and body, and the vibration frequency is close to 2nd natural frequency of the axle. (2) Brake noise is generated from stick-slip motion between the brake shoes and the brake drum, where the relative motion between the brake drum and the brake shoes is changed alternately with sliding and sticking, resulting in sudden changes in acceleration and shock vibration. A multi-body dynamic model of the semi-trailer is established for analyzing vibrations causing noise and the influencing parameters. In the model, the elastic deformation of components, such as brake drums, brake shoes, axles, and leaf springs during the braking process, is considered. The model is validated by comparing calculated data with experiment data.The simulation shows that there is a heavy stick-slip vibration between the brake drum and brake shoes, which is transmitted to the axle through the brake shoes, and then to the body through the leaf spring. As the speed of the semi-trailer increases, the stick-slip frequency between the frictional pairs increases. When the stick-slip frequency is close to the natural frequency of the axle, it resonance.
Tang, Hao, Shangguan, Wen-Bin, Kang, Yingzi, Zheng, Jing-Yuan, Lan, Wen-Biao
Validation of Powertrain Systems Based on Usage Space Analysis Considering Virtual Road Load Profiles2024-01-24244/9/2024
Validation of powertrain systems is nowadays performed with specific durability relevant load cycles, which represent the lifetime requirement of individual powertrain components. The definition of such durability relevant load cycles, which are used for vehicle testing should ideally be based on the actual vehicle's usage. Recording driving cycles within a vehicle is one of the most typical ways of collecting vehicle usage and relevant end customer behavior, but the generation of such measured vehicle data can be time consuming. In addition, this method of capturing on-road measurements has limitations in the variation of vehicle loadings (e.g., number of passengers, luggage, trailer usage etc.). Especially for new applications, entering new target markets, these kinds of in-vehicle measurements are not possible in early development stages, as the required vehicle or powertrain configuration is not available in hardware or incapable of measurements. This paper shows a method to overcome these issues by replacing on-road measurements with virtual road load profiles generated by a software tool. Throughout this process an approach named Usage Space Analysis (USpA) is performed. The purpose of USpA is to specify trips, which are representative for the usage behavior. To characterize each trip, vehicle usage parameters are calculated. This allows to draw a comparison between the trips. To be able to select relevant trips, a graphical representation of the usage space is done. The trips are visualized by characteristics, such as load, dynamics, and duration. In this study, the USpA method is demonstrated, either using real road load measurements or virtual track profiles generated in a software tool. A comparison of the single profile's accumulated damages on a few typical mechanical failure modes is made. Potential applications of the methodology for different powertrain systems and various failure modes are discussed.
Haspl, Andreas, Unterweger, Michaela, Kuruc, Jan, Plettenberg, Mirko, Akasapu, Uday Venkateswar
Measurement and Modeling for Creep Groan of a Drum Brake in Trucks2024-01-23514/9/2024
An experiment is carried out to measure creep groan of a drum brake located in a trailer axle of a truck. The noise nearby the drum brake and accelerations on brake shoes, axle and trailer frame are collected to analyze the occurring conditions and characteristics of the creep groan. A multi-body dynamics model with 1/4 trailer chassis structures is established for analyzing brake component vibrations that generates the creep groan. In the model, the contact force between brake cam and brake shoes, the contact friction characteristics between brake linings and inner circular surface of brake drum, and the properties of chassis structure are included. Dynamic responses of brake shoes, axle and trailer frame during the braking process are estimated using the established model and the responses are compared with the measured results, which validate the model. Three conclusions of measurement and calculation are obtained. (1) The creep groan is usually generated when braking speed is lower than 5km/h and brake pressure changes smoothly. The change of brake pressure causes multiple harmonic vibrations of brake shoes, axle and trailer frame exhibited. (2) The creep groan is generated by stick-slip vibration of contact pair of the brake linings versus the inner circular surface of brake drum, and the vibration is transmitted to the axle through the path of fasteners, welded supports and elastic elements. (3) In this study, the 1st frequency of the collected noise and accelerations are approximately 212 Hz. The 2nd natural frequency of the axle is also close to 212 Hz, indicating that the creep groan is related to structures of chassis system.
Zheng, Jing-Yuan, Shangguan, Wen-Bin, Tang, Hao, Lan, Wen-biao
Truck Tractor Power Outlet for Trailer ABSJ2247_202401 (Current)1/10/2024
This SAE Recommended Practice identifies the minimum truck tractor electrical power output of the stop lamp and ABS (antilock brake system) circuits measured at the primary SAE J560 tractor trailer interface connector(s).
Truck and Bus Electrical Systems Committee
Research on Liquid Sloshing Model and Braking Dynamics Model of Semi-Trailer Vehicle for Transporting Dangerous Cargo for Driving Automation2023-01-705912/20/2023
The phenomenon of liquid transfer in the liquid tank of the semi-trailer vehicle for transporting dangerous cargo (SVTDC) during braking is analyzed and the relevant mathematical model is established. The braking dynamic model of the SVTDC considering the liquid sloshing in the tank is established, and the model is verified based on the co-simulation method. Based on the typical conditions, the braking deceleration and axle load calculation functions of the model are simulated and analyzed, and the application prospect of the model in the development of driving automation control strategy is discussed.
Li, Gangyan, Zhao, Ran, Fu, Teng
Wheels - Recreational and Utility Trailer Fatigue Test Procedure and Performance RequirementsJ1204_202312 (Current)12/7/2023
This SAE Recommended Practice provides uniform procedures and minimum performance requirements for fatigue testing ferrous and aluminum wheels intended for normal highway service on travel, camping, and boat and light utility trailers drawn by passenger cars, light trucks, and multipurpose vehicles. For procedures and minimum performance requirements for wheels used on trucks, see SAE J267, and for wheels used on passenger cars, see SAE J328. For the application of passenger car and light truck wheels (inset less than 0.10 m) to this trailer service, use this procedure. For the application of heavier truck wheels (inset 0.10 m (or more)) use SAE J267. Mobile home service is outside the scope of this document. There are two basic test procedures described, a cornering fatigue test and radial fatigue test. The cornering test is directed at the wheel disc; whereas the radial test also examines the rim and attachment portion of the wheel. Both test procedures are required to obtain a thorough examination of the wheel.
Wheel Standards Committee
Power Line Carrier Communications for Commercial VehiclesJ2497_202311 (Historical)11/1/2023
This SAE Recommended Practice defines a method for implementing a bidirectional, serial communications link over the vehicle power supply line among modules containing microcomputers. This document defines those parameters of the serial link that relate primarily to hardware and software compatibility such as interface requirements, system protocol, and message format that pertain to Power Line Communications (PLC) between Tractors and Trailers. This document defines a method of activating the trailer ABS Indicator Lamp that is located in the tractor.
Truck and Bus Control and Communications Network Committee
Soft Computing-Based Driver Modeling for Automatic Parking of Articulated Heavy Vehicles02-16-04-00279/9/2023
Parking an articulated vehicle is a challenging task that requires skill, experience, and visibility from the driver. An automatic parking system for articulated vehicles can make this task easier and more efficient. This article proposes a novel method that finds an optimal path and controls the vehicle with an innovative method while considering its kinematics and environmental constraints and attempts to mathematically explain the behavior of a driver who can perform a complex scenario, called the articulated vehicle park maneuver, without falling into the jackknifing phenomena. In other words, the proposed method models how drivers park articulated vehicles in difficult situations, using different sub-scenarios and mathematical models. It also uses soft computing methods: the ANFIS-FCM, because this method has proven to be a powerful tool for managing uncertain and incomplete data in learning and inference tasks, such as learning from simulations, handling uncertainty, and capturing expert parking expertise. The results obtained from the proposed method show that the use of a soft computation method significantly reduces the cumulative errors: errors resulting from summing up each sub-maneuver. Of course, the main source of these errors is related to starting from the random point that exists at the beginning of the predefined complex scenario. This implies that our method can effectively handle the uncertainty and variability of parking scenarios.
Rezaei Nedamani, Hamidreza, Soleymanifard, Mostafa, Safaeifar, Ali, Khiabani, Parisa Masnadi
Trailer Electrification – A HIL Approach for MPC Powertrain Control to Ensure Driver Safety in Micromobility2023-24-01808/28/2023
Bicycle-drawn cargo trailers with an electric drive to enable the transportation of high cargo loads are used as part of the last-mile logistics. Depending on the load, the total mass of a trailer can vary between approx. 50 and 250 kg, potentially more than the mass of the towing bicycle. This can result in major changes in acceleration and braking behavior of the overall system. While existing systems are designed primarily to provide sufficient power, improvements are needed in the powertrain control system in terms of driver safety and comfort. Hence, we propose a novel prototype that allows measurement of the tensile force in the drawbar which can subsequently be used to design a superior control system. In this context, a sinusoidal force input from the cyclist to the trailer according to the cadence of the cyclist is observed. The novelty of this research is to analyze whether torque impulses of the cyclist can be reduced with the help of Model Predictive Control (MPC). In addition, the powertrain of the trailer is intended to support the braking process of the system with regenerative braking. In the context of this research, a first MPC controller design is carried out and analyzed with the help of a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) approach where the microcontroller of the power electronics is included as hardware to ensure the vehicle dynamics control interacts properly with the lower-level field-oriented control. The battery and motor subsystems are simulated in a Typhoon HIL 604, which is supplemented by a vehicle dynamics model of the trailer that is integrated as a Functional Mock-Up Unit (FMU). First results indicate that the MPC longitudinal dynamics controller supports the driver during acceleration, attenuates the sinusoidal oscillations and reduces the force with which the trailer pushes the bicycle during braking.
Miller, Marius, Pfeil, Markus, Kennel, Ralph
Development of an Embedded Weighing System for Semi-Trailers Based on Hall Effect Sensor2023-36-03577/25/2023
The measurement of the cargo weight on semi-trailer trucks is required to several stakeholders in the logistics market, for this information can reduce expenses on vehicle maintenance, risk for load traffic fines and ensures safer driving of the vehicle. The state-of-the-art on on-board weighing systems of semi-trailers with leaf spring suspension adopt several techniques to estimate the load: solutions based on load cells, vibrating-wires force transducers or strain gauges on the chassis, on the suspension springs or on the axles of the vehicle. In this work, a new system based on hall effect sensor was developed and tested for measurement of the axle load in semi-trailers through the linear movement that occurs between the trailer axle and its chassis. This solution has low sensitivity to environmental phenomena not caused by human intervention, such as humidity or temperature variations. A lab test was made to compare some arrangements of magnets and hall effect sensors to find out which interaction provides the best linear response for the displacement range. Next, a mechanical prototype and an embedded hardware were designed and assembled into a tank semi-trailer to test the system at the facilities of Librelato Semi-trailers factory. The test routine consisted of several known water loads in the tank of the semi-trailer, which would repeatedly position its axles over a certified weighbridge. A data acquisition software was developed to capture measure points during loading and unloading processes. When comparing to the weighbridge, the system response presented variations that goes from 15%, with an empty tank, to 2% error, with a fully load tank. The proposed system accomplished good results within the tests conditions and the traffic legislation and presents a competitive development cost, indicating that a further development could be done in order to reach the market.
Parigot, Augusto, Weschenfelder, Arthur, Seibert, Artur, Lampert, Luis Pedro, Veras, Rafael, Zanolli, Willians
Aerodynamic Analysis of a Concept Truck and Trailer for Grain Transportation2023-36-03537/25/2023
Brazil is significant grain (soy, corn, beans and rice) producer in the planet and the road transportation is needed even when rail and maritime mode is used. There are opportunities to improve the grain road transportation efficiency. This paper presents one opportunity which is the aerodynamic drag reduction and therefore the fuel and energy consumption reduction on grain road transportation. This paper will discuss some alternatives to reduce aerodynamic drag on such application considering Brazilian market regulation which has a low limit for front axle load (lower than European regulation for instance) and limit the total composition length. As an example of some alternatives to reduce drag there is the frontal area reduction and trailer to cab gap reduction. Some of those alternatives were implemented on a concept truck briefly presented on this paper, which was tested on a real application, this paper will illustrate some of those alternatives implemented. Also, this paper presents the aerodynamic analysis using CFD and the strategy used to run quicker analysis using steady state k-epsilon turbulence model rather than transient DES, such strategy shows adequate correlation with wind tunnel tests. Also, this paper briefly describes the strategy to correlate the real application which has random yaw angles and air speed with CFD simulation. The authors intend that the alternatives to improve transported efficiency presented in this work can influence the market and can be applied on the truck grain transport application saving fuel/energy and cost which could be translated on lower food cost and sustainable transportation.
Zarpelon, Fernando Luis, Balcewicz, Luiz, Formolo, Lucas, Guarda, Ricardo
Longitudinal and Lateral Dynamics Simulation of an 11-Axle, 91-Ton Vehicle Combination for the Sugarcane Industry2023-36-03607/25/2023
The sugarcane industry holds the second largest share of production value in the Brazilian agricultural sector, with Brazil responsible for more than 20% of the world’s production. Therefore, the increase of efficiency in the production process of sugarcane is an object of interest for producers, with transportation playing an important role in the process, both economically and environmentally. Intending to improve the efficiency in the transportation of sugarcane between cultivation and processing facilities, this work uses simulations to analyze safety aspects of a vehicle combination with 11 axles and 91ton capacity, new to the Brazilian transportation system. Several procedures were performed in a virtual environment to evaluate the vehicle longitudinal and lateral dynamics, including weight distribution, overtaking performance, rollover threshold, rearward amplification, braking and gradeability. The study is focused on providing information about the feasibility and safety of this vehicle combination in highway traffic. The simulations were made in the software TruckSim 2020.1, from Mechanical Simulation, broadly used by the automotive industry due to its friendly interface when modeling the vehicle and test procedures. The results obtained indicate that it is possible for these vehicles to operate safely, as long as some restrictions on the trailer design and traffic engineering are respected, allowing to increase the efficiency in sugarcane transportation without compromising traffic safety.
de Oliveira, Paulo Ricardo Araujo, de Almeida Lima, Vinicius, Bougo, José Igor Calsavara
Sealed Trailer Tow ConnectorJ3008_202307 (Current)7/19/2023
This SAE Standard provides the auxiliary requirements for automotive or RV, additional 12 position, sealed Trailer Tow Connector Plug and Receptacle. The information included within this specification is intended to cover the test methods, design, and performance requirements of optional features for additional power, clean ground for electronic functions, video, data communication, and supplementary electric brake control.
Connector Systems Standards Committee
Wheel Mounting Elements for Off-Highway Disc WheelsJ714_202306 (Current)6/5/2023
This SAE Recommended Practice includes wheel mounting elements subject to standardization in a series of industrial and agricultural disc wheels. The disc may be reversible or nonreversible and concave or convex. (See Figure 1 and Table 1.)
MTC8, Tire and Rim
Reaction Rod Link in Rear Cab Suspension to Control Cab Dynamics in Tractor-Semitrailer Vehicles02-16-04-00245/24/2023
Articulated vehicles form an important part of our society for the transport of goods. Compared to rigid trucks, tractor-trailer combinations can transport huge quantities of load without increasing the axle load. The fifth wheel (FW) acts as a bridge between the tractor and trailer, which can be moved within the range to achieve rated front and rear axle loads. When the FW is moved front, it adversely affects the cab dynamics and cab suspension forces. Compared to the cab pitch and roll, yaw motion increases drastically. The current study tries to address this issue by providing reaction rod links in the rear cab suspension. In this study, a 4×2 tractor with a three-axle semitrailer is considered by keeping the FW at its frontmost position, which is the worst-case scenario for a cab. Three different cases of reaction rod arrangement and its influence on cab dynamics are studied in comparison with a model without reaction rods. To assess this, time signal–based relative pseudo-fatigue damage, power spectral density (PSD), and level crossing plots are analyzed. The outcome shows that cab pitch, roll, and yaw motion reduce by a considerable amount with the presence of a reaction rod. Cab suspension forces will also reduce. The horizontal V-inclination of the reaction rod plays a major role in improving cab yaw motion and reducing the lateral forces. A straight link without any inclination helps in reducing the pitch and roll motion of the cab.
Bhat, Sindhoor
Using Ethernet or a Wireless Harness and Named Data Networking in Autonomous Tractor-Trailer Communication2023-01-09244/11/2023
Autonomous truck and trailer configurations face challenges when operating in reverse due to the lack of sensing on the trailer. It is anticipated that sensor packages will be installed on existing trailers to extend autonomous operations while operating in reverse in uncontrolled environments, like a customer's loading dock. Power Line Communication (PLC) between the trailer and the tractor cannot support high bandwidth and low latency communication. This paper explores the impact of using Ethernet or a wireless medium for commercial trailer-tractor communication on the lifecycle and operation of trailer electronic control units (ECUs) from a Systems Engineering perspective to address system requirements, integration, and security. Additionally, content-based and host-based networking approaches for in-vehicle communication, such as Named Data Networking (NDN) and IP-based networking are compared. Implementation, testing and evaluation of prototype trailer ECU communication with the tractor ECUs over Ethernet is shown by transmitting different data types simultaneously. The implementation is tested with two networking approaches, Named Data Networking, and Data Distribution Service (DDS) and the test indicated that NDN over TCP is an efficient approach that is capable of meeting automotive communication requirements. Using Ethernet or a wireless harness and NDN for commercial trailer Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) ECU provides adequate resources for the operation of autonomous trucks and the expansion of its capabilities, and at the same time significantly reduces the complexities compared to when new features are added to legacy communication systems. Using a wireless medium for tractor-trailer communication will bring new cybersecurity challenges and requirements which requires new development and lifecycle considerations.
Elhadeedy, Ahmed, Daily, Jeremy
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