Browse Topic: Suspension systems

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Study on Nonlinear Dynamic Characteristics of High-Speed Train Braking Systems2026-99-11419/11/2026
To address the oversimplification in prior brake system models, this study develops a 10-degree-of-freedom (DOF) dynamic model of a disc brake system. A control-variable approach is employed to numerically simulate the effects of braking force, rotational inertia, brake pad tangential stiffness, suspension stiffness, and damping. The vibration responses under different braking conditions and in the presence of multi-parameter coupling are analyzed through bifurcation diagrams, phase trajectories, and Poincaré sections. The main findings indicate: (1) Increasing braking force induces a transition from period-1 to higher-order periodic motions (e.g., period-6), accompanied by significant vibration amplification; (2) Enhanced brake pad tangential stiffness suppresses vibration amplitude but extends the sticking phase duration; (3) Exceeding a critical primary suspension stiffness threshold triggers system instability. These results suggest that structural optimization of suspensions and reasonable selection of brake pad support stiffness are important measures to prevent stick-slip vibrations.
Li, Songge, Wang, Jingyue
Suspension Design and Engineering Structural Analysis of the Baja Race Car2026-99-11069/11/2026
This paper focuses on the stringent requirements of the Baja SAE China competition for off-road racing vehicles and carries out the design and engineering structural analysis of the suspension system. Under the design constraints of a 1350 mm wheelbase, a front suspension using an unequal-length double-wishbone independent layout, and a rear suspension employing a single-wishbone independent layout with a camber-control arm, the hard points of the suspension were identified and optimized. After optimization, the wheel-alignment parameters (caster angle and toe angle) of both front and rear suspensions varied within a range of less than 2° throughout wheel travel, significantly improving tire contact and stability on complex terrain while reducing component loads. The paper also provides a theoretical analysis of the suspension’s anti-roll performance, demonstrating that the designed suspension possesses sufficient roll resistance to meet the safety requirements for high-speed cornering. The suspension system, after manufacturing and field testing, exhibited good handling and stability across various challenging road conditions, confirming the correctness and practical engineering value of the design methodology and optimization results.
Shi, Shuhuan, Lu, Yihan, Li, Hongcai
Data-Driven Robust Preview Control of Vehicle Active Suspension Considering Random Controller Area Network Communication Dropouts10-11-01-00019/10/2026
With the shift to full-by-wire chassis architectures, active suspension control is progressively integrated into chassis domain controllers to achieve coordinated chassis management. However, random packet dropouts in controller area network (CAN) communication under high-load conditions can significantly degrade suspension control performance. To address this challenge, this study proposes a novel data-driven robust preview control method. First, the packet-dropout phenomenon in CAN communication is modeled as a Bernoulli random process, and an augmented state-space model of the active suspension system is constructed by incorporating road preview information. Second, based on zero-sum game theory, road disturbances and control inputs are modeled as adversarial players, leading to the formulation of a stochastic game algebraic Riccati equation (SGARE) for the suspension system. To improve data efficiency and reduce design complexity, a data-driven value iteration (VI) reinforcement learning algorithm is employed to approximate the optimal control solution, with rigorous proof of convergence. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm provides effective and feasible solutions across different packet-dropout probabilities. Furthermore, hardware-in-the-loop simulations confirm the robustness and reliability of the proposed control scheme, showing that the active suspension system maintains stable performance even in the presence of random CAN communication losses.
Wang, Gang, Duan, Deyang, Zhou, Tingting, Liu, Suqi
Study on the “Vibration-Differential Pressure” Coupled Environment Test Technology for Airborne Equipment Vibration Isolation Systems2026-99-12519/4/2026
The stable operation of airborne equipment determines the functionality and performance standards of aircraft. Installing vibration isolation systems on such equipment aims to improve its performance. With the advancement of aircraft capabilities, future evaluations of airborne equipment’s vibration isolation systems will require increasingly real-world experimental assessment. Achieving a ground-based simulation of the complex coupling environment encountered by airborne equipment at high altitudes presents a huge challenge. This paper proposes a method utilizing air springs to simulate differential pressure forces, successfully enabling ground-based testing of “vibration-differential pressure” coupled environments for airborne equipment. The results verify the effectiveness of this approach, and it can be used for this type of environmental testing.
Qin, Xiaomeng, Xing, Xiaoming, Mou, Haowen, Wang, Jianzhong
Study on the Vehicle Unsteady Vibration Control with a Semi-Active Strut2026-99-12319/4/2026
Unsteady vibrations of vehicles, which can be easily perceived by the human body, may affect the driving experience and compromise driving comfort. However, the conventional three-point powertrain mounting system (PMS) often fails to offer a satisfactory solution. Here, a novel four-point PMS was proposed by introducing a semi-active strut (SAS), which can provide stronger damping in a low-frequency range to resolve this problem. Specifically, a thirteen degrees of freedom (DoFs) vehicle dynamic model (VDM) with four mounts was constructed, and the evaluation indices for unsteady vibration responses of the vehicle were determined and analyzed; Next, the PMS optimization design approach was employed to identify the proper position of installation and dynamic stiffness of the SAS, and meanwhile the 13 DoFs VDM and the force-sharing principle were used to identify the structural parameters of the strut; Last, comparative experiments were performed to analyze the effect of the strut on alleviating the unsteady vibration of the vehicle under varied unsteady vehicle states. The results showed that the SAS has significantly reduced the seat rail peak acceleration, verifying the effectiveness of our novel PMS in alleviating the unsteady vibration. The research provided a feasible solution to alleviate the unsteady vibration of vehicles and improve the driving experience.
Wang, Daoyong, Liu, Yongjiang, Ma, Bo
Scaling Behavior of Levitation and Dragging Force in Electrodynamic Suspension Systems2026-99-12109/4/2026
The geometrical and velocity scaling behavior of levitation and dragging forces in Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) systems was studied by both analytical and numerical methods, to provide comparisons between designs for both on-board and ground-mounted magnetic components. Effects of system dimension, levitation gap, magnetic field dependence of critical current density, and vehicle velocity were studied. The lift-to-self-weight ratio of two realistic EDS systems and their geometrical scaling were studied numerically.
Shao, Nan, Zhang, Chang, Shang, Liang, Yu, Wenjing
Dynamic Characteristics Analysis of Conical-Cylindrical Shell Structure2026-99-12789/4/2026
In the context of aerospace development towards lightweight, high reliability, and long life directions, such materials have become the core materials of key load-bearing structures for advanced aircraft, and their structural dynamic characteristics are directly related to the flight safety and service stability of the aircraft. This article uses uniform artificial springs to simulate the stiffness coupling effect and boundary conditions of the entire structure. In the stage of theoretical modeling, classical shell theory is used, and orthogonal polynomials are introduced as displacement functions. Is solved by the Lagrange energy equation. On this basis, the effect of external size parameters on structural vibration frequency is deeply discussed. With the change in structural natural frequency with the taper of the conical shell, the ratio of cylindrical shell length to diameter and the ratio of diameter to thickness are analyzed.
Zhao, Yunhao, Chen, Jie
Optimal Design of Kinematic Characteristics for Rear Single-Trailing-Arm Suspension Based on NSGA-II2026-99-12499/4/2026
Owing to its structural features, the single-trailing-arm suspension tends to exhibit excessive wheelbase variation and caster angle variation during wheel travel. To address this issue, this study proposes an optimization method for the hard point parameters of the non-steering rear single-trailing-arm suspension. Firstly, a mathematical model and a dynamic model of the single-trailing-arm suspension are established separately. The validity of the mathematical model is verified by comparing simulation results, and the model is revised using a correction coefficient. Sensitivity analysis of the suspension hard points is performed via ADAMS/Insight to screen out key design variables. Finally, the NSGA-II multi-objective genetic algorithm is employed for optimization, followed by simulation validation. The results demonstrate that this method effectively enhances the kinematic characteristics of the suspension, providing theoretical support for the optimization of hard point layout.
Wang, Zhidong, Xu, Zhenyu, Wang, Jianhua, Gao, Junfeng
The Process Technology and Research on Chlorinated Polyethylene2026-99-04218/28/2026
There are three main methods for preparing chlorinated polyethylene: the solution method, suspension method, and solid-phase method. This article studies the process of preparing chlorinated polyethylene by the aqueous suspension method, introduces the production process of chlorinated polyethylene, first understands the reaction mechanism of the chlorination reaction, then explores the production process of chlorinated polyethylene by the suspension method, and finds the optimal process conditions through experiments. The results showed that the optimal reaction temperature for the chlorination reaction of chlorinated polyethylene was 135°C, the optimal amount of initiator was 3%, and the optimal amount of chlorine gas added was 1.5%/min. This article explores the influencing factors of the optimal reaction conditions, laying a theoretical foundation for industrial production after the suspension method.
Hu, Shiguo, Zhao, Ruchen, Yu, Bin, Jiao, Mingquan, Bai, Zhirui
Evaluation of the Isolation Efficiency of Quasi–Zero Stiffness Structure in Improving Seat Comfort of Different Commercial Vehicles02-20-01-00038/26/2026
Different commercial vehicles, such as the sunflower harvester, tracked vehicle, and vibratory roller, operate across off-road and on-road environments, often encountering rough and poorly maintained surface conditions. Thus, their comfort and working efficiency are very low. To solve this problem, a quasi–zero stiffness structure (QZSS) is investigated and added to traditional seat suspensions in the sunflower harvester, tracked vehicle, and vibratory roller to improve their comfort and working efficiency. From their established dynamic models, the isolating efficiencies and stabilities of QZSS are then analyzed in detail under different conditions of speed and seat mass. Reducing the root-mean-square values of the seat acceleration (aw) and displacement (zw) is used to evaluate the results. The research shows that the comfort of the sunflower harvester and vibratory roller is very poor compared with the tracked vehicle under the same simulation conditions. By adding QZSS to their seat suspension system, the values of {aw and zw} in the sunflower harvester, tracked vehicle, and vibratory roller are strongly reduced by {67.9% and 38.8%}, {54.7% and 23.9%}, and {65.4% and 34.3%} in comparison without QZSS. Therefore, the comfort of the three vehicle models is greatly improved in comparison without QZSS. Besides, QZSS improves the vibratory roller’s comfort better than the tracked vehicle, while QZSS improves the sunflower harvester’s comfort to be the best. These study results further strengthen the isolation efficiency of QZSS on different commercial vehicles. This contributes to providing more applicability of QZSS in real vehicle conditions.
Nguyen, Vanliem, Zhang, Li, Liu, Yaxi
Hierarchical Yaw–Roll Stability Control of Semi-Trailers Based on Joint Estimation of Equivalent Parameters02-20-01-00018/19/2026
Semi-trailers are widely used in highway freight transportation because of their large payload capacity and high transport efficiency. However, structural characteristics such as a high center of gravity (CG), heavy loads, and the dynamic coupling between the tractor and trailer make them prone to yaw instability and rollover under complex conditions. To solve these problems, this article proposes a hierarchical stability control architecture for semi-trailers based on the joint estimation of equivalent parameters. First, a six-degree-of-freedom (6-DOF) theoretical dynamic model is established. This model includes the lateral, yaw, and roll motions of both the tractor and trailer to provide desired reference states. Second, a parameter estimation method combining a genetic algorithm (GA) with a forgetting-factor recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm is designed. It dynamically identifies eight unknown equivalent parameters, specifically the tire cornering stiffness and suspension damping. Next, a hierarchical controller is developed. The upper layer uses model predictive control (MPC) to calculate the required additional yaw moments, while the lower layer allocates these moments through quadratic programming (QP) based on vehicle steering characteristics. Co-simulation results, evaluated using error metrics that compare control outputs directly against TruckSim reference outputs, show that the fusion GA-RLS method offers better accuracy and adaptability than a standalone GA. Furthermore, the stability controller prevents rollover in high-speed maneuvers and reduces peak state indicators by over 41.2% in low-speed scenarios. Robustness tests also confirm its effectiveness under low-adhesion road conditions and heavy payloads. Compared with a conventional fixed-parameter MPC, the proposed adaptive architecture improves key stability indicators by 19% to 25%, effectively enhancing the dynamic safety of semi-trailers.
Song, Dafeng, Ni, Lixin, Duan, Chaosheng, Zeng, Xiaohua
A Comprehensive Analysis of a Truck–Semi-Trailer Performance Based on Hierarchical Controller Design to Enhance Driver Comfort and Dynamic Stability02-20-01-00028/18/2026
This study presents an integrated suspension system to improve the ride quality and stability of semi-trailer truck vehicles. The system consists of both an Air/MR-controlled suspension on the driver’s seat and on the truck cab, and an active air main suspension for the truck to improve vehicle stability. All components are connected to the truck and semi-trailer via a series of coupled connections. An analysis of dynamic stability reveals how the truck’s motions affect slosh forces within the semi-trailer during operation. An experimental validation of the new Air/MR suspension damper, developed using ANSYS 2023 R1 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software, yielded results consistent with prior experimental evidence. The control strategy uses a hierarchical architecture in which an inverse LSTM network controls the MR damper, accurately following the damping forces generated by a higher-level RNN controller implemented in MATLAB. The RNN system adaptively adjusts the stiffness of the cab and driver seat suspension, isolating the cab from vibrations caused by uneven roads. The truck and trailer’s main air suspension uses LQR control, using state inputs to counteract vertical motions caused by road roughness and sloshing. An integrated nonlinear co-simulation model of the truck and semi-trailer—including the truck, sloshing trailer, nonlinear air springs, and CFD-based MR damper demonstrates the control system’s effectiveness. Simulation results compared with a passive suspension system show that the proposed integrated controlled suspension system significantly reduces the truck chassis bending moment, improves ride comfort (49.98%), reduces cab body displacement (63.60%), and increases dynamic stability (57.78%). Maximizing dynamic tire load due to slosh dynamics in both half-loaded and full-loaded tanks does not affect the effective dynamic stability of tire hopping at high frequencies because the stiffness coefficient is adaptively adjusted, thereby synchronizing disturbance rejection and long-term riding comfort in frequency-based control under different road conditions.
Gad, Ahmed Shehata
RBF Neural Network-Based Compound Control for High-Speed Maglev Trains2026-99-03228/14/2026
Aiming at the inherent instability, strong nonlinearity, and high dynamic characteristics of normal-conducting maglev suspension systems, this paper adopts a composite supervisory control scheme integrating PD control and an RBF neural network. First, a high-speed maglev train-track coupled dynamics model considering track elasticity is established. On this basis, a phased control strategy is designed: the initial phase employs a PD controller to ensure system stability, after which control is seamlessly handed over to an RBF neural network. The weights of this network are continuously refined online via a gradient descent algorithm, enabling progressive enhancement of control precision. Simulation results validate the effectiveness of this approach, confirming its superior performance in both precise suspension gap regulation and robust disturbance rejection. Consequently, the proposed method not only underpins the stable operation of maglev trains but also constitutes a reliable intelligent control framework for high-speed maglev systems.
Yu, Yong, Zhang, Jie, Wang, Yu, Liang, Shi
Failure Analysis of the Safety Valve Spring in a Dangerous Goods Tanker2026-99-03138/14/2026
During the operation, a spring in the built-in safety valve of a dangerous goods tanker. A comprehensive failure analysis of the material was conducted through macroscopic and microscopic inspections, metallographic analysis, energy spectrum analysis (EDS), and hardness tests. The failure mode of the broken spring was brittle fracture. The fracture morphology was like that of ice sugar, and the chemical composition of the spring steel met the specified requirements. The main cause of fracture failure is the mechanical damage to the inner surface during the spring manufacturing process, which leads to stress concentration in the damaged area and ultimately results in fracture. In addition, manufacturers should strengthen and standardize the production process to prevent mechanical damage and select high-purity spring steel to improve the durability of the springs.
Yang, Lijun, Li, Qingshan, Xiong, Mingming, Liu, Mingming, Wu, Junyao, Yu, Lang, Zhang, Zewei, Xie, Xumeng
Review of Semi-Active Shock Absorption Mechanisms in Landing Systems01-19-02-00068/13/2026
Effective shock absorption is essential for maintaining stability during landing events. Aerospace systems traditionally rely on oleo-pneumatic struts, while robotic platforms utilize lightweight compliant joints for impact mitigation. Recent advances have shifted attention toward adaptive solutions, including magnetorheological and electrorheological dampers, which can adjust their damping characteristics in real time through sensor feedback and control algorithms. By integrating established mechanical design principles with advanced materials and intelligent control strategies, modern landing systems can achieve improved energy dissipation and enhanced performance under variable and unpredictable conditions. This work evaluates the transition from passive to adaptive shock absorption technologies by examining landing dynamics, the mechanical architectures of conventional and semi-active systems, and the control strategies that enable adaptive damping. The findings indicate that, although passive systems offer reliability and simplicity, they lack the adaptability required for highly variable environments, while semi-active systems provide enhanced performance through real-time modulation enabled by advanced control algorithms. However, challenges related to power requirements, system complexity, material durability, and long-term reliability continue to limit widespread implementation of adaptive technologies. Overall, this review highlights the limitations of passive designs, evaluates the tradeoffs between MR and ER damping technologies, examines the evolution of semi-active control strategies, and identifies the key technical barriers that must be addressed before adaptive shock absorption systems achieve broader operational adoption.
Shah, Rajesh, Patel, Parth, Mittal, Vikram
Delay-Compensated Active Anti-Roll Bar of Tractor-Trailers Using Two-Dimensional Piston Pump Electro-Hydrostatic Actuators02-19-04-00278/5/2026
As tractor-trailers are essential to global logistics, their roll stability during emergency maneuvers is a critical safety concern. This paper presents a novel delay-compensated active roll control strategy for tractor-trailers using a two-dimensional piston pump electro-hydrostatic actuator (EHA). Unlike existing advanced strategies that assume ideal actuator behavior, this approach specifically targets the inherent response delay in high-tonnage applications. A detailed EHA model, including pump flow characteristics and hydraulic mechanics, was developed and validated through step response experiments. A seven-degree-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model and a model predictive controller were also constructed to compute the required anti-roll moment under emergency driving conditions. In order to address the EHA actuator’s response delay, a delay feedforward controller (DFC) was designed, integrating acceleration feedforward, feedback regulation, and delay disturbance estimation. TruckSim–Simulink co-simulations under double lane-change (DLC) maneuvers at 40 km/h, 60 km/h, and 80 km/h show that DFC improves displacement tracking and reduces peak trailer roll angle by up to 15% compared to a velocity-feedforward proportional-integral-derivative (VFPID) controller. It also enhances control efficiency, as evidenced by lower average motor speeds and pressure response of EHA. The system demonstrates high power-to-weight ratio and efficient tracking capabilities under dynamic conditions. Although active control provides limited benefit at low speeds, the proposed strategy effectively improves roll stability and driving safety under dynamic conditions.
Chen, Lijie, Yin, Yuming, Zeng, Yuhang, Ruan, Jian, Li, Hangqi, Sun, Peng
Research on the Topology Design of Electric Vehicle Corner Module Suspension Based on POC Theory2026-99-01517/31/2026
The corner module is an innovative design that combines drive, steering, suspension, and other vehicle structures into a single wheel unit. This achieves a high level of integration for chassis functions. A chassis built on this module can perform more complex movements. Suspension is a key part that decides how the vehicle moves. However, current suspension design approaches lack a systematic methodology for configuration synthesis and analytical verification for the multi-degree-of-freedom (multi-DOF) requirements of the corner module. This study introduces a new method for designing the corner module suspension based on the Position and Orientation Characteristic theory (POC theory). First, the type of suspension DOF is derived from chassis functional requirements by treating the required corner module motion as the target suspension DOF. Then, we decide the number of chains, links, and joints in the mechanism and perform configuration synthesis of suspension mechanism. Next, we combine the selected kinematic pairs and select suspension mechanisms that meet the requirements of suspension DOF. There are two steps of calculation in this process. In this study, the goal is to design a suspension with three links, two loops, and two degrees of freedom. Seven suspension mechanisms with specific loops and components were obtained using the proposed process. Finally, the paper presents the process of mechanism verification. Using the steering link and ground excitation as inputs, theoretical calculations and simulation analysis were conducted to verify that the mechanisms obtained meets the suspension design objectives. This proves that the POC theory-based method for creating multi-DOF suspension is effective.
Kong, Wenkai, Zhu, Wenfeng, Zeng, Zhixuan
Advanced Damping Force Modeling Using Machine Learning for Next-Generation Electric Vehicle Suspensions2026-01-50537/31/2026
The rapid evolution of electric vehicles (EVs) has led to the development of innovative approaches to optimize ride comfort, handling, and the overall suspension performance. EVs introduce unique challenges due to their distinct weight distribution, powertrain dynamics, and noise characteristics, unlike their conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) counterparts. This paper outlines an advanced damping force modeling methodology using machine learning (ML) techniques to enhance the suspension design process for next-generation EVs. The analysis is based on data-driven ML algorithms, i.e., Gradient Boosting, Random Forest, and Neural Networks, to simulate the nonlinear and frequency-dependent phenomenon of dampers in different operating conditions. A comprehensive dataset, generated through simulation and experimental testing, captures the effects of road profiles, vehicle dynamics, and damping settings. Additionally, this research evaluates the impact of machine-learned damping force predictions on critical ride and handling metrics, including ride comfort, road-holding ability, and energy efficiency. The results demonstrate that the ML models can enhance the iterative design process considerably and help to create the adaptive suspension systems that will address the particular requirements of EVs. This paper contributes to advancing the state-of-the-art of the suspension modeling, incorporating the ML-based insights in the development cycle. It highlights the possibility of artificial intelligence to transform suspension design, paving the way for superior ride quality and vehicle performance in electric mobility.
Hazra, Sandip, Tangadpalliwar, Sonali, Khan, Arkadip
Solution of Optimal Parameters of Leaf Springs by Firefly Algorithm Based on Penalty Function2026-99-01447/31/2026
The probe is an important component of the precision instrument. During the measurement process, the deformation of the leaf spring directly affects the accuracy of the displacement of the probe. There are many undetermined parameters for the leaf spring, and some parameters have a non-linear impact on the results. This paper proposes a firefly algorithm that combines penalty functions to solve the optimal solution of the objective function for multi parameter leaf springs. Through strategies such as normalizing mapping intervals, setting small populations between cells, and fine-tuning position update formulas, this algorithm quickly obtains the optimal parameters of the leaf spring, and compares it with the orthogonal experimental method to prove the feasibility of this method, providing a certain theoretical reference value for multi parameter solving.
Yu, Jianghao, Shi, Zhaoyao, Song, Huixu
Comfort Study of Air Suspension System Based on MPC Control2026-99-01367/31/2026
Air springs are increasingly replacing traditional shock absorbers in vehicle suspension systems due to their superior mechanical properties, including adjustable stiffness, nonlinear characteristics, and excellent damping performance. To further explore the potential of air suspension in improving ride comfort, this paper focuses on air suspension. We first conducted mechanical characteristic experiments on air springs to obtain their stiffness and damping characteristics under different inflation pressures and excitation frequencies. These tests provide essential mechanical parameters for subsequent modeling and simulation. Based on the experimental data, a simplified 1/4 air suspension simulation model is constructed, taking into account the nonlinear stiffness and damping properties of the air springs. To simulate real-world driving conditions, a random road surface model is introduced as the excitation input. Simulation analysis is conducted to compare the air suspension system with the traditional passive suspension system. The results indicate that, compared to the passive suspension system, the air suspension system integrated with Model Predictive Control(MPC) significantly reduces key performance indicators, including suspension deflection, wheel dynamic load, and sprung mass vertical acceleration. This indicates that the suspension with model predictive control can effectively suppress vehicle vibrations, thereby enhancing ride comfort and driving stability. The results of this study provide an important basis for the optimal design of air suspension systems and have practical application value for improving the suspension performance of the vehicle.
Yin, Zhi
Design of a Jamming Test Apparatus for Aircraft Cargo Door Latches2026-99-08337/30/2026
The reliability verification of cargo door latches for civil aircraft requires a safe, accurate, and controlled method for simulating jamming failures in lab settings. We adopt a crank-rocker mechanism with a variable degree of freedom (DOF) to construct a novel jamming apparatus that may be dynamically constrained in order to meet this requirement. The apparatus maintains two DOFs when not in use, which permits the latch mechanism to move freely. Both the guiding shafts and the rotation shafts are simultaneously constrained for a jamming test, reducing the mechanism’s DOFs to zero. This operation creates a precise and passive lock that immobilizes the mechanism without the need for an active external load. This approach offers a more realistic simulation of the sudden jamming brought on by wear, foreign object intrusion, or manufacturing tolerances. A theoretical kinematic analysis is then conducted to calculate the mobility of the mechanism and determine the theoretical conditions and transition paths to reach the two functional states. Moreover, the apparatus implements a real-time computational model based on classical planar linkage force analysis and integrates a multi-sensor system. This model converts sensor data into the torques and jamming forces that are actually delivered to the latch. The findings demonstrate that the proposed design accurately simulates latch jamming conditions while allowing for real-time monitoring and quantification of important dynamic characteristics. Thus, by offering a dependable and effective verification solution for cargo door latches, the apparatus greatly improves testing safety and the value of the data gathered.
Ren, Jie, Zeng, Xiaohu, Qiu, Xudong, Xie, Youshui
Research on the Design Technology of Anti-Roll Attachment for Seaplanes2026-99-08037/30/2026
This paper takes a seaplane as the research object, based on the roll damping commonly used in the field of ships, to carry out the applicability analysis and design technology research of the roll damping for the seaplane. A T-tail configuration was selected as the attachment. The design process involved sequentially selecting the horizontal stabilizer airfoil, designing the aspect ratio parameters, and determining the strut airfoil. Consequently, two T-tail design schemes with aspect ratios of 0.76 and 1.53 were proposed. Through the hydrodynamic performance analysis of the T-tail design installed on the seaplane, the advantages and disadvantages of the two T-tail designs in the wave environment are studied. The results demonstrate that the aspect ratio of the T-tail’s horizontal stabilizer directly affects the seaplane’s wave-induced motion response. The proposed design with a larger aspect ratio of 1.53 significantly reduces wave resistance and motion response across various conditions. In the case of a relatively small aspect ratio, the maximum pitching motion is reduced by 38.4%, and the maximum heave is reduced by 59%.
Jiang, Ting, Pi, Xufeng, He, Chao, Wen, Changqing, Li, Xu
Analysis and Optimization of Braking Deviation for Commercial Vehicles Based on ADAMS2026-99-08027/30/2026
Given the braking deviation of commercial vehicles, this paper discusses the influencing factors and uses Adams simulation software to accurately model the vehicle model due to the unreasonable match between the suspension system and the steering system. Through K&C analysis and dynamics analysis of the model, the root cause of braking deviation is identified, and the simulation method is used to quickly realize optimization and verification.
Yan, Tang, Wang, Jingxian, Sun, Hongyang, Wu, Zhen
PSO-Optimized LQR Control for Anti-Sway and Positioning of Rotary Cranes2026-99-08607/30/2026
This paper proposes a Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) parameter optimization method based on Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) to enhance the grab attitude controller for rotary crane systems, with the objectives of improving positioning accuracy and suppressing load swing. Lagrange’s equations are first used to create a nonlinear dynamic model of the rotary crane, which is then linearized around an operational point to produce a fourth-order state-space representation. Based on this representation, a dual-objective fitness function is created, employing the Integral of Time multiplied by Absolute Error (ITAE) as the performance index and assigning the swing angle error more weight. The important parameters of the LQR weight matrix are optimized using the PSO algorithm. A dedicated novel pre-compensation gain algorithm is then developed to solve the pseudo-inverse of an augmented matrix, thereby removing steady-state error. According to simulation results, the PSO-optimized controller greatly improves the anti-sway performance and positioning accuracy of the system by reducing the peak swing angle and settling time by 33.9% and 55.9%, respectively, as compared to the traditional LQR control.
Yao, Yulei, Xiang, Yang
Influence of Roll Gap Control under Acceleration Conditions2026-99-08677/30/2026
During the cold rolling process, when the rolling speed enters the acceleration stage, the rolling force often exhibits a linear decline accompanied by fluctuations. This leads to a decrease in the uniformity of steel strip thickness distribution, resulting in the failure of the outgoing strip to meet quality requirements in terms of shape and thickness. In this paper, a three-dimensional model of a six-high rolling mill is established using Abaqus, and the influence of gap control during the acceleration stage on strip shape is systematically investigated. By analyzing the relationship between rolling force and roll gap variations, a gap compensation strategy based on a dynamic stiffness model is proposed. Simulation results demonstrate that implementing gap compensation during the acceleration stage effectively improves the consistency of strip thickness, with significant reductions in both thickness range and standard deviation.
Tang, Yingxin, Yan, Zhuwen, Cao, Wenjun, Wu, Jiawei
Optimization Design of Automotive Handling Stability Based on ADAMS Insight2026-99-18017/17/2026
This paper systematically optimizes and validates the handling stability of a vehicle using ADAMS/Car software based on vehicle data provided by a car manufacturer. A comprehensive vehicle dynamics model was established, including a body model, an anti-roll bar model, a powertrain model, a steering subsystem model, and a full vehicle model, with a focus on optimizing suspension parameters such as toe angle and camber angle. Validation was carried out using simulation test methods such as dual-wheel synchronous excitation, steering returnability, and angle step input. The results show significant improvements in the vehicle’s yaw rate, steering force, and torque after optimization, with particular excellence in steering return time and transient response. Additionally, steady-state cornering simulation results indicate that the optimized vehicle has improved body roll stiffness and lateral compliance, with increased understeer, further enhancing stability and response speed during steering. The findings of this study improve the handling stability and safety of vehicles and provide valuable references for future automotive design.
Li, Diannuo, Zhu, Jiale, Wang, Dongmei, Wei, Yi, Huang, Yuanyuan, Ban, Lu
Modeling and Damping Optimization Design of Commercial Vehicle Cab Air Suspension System2026-99-18627/17/2026
Based on the theory of vehicle dynamics, this paper first constructs a dynamic model of the cab air suspension system, laying a core theoretical framework for subsequent optimization research. At the level of performance evaluation indicators, the root mean square (RMS) values of the cab’s vertical acceleration, roll acceleration, and pitch acceleration are selected as key parameters. On this basis, an objective function for the damping matching of the cab air suspension system is established, clarifying the optimization direction. Building on this objective function, the paper further takes into account the constraint conditions in the actual operation of the system, using the probability of the cab air suspension system hitting the limit stop as a constraint. Finally, a complete mathematical model for the damping matching of the cab air suspension system is formed, and a genetic algorithm is used to solve this model, ensuring the scientificity and feasibility of the optimization results. To verify the effectiveness of the established model and optimization method, this paper conducts verification based on the aforementioned dynamic simulation model of the cab air suspension system: the frame displacement signals collected under actual random road conditions are used as the model input, and the established mathematical method for damping matching is applied to carry out the optimal matching design of the damping parameters of the cab air suspension system. The simulation optimization results show that the performance of the optimized system is significantly improved: the RMS value of vertical acceleration is reduced by 5% compared with that before optimization, the RMS value of roll angular acceleration is reduced by 11.2%, and the RMS value of pitch angular acceleration is reduced by 4.7%. In conclusion, the method constructed in this paper can effectively improve a practical and feasible reference for the damping optimization design of the cab suspension system.
Li, Saisai, Yang, Chang, Guo, Ruiling, Zhang, Zhongyuan, Liang, Dong, Wu, Shiyu
Analysis of Structural Stiffness Indicators of Manned Lunar Vehicles2026-99-18277/17/2026
The structural stiffness of a manned lunar vehicle is a core indicator ensuring its stable operation in the complex lunar environment. The vehicle’s body structure must meet multiple requirements, including high stiffness, lightweight design, and adaptability to lunar surface conditions. Since lunar gravity is only 1/6 of Earth’s and the terrain is rugged and dusty, the body structure must employ a high-stiffness design to withstand driving impacts and resist deformation, thereby preventing mechanical failures or safety hazards for crew members caused by excessive structural distortion. However, excessive structural stiffness would result in an overweight vehicle body, conflicting with the spacecraft’s lightweight requirements. Thus, the structural stiffness index should be optimized to a lower value while ensuring safe operation during lunar surface driving without compromising performance. This paper calculates and determines the structural bending and torsional stiffness indicators for the manned lunar vehicle’s body through simplified model calculation and the FEA method.
Shen, Zhenghui, Wu, Yingjia, Yang, Jianfeng, Wang, Weijun, Zhang, Chongfeng, Han, Liangliang
Effect of Aftermarket Suspension Modifications on ADAS Functionality of Five Light Vehicles12-09-04-00317/15/2026
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are increasingly prevalent in light vehicles, both in the United States and worldwide. Moreover, ADAS are steadily being incorporated into regulatory requirements globally. Like ADAS, the automotive aftermarket is also increasing in size and significance. As both ADAS and the aftermarket industry are growing, the effect of aftermarket modifications on ADAS functionality should be examined. However, there is very little information available in the public domain about the effect of aftermarket modifications on original equipment ADAS. This work is centered on a considerable research project that was conducted to address the knowledge gap at the intersection of ADAS and the aftermarket. The project investigates five light vehicles that are important to the aftermarket, including four pickup trucks and one sport-utility vehicle. It focuses solely on the effect of popular aftermarket suspension modifications, and it does not evaluate aftermarket ADAS equipment. Typical suspension modifications were applied to the test vehicles in five modification categories, including stock, lower kits, level kits, 3–4 in. lift kits, and 6 in. lift kits. Six ADAS test procedures were performed for the test vehicles, comprised of blind spot detection, crash imminent braking, lane departure warning, pedestrian automatic emergency braking, rear cross traffic alert, and traffic jam assist. The physical tests were developed based on National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) written experimental procedures. Statistical hypothesis testing was performed for the purpose of determining if average measured dynamic responses varied in the modified vehicles compared to stock. The results show that vehicles modified with typical aftermarket modifications will likely retain their ADAS functionality, given the limitations of the small sample size of five vehicles. Vehicles with 6 in. lift kits are expected to exhibit greater variability in their dynamic responses compared to stock. Plans for future work and unanswered research questions are outlined, with the goal of advancing aftermarket ADAS integration and ensuring the safety and performance of modified vehicles.
Bastiaan, Jennifer M., Morales, Luis, Muller, Mike
Fifteen Instrumented Motorcycle Crash Tests into a Barrier and Stiffness Comparison of Standard and Upside-Down Forks2026-01-50597/10/2026
Fifteen instrumented crash tests were performed using a 2005 Yamaha R6 motorcycle. Seven tests were performed with upside-down (USD) forks and eight tests were performed with standard forks. The 2005 Yamaha R6 provided a platform where both types of front forks could be interchanged. For all tests, the motorcycle was delivered into a concrete block at speeds varying between 5 and 23 mph. Seven tests were conducted at low speeds to determine the onset of permanent deformation. Eight tests were conducted at higher speeds to observe the wheelbase reduction of the motorcycle and its relationship to impact speed. This paper summarizes the data from these tests related to wheelbase reduction, impact dynamics, and post-impact movement, allowing comparison between two different suspension systems and historical datasets.
Lucernoni, Anthony, Boyd, Dusty, Wahba, Ronny, Taeuber, Andre, Stoner, Jacob, Law, Trevor
Design and Testing of a Quasi-Zero-Stiffness Vehicle-Mounted Isolation System with Additional Inerter2026-99-05207/10/2026
Vehicle vibrations during precision instrument transport can cause damage and failure. Existing vibration isolators often lack reliability, mass production feasibility, and easy maintenance. In this paper, we design and analyze a quasi-zero-stiffness vehicle-mounted isolator with an inerter, decreasing dynamic stiffness while raising the effective mass. Theoretical, simulation, and experimental results show improved isolation performance, lower isolation frequency, and a broader isolation bandwidth.
Li, Kai, Lv, Sibo, Sun, Ning, Dai, Shijie
Enhancement of Tractive Trafficability for a Four-Track Unmanned Amphibious Tracked Vehicle2026-99-05787/10/2026
This study addresses the insufficient tractive trafficability of four-track unmanned amphibious tracked vehicles (UATV) in beach terrain by proposing an optimization strategy based on coordinated suspension height and hitch point adjustment. A mathematical model of vehicle drawbar pull was established to systematically analyze the influence mechanisms of vertical load distribution, suspension adjustment, and hitch point elevation on tractive trafficability. DEM-MBD coupling simulations revealed differentiated traction laws under sandy loam and clay conditions, particularly regarding track overlap effects. Results demonstrate that in sandy loam, rear-axle traversal over front-axle tracks reduces drawbar pull due to soil loosening, whereas track overlap enhances drawbar pull in clay through soil compaction. Nine suspension-hitch configurations were tested, validating optimization strategies: increased front-axle loading (Configuration a) in sandy loam and reduced front-axle loading (Configuration f) in clay. These configurations significantly improved tractive trafficability.
Chen, Yaoyao, Gao, Xue, Wang, Wenhao, Xu, Xiaojun
Research on the Influence of Suspension Characteristics on Ride Quality of Railway Wagon2026-99-05117/10/2026
With the country’s economy and people’s consumption capacity increasing, railroad transportation tasks have become more and more frequent, and it is growing the demand for the transportation of high-value goods, fresh produce, etc. Compared with traditional Freight vehicles, express freight vehicles have great advantages in terms of carrying capacity, mobility, and transportation cost, but when it run at a speed of 160 km/h, it often occurs that failure of axle-box rubber springs, primary vertical dampers, secondary lateral dampers, anti-yaw dampers, and air springs. How to ensure the safety and stability of the train under suspension system failure conditions is a problem that needs to be solved during the design process. In this paper, through multi-body system dynamics software, a nonlinear dynamics model of lateral and vertical coupling of the vehicle system is established to analyze the influence of suspension system failure on the stability of 160 km/h express freight vehicles. The analysis results show lowering the operating speeds can meet the Ride Quality of the Vehicles in special conditions.
Gao, Zhixiong, Ma, Kai, Xiao, Yanmei, Chen, Weidong, Wei, Xiao, Sha, Chengyu, Bian, Huihui
BO-NRPPO: A Bayesian Optimization–Tuned Proximal Policy Optimization Framework for Semi-Active Suspension Control10-10-03-00256/25/2026
Semi-active suspension systems enhance ride comfort and handling performance by adaptively modulating damping characteristics. However, conventional model-based controllers often fail to maintain optimal performance under uncertain and time-varying vehicle conditions. This article proposes Bayesian Optimization–Tuned Proximal Policy Optimization with Non-Parametric Rewards (BO-NRPPO), a novel reinforcement learning (RL) framework that integrates Bayesian Optimization (BO) with Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO) and a non-parametric reward function (NRF). The proposed approach enables adaptive self-tuning, data-driven reward shaping, and uncertainty-aware policy learning. Moreover, a Trapezoidal Simple Moving Average (TSMA)–based reward normalization scheme is introduced to accelerate convergence and stabilize training. Simulation results across diverse driving scenarios demonstrate that BO-NRPPO outperforms the passive suspension, the classical Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR), and PPO with parametric rewards. Specifically, compared to the passive suspension and the LQR baseline, BO-NRPPO achieves up to 6.63% and 5.14% improvements in handling stability, respectively. Concurrently, it delivers maximum enhancements of 46.96% and 42.55% in ride comfort over these two baselines. For real-world vehicle applications, this adaptive self-tuning capability significantly reduces the time-consuming manual calibration efforts typically required in chassis development. Furthermore, Hardware-in-the-loop (HiL) validation confirms its real-time applicability and robustness under uncertain driving conditions, highlighting its immense potential as a scalable intelligent suspension control solution.
Chen, Guoying, Wang, Xinyu, Wang, Jiaqi, Zhan, Xinwang, Bi, Chenxiao, Cong, Shiqi, Hua, Min, Sun, Tianjun, Gao, Zhenhai
High-Frequency Mount Characterization: A Comparison of Methodologies2026-01-06936/20/2026
The rapid electrification of the automotive industry introduces new challenges in noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH). In particular, in a virtual prototyping phase of the e-vehicles development, the rubber mounts are often one of the key elements to be considered when analysing the structure borne noise contributions. Having an accurate experimental characterization of the mount dynamic stiffness curves is therefore very relevant. However, conventional mount characterization methods are often pushed to their limits, partly due to the use of stiffer bushings, and partly because the frequency range of interest is extended toward higher frequencies. When using inverse substructuring, the dynamic stiffness curves can be obtained from frequency response function measurements. The required test setup consists of excitations and responses, located on each side of the mount via dedicated fixtures. The measured frequency response functions are reduced into 6 degrees of freedom representation at the active and passive side of the mount using the classical virtual point transformation. This classical approach assumes the fixtures to behave rigidly. This assumption holds in the lower frequency range, but not anymore in the higher frequency range. In this paper, novel approaches to identify the dynamic stiffness are presented. Namely, an enhanced virtual point transformation that considers flexible fixtures modes is proposed. Those modes may be obtained via finite element modeling or from an experimental modal analysis. Alternatively, a hybrid framework leveraging high-frequency testing and simulation to develop a parametric finite element mount model is presented. The latter approach eliminates the need for fixtures. These methodologies are compared and validated on an automotive rubber mount.
Bianciardi, Fabio, Forrier, Bart, Minervini, Domenico, Barbieri, Marco, Janssens, Karl
A New Correlation Approach for Body Distortion of a Complete Vehicle Using MBD and Test Results2026-01-06806/20/2026
By using a fully trimmed vehicle body as flexible body, imported through a Modal Neutral File (MNF), in a complete vehicle Multibody Dynamics (MBD) analysis, the simulation setup gets considerably closer to the test conditions compared to only using a linear Finite Element Method (FEM) approach. Since the MBD analysis includes gravity, rigid body modes of the vehicle and the nonlinear behavior of the wheel suspension, it brings the correlation between simulation and test to a new and more comprehensive level. As correlation criteria, the results of the so-called Multi Stethoscope (MSS) are used. The MSS captures the time history of distortion in all body openings and cross sections and enables a detailed stiffness evaluation of the body using the so-called Opening Distortion Fingerprint (ODF). The ODF gives the quasi-static response while the Operational Deflection Shape (ODS), which is another result of the MSS measurements, reflects the dynamic response. Apart from the different individual steps of this new correlation approach, the paper highlights the importance of considering Component Mode Synthesis (CMS) when embedding and evaluating a linear FE model of the fully trimmed body in the nonlinear MBD environment through an MNF. An example of CMS using the Craig-Bampton method shows the impact of the different parameters included in the CMS. Furthermore, a new graphical feature in combination with the ODS is presented which enhances correlation capability. Finally, an example shows how this new correlation approach can improve the simulation model of a newly developed robotaxi for Waymo.
Lindkvist, Lisa, Olger, Emma, Piiroinen, Petri, Karypidis, John, Pena, Milton, Bäcklund, Jesper, Appelgren, Peter, Marberg, Henrik, Ugale, Pravin, Weber, Jens
Early-Stage BIW Design Evaluation Using Higher-Order Beam–Shell Hybrid Models2026-01-06746/20/2026
Achieving favorable Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) and durability performance in vehicles requires sufficient static and dynamic stiffness of the Body-in-White (BIW). Virtual development of BIW performance targets during the early design stages is essential to minimize costly modifications in later phases. In the automotive industry, full-scale finite element models are widely used for this purpose, offering high fidelity and enabling comprehensive performance evaluations. However, their complexity and high computational cost limit their practicality for early-stage sensitivity and optimization studies. Beam-based models offer a faster alternative; however, conventional beam formulations based on Euler–Bernoulli or Timoshenko beam theories often fail to capture the complex deformation behaviors of thin-walled structures, which are typical of BIW designs. This typically results in poor correlation with detailed models unless artificial joint flexibility is introduced at structural connections. To address these limitations, this study proposes a hybrid modeling approach that combines Higher-Order Beam (HOB) elements with shell elements. HOB elements account for sectional deformation modes—such as warping and distortion—beyond standard translational and rotational degrees of freedom, enabling a more accurate representation of thin-walled member behavior. This work extends previous research by applying HOB theory to BIW modeling, including panel components such as the floor and roof. Comparative analyses with detailed 3D models demonstrate strong agreement, validating the accuracy and efficiency of the proposed method. The results highlight the potential of HOB-based hybrid models as reliable, computationally efficient tools for early-stage BIW design evaluation and layout optimization.
Kim, Jin Hong, Gang-Won, Jang
A New Approach to Identify Rigid Body Rotations When Measuring the Body Distortion of a Full Vehicle2026-01-06826/20/2026
When developing a vehicle, the overall body stiffness is an important parameter to be estimated for several automotive attributes. As a complement to the traditional experimental and computational static torsional stiffness assessment, an improved method has been developed to evaluate the body stiffness when driving the vehicle on a test track. This method, valid for both test and simulation, is called Opening Distortion Fingerprint (ODF) and uses the so-called Multi Stethoscope (MSS) to measure the dynamic distortion in each body closure opening and cross section. For evaluating the distortion, from both test and Multi Body Dynamics (MBD) simulation data, the Evaluation-line (E-line) method is used. The E-line method is a linear approach. Consequently, it is only valid in the absence of large rigid body rotations of the vehicle body. Therefore, to assess the validity of the ODF method, it is crucial to identify the frequency at which the distortion results become invalid due to rigid body rotations. To identify this frequency range, in an MBD simulation the total distance output parameter can be requested and used. But for a dynamic full vehicle test, it is a major challenge to measure the total distance. Several tests have been performed without success. To calculate this frequency range from test data, this paper presents a new approach. In this methodology two different signal processing methods (E-line and Diagonal) are combined. To check the validity of the new approach, full vehicle test data has been evaluated. In addition, a simplified beam lab experiment is presented, highlighting the difference between test and MBD simulation when measuring the distortion at large rotations.
Olger, Emma, Lindkvist, Lisa, Piiroinen, Petri, Karypidis, John, Pena, Milton, Bäcklund, Jesper, Appelgren, Peter, Marberg, Henrik, Ugale, Pravin, Weber, Jens
Feasibility of Hybrid Dynamic Substructuring for Structural Modifications in Automotive Suspension Subsystems2026-01-06976/20/2026
Recent advancements in system-level NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) development methodologies have improved target cascading and enabled more efficient system-level optimization. Dynamic substructuring facilitates the virtual integration and modification of multiple subsystems and the prediction of changes in overall transfer functions. In practical automotive applications, advanced frequency-based substructuring has been applied to virtually modify system parameters, such as mass and stiffness, at multiple points in a target system, allowing prediction of the resulting effects and optimization of parameter changes without physical intervention. This study extends the methodology by introducing an enhanced substructuring approach capable of addressing not only basic parameter modifications but also large-scale structural changes. The proposed process involves identifying the characteristics of a base system assembly and a target subsystem, decoupling the subsystem from the assembly, incorporating structural modifications, and predicting the resulting transfer function changes. The method was validated through two complementary workflows: a fully experimental test-based workflow and a hybrid workflow. The test-based workflow demonstrated the reliability of substructuring operations, decoupling and coupling, by experimentally evaluating the base assembly, the original subsystem, and the structurally modified subsystem. The hybrid workflow replaced the experimental subsystem models with finite element models, thereby demonstrating the feasibility of substructuring numerical subsystem models with a physical system assembly. Together, these workflows are applied to one of automotive suspension subsystems, cross-member, which can establish the accuracy, flexibility, and practical applicability of the proposed method in supporting system-level NVH development and structural optimization.
Cho, Munhwan, Boelens, Jelle, Reichart, Ron, de Klerk, Dennis, Ahn, Jiho
A Novel Stiffness Prediction Model of Rolling Lobe Air Springs Considering Irregular Piston Contour Geometry: Development and Experimental Validation15-19-02-00065/18/2026
An accurate air spring model is essential for the design and optimization of air suspension systems to achieve superior performance. This article presents a novel stiffness model for a rolling lobe air spring (RLAS), formulated using stiffness characteristic parameters. Prediction models for these parameters, including effective area and its change rate, as well as effective volume and its change rate, are derived through geometric analysis, based on polynomial fitting of the irregular piston contour. The local contour cone angle of the piston is determined by differentiating the polynomial function, capturing the geometry-dependent variation across the profile. Additionally, a nonlinear hysteresis model for the rubber bellows is integrated, combining a Berg friction component and a Kelvin-Voigt fractional derivative viscoelastic model to represent the amplitude- and frequency-dependent behavior of the RLAS. The proposed model is parameterized through quasi-static and dynamic bench tests under varying amplitudes and frequencies and is validated against both experimental data and an existing modeling approach. Comparative results demonstrate that the proposed model effectively and accurately predicts the static and dynamic responses of the RLAS.
Xia, Xiaojun, Zhang, Hong, Zou, Yi, Ye, Lei, Lu, Yi, Chen, Rui, Zou, Hantong, Wang, Yang
Limit Stability Control for Corner Module Vehicles Based on Hierarchical Hybrid Game10-10-04-00325/18/2026
Corner module vehicles (CMVs) achieve the decoupling of driving, braking, steering, and suspension, significantly enhancing vehicle handling potential, but under extreme operating conditions, the interactions between actuators severely constrain the improvement of vehicle handling performance. In order to mitigate conflicts between subsystems and enhance vehicle handling stability, a hierarchical hybrid game–based limit stability control method for CMVs is proposed in this article. Taking into account the handling potential of subsystems under limit conditions, a Stackelberg leader–follower game is designed by first designating Direct Yaw moment Control (DYC) as the leader and Active Rear Steering (ARS) as the follower. Subsequently, the DYC–ARS and Active Suspension System (ASS) were constructed into a non-cooperative game system, and the Nash equilibrium solution was solved through iteration. The lower-level controllers, respectively, established a tire force distribution model that minimizes the overall tire utilization rate and an active suspension force distribution model that does not affect the vehicle’s pitch, in order to enhance the safety margin of the vehicle under extreme conditions. Finally, the Hardware-in-the-Loop test results proved the effectiveness of the proposed controller.
Peng, Jinxin, Xiao, Feng, Ke, Yuan, Jin, Liqiang
Torque Coordination Control Strategy for Dual-Motor Electric Vehicles Considering Load Transfer and Slip Energy Dissipation2026-99-07095/15/2026
To address the issues of significant slip energy dissipation induced by severe tire slip, degradation of vehicle control stability, and insufficient accuracy of vehicle speed tracking under low-adhesion road conditions, a torque coordination control strategy for dual-motor electric vehicles (DM-EVs) considering load transfer and slip energy dissipation is proposed. First, a vehicle dynamics model integrating suspension system dynamics and tire slip characteristics is developed, fully accounting for the influence of front-rear axle load transfer on the tire slip ratio. Next, founded on the energy dissipation mechanism of tire slip, a quantitative model for energy dissipation during tire slip is developed. Finally, a longitudinal coordinated control system for vehicles according to nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) is introduced. By comprehensively considering the tire slip ratio and vehicle load distribution, multi-objective coordinated optimization of wheel torque is achieved. Simulation results under constant acceleration conditions on low-adhesion roads indicate that significant slip phenomena occurred in the wheels of both the without slip ratio controller and the PID controller, failing to achieve stable vehicle control. Simulation results in virtual traffic scenarios reveal that, compared to the other two controllers, the proposed controller exhibits significant reductions in key performance metrics: the RMS value of total tire slip ratio is reduced by 84.95% and 87.34%, total tire slip energy dissipation is reduced by 94.95% and 96.53%, and total tire wear volume is reduced by 93.78% and 95.71%, respectively. These results demonstrate the performance of the introduced control strategy.
Hou, Yingming, Li, Jie, Bai, Xianxu
Multi-Mode Control Strategy for Controllable Vehicle Suspension Systems2026-99-07125/15/2026
The suspension system with variable damping and variable stiffness actuators can realize four-quadrant mechanical output, effectively combining the energy efficiency of the semi-active suspension with the performance levels approaching those of active suspensions. However, the practical effectiveness of this system depends heavily on the ability of the control strategy to adapt to different driving conditions. In order to meet this challenge, this research has developed a multi-mode suspension collaborative control strategy to optimize energy efficiency and ride comfort in various operating scenarios. Based on the four-quadrant characteristics of the actuator, a suspension mode switching framework has been established, and the suspension work is divided into passive, semi-active, pseudo-active and active modes. In order to determine the appropriate switching boundary, first calculate the root mean square (RMS) value of the sprung mass acceleration and suspension dynamic deflection under passive conditions. With the existing human comfort sensitivity as a reference, the switching threshold of sprung mass acceleration is 0.527 m/s2, and the switching threshold of suspension dynamic deflection is 8.31×10−3m, and the corresponding conversion rules are formulated. Then, the LQR controller optimized by the genetic algorithm is used to allocate the control force adaptively according to the suspension mode to realize cooperative multi-mode operation. The simulation results on B-D composite road surfaces show that compared with traditional passive suspension, this method can reduce the sprung mass acceleration, suspension dynamic deflection and tire dynamic load by 10.59%, 16.65% and 32.9% respectively. These results confirm that the collaborative control strategy significantly improves the ride comfort, vehicle adaptability and overall performance in complex road conditions.
Li, Zhiying, Li, Jei, Zhu, Anding, Bai, Xianxu, Li, Weihan, Li, Rui
Hingeless Rotor Whirl Flutter Stability Predictions for TRASTF-0082-2026-00775/5/2026
The TiltRotor Aeroelastic Stability Testbed (TRAST) was developed to experimentally investigate whirl-flutter stability of tiltrotor aircraft. Previous wind-tunnel testing focused on configurations representative of current generation tiltrotors utilizing gimballed rotor hubs. The TRAST platform was also designed to support a hingeless rotor system to investigate whirl-flutter mechanisms representative of stiff proprotor configurations. This paper presents analytical whirl-flutter predictions for a hingeless rotor configuration of the TRAST model. Structural mode shapes derived from a NASTRAN finite-element model are combined with comprehensive aeroelastic analyses in CAMRAD II and RCAS. The results show that the dominant whirl-flutter mechanism differs from the gimballed configuration, with instability occurring through the wing in-plane mode rather than the wing vertical bending mode. Parametric studies examining rotor speed, pitch-spring stiffness, rotor flexibility, and diaphragm spring stiffness are conducted to evaluate the sensitivity of the predicted stability boundary. Results indicate that the hingeless configuration is significantly more stable than the equivalent gimballed configuration and exhibits different trends with rotor speed and structural stiffness. These predictions help identify configurations of interest for future wind-tunnel testing and provide insight into whirl-flutter mechanisms for hingeless tiltrotor systems.
Kreshock, Andrew, Cobb, Benjamin, Thornbrugh, Robert
Optimizing Ride Comfort and Stability in In-Wheel Motor Drive Electric Vehicles: A Correlated Semi-Active Suspension System with Kalman Filter and Spring-Type Analysis10-10-04-00304/24/2026
This research provides a unique contribution to the field of in-wheel motor drive (IWMD) electric vehicles (EVs) by addressing the challenges associated with the use of permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) for traction. These motors, integrated into the unsprung masses, increase the wheels’ rotational inertia, reducing ride smoothness on uneven roads. To mitigate this issue, we present an optimal Kalman filter for a magnetorheological (MR) control suspension system that correlates road inputs between the front and rear wheels. This filter significantly improves the estimation accuracy of state variables by incorporating the motor’s vertical motion, along with potential enhancements from wheelbase preview. To determine the most suitable coil spring types for use with MR dampers, we used the WDW-600 computer-controlled electronic universal testing machine to evaluate three coil spring types: constant-pitch (model A), variable-pitch (model B), and conical (model C). To assess the impact of controlled vibration on dynamic performance, we compared the dynamic characteristics of IWMD EVs equipped with passive, uncorrelated, and correlated suspension systems, all of which have controlled inverters integrated into their design. The results indicate that motor vertical acceleration and dynamic tire load are the primary factors influencing the dynamic behavior of EVs. Additionally, the vehicle’s vibration performance metrics are negatively impacted by the in-wheel motor driving system in both passive and uncorrelated suspension systems. However, the MR-controlled suspension system with a conical spring significantly enhances ride comfort and dynamic stability by addressing complex stiffness and evaluating the effects of different coil spring types on the structural response of EVs. This analysis is based on a correlated-suspension-system scenario.
Gad, Ahmed Shehata, Jabeen, Syeda Darakhshan, El-Zomor, Haytham M., Tolba, Mohamed, Elamy, Mamdouh I.
Hierarchical Control Strategy Evaluation and Migration for a Four-Degree-of-Freedom Quarter Commercial Vehicle02-19-03-00144/9/2026
In order to improve the comfort performance in commercial vehicles, this study proposes a hierarchical control strategy that integrates the evaluation and migration of control algorithms. First, a quarter-vehicle model with four-degree-of-freedom (4-DOF) is constructed, incorporating the dynamics of the wheel, frame, driver’s cab, and seat. The key modal characteristics of the model are then verified through amplitude–frequency analysis, confirming their consistency with the typical vibration patterns observed in actual commercial vehicles, which provides the foundation for subsequent control strategy evaluation and migration. Then, based on a standard two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) suspension model, a weighted comprehensive evaluation function is developed to account for comfort, structural safety, handling stability, and both time- and frequency-domain performance indicators. Using this evaluation function, various control algorithms—including Skyhook control (SH), acceleration-based damping control (ADD), and proportional–integral–derivative control (PID)—are systematically assessed. The control algorithm is migrated to the 4-DOF model to carry out the hierarchical collaborative control. The results show that this method can effectively inhibit vibration transmission to enhance ride comfort and improve structural safety at the same time, while maintaining an acceptable level of handling performance. The transferability and applicability of the hierarchical control method are validated for the considered vertical dynamics scenarios. This article provides a new theoretical method and technical pathway for the comfort-oriented performance optimization of commercial vehicles.
Pan, Ting, Pang, Jianzhong, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Jiuxiang, Kang, Gong, Zhang, Yunqing
Modular Smart Corner Systems for Next-Generation Electric Vehicle Architecture2026-01-06394/7/2026
The transition to software-defined vehicles (SDVs) necessitates a paradigm shift in both control strategies and vehicle architecture. The EU-funded R&D project SmartCorners addresses this challenge by developing integrated, modular, and scalable smart corner systems (SCS) that combine in-wheel motor (IWM)-based propulsion, brake blending, active suspension system, and steer-by-wire functionality in one module. These SCS can be retrofit or smoothly integrated into the highly adaptable skateboard chassis architecture of modern electric vehicles (EVs), enabling scalable deployment across diverse vehicle types. The central approach of this paper is the utilization of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to implement multi-layer, data-driven control strategies, facilitating real-time actuation, fault mitigation, and user-centric EV architecture. The SmartCorners project strives to demonstrate significant enhancements, including improved real-world driving range due to enhanced energy-efficiency, reduced component and system costs, and a cut-down in development time of EVs, enabled by digital-twin-based design methodologies. Beyond these performance gains, SmartCorners establishes the foundational principles of modularity, adaptability, and software integration that underpin the evolution toward SDVs. The role of thermal and cabin comfort control is completely different for EVs and internal combustion engine vehicles, with the latter using waste heat from the combustion of fossil fuels for cabin heating, ventilation, and cooling (HVAC). In EVs the required energy is directly taken from the traction battery and precise thermal and cabin comfort control affecting essential components of the vehicle but also the user-perceived driving experience. These project achievements highlight a critical bridge between innovation and electrification on component-level, and the holistic software-defined mobility systems of the future.
Ratz, Florian, Armengaud, Eric, Formento, Cecilia, Moscone, Giulia, Sorrentino, Gennaro, Bisciaio, Giorgio, Sorniotti, Aldo, Amati, Nicola, Braun, Daniel, Deibler, Bernd, Boxberger, Valerius, Sottile, Salvatore, Ivanov, Valentin, Fuse, Hiroyuki, Kompara, Tomaž
Modal Analysis Approach on Vehicle Transient Behavior Considering Roll and Pitch Dynamics2026-01-02104/7/2026
When a vehicle performs planar motion, the tire side force induces a jacking-up effect determined by the suspension roll center height governed by suspension geometry. These jacking forces also excite pitching motion. In this study, the pitching degree of freedom, along with roll degree of freedom, was incorporated in the bicycle model of the vehicle motion, hence it becomes four-degree-of-freedom model, and a new analytical method that applies modal analysis method to the model decomposes the motion of the sprung mass of the vehicle into mutually independent vibration modes. Since the superposition of these vibration modes can reproduce vehicle motion, these vibration modes are the fundamental factors governing sprung-mass behavior. Therefore, understanding how these vibration modes respond to design parameters provides a theoretical foundation to design desired vehicle dynamics from the early stage of car development. This report presents, by conducting modal analysis of the four-degree-of-freedom model, that the pitching dominant mode and the mode associated with planar motion and roll, which constitute a three-degree-of-freedom system, are mutually independent dynamically. Furthermore, the suspension design method that controls the pitch-dominant mode can ameliorate the initial turn-in response of the sprung mass in the desirable direction. The insight presented in this report can offer a systematic understanding of the essential characteristics of sprung mass dynamics and can provide new theoretical framework for vehicle dynamics performance design.
Kusaka, Kaoru, Yuhara, Takahiro, Koakutsu, Shingo
Reliability-Based Vibration Design of Vehicle Systems with Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD)2026-01-01394/7/2026
Tuned Mass Dampers (TMDs) are widely used in the automotive industry to mitigate Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) issues across various vehicle systems. These passive devices are particularly effective in reducing structural vibrations in components subjected to resonant excitation. However, real-world applications often face challenges due to manufacturing variability and system-level build differences, which can cause deviations in both the TMD’s tuned frequency (up to ±15%) and the vibration characteristics of the host structure. These uncertainties—in both the TMD properties and the vehicle subsystem dynamics—can be modeled using statistical distributions. This paper presents a generalized methodology for vibration analysis and design under uncertainty, combining reliability engineering with dynamic vibration modeling. The approach formulates a unified mathematical framework that incorporates probabilistic and stochastic modeling to assess TMD performance under a range of build and environmental conditions. As a case study, the method is applied to assess steering column vibrations, with a focus on quantifying the probability that system performance meets specified NVH targets. Multiple statistical distribution models are considered to predict the likelihood that vibrations exceed customer acceptance thresholds, potentially leading to unfavorable subjective and objective ratings. The results are validated using population-level vehicle data. While demonstrated on the steering system, the proposed methodology is applicable to any vehicle subsystem equipped with a TMD, provided that the relevant random variables—such as modal properties, excitation inputs, and build tolerances—are properly characterized. This enables robust TMD design across vehicle domains, ensuring performance consistency despite system variability.
Abbas, Ahmad, Haider, Syed, d'Souza, Suneel
Research on Driving Performance of Vehicle Body Control Using Vehicle Height Adjustment System2026-01-06264/7/2026
In recent years, premium vehicles have increasingly incorporated suspension systems capable of adjusting ride height. The primary function of these systems is to enable the vehicle to traverse uneven terrain by elevating the chassis, thereby preventing contact between the underbody and the road surface. Notably, air spring-based mechanisms enhance ride comfort by modulating the wheel rate. The system proposed in this study achieves ride height adjustment through vertical displacement of the spring’s lower seat. By constructing a detailed mechanical topology model using a dynamic simulation tool, this research aims to evaluate the feasibility of improving driving performance not only through height regulation but also by actively controlling the vehicle’s posture during motion.
Park, Jaeyong, Sang Hoon, Lee, Jong Min, Kim, Choi, Jang Han
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