Browse Topic: Suspension systems

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Feasibility of Hybrid Dynamic Substructuring for Structural Modifications in Automotive Suspension Subsystems2026-01-06976/20/2026
Recent advancements in system-level NVH (Noise, Vibration, and Harshness) development methodologies have improved target cascading and enabled more efficient system-level optimization. Dynamic substructuring facilitates the virtual integration and modification of multiple subsystems and the prediction of changes in overall transfer functions. In practical automotive applications, advanced frequency-based substructuring has been applied to virtually modify system parameters, such as mass and stiffness, at multiple points in a target system, allowing prediction of the resulting effects and optimization of parameter changes without physical intervention. This study extends the methodology by introducing an enhanced substructuring approach capable of addressing not only basic parameter modifications but also large-scale structural changes. The proposed process involves identifying the characteristics of a base system assembly and a target subsystem, decoupling the subsystem from the
Cho, Munhwan, Boelens, Jelle, Reichart, Ron, de Klerk, Dennis, Ahn, Jiho
A New Approach to Identify Rigid Body Rotations When Measuring the Body Distortion of a Full Vehicle2026-01-06826/20/2026
When developing a vehicle, the overall body stiffness is an important parameter to be estimated for several automotive attributes. As a complement to the traditional experimental and computational static torsional stiffness assessment, an improved method has been developed to evaluate the body stiffness when driving the vehicle on a test track. This method, valid for both test and simulation, is called Opening Distortion Fingerprint (ODF) and uses the so-called Multi Stethoscope (MSS) to measure the dynamic distortion in each body closure opening and cross section. For evaluating the distortion, from both test and Multi Body Dynamics (MBD) simulation data, the Evaluation-line (E-line) method is used. The E-line method is a linear approach. Consequently, it is only valid in the absence of large rigid body rotations of the vehicle body. Therefore, to assess the validity of the ODF method, it is crucial to identify the frequency at which the distortion results become invalid due to rigid
Olger, Emma, Lindkvist, Lisa, Piiroinen, Petri, Karypidis, John, Pena, Milton, Bäcklund, Jesper, Appelgren, Peter, Marberg, Henrik, Ugale, Pravin, Weber, Jens
High-Frequency Mount Characterization: A Comparison of Methodologies2026-01-06936/20/2026
The rapid electrification of the automotive industry introduces new challenges in noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH). In particular, in a virtual prototyping phase of the e-vehicles development, the rubber mounts are often one of the key elements to be considered when analysing the structure borne noise contributions. Having an accurate experimental characterization of the mount dynamic stiffness curves is therefore very relevant. However, conventional mount characterization methods are often pushed to their limits, partly due to the use of stiffer bushings, and partly because the frequency range of interest is extended toward higher frequencies. When using inverse substructuring, the dynamic stiffness curves can be obtained from frequency response function measurements. The required test setup consists of excitations and responses, located on each side of the mount via dedicated fixtures. The measured frequency response functions are reduced into 6 degrees of freedom representation
Bianciardi, Fabio, Forrier, Bart, Minervini, Domenico, Barbieri, Marco, Janssens, Karl
Early-Stage BIW Design Evaluation Using Higher-Order Beam–Shell Hybrid Models2026-01-06746/20/2026
Achieving favorable Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) and durability performance in vehicles requires sufficient static and dynamic stiffness of the Body-in-White (BIW). Virtual development of BIW performance targets during the early design stages is essential to minimize costly modifications in later phases. In the automotive industry, full-scale finite element models are widely used for this purpose, offering high fidelity and enabling comprehensive performance evaluations. However, their complexity and high computational cost limit their practicality for early-stage sensitivity and optimization studies. Beam-based models offer a faster alternative; however, conventional beam formulations based on Euler–Bernoulli or Timoshenko beam theories often fail to capture the complex deformation behaviors of thin-walled structures, which are typical of BIW designs. This typically results in poor correlation with detailed models unless artificial joint flexibility is introduced at
Kim, Jin Hong, Gang-Won, Jang
A New Correlation Approach for Body Distortion of a Complete Vehicle Using MBD and Test Results2026-01-06806/20/2026
By using a fully trimmed vehicle body as flexible body, imported through a Modal Neutral File (MNF), in a complete vehicle Multibody Dynamics (MBD) analysis, the simulation setup gets considerably closer to the test conditions compared to only using a linear Finite Element Method (FEM) approach. Since the MBD analysis includes gravity, rigid body modes of the vehicle and the nonlinear behavior of the wheel suspension, it brings the correlation between simulation and test to a new and more comprehensive level. As correlation criteria, the results of the so-called Multi Stethoscope (MSS) are used. The MSS captures the time history of distortion in all body openings and cross sections and enables a detailed stiffness evaluation of the body using the so-called Opening Distortion Fingerprint (ODF). The ODF gives the quasi-static response while the Operational Deflection Shape (ODS), which is another result of the MSS measurements, reflects the dynamic response. Apart from the different
Lindkvist, Lisa, Olger, Emma, Piiroinen, Petri, Karypidis, John, Pena, Milton, Bäcklund, Jesper, Appelgren, Peter, Marberg, Henrik, Ugale, Pravin, Weber, Jens
A Novel Stiffness Prediction Model of Rolling Lobe Air Springs Considering Irregular Piston Contour Geometry: Development and Experimental Validation15-19-02-00065/18/2026
An accurate air spring model is essential for the design and optimization of air suspension systems to achieve superior performance. This article presents a novel stiffness model for a rolling lobe air spring (RLAS), formulated using stiffness characteristic parameters. Prediction models for these parameters, including effective area and its change rate, as well as effective volume and its change rate, are derived through geometric analysis, based on polynomial fitting of the irregular piston contour. The local contour cone angle of the piston is determined by differentiating the polynomial function, capturing the geometry-dependent variation across the profile. Additionally, a nonlinear hysteresis model for the rubber bellows is integrated, combining a Berg friction component and a Kelvin-Voigt fractional derivative viscoelastic model to represent the amplitude- and frequency-dependent behavior of the RLAS. The proposed model is parameterized through quasi-static and dynamic bench
Xia, Xiaojun, Zhang, Hong, Zou, Yi, Ye, Lei, Lu, Yi, Chen, Rui, Zou, Hantong, Wang, Yang
Limit Stability Control for Corner Module Vehicles Based on Hierarchical Hybrid Game10-10-04-00325/18/2026
Corner module vehicles (CMVs) achieve the decoupling of driving, braking, steering, and suspension, significantly enhancing vehicle handling potential, but under extreme operating conditions, the interactions between actuators severely constrain the improvement of vehicle handling performance. In order to mitigate conflicts between subsystems and enhance vehicle handling stability, a hierarchical hybrid game–based limit stability control method for CMVs is proposed in this article. Taking into account the handling potential of subsystems under limit conditions, a Stackelberg leader–follower game is designed by first designating Direct Yaw moment Control (DYC) as the leader and Active Rear Steering (ARS) as the follower. Subsequently, the DYC–ARS and Active Suspension System (ASS) were constructed into a non-cooperative game system, and the Nash equilibrium solution was solved through iteration. The lower-level controllers, respectively, established a tire force distribution model that
Peng, Jinxin, Xiao, Feng, Ke, Yuan, Jin, Liqiang
Multi-Mode Control Strategy for Controllable Vehicle Suspension Systems2026-99-07125/15/2026
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Li, Zhiying, Li, Jei, Zhu, Anding, Bai, Xianxu, Li, Weihan, Li, Rui
Torque Coordination Control Strategy for Dual-Motor Electric Vehicles Considering Load Transfer and Slip Energy Dissipation2026-99-07095/15/2026
To address the issues of significant slip energy dissipation induced by severe tire slip, degradation of vehicle control stability, and insufficient accuracy of vehicle speed tracking under low-adhesion road conditions, a torque coordination control strategy for dual-motor electric vehicles (DM-EVs) considering load transfer and slip energy dissipation is proposed. First, a vehicle dynamics model integrating suspension system dynamics and tire slip characteristics is developed, fully accounting for the influence of front-rear axle load transfer on the tire slip ratio. Next, founded on the energy dissipation mechanism of tire slip, a quantitative model for energy dissipation during tire slip is developed. Finally, a longitudinal coordinated control system for vehicles according to nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) is introduced. By comprehensively considering the tire slip ratio and vehicle load distribution, multi-objective coordinated optimization of wheel torque is achieved
Hou, Yingming, Li, Jie, Bai, Xianxu
Optimizing Ride Comfort and Stability in In-Wheel Motor Drive Electric Vehicles: A Correlated Semi-Active Suspension System with Kalman Filter and Spring-Type Analysis10-10-04-00304/24/2026
This research provides a unique contribution to the field of in-wheel motor drive (IWMD) electric vehicles (EVs) by addressing the challenges associated with the use of permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) for traction. These motors, integrated into the unsprung masses, increase the wheels’ rotational inertia, reducing ride smoothness on uneven roads. To mitigate this issue, we present an optimal Kalman filter for a magnetorheological (MR) control suspension system that correlates road inputs between the front and rear wheels. This filter significantly improves the estimation accuracy of state variables by incorporating the motor’s vertical motion, along with potential enhancements from wheelbase preview. To determine the most suitable coil spring types for use with MR dampers, we used the WDW-600 computer-controlled electronic universal testing machine to evaluate three coil spring types: constant-pitch (model A), variable-pitch (model B), and conical (model C). To assess the
Gad, Ahmed Shehata, Jabeen, Syeda Darakhshan, El-Zomor, Haytham M., Tolba, Mohamed, Elamy, Mamdouh I.
Hierarchical Control Strategy Evaluation and Migration for a Four-Degree-of-Freedom Quarter Commercial Vehicle02-19-03-00144/9/2026
In order to improve the comfort performance in commercial vehicles, this study proposes a hierarchical control strategy that integrates the evaluation and migration of control algorithms. First, a quarter-vehicle model with four-degree-of-freedom (4-DOF) is constructed, incorporating the dynamics of the wheel, frame, driver’s cab, and seat. The key modal characteristics of the model are then verified through amplitude–frequency analysis, confirming their consistency with the typical vibration patterns observed in actual commercial vehicles, which provides the foundation for subsequent control strategy evaluation and migration. Then, based on a standard two-degree-of-freedom (2-DOF) suspension model, a weighted comprehensive evaluation function is developed to account for comfort, structural safety, handling stability, and both time- and frequency-domain performance indicators. Using this evaluation function, various control algorithms—including Skyhook control (SH), acceleration-based
Pan, Ting, Pang, Jianzhong, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Jiuxiang, Kang, Gong, Zhang, Yunqing
Impact of User-Adjustable Vehicle-Dynamics Tuning on Vehicle Durability2026-01-01944/7/2026
Software-defined vehicles offer customers a greater degree of customization of vehicle controls and driving experience. One such feature is user-adjustable tuning of vehicle ride and handling, where customers can vary ride height, damper stiffness, front-rear torque balance, and other aspects of vehicle dynamics. While promising a great customer experience, such a feature can expose the vehicle to a wider range of structural loads than those in the nominal design condition, particularly when such tuning is extended to cover spirited “sport” mode driving, off-road driving, etc. In this paper we present a novel methodology combining Road Load Data Acquisition (RLDA) data and real-world telemetry data to estimate the impact of user-adjustable vehicle-dynamics tuning on structural durability. In doing so, the method combines the physics of damage accumulation (from RLDA data) with user behavior (from telemetry data) to present an accurate assessment of the impact on durability, moving
Demiri, Albion, Ramakrishnan, Sankaran, White, Dylan, Khapane, Prashant, Borton, Zackery
Reliability-Based Vibration Design of Vehicle Systems with Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD)2026-01-01394/7/2026
Tuned Mass Dampers (TMDs) are widely used in the automotive industry to mitigate Noise, Vibration, and Harshness (NVH) issues across various vehicle systems. These passive devices are particularly effective in reducing structural vibrations in components subjected to resonant excitation. However, real-world applications often face challenges due to manufacturing variability and system-level build differences, which can cause deviations in both the TMD’s tuned frequency (up to ±15%) and the vibration characteristics of the host structure. These uncertainties—in both the TMD properties and the vehicle subsystem dynamics—can be modeled using statistical distributions. This paper presents a generalized methodology for vibration analysis and design under uncertainty, combining reliability engineering with dynamic vibration modeling. The approach formulates a unified mathematical framework that incorporates probabilistic and stochastic modeling to assess TMD performance under a range of
Abbas, Ahmad, Haider, Syed, d'Souza, Suneel
Acoustic Improvements to a Passenger Service Unit Panel with Core Filler and Facesheet Patches using Topology Optimization2026-01-05114/7/2026
Passenger comfort is becoming the forefront of luxury private jets where noise needs to be kept to a minimum. One source of structure-borne noise is the vibration of the Passenger Service Unit (PSU) panel. These vibrations originate from the outer skin, excited by turbulent boundary layer, and are transmitted through the fuselage frame to the PSU panel. This panel resides overhead of passenger seating, it is composed of a corrugated honeycomb core sandwiched between thin face-sheets. This paper presents a systematic approach to improve the vibro-acoustic performance of a honeycomb core sandwich structure by employing core filler and facesheet patches. Topology Optimization (TO) is used to determine the optimal layouts of these design modifications. The vibro-acoustic performance of the PSU panel with facesheet patches and core filler is evaluated using a frequency response analysis in the commercial finite element solver OptiStruct. The effectiveness of vibration reduction will be
Russo, Connor, Whetstone, Isobel, Patel, Anuj, Wotten, Erik, Kim, Il Yong
Multi-Physics Topology Optimization and Neural Network–Based Design of Experiments for Lightweight Automotive Cast Components2026-01-05104/7/2026
This paper presents a hybrid optimization framework that integrates Multi-Physics Topology Optimization (MPTO) with a Neural Network–surrogated Design of Experiments (NN-DOE) to enable lightweight structural design while satisfying crashworthiness, durability, and noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) requirements under practical casting and packaging constraints. In the proposed MPTO formulation, crash and durability performances are incorporated through equivalent static compliance measures, while NVH performance is assessed using a frequency-domain dynamic stiffness metric, allowing consistent evaluation of trade-offs among competing design requirements. The framework is first demonstrated using a mass-produced passenger-car lower control arm (LCA) as a benchmark component. In this application, MPTO achieves weight reduction under multi-physics objectives by removing non-load-bearing material. Results show that single-discipline optimization produces unbalanced topologies, while
Kim, Hyosig, Senkowski, Andres, Gona, Kiran, Saroha, Lalit, Boraiah, Mahesh
Simulation Study on a Neural Tire Model Based on Grouped Feature Learning2026-01-06454/7/2026
The tire model is a crucial component in the design of the K-characteristic of FSAE racing car suspensions, and directly influences the achievement of maximum cornering lateral force. Not only do the slip angle, vertical load, tire pressure, and camber angle affect the mechanical characteristics of the tire, but temperature is also an important influencing factor when FSAE vehicle tires operate at high speeds. However, the modeling process of traditional tire models based on temperature characteristics is often very complex. The FSAE tire test code (FSAE TTC) already has a large amount of official sample data, which provides a basis for data-driven neural network models. This study implemented a hybrid modeling methodology, constructing two cascaded feedforward neural networks that combine the physical interpretability of the Magic Formula tire model with the nonlinear approximation capabilities of neural networks. The first network model uses slip angle, vertical load, tire pressure
Liu, Xiyuan, Wang, Shenyao, Li, Mingyuan, Huang, Jiayu
High Biofidelity Modification of Thoracolumbar Structure in THOR Model for Reclined Occupant2026-01-01964/7/2026
With the rapid development of automated driving and the increasing adoption of “zero-gravity” seats, the crash safety of highly reclined occupants has become a critical issue. The current THOR dummy, designed for frontal impacts in the standard upright posture, exhibits limitations when directly applied to reclined seating configurations, including insufficient spinal flexion capability and excessive posterior pelvic rotation. In this study, the thoracolumbar spine kinematics of the THUMS human body model, reconstructed against post-mortem human subject (PMHS) tests, were analyzed. A two-segment linear fitting was employed to characterize a “dummy-like” spinal flexion response, yielding a virtual rotational hinge located near the thoracolumbar joint of the original THOR model. The characteristic rotation angle obtained from THUMS showed a strong linear correlation with the flexion moment of the T12–L1 vertebrae. Based on this relationship, the rotational joint of the THOR dummy was
Guo, Wencheng, Kuang, Gaoyuan, Shen, Wenxuan, Tan, Puyuan, Zhou, Qing
Research on Driving Performance of Vehicle Body Control Using Vehicle Height Adjustment System2026-01-06264/7/2026
In recent years, premium vehicles have increasingly incorporated suspension systems capable of adjusting ride height. The primary function of these systems is to enable the vehicle to traverse uneven terrain by elevating the chassis, thereby preventing contact between the underbody and the road surface. Notably, air spring-based mechanisms enhance ride comfort by modulating the wheel rate. The system proposed in this study achieves ride height adjustment through vertical displacement of the spring’s lower seat. By constructing a detailed mechanical topology model using a dynamic simulation tool, this research aims to evaluate the feasibility of improving driving performance not only through height regulation but also by actively controlling the vehicle’s posture during motion.
Park, Jaeyong, Sang Hoon, Lee, Jong Min, Kim, Choi, Jang Han
Data-Driven Study on Chassis Suspension Performance Degradation2026-01-05824/7/2026
The performance of chassis suspension mechanisms critically affects vehicle handling, ride comfort, and safety. Implementing real-time health monitoring for chassis systems contributes to preventing severe consequences such as increased body roll or loss of handling stability caused by shock absorber softening or spring stiffness degradation under deteriorating operating conditions, while circumventing the substantial costs associated with professional facility-based chassis inspections. With the rapid development of sensing and data analytics technologies, data-driven approaches are increasingly used in health monitoring. This study aims to achieve online monitoring of chassis suspension performance degradation using a deep neural network (DNN). First, a half-car model incorporating both vertical and pitch motions was established to simulate bumpy road conditions, with the aim of constructing a dataset that includes key vehicle suspension parameters and vehicle states related to their
Liao, Yinsheng, Lei, Yisong, Su, Ailin, Wang, Zhenfeng, Shi, Shuai, Zhang, Lei, Zhang, Junzhi, Ma, Changye
Target Cascading Kinematics and Compliance Tables to Suspension Design2026-01-05844/7/2026
During the initial design phase, automotive Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) require the adaptability to examine various suspension system architectures while maintaining focus on the specific performance objectives. Those requirements are expressed by Kinematics and Compliance (K&C) look-up tables and represent the footprint of what the suspension should look like in real-world applications. However, translating those requirements into the full geometric hardpoint layout is not straightforward. This process often relies on trial-and-error approaches, making it time consuming and requiring significant expertise. This challenge, known as ”target cascading,” remains a major hurdle for many engineers. The main objective of this paper is to cascade the suspension requirements from K&C look-up tables to hardpoint locations by adopting an automatic workflow and ensuring respect for constructive and feasibility constraints. Design space exploration was conducted using a robust
Brigida, Piero, Di Carlo, Paolo, Di Gioia, Niccolò, Geluk, Theo, Tong, Son, Alirand, Marc, Gorgoretti, Davide, Occhineri, Marco, Tassini, Nicola, Berzi, Lorenzo
Modal Analysis Approach on Vehicle Transient Behavior Considering Roll and Pitch Dynamics2026-01-02104/7/2026
When a vehicle performs planar motion, the tire side force induces a jacking-up effect determined by the suspension roll center height governed by suspension geometry. These jacking forces also excite pitching motion. In this study, the pitching degree of freedom, along with roll degree of freedom, was incorporated in the bicycle model of the vehicle motion, hence it becomes four-degree-of-freedom model, and a new analytical method that applies modal analysis method to the model decomposes the motion of the sprung mass of the vehicle into mutually independent vibration modes. Since the superposition of these vibration modes can reproduce vehicle motion, these vibration modes are the fundamental factors governing sprung-mass behavior. Therefore, understanding how these vibration modes respond to design parameters provides a theoretical foundation to design desired vehicle dynamics from the early stage of car development. This report presents, by conducting modal analysis of the four
Kusaka, Kaoru, Yuhara, Takahiro, Koakutsu, Shingo
Vehicle Test Platform with Experimentally Correlated Tire Model for Torque Vectoring Control2026-01-06224/7/2026
This paper presents a testing platform for the development of lateral stability control systems in independent motor electric vehicles (EVs). A 10 degree of freedom (DOF) vehicle simulation and a radio control test vehicle are constructed to enable controls validation scalable to full size vehicles. These vehicle simulations, or ‘digital twins’, have been widely adopted throughout the automotive industry due to their lower operating costs and ease of implementation. Virtual models are not perfect representations of reality, however, and physical testing is still necessary to validate systems for use in the real world. This is especially true when testing safety-critical features such as stability control. As a result, a simulation environment working in conjunction with a test vehicle represents an optimal hybrid approach. In this work, a high fidelity vehicle model is constructed in the Matlab/Simulink environment. To capture the effect of suspension, the digital twin is capable of
Petersen, Nicholas Conner, Robinette, Darrell
Analyzing Fastened Joints in Hydraulic Dampers Using Simulation and Experimental Methods2026-01-05854/7/2026
The main purpose of this study is to develop and validate an accurate calculation model for a hydraulic damper piston valve joint, enabling reliable torque specification and clamp behavior without full prototype iteration. Joint stiffness is a primary interest point. The joint features a bolted interface with a laminated shim stack of many thin disks with varying outer diameters. Analysis of such joints are uncommon in literature, making it challenging to quantify the effects of load distribution, truncation, and surface contact effects between members. The proposed models discussed in this paper are based on frustum load distribution combined with annular-plate bending and elastic-foundation effects to capture the effects of washer cupping. Concrete outputs of the calculator include member load distribution, bolt and member stiffnesses, torque-to-preload relationships, and an external-load simulation that predicts when individual members lose clamp load. Detailed internal hydraulic
Dresen, Gabriel, Vollmar, Race, Roy Chowdhury, Sourav
Integrated Effects of Suspension Geometry and Tire Pattern Design on Vehicle Pull Reduction under Acceleration in High-Performance and Electric Vehicles2026-01-05934/7/2026
Vehicle pull under acceleration is a phenomenon commonly observed in high-performance vehicles and electric vehicles (EVs), primarily arising asymmetric driveshaft angles, drivetrain architecture, and suspension geometry. In addition to these mechanical factors, tire characteristics, particularly the tire lateral force generated at the contact patch, significantly influence this effect. The lateral force is intricately tied to the dynamics of the contact patch and the geometric design of the tire tread pattern. This study investigates the relationship between tread pattern geometry and vehicle pull under acceleration, emphasizing the role of tire lateral force variations. By employing finite element (FE) simulation, lateral force response variations (dfy/dfx) resulting from tread block deformation were analyzed. Based on these simulation, a robust analytical methodology for tread pattern evaluation and optimization was established. The developed tread pattern characteristic parameter
Yoon, Youngsam, Jang, Dongjin, Kim, Hyungjoo, Lee, Jaekil
Design, Fabrication, and Assessment of a User-Friendly Suspension System for a 2025 BAJA Vehicle2026-01-05884/7/2026
A suspension system was designed, fabricated, and tested following a systems design approach by an SAE Off-road Team from a North Midwest university. Compared to previous suspensions, the new suspension system is more reparable and contains a minimal number of custom parts, while still maintaining sufficient strength to withstand dynamic loads experienced when operating the vehicle. Modifications were also made to fit the newly designed vehicle body frame. As an integral part of the team’s 2025 Baja vehicle, the redesigned suspension system contributed to the vehicle’s improved performance during the 2025 SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) Baja Competition. This paper presents a detailed account of the design, development, and fabrication process of the suspension system. The final design was tested and evaluated via both computer simulations and physical tests, whose efficiency and reliability were finally demonstrated by the team’s improved ranking in the 2025 Baja SAE Competition
Liu, Yucheng, Anderson, Matthew, Larson, Cody, Rodgers, Joshua, Seberger, Aaron, Letcher, Todd
A Frequency-Aware Reinforcement Learning Framework for Suspension Control with Integrated Temporal Features and Expert Guidance2026-01-02094/7/2026
Active suspension systems play a crucial role in improving vehicle ride comfort and handling stability. However, most existing studies focus on the low-frequency range below 20 Hz, leaving the suppression of high-frequency vibrations within 50–500 Hz largely unexplored, even though these vibrations strongly affect in-cabin noise and ride quality. To address this gap, this study introduces a quarter-car suspension model incorporating both bushing dynamics and a rigid-ring tire within a reinforcement learning (RL) framework. A major challenge for RL-based suspension control is its degradation in high-frequency performance. To overcome this issue, we design an innovative training framework that integrates multiple synergistic strategies. First, frequency-domain rewards are incorporated as auxiliary signals to explicitly guide policy optimization in the high-frequency band. Second, long short-term memory (LSTM) networks are embedded in both the Actor and Critic to capture the sequential
zhu, Zhehui, Zhang, Lijun, Meng, Dejian, Hu, Xingyu
A Helical Compression Spring Fracture under Impact Velocity in Pump Operation by Theoretical Study and FEA2026-01-02714/7/2026
Helical compression springs have been used widely in various industries from automotive, aerospace and construction to electronics and medical devices. In the automotive industry, they appear in many places such as suspension, valvetrain, etc., as well in the discharge check valve of Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) pump, which is the subject of study due to a recent fracture in lab testing. A theoretical study is conducted first to establish the equation governing spring dynamic motion under impact velocity, which can be in high magnitude with surging shock wave along spring axis. A new spring shock wave equation is developed for spring axial motion coupled with coil torsional effect. This newly derived shock wave equation has a broader term than the classic spring formula found in most engineering books. In this paper, it shows that the classic spring shock wave equation is only a special case for the general wave equation newly discovered. Then, a theoretical formula on spring shock
Pang, Michael L., Gunturu, Srinu, Norkin, Eugene
Modular Smart Corner Systems for Next-Generation Electric Vehicle Architecture2026-01-06394/7/2026
The transition to software-defined vehicles (SDVs) necessitates a paradigm shift in both control strategies and vehicle architecture. The EU-funded R&D project SmartCorners addresses this challenge by developing integrated, modular, and scalable smart corner systems (SCS) that combine in-wheel motor (IWM)-based propulsion, brake blending, active suspension system, and steer-by-wire functionality in one module. These SCS can be retrofit or smoothly integrated into the highly adaptable skateboard chassis architecture of modern electric vehicles (EVs), enabling scalable deployment across diverse vehicle types. The central approach of this paper is the utilization of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to implement multi-layer, data-driven control strategies, facilitating real-time actuation, fault mitigation, and user-centric EV architecture. The SmartCorners project strives to demonstrate significant enhancements, including improved real-world driving range due to
Ratz, Florian, Armengaud, Eric, Formento, Cecilia, Moscone, Giulia, Sorrentino, Gennaro, Bisciaio, Giorgio, Sorniotti, Aldo, Amati, Nicola, Braun, Daniel, Deibler, Bernd, Boxberger, Valerius, Sottile, Salvatore, Ivanov, Valentin, Fuse, Hiroyuki, Kompara, Tomaž
Impact of Instantaneous Center of Rotation Variability on Path Planning and Performance of Park Assist Systems2026-01-00534/7/2026
Parking assist systems are among the most widely adopted driver-assistance features in modern vehicles. A key component of these systems is the path planning module, which ensures accurate vehicle alignment within a parking slot while satisfying various constraints such as maintaining slot centering, avoiding collisions in confined spaces, minimizing maneuver count, and achieving the shortest feasible path. Multiple path generation techniques—such as geometric, polynomial-based, and search-based methods—have been developed to enable safe and efficient parking maneuvers. However, most of these approaches rely on the simplifying assumption that the vehicle’s instantaneous center of rotation (ICR) is fixed, typically located on the non-steering axle. In practice, the ICR is not constant and can vary significantly across vehicles due to several physical and kinematic factors, including steering geometry, tire slip characteristics, suspension configuration, and weight distribution
Awathe, Arpit, Patanwala, Abizer, Jain, Arihant, Varunjikar, Tejas
Design and Performance Analysis of a Modular Transporter Based on Reconfigurable Wheel-Legged Corner Module10-10-04-00313/25/2026
Performing transportation and exploration tasks on rugged terrain requires both high load-bearing capacity and large suspension stroke. However, the corner module configurations applied to challenging terrain have rarely been explored. This article proposes an integrated framework that combines bionic principles with topology graph–based type synthesis. This framework leads to the creation of a reconfigurable wheel-legged mechanism capable of switching between wheeled locomotion and legged gait modes, which is then implemented as a corner module system. First, inspired by the skeletal–muscular system of the equine leg, a structure–function mapping relationship between the biological system and the mechanical system is established. Second, a multi-loop closed-chain mechanism with biomimetic morphology is represented in the form of graph theory. A configuration atlas of the wheel-legged hybrid mechanism is generated based on the contracted graph and open-loop kinematic chains, and
Gao, Zhenhai, Zhang, Hanying, Chen, Guoying, Zhang, Sumin, Han, Zongzhi
Anti-Rollover Strategy for Six-Axis Semi-Trailer Based on Lateral Force Balance02-19-04-00242/24/2026
To address the rollover risk of six-axle semi-trailers due to their large mass, high center of gravity, and multi-axle articulation, a lateral force balance anti-rollover strategy based on the Ackermann steering principle is proposed. By establishing the wheel angle constraint equations for the full-wheel steering system of the six-axle semi-trailer, a rigid-body dynamic model considering the articulation characteristics is developed. The key control and observation parameters are included in the wheel angles, center of gravity lateral offset, yaw angular velocity, sideslip angle, and lateral load transfer rate. An SMC-PID joint controller is designed, in which the third axle steering angle of the tractor is optimized by the SMC controller, and the trailer’s three-axle steering angle tracking control is achieved by the PID controller. The nonlinear accumulation of centrifugal force and dynamic load transfer under high-speed emergency lane change conditions is suppressed by a
Zhang, Qiyuan, Zhang, Lei, Liao, Shengkun, Sun, Jinxu, He, Jing
Prediction of Dynamic Stiffness of Automotive Components Using Support Vector Methods2026-01-50162/23/2026
In the current scenario of EV revolution in the automotive industry, NVH performance of the vehicles is one of the major points of sale to the customers. Auxiliary components play one of the predominant roles in the contribution of noise to overall vehicle interior or exterior sound pressure levels, which impact customer vehicle comfort. CAE prediction of NVH performance of automotive components involves a lot of design iterative processes, large server space utilization, and time-consuming. To reduce cost and time, data-driven technologies like AI algorithms can help CAE engineers because of their high efficiency and high precision. In the current research, a wiper motor mount stiffness prediction algorithm was designed based on the historical data using CAE analysis and AI algorithms, and improved prediction accuracy by tuning the parameters of AI algorithms using grid search methodology. High prediction accuracy of wiper motor mount stiffness has been achieved with the method of
Paturi, Yuva Venkata Sekhar
Sensitivity Analysis toward Differential Braking as Backup Steering Functionality2026-01-50132/20/2026
This paper presents a novel sensitivity analysis framework for differential braking as a backup steering solution in fail-operational Steer-by-Wire systems. The fault-tolerant design approach of Steer-by-Wire and steering systems for highly automated driving relies on the availability of road wheel actuators (RWA). Redundancies are therefore commonly used to ensure fail-operationality. Since its widespread implementation in production vehicles through electronic stability control, the use of differential braking as a cost-effective measure is desirable to increase functional diversity. However, feasible lateral accelerations through this backup solution are limited compared to conventional steering systems and lie close to ordinary driving scenarios. To address this limitation, this work investigates the influence of chassis parameters on differential braking performance. After defining characteristic values and a simulation test plan, a preliminary analysis using a linear single-track
Salzwedel, Leon, Iatropoulos, Jannes, Heise, Cedric, Frohn, Christian, Henze, Roman
Evolution of a Novel Hybrid Stab-Link for a Born Electric Sports Utility Vehicle2026-28-00012/12/2026
The present study details the design evolution and failure analysis of a novel hybrid stabilizer bar link (stab link) developed for the front suspension of a born electric sports utility vehicle (SUV) platform characterized by higher gross vehicle weight (GVW), increased wheel travel, and constrained packaging space. To address these challenges, a unique hybrid stab link was designed featuring dual plastic housings at both the metal ball joint ends, connected by a steel tube, and achieving a 30% weight reduction while offering enhanced articulation angles for extremely lower turning circle diameter (TCD) of the vehicle, compared to the conventional stab link. The unique hybrid stab failed under complex loading conditions during accelerated durability testing (ADT), prompting a comprehensive investigation. The failure analysis included road load data acquisition across various stab bar diameter configurations evolved during suspension tuning, different stabilizer link designs evolved
Selvendiran, P, J, Ramkumar, Nayak, Bhargav, M, Sudhan, Patnala, Avinash
Design Evolution of a Novel LCA for a Multi-Link Rear Suspension System in a Born Electric Vehicle2026-28-00092/12/2026
The spring link or the lower control arm (LCA) is a critical structural component in a multi-link rear suspension system especially in a sports utility vehicle (SUV). The design of the rear LCA is thus challenging due to higher loads owing to higher suspension articulation typical of a SUV and further complicated in a born electric vehicle (BEV) due to increased vehicle weight contributed by a large battery. In the present work, a novel LCA was designed for the rear suspension system of one such born electric SUV application. The unique link was designed to withstand 20% higher rear axle weight compared to the conventional LCA used in a typical SUV. The LCA housed the spring with increased stiffness and a semi-active damper with varying and higher damping forces which complicated the design. The link design was further complicated with stab link mounting provision and mass damper mounting for improved NVH performance. Furthermore, the link was designed to withstand significantly higher
Selvaraj, Saravanan, Nayak, Bhargav, J, Ramkumar, M, Sudhan, Chaudhari, Varun
Dynamic Stiffness Prediction in Cracked Cantilever Beams Using Enhanced ANN Techniques2026-28-00502/12/2026
This research paper provides a comprehensive study on how Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) can be deployed to predict the stiffness characteristics of a cantilever beam with a crack of various depths and positions. The most destructive source of failure is considered to be vibration, so the major focus of this paper will be on how the cracks affect the modal stiffness. This study has various applications, such as airplane wings, bridges, stadiums, and arenas. A common research gap was noticed amongst the existing studies; the position of the cracks in the cantilever wasn’t considered, but this paper discusses how the location of cracks severely affects the dynamic behaviour of the cantilever. This study was done by carrying out modal analysis on a cantilever of the same dimensions with different crack configurations. Various crack dimensions and orientations were analysed to understand the effects of the crack on the dynamic behaviour of the cantilever. From the modal analysis results
SB, Harshini, Rajkumar, Manjari, R, Krithika, K, Anusha, K, Divya, Bhaskara Rao, Lokavarapu
Design evolution of Novel Subframe for a Multilink Rear Suspension of an e-SUV2026-28-00072/12/2026
As there is a major shift in customer demand for energy efficient transportation, electric vehicle development has taken prominence worldwide as they provide pollution free and noise free mobility. The subframe being an important structural component of the chassis system, the designers always find it challenging to provide best-in-class rear subframe (RSF) optimized in terms of cost and weight within the available packaging space especially in an electric sport vehicular boundary. The main function of rear subframe is to transmit forces to BIW without deflections hence for this it should be very stiff. At the same time, it should be light in weight and simpler to industrialize. In the present work, the design evolution of a novel sub-frame assembly for a multilink rear suspension of a born electric sports utility vehicle (e-SUV) platform is detailed. With increased rear axle weight contributed by the battery weight and rear mounted motor, the design evolution of the rear subframe (RSF
Nidasosi, Basavraj Maruti, J, Ramkumar, Nayak, Bhargav, Mani, Arun, M, Sudhan
Vibration Dynamics of a Half-Car Model Considering Tire–Road Separation02-19-04-00212/9/2026
The vibrating half-car model is used to represent the dynamic behavior of a truck’s dependent suspension system, capturing four degrees of freedom. This research investigates time and frequency responses of vibration behavior of half-car model with possible tire–road separation. This investigation is significant because all previously reported analyses based on the tire-road attachment were incorrect, particularly regarding the tire-road separation phenomenon. The differential equations are extended to enhance the accuracy of the model, incorporating tire–road separation conditions for both wheels. A numerical approach is applied to simulate the vertical and roll dynamics of the system under the separation assumption. The simulation results are validated through experiments conducted using ADAMS View software. Integrating the tire–road separation into the model results in dynamic responses that closely reflect real-world behavior. These findings provide valuable guidance for designing
Nguyen, Quy Dang, Jazar, Reza
Improving Semi-Truck Torque Overlay Steering Systems to Boost On-Center Performance: Hardware Design Investigation02-19-02-00122/4/2026
In class 8 semi-trucks, the hydraulic steering gear and torque overlay system are critical components affecting the steering feel design and vehicle control. Transitioning from traditional hydraulic gears to hydraulic gears with torque overlay steering (TOS) systems for increased enhancement of driver comfort is beneficial but has also resulted in drawbacks for on-center steer feel, especially at high vehicle speeds (60+ km/h). This article evaluates the impact of three design mechanisms within hydraulic steering gears of a TOS system that have shown improvement in on-center performance for traditional hydraulic gears. The study compares a standard assembly of TOS, i.e., baseline, and a design-optimized ideal prototype, to evaluate the effectiveness of the three design mechanisms: valve curve performance, on-center friction, and torsion bar stiffness. The two samples underwent high-speed vehicle testing to gather driver feedback and assess potential enhancements to the on-center
Bari, Praful Rajendra, Chaudhuri, Nilankan
PRODUCT BRIEFS26AUTP02_172/1/2026
SBD-YOLO: An Efficient Speed Bump Detector for Active Suspension Preview Control12-09-03-00181/28/2026
Speed bump detection through computer vision and deep learning is essential for advancing active suspension preview control and intelligent driving. Although substantial progress has been made in this field, there remains a need to enhance detection accuracy while reducing computational demands. This article introduces a novel single-stage speed bump detector, the Speed Bump Detector Based on You Only Look Once (SBD-YOLO), which utilizes the YOLOv9 architecture for speed bump identification. To better capture the deep global features of speed bumps, we propose an innovative convolutional module—specifically, a lightweight building block designed for efficient feature extraction—named the Aggregated-MBConv. Furthermore, we design a new YOLO backbone by stacking Mobile Inverted Bottleneck Convolution (MBConv) and Aggregated-MBConv modules, which reduces computational cost while enhancing detection accuracy. Additionally, we introduce a Squeeze-aggregated Excitation (SaE) attention
Mao, Ruichi, Wu, Jian, Wu, Yukai, Wang, Huiliang, Li, Jun, Wu, Guangqiang
High-Frequency Dynamic Stiffness Measurements of Automotive Elastomers for Electric Vehicles2026-26-03121/16/2026
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has intensified the demand for advanced elastomeric materials capable of meeting stringent noise, vibration and harshness (NVH) requirements. Unlike internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, EVs lack traditional masking noise generated by the powertrain. In the automotive industry, the dynamic stiffness of elastomers in internal combustion engines has traditionally been determined using hydraulic test rigs, with test frequencies limited to a maximum of 1,000 Hz. Measurements above this frequency range have not been possible and are conducted only through computerized FE or CAE calculation models. Electric drive systems, however, generate distinct tonal noise components in the high-frequency range up to 10,000 Hz, which are clearly perceptible even at low sound pressure levels. Consequently, the dynamic stiffness characteristics of elastomers up to 3,000 Hz are critical for optimizing NVH performance in EVs. This study focuses on high
Bohne, Christian, Gröne, Michael
Artificial Intelligence in Passenger Cars: Unlocking Intelligent Mobility and Human-Centric Vehicle Innovation2026-26-06721/16/2026
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is radically transforming the automotive industry, particularly in the domain of passenger vehicles where personalization, safety, diagnostics, and efficiency. This paper presents an exploration of AI/ML applications through quadrant of the key pillars: Customer Experience (CX), Vehicle Diagnostics, Lifecycle Management, and Connected Technologies. Through detailed use cases, including AI-powered active suspension systems, intelligent fault code prioritization, and eco-routing strategies, we demonstrate how AI models such as machine learning, deep learning, and computer vision are reshaping both the user experience and engineering workflow of modern electric vehicles (EVs). This paper combines simulations, pseudo-algorithms and data-centric examples of the combined depth of functionality and deployment readiness of these technologies. In addition to technical effectiveness, the paper also discusses the challenges at field level in adopting AI at scale i.e
Hazra, Sandip, Tangadpalliwar, Sonali, Khan, Arkadip
Tailgate Stiffness Mitigation and Engineering Strategy for Full Width Tailgate-Mounted Tail Lamp Integration2026-26-04941/16/2026
The tailgate, as the rearmost vehicle opening, plays a pivotal role in defining the rear aesthetic theme while ensuring structural durability and maximizing luggage space. Contemporary automotive design trends highlight an increasing demand for Full width tailgate-mounted tail lamp configurations, which deliver a bold and dynamic visual appeal. Enhanced by animated lighting features, these designs cater to the preferences of Gen Z customers, becoming a decisive factor in purchasing decisions. However, integrating these complex tail lamp structures introduces significant engineering challenges, including increased X-dimension lamp volume, thereby providing reduced design space, and intricate mounting schemes constrained by panel stamping limitations. These factors necessitate the development of innovative joinery strategies and structural definitions to maintain durability targets, including achieving 25,000–30,000 slam cycles without failure, while preserving luggage space. This paper
Beryl, Joshua, Mohanty, Abhinab, Unadkat, Siddharth, Selvan, Veera
Design Optimization of Jounce Bumper Support Ring Based on RWUP Loading2026-26-05141/16/2026
Designing and manufacturing a support ring (POM ring -Polyoxymethylene ring) for a MacPherson strut suspension system brings unique set of challenges due to the high-performance and durability demands for Indian road application. Support ring along with the jounce bumper used in the shock absorber is designed to absorb the strong shock coming from the road inputs when suspension travel reached to the maximum limit. thereby absorbing the impact energy and preventing it from transferring it to the body. A bump stopper for a suspension of a vehicle is made of poly urethane (PU) material and is surrounded by a support ring or POM ring made up of Polyoxymethylene material. The bump stopper deflects into bellow shape during the absorption of impact energy. In the present paper, the authors have demonstrated the key challenges experienced in successfully designing the support ring post initial failure experienced in the validation phase which was unprecedented. The authors detail the failure
Koritala, Ashok Kumar, Malekar, Amit, Kulkarni, Purushottam, S, Sivashankar, Mishra, Harshit, Ganesh, Mohan Selvakumar, Patnala, Avinash, J, Ramkumar, Nayak, Bhargav, M, Sudhan
Determining Optimal Suspension & Body in White Mountings to maximize Off-Road Capability of Passenger Vehicles2026-26-00981/16/2026
The automotive market trend is shifting more and more to SUVs and crossovers. This, therefore, means increasing consumer demand for off-road abilities in passenger vehicles. While dedicated off-road platforms provide a path to performance robustness, getting the same level of functionality out of a passenger vehicle with minimal architectural changes proves to be a great feat for engineers. One highly critical performance determinant in the domain of off-road ability is wheel articulation, it requires independent movement capacity of the wheels to keep contact and stability over uneven terrain. Traditional articulations found in passenger car suspensions—created for comfort, packaging, and on-road dynamics—are limited by suspension geometry, damper alignment as well as compliance setup. Damper side loads- were not considered a significant factor in suspension systems that are operating within their original intended design envelope for on-road use. However, when the vehicle is taken
Siddiqui, Arshad, Iqbal, Shoaib, Dwivedi, Sushil
A Robustness Approach to Reducing Variability in Suspension System Performance2026-26-03811/16/2026
Determination of part tolerances for reduced variation in suspension level performance by using Multi-objective Robust Design Optimization (MORDO) The car industry is very competitive, and companies need to satisfy their customers to keep or grow their market share. It’s important for car makers to build affordable cars that provide a good driving experience, comfort for passengers, and safety for everyone. Suspension systems are very important for how a vehicle rides, handles, and stays stable, and they directly affect how driving feels. If parts are not positioned correctly, it can really impact how well a vehicle works. As a result, suggested limits for where suspension parts are placed are given to prevent issues with Kinematics and Compliance (K&C) properties. So, designing parts with the right tolerances is very important in making vehicles. It helps lower production costs and keeps the vehicle's performance consistent. This paper shows a step-by-step method to find the strongest
Pathak, Jugal, Ganesh, Lingadalu
Design of a McPherson Strut Based Split Link Front Suspension for a Higher Rear to Front Weight Ratio SUV with Least Turning Circle Diameter2026-26-00921/16/2026
Generally, in an electric sports utility vehicle with rear mounted powertrain the mass distribution is greater in the rear compared to front. This higher rear to front weight distribution results in oversteer behavior during high-speed cornering deteriorating vehicle handling & risking passenger safety. To compensate this inherent oversteer nature of such vehicles & produce understeer behavior, the steering rack is placed frontwards of the front wheel center for toe-out behavior due to lateral compliance during cornering. This compensation measure results in lower Ackermann percentage resulting in higher turning circle diameter deteriorating vehicle maneuverability. This paper proposes a design to obtain ideal understeer gradient with minimal turning circle diameter through utilization of split link technology with a McPherson Strut based suspension framework & frontwards placed steering rack. This suspension is utilized in our Mahindra Inglo platform. This paper elaborates on how
Nadkarni, Ameya Ravindra, Mhatre, Nitij, Patnala, Avinash, NAYAK, Bhargav
Sound Quality Refinement and Vibration Reduction During Horn Application in Electric Vehicles2026-26-03381/16/2026
This paper focuses on the cabin sound quality refinement and the tactile vibration reduction during horn application in the electric vehicle. A loud cracking sound inside the cabin and higher accelerator pedal vibration are perceived while operating the horn. Sound diagnosis is carried out to find out the frequencies causing the cracking noise. Transfer path analysis is conducted to identify the nature of noise and the predominant path through which forces transfer. Based on finding from TPA, various recommendations are evaluated which reduced the noise to a certain extent. Operational Deflection Shape (ODS) is conducted on the horn mounting bracket and on the body to identify the component having higher deflection at the identified frequencies. Recommendations like DPDS improvement on the horn bracket and the body is assessed and the effect of each outcome is discussed. With all the recommendations proposed, the cabin noise levels are reduced by ~ 8 dB (A) and the accelerator pedal
S, Nataraja Moorthy, Rao, Manchi, R, Ashwin sathya, S, THARAKESWARULU, Raghavendran, Prasath
Testing and Validation of Future Mobility Vehicles using Realistic Digital Twin of Road Corridors and Tires2026-26-05801/16/2026
The automotive industry is rapidly evolving with technologies such as vehicle electrification, autonomous driving, Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), and active suspension systems. Testing and validating these technologies under India’s diverse and complex road conditions is a major challenge. Physical testing alone is often impractical due to variability in road surfaces, traffic patterns, and environmental conditions, as well as safety constraints. Virtual testing using high-fidelity digital twins of road corridors offers an effective solution for replicating real-world conditions in a controlled environment. This paper highlights the representation of Indian road corridors as digital twins in ASAM OpenDRIVE and OpenCRG formats, emphasizing the critical elements required for realistic simulation of vehicle, tire, and ADAS performance. The digital twin incorporates detailed 3D road profiles (X-Y-Z coordinates), capturing the geometry and surface variations of Indian roads. The
Joshi, Omkar Prakash, Shinde, Vikram, Pawar, Prashant R
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