Browse Topic: Electronic braking systems

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Global–Regional Energy Balance Climate Modeling Framework for Country-Level Temperature Projections Based on CO₂ Radiative Forcing2026-24-0021To be published on 09/21/2026
This study presents a computational framework for estimating country-level temperature projections based on global radiative forcing from CO₂ emissions. The methodology integrates a carbon-cycle accumulation module, a logarithmic radiative forcing formulation, and a dynamic one-box energy balance model (EBM) to simulate global mean temperature evolution. Atmospheric CO₂ concentration is computed from cumulative global emissions using an airborne fraction parameter. Radiative forcing is then determined using the established logarithmic relationship between concentration and forcing. The global temperature response is calculated dynamically by solving the transient energy balance equation, incorporating effective heat capacity and climate sensitivity parameters. To regionalize projections without relying on high-resolution General Circulation Models (GCMs), an empirical regional amplification factor is introduced. This coefficient is derived from historical regression between observed
Gutierrez, Marcos, Taco, Diana, Sampietro-Saquicela, Jose, Bermudez-Herrera, Leandro
Characterisation of Brake Wear PM2.5 and PN10 Emissions Across Pad/Disc Technologies, Vehicle Types and Braking Behaviours, Under Real World Conditions2026-24-0022To be published on 09/21/2026
This paper summarises targeted brake emissions investigations undertaken as part of the Department for Transport’s Non Exhaust Emissions programme. The work was carried out to improve understanding of particulate mass and particle number emissions from friction braking and to assess the influence of component selection, vehicle technology, operating conditions, and control measures on those emissions. Starting from a pre-developed brake enclosure and sampling system methodology, these were further refined to improve airflow management, reduce leakage, and minimise sampling artefacts. The updated system was integrated with a suite of particulate measurement instruments, including MPEC (hot and cold), APC10, DMS500, and eFilter, enabling simultaneous measurement of volatile and non volatile PN10 plus PM2.5. A matrix of nine brake pad formulations and two disc types was tested on a common C segment vehicle platform across chassis dyno and on road cycles, together with controlled braking
Andersson, Jon
Component Dynamics of a Motorcycle Brake Caliper: Analysis and Experimental Validation of Seal-Groove Mechanics and Controlled Rollback Design.2026-01-0823To be published on 09/14/2026
Pad - Rotor separation is critical to effective braking performance, pedal feel and NVH. In floating brake calipers, this separation is primarily governed by the seal and groove mechanics. Current studies primarily focus on the mechanics through empirical methods on single seal-groove systems for car calipers. However, a significant literature gap exists for motorcycle seal grooves and any system that utilizes a two seal-groove system with a primary pressure seal and a secondary dust seal. Since 75% of automobiles registered in India are motorcycles and Anti-lock braking becoming mandatory from 2026, designing a caliper with precise seal-groove mechanics becomes critical. This study proposes a theoretical framework by modeling the seals as a shear-beam and predicting the rollback using stick-slip hysteresis and resistive forces of the piston. Experimental validation was performed on three production motorcycle calipers, with the measured rollback and the piston push following the
Vaitheeswaran, Gyaneshwar, N, Manoj, M, Mahesh, Yogesh, Deepak, Rai, Ashutosh
Architecting Safety-Critical Systems for AI-Enabled Software-Defined Vehicles: A Compute, Timing, and Isolation Framework with a Brake System Case Study2026-01-0811To be published on 09/14/2026
Software-defined vehicle (SDV) platforms are reshaping safety-critical system design by consolidating braking and other motion-control functions on centralized heterogeneous edge compute that also executes physical-AI workloads. This consolidation breaks traditional assumptions of fixed ECUs and simple timing envelopes, complicating assurance of determinism, isolation, and fail-operational behavior for ASIL-D brake functions. Building on a decentralized brake-by-wire (BbW) architecture with dual controllers, redundant low-voltage power grids, and smart electromechanical brake corner actuators, this paper proposes a systems-level framework for architecting safety-critical functions in AI-enabled SDVs along three dimensions: compute, timing, and isolation. The framework classifies conventional and AI-based functions and maps them to heterogeneous compute classes; defines architectural patterns that combine safety islands, power-domain redundancy, and hardware partitioning to support
srinivasaraghavan, soumyasudharsan
Advanced Brake Force Distribution on trailers with Bendix Electronic Brake Controller2026-01-0797To be published on 09/14/2026
Commercial vehicle fleets frequently operate with tractors that connect to different trailers and dollies, resulting in combinations with varying brake pad wear across wheel‑ends. Traditional brake force distribution strategies whether proportioned, electronic, or load‑adaptive do not account for these pad life differences. This can lead to uneven brake utilization, irregular maintenance intervals, and increased total cost of ownership (TCO), especially in mixed‑fleet and multi‑trailer operations. This work introduces an advanced brake force distribution function, a mechatronic brake control concept that incorporates brake pad health information into supervisory brake force allocation. In the proposed architecture, the tractor is equipped with a Brake Control ECU, which collects brake pad life status from each trailer or dolly through Pad Wear Sensing ECUs over the Tractor‑Trailer CAN (TT‑CAN) network. The Pad Wear Sensing ECUs report pad wear information only and do not host braking
Ganesha, Vinodkumar
A Study on the Development of Brake Moan for CTBA Vehicles Using Simulation2026-01-0814To be published on 09/14/2026
Not only are customers' expectations for the development of various products, but also the demand for emotional quality improvement of the products is steadily increasing. Brake NVH, which is generated during vehicle braking, has a lot of influence on the emotional aspects of customers. There are several brake NVH such as judder, squeal, and moan. First, judder is phenomena of handle, brake pedal vibration and noise that occur during braking at the high-speed. The quality of judder has been improved a lot by applying judder detection and compensation logic in internal combustion engines and the heat load on the disc is reduced by regenerative braking in electric vehicles. So the judder problem hardly occurs these days. A squeal is a noise generated during braking at a low speed. The squeal is solved by tuning and shape change of a friction material in the high frequency band and by making the robust systems design such as caliper and disc in the low frequency band. Moan noise is low
KIM, SUNGHO, Kim, Jeongkyu, HWANG, JAEKEUN, Kang, Donghoon
Optimizing Brake Pedal Feel and Driver Comfort in Buses with Pneumatic Braking Systems2026-01-0804To be published on 09/14/2026
Abstract:- Brakes are a critical safety component in vehicles, and every parameter of the braking system plays a vital role in vehicle operation. Among these, brake pedal feel and driver confidence are key factors, in addition to achieving the required brake force, deceleration, and stopping distance. These aspects depend on the system-generated torque, available pneumatic pressure, lining material properties, and Electronic Braking System (EBS) parameters. This paper focuses on the factors influencing brake pedal feel while maintaining a balance between driver comfort and confidence during bus operation. Under optimal braking conditions, brake pedal response and brake torque gradient must align with the driver’s deceleration demands. The braking system must respond promptly, completing the application in the shortest possible duration. The brake torque gradient values specified in the EBS file should be neither too low nor too high, and the brake pedal feel must remain consistent
Pujari, Sachin Subhashrao, Karampurwala, Zoeb, RAJ, AMRITESH
Safe State Definition and Verification for Distributed Multi-Controller EMB Architectures2026-01-0800To be published on 09/14/2026
The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system is an essential technology for safe braking in modern vehicles. However, the adoption of multi-controller architectures has introduced new challenges to conventional Safe State strategies. Traditionally, the Safe State defined in functional safety means "function shutdown," and in accordance with ISO 26262 definition, aims for an "operational mode without risks exceeding reasonable levels." However, in the multi-controller architecture of EMB systems, the Fail-Operational Safe State concept is applied, where the system continues to provide limited functions even in the event of faults. It is essential to verify whether such operational modes actually satisfy the safety requirements of ISO 26262. This paper redefines the Safe State according to failure modes in EMB systems, analyzes system state transitions, and presents a coherence analysis methodology for validating the availability of resources required to provide limited functions in the
KIM, KANG SAN
Physics-Informed Machine Learning Digital Twin of Electro-Mechanical Brakes for Clamp-Force and Friction Estimation2026-01-0806To be published on 09/14/2026
As the industry is rapidly moving towards dry-by-wire architectures, accurate Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) models are increasingly critical for safety-relevant force control, diagnostics, and consistent performance over temperature and lining wear. However, widely used EMB identification methods often rely on linearized models or 'characteristic curve' calibrations that struggle to generalize across operating regions where friction, hysteresis, and compliance are strongly non-linear and temperature sensitive. Prior EMB force-estimation literatures addressed pad contact detection, hysteresis and thermal compensated clamp-force estimation, yet practical accuracy gaps remain during transients and under changing friction signatures. This work proposes a digital twin based on Physics-Informed Neural Networks (PINNs) that preserves the EMB's governing dynamics while learning both (i) physically meaningful parameters- such as effective system inertia, damping, stiffness etc., and (ii) a
Rai, Prakhar, Gadhvi, Tirth
A Study on TSC(Technical Safety Concept) design and verification in EMB(Brake By Wire) Systems2026-01-0801To be published on 09/14/2026
The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system, a dry-type Brake-by-Wire technology, eliminates hydraulic components by directly controlling friction braking through electrical actuators at each wheel. The architecture includes a Main Center Control Unit, a Backup Center Control Unit for redundancy, and four-Wheel Control Units, communicating via CAN FD. Compliance with ISO 26262 functional safety standards is critical due to the EMB system’s role in vehicle braking. As complexity increases, risks such as hardware failures and communication faults must be systematically addressed. This paper presents the design and verification of a Technical Safety Concept (TSC) for EMB systems in accordance with ISO 26262. Safety goals and Functional Safety Requirements derived from HARA analysis guide the System Architecture and TSC development. Key design principles include modularity, redundancy, fault detection, and fail-safe mechanisms. Verification is performed at both system and vehicle levels
KIM, Dokun
Electro-Hydraulic Brake-by-Wire and Off-the-Shelf ABS Integration: Control Design and Hardware in the Loop Validation2026-01-0795To be published on 09/14/2026
This work presents the design of a control logic for an electro-hydraulic brake-by-wire in series with an off-the-shelf ABS unit for motorsport applications. Validation is performed through hardware-in-the-loop testing with a complete hydraulic layout, including the brake-by-wire actuator, the ABS module, and brake calipers. State-of-the-art electro-hydraulic brake-by-wire systems are increasingly adopted in top-level motorsport and are now transitioning to high-performance road vehicles, in combination with ABS and ESC. However, due to motorsport regulations, racing brake-by-wire systems do not incorporate ABS functionality. To combine the performance of motorsport grade actuators with the ease of use required for non professional drivers, a series configuration between brake-by-wire and ABS represents a natural solution. This architecture is also relevant for future road vehicle applications, offering additional redundancy for autonomous driving-ready systems. A dedicated hardware-in
Milivinti, Massimiliano, Gimondi, Alex, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Cantoni, Carlo
Modeling Brake Torque Hysteresis for Chassis Controls Hardware In the Loop Simulation2026-01-0824To be published on 09/14/2026
It is hardly a new trend for on road, vehicle intensive tuning and testing of chassis control features such as Anti-Lock Brakes, Traction Control, and Electronic Stability Control to move away from vehicle testing and towards non-vehicle test platforms such as Hardware-In the Loop (HIL) simulations and even further into pure math-based simulations. However, a significant acceleration of these activities has been occurring recently in the automotive industry, reducing or eliminating calibration time on vehicles and amplifying the demand for highly representative, non-vehicle test platforms to calibrate and even to validate chassis controls features. In current state of the air HIL simulation, the input (brake pressure) to output (brake torque) of each wheel brake in a vehicle’s brake system is modeled relatively simplistically, including at most pressure and brake temperature sensitivities, usually in lookup table form. Each brake corner contains over 20 different friction interfaces
Antanaitis, David, Ridenour, Nick, Miller, Bryan, Karnjate, Timothy
Impact of Network-Induced Delays on Autonomous Vehicle Steering Stability10-10-03-00246/25/2026
This article presents a cross-layer framework that integrates realistic vehicle-to-network-to-vehicle (V2N2V) delay characterization with a rigorous stability analysis of automated vehicle steering control. Both constant and network-induced time-varying delays modeled via deterministic bounds are addressed. For constant delays, delay-independent stability regions within the controller gain space are analytically derived. For time-varying delays with stochastic network origins, modeled using deterministic bounds, a refined Lyapunov–Krasovskii functional (LKF) incorporating augmented single- and double-integral terms is constructed. To establish delay-dependent linear matrix inequality (LMI) conditions, a reciprocally convex combination approach is employed to handle the delay interval partitioning, and the second-order Bessel–Legendre inequality is applied to tighten the integral quadratic bounds. The resulting LMI conditions explicitly capture the coupled effects of delay magnitude
Li, Jialin, Lu, Jianwei, Wei, Heng, Ao, Di
Coordinated Path Tracking and Stability Strategy for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Using Model Predictive Control with Dual Feedback Adjustment10-10-04-00346/3/2026
Distributed drive electric vehicles (DDEVs) provide enhanced maneuverability through independent wheel torque control, but coordinating precise path tracking with lateral stability remains challenging under aggressive driving conditions. This paper presents a coordinated control strategy that integrates model predictive control (MPC) for path tracking with a proportional gain controller for stability regulation. The proposed framework adopts a hierarchical design. The path tracking control leverages MPC to compute front steering commands while accounting for vehicle dynamics and preview errors. The stability adjustment uses dual proportional gain controllers to generate an additional yaw moment, which is adaptively balanced through a phase plane coordination mechanism, enhancing yaw stability during path tracking. The generated yaw moment is subsequently distributed to individual in-wheel motors with an optimization torque allocation method, respecting tire force limitations. The
He, Yang, Zhu, Yuzheng, Guo, Ruixin, Zhu, Yueying, Xing, Chao, Liu, Shuangxi, Lin, Yier
Heavy-Duty Nonroad Material Handler Electrification Part 2: Energy Efficiency and Performance Evaluation02-19-03-00166/2/2026
Decarbonization efforts achieved through electrification in nonroad mobile machinery can realize a reduction in fuel consumption of more than 20%, thanks to concepts familiar to light-duty passenger vehicles. This case study compares the results of a hybrid-electric material handler to its conventional counterpart, utilizing machine-specific drive cycles presented in part one of this paper series. The hybrid prototype features an extended-range electric vehicle (EREV) powertrain that demonstrated substantial energy efficiency improvements. Specifically, there was a reduction in equivalent fuel consumption of 75% when operating in electric-only mode, and 33% when maintaining the battery by charging with an on-board generator. Together, the efficiency improvements can be extrapolated over a low-intensity, 8-h shift characterized by significant idle time and highly dynamic engine load for a 47% reduction in net energy consumption. Key technologies that led to this improvement included
Czarnecki, Alexander, Goodenough, Bryant, Worm, Jeremy, Robinette, Darrell, LaTendresse, Phil, Westman, John, Subert, David, Heath, Matthew, Kiefer, Dylan, Black, Andrew
Limit Stability Control for Corner Module Vehicles Based on Hierarchical Hybrid Game10-10-04-00325/18/2026
Corner module vehicles (CMVs) achieve the decoupling of driving, braking, steering, and suspension, significantly enhancing vehicle handling potential, but under extreme operating conditions, the interactions between actuators severely constrain the improvement of vehicle handling performance. In order to mitigate conflicts between subsystems and enhance vehicle handling stability, a hierarchical hybrid game–based limit stability control method for CMVs is proposed in this article. Taking into account the handling potential of subsystems under limit conditions, a Stackelberg leader–follower game is designed by first designating Direct Yaw moment Control (DYC) as the leader and Active Rear Steering (ARS) as the follower. Subsequently, the DYC–ARS and Active Suspension System (ASS) were constructed into a non-cooperative game system, and the Nash equilibrium solution was solved through iteration. The lower-level controllers, respectively, established a tire force distribution model that
Peng, Jinxin, Xiao, Feng, Ke, Yuan, Jin, Liqiang
Coordinated Stability Control for Active Rear Steering Vehicles Based on Dynamic Stability Region2026-99-07135/15/2026
To improve the handling stability of four-wheel steering/drive vehicles under complex high-speed maneuvers, this study proposes a coordinated control strategy that incorporates Active Rear Steering (ARS) and Direct Yaw Moment Control (DYC) based on a dynamic stability region. Firstly, a four-wheel steering vehicle dynamics model including lateral motion and yaw motion is established, and the ideal values of the control variables are determined. Secondly, combined with the fuzzy control theory and double-line method, the boundary of the dynamic stability region is obtained in the sideslip angle-sideslip angle rate β−β̇ phase plane, and the vehicle state is categorized into stable, unstable, and critical stable region. Then, A hierarchical control architecture is designed based on the stability boundary. The upper controller comprehensively solves the target rear wheel angle and additional yaw moment through feedforward feedback control; the coordinated control layer allocates control
Nie, Kehe, Chen, Jin, Wang, Falong, Li, Ren, Bai, Xianxu
Reinforcement Learning-Based Controller for Tiltrotor Aeroelastic Stability Augmentation (Presentation Only)F-0082-2026-03365/5/2026
This study investigated the feasibility of using Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) for aeroelastic stability control of a Tiltrotor Aeroelastic Stability Testbed (TRAST) model. The DRL controllers use rotor swashplate inputs to minimize oscillatory wing root bending moments of the tilt rotor model. First, three DRL-based agents including Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (DDPG), Twin Delayed Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (TD3), and Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) were investigated to control the aeroelastic stability of the TRAST model throughout a wide range of airspeed including where the whirl flutter occurs. All three agents demonstrated the capability of stability augmentation while the SAC agent demon-strated the most robust performance. Next, the effectiveness of the SAC agent was studied further by training the SAC agent at a certain airspeed and applying the trained agent through the TRAST whirl flutter conditions. Finally, additional tuning of the SAC agent was performed to
Husain, Syed, Floros, Matt, Anusonti-Inthra, Phuriwat, Kang, Hao
Embedded Real-Time Control of a Distributed Trailer Propulsion System with Regenerative Braking for Net Neutral Load Towing2026-01-00654/7/2026
Towing imposes substantial efficiency penalties on both battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, reducing range by 30-50%. This paper presents a proof-of-concept embedded control architecture for distributed trailer propulsion that actively regulates drawbar force to reduce towing loads. Unlike proprietary e-trailer systems requiring specialized hardware, the proposed implementation demonstrates feasibility using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components and open-source software. The distributed architecture employs dual Raspberry Pi 4B single-board computers communicating via ROS 2 at 20 Hz. The trailer-mounted controller executes a Simulink-generated control node coordinating load cell acquisition (HX711 ADC), motor CAN bus telemetry, and throttle commands to a 5 kW BLDC traction motor powered by a 5 kWh LiFePO4 battery pack. A vehicle-mounted controller logs OBD-II/CAN validation data. The control pipeline implements cascaded EWMA/Hampel
Joshi, Gaurav, Adelman, Ian, Liu, Jun, Donnaway, Ruthie
A Study of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 126 and 136 Test Procedures on a Class 5 Vehicle2026-01-06164/7/2026
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 126 and 136 are standards imposed on four of the eight recognized road vehicle classes in The United States. These standards make it mandatory for Electronic Stability Control modules (ESC) to be mounted to Class 1,2,7, and 8 vehicles. These modules strategically activate the vehicle brakes via the Antilock Brake System (ABS) to limit the recorded yaw rate and lateral displacement of a vehicle during an extreme cornering maneuver such as a sudden swerve to avoid an obstacle on the road. The two aforementioned FMVSS mandates also specify three different driving maneuvers that are conducted to profile and analyze ESC module performance. There is now an interest in creating a new FMVSS that makes ESC modules mandatory for Class 5 vehicles. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how one specific Class 5 vehicle’s ESC module performed when subjected to the two test procedures that correspond to FMVSS 126 and 136. As will be seen, the vehicle’s
Cazares, Richard Isaac, Guenther, Dennis, Heydinger, Gary
Modular 3-D Lumped-Parameter Thermal Network for Thermal Estimation of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors in Electromechanical Braking Systems2026-01-01364/7/2026
As electric intelligent vehicles advance, drive-by-wire systems are increasingly adopted, and the thermal reliability of electromechanical brake (EMB) motors—the key actuators—remains safety-critical. Under stalled-rotor operation, unequal DC currents are typically applied to the three phases, producing nonuniform winding heating. Conventional thermal models can miss the associated tangential heat-transfer effects, increasing the risk of phase-wise end-winding hot spot. This paper analyzes EMB motor thermal behavior under stalled-rotor conditions using a modular 3-D lumped-parameter thermal network (LPTN). First, a standardized tooth module with external interfaces is developed. Its internal parameters are informed by experiments and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and identified via particle swarm optimization (PSO), allowing the module to be encapsulated for reuse. Next, based on the machine topology, a minimal motor is derived and multiple tooth modules are interconnected through
Duan, Yanlong, Xiong, Lu, Wang, Xinjian, Zhuo, Guirong, Zeng, Jie
Development and Validation of Torque Vectoring and Traction Control Strategies in a FSAE Vehicle Using a Dual-Axle Dynamometer HiL Platform2026-01-06444/7/2026
This study presents the vehicle control optimization of a Formula SAE (FSAE) electric vehicle developed by National Taiwan University Racing Team (NTU Racing), utilizing a dual-axle dynamometer and a real-time Hardware-in-the-Loop platform from Chroma. The novelty of this work lies in the comprehensive system-level validation of independent torque control strategies, namely Torque Vectoring (TV) and Traction Control (TC), implemented directly within the vehicle control unit (VCU), and the high-fidelity simulation of dynamic driving scenarios based on the FSAE circuit. The vehicle features an independently controlled rear-axle, two-wheel drive (2WD) configuration, consisting of two in-wheel motors, self-developed inverters, and planetary gearboxes. During testing, a pre-built CarSim driver model provides throttle, brake, and steering inputs to the VCU via Controller Area Network (CAN) interface. The VCU, in turn, computes the independent torque commands according to the TV and TC
Hsiao, Tsung-Yu, Chen, Zhi-Ren, Jian, Rong-Wei, Chen, Tai-Hsiang, Wang, Tai-Jie, Hu, Wei-Zhe, Ho, Hui-Ting, Wu, Ting-Yu, Lin, Ting-He, Chiu, Joseph
Two-Channel Pressure Control Using an Electric Cylinder and a Solenoid valve for Electronically Controlled Brake Systems2026-01-06384/7/2026
With the rapid proliferation of electrified vehicles (xEVs), maximizing regenerative energy recovery has become a crucial challenge in realizing zero-emission mobility. In front-wheel-drive (FWD) vehicles, regenerative braking acts only on the front axle, resulting in a braking-force distribution biased toward the front. When uniform hydraulic pressure is applied to both axles, excessive braking force on the front wheels may cause premature wheel lock and hinder the intended regenerative braking effect. To address this issue, it is essential to implement an independent pressure control strategy (two-channel pressure control) that appropriately reduces front pressure according to regenerative force while independently maintaining adequate rear pressure. This study proposes a new two-channel pressure control architecture utilizing a simple and reasonable actuator set consisting of one electric cylinder and one solenoid valve. The electric cylinder generates hydraulic pressure by
Kaneko, Shosuke, Deno, Yoshitomo, Kobayashi, Tatsushi, Kawamura, Hikaru
Redefining Tractor Braking: An Automation-Based Approach for Safety and Efficiency Across Global Applications2026-01-00054/7/2026
Agriculture sector is undergoing a phenomenal transformation, driven by the legislative requirements mandated by countries worldwide to tackle global warming through stringent global emission and on the need to improve operator safety, productivity, particularly on sloped and uneven terrains. Conventional tractors with internal combustion engines (ICEs) have been in use for decades but they often have issues over coordinated control on inclined terrains, especially during load transitions, start-stops, and loader operations. Due to which operators have a critical task of maintaining vehicle stability, controlling rollback on gradients — leading to compromised efficiency, safety risks, and increased fatigue. Global Emission Norms are getting stringent and the justification to end user on the Incremental value proposition is getting difficult to make the products appealing. To address these multifaceted challenges, this paper presents the architecture and functional strategy to increase
M, Rojer, Natarajan, Saravanan, Muniappan, Balakrishnan
Characterizing Regenerative Braking of the Tesla Model 3 Using Chassis Dynamometer Testing2026-01-04534/7/2026
Regenerative braking has a strong influence on the energy efficiency and drivability of battery-electric vehicles. This study establishes an empirical baseline analysis under controlled conditions of the regenerative braking behavior of the 2020 Tesla Model 3 to support the interpretation of on-road performance and serve as a reference for subsequent testing and analysis. The tests were performed on a four-wheel-drive chassis dynamometer at Argonne National Laboratory, combining Multi Cycle Testing (MCT) to simulate real world driving patterns (city, highway) with coast-down tests to isolate periods where the motor is operating in regen mode and compare the behavior across different parameters. Vehicle data was collected from the vehicle using taps in the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus as well as a high-resolution power analyzer. The vehicle displayed the highest efficiency during simulated city driving conditions (3.62 miles/kWh followed by highway (3.40 miles/kWh) and aggressive
Pierce, Benjamin Branch, Di Russo, Miriam, Das, Debashis, Zhan, Lu, Stutenberg, Kevin
Vehicle Test Platform with Experimentally Correlated Tire Model for Torque Vectoring Control2026-01-06224/7/2026
This paper presents a testing platform for the development of lateral stability control systems in independent motor electric vehicles (EVs). A 10 degree of freedom (DOF) vehicle simulation and a radio control test vehicle are constructed to enable controls validation scalable to full size vehicles. These vehicle simulations, or ‘digital twins’, have been widely adopted throughout the automotive industry due to their lower operating costs and ease of implementation. Virtual models are not perfect representations of reality, however, and physical testing is still necessary to validate systems for use in the real world. This is especially true when testing safety-critical features such as stability control. As a result, a simulation environment working in conjunction with a test vehicle represents an optimal hybrid approach. In this work, a high fidelity vehicle model is constructed in the Matlab/Simulink environment. To capture the effect of suspension, the digital twin is capable of
Petersen, Nicholas Conner, Robinette, Darrell
Optimal Control Analysis of Minimum-Time Maneuvers for Vehicles Recovering from Instability2026-01-02184/7/2026
Vehicles may enter highly unstable dynamic states due to lateral collisions, sudden loss of grip, or extreme steering disturbances. When such instability arises in congested road sections where obstacle avoidance is required, the safety risk to both the ego vehicle and surrounding traffic escalates significantly. In such scenarios, the vehicle must not only regain stability but also navigate the roadway in the shortest feasible time to prevent secondary collisions. This paper investigates the minimum-time maneuver of a vehicle starting from an unstable dynamic condition and constrained to travel within prescribed road boundaries. A single-track vehicle model with combined-slip nonlinear tire model is employed to capture the vehicle dynamics under high slip conditions. Phase-plane analysis is conducted to reveal how control inputs reshape the system’s vector field and influence the possibility and speed of stability recovery. An optimal control problem is formulated to compute the
Leng, Jiatong, Yu, Liangyao, Wang, Yongxin, You, Weijie, Li, Ziang, Jin, Zhipeng
A Cooperative AFS/DYC Lateral Stability Control for FWDIEV Based on Dissipative Energy Method2026-01-06194/7/2026
To enhance the lateral stability of four-wheel-drive intelligent electric vehicles (FWDIEV) under extreme operating conditions, this paper proposes a cooperative control strategy integrating active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC) based on dissipative energy method. A nonlinear three-degree-of-freedom vehicle model is established to analyze the evolution of the vehicle state phase trajectory. A quantitative lateral stability index is constructed using dissipative energy to accurately evaluate the vehicle’s lateral dynamics. Utilizing dissipative energy and its gradient information, a time-varying stability boundary is defined under dynamic constraints, and adaptive weighting coordination between the AFS and DYC systems is designed to achieve coordinated control of front steering angle and additional yaw moment. A feedforward–model predictive control (FF-MPC) framework is developed, in which a feedforward module generates compensation based on driver intent to
Zhao, Kun, Zhao, Zhiguo, Wang, Yutao, Xia, Xue, Chen, Xi, Hu, Yingjia
Research on Vehicle and Longitudinal Tire Model Parameters Identification Based on Electro-Mechanical Brake System2026-01-06344/7/2026
The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system is a novel type of brake by wire systems with independently controllable characteristics. This system aids in the decoupling analysis of the vehicle and actuator dynamics, thereby improving the accuracy of parameter identification. Therefore, this paper proposes an innovative parameter identification method for vehicle parameters and longitudinal tire model parameters, based on the characteristics of the EMB system and onboard sensors. First, based on the wind resistance and rolling resistance coefficients obtained from the vehicle coasting conditions, a decoupled constant clamping force sequence braking condition for the front and rear axles is designed by integrating the characteristics of the EMB actuator and vehicle dynamics. This approach enables the identification of vehicle and nonlinear longitudinal tire model parameters, significantly improving the accuracy of parameter identification. Next, considering the nonlinear characteristics of
Huang, Jiayi, Cheng, Yulin, Zhuo, Guirong, Le, Qiao, Wei, Wei, Shu, Qiang
Backlash Evasion Strategy for Enhancing Vehicle Cornering Performance2026-01-06404/7/2026
This study presents a torque distribution control strategy for EVs with e4WD powertrain to overcome the trade-off between ensuring vehicle acceleration and deceleration responsiveness and mitigating backlash shock in the driving system. The deterioration of the drivability which occurs from the intrinsic hardware characteristics of the drivetrain is prevented by designing a response-priority drive mode in which neither front or rear motor torque is allowed to change its sign. Instead, in such drive mode, the front motor torque is only allowed to perform regenerative braking while the rear motor torque is only allowed to produce positive acceleration torque. In order to avoid sacrificing the maximum acceleration by applying such strategy, the mode transition function is implemented as well. In addition, in order to prevent backlash impact due to drivetrain compliance, variable offset torque based on drivetrain compliance model is evaluated in real time and applied to each motor command
Oh, JIWON, Lee, Ho Wook
An Adaptive Brake Force Allocation Strategy for Rear-Wheel Driven EVs2026-01-06364/7/2026
Due to changed requirements compared to conventional propulsion concepts, electromobility demands new and innovative strategies for energy-efficient vehicle motion control. For example, the challenge in purely rear-wheel drive (RWD) electric vehicles (EVs) is to achieve a maximum of regenerative braking power in order to increase energy recovery and to ensure, that this does not impair the braking stability. Within this conflict between energy efficiency and braking dynamics, it is necessary to design an intelligent strategy to optimise recuperation. This paper presents such a strategy, which improves an existing approach formerly presented by the authors, but specifically optimised to overcome weaknesses. The previous approach had two major limitations: First, the efficiency map of the in-wheel machines (IWMs) was not considered. Second, there was no possibility of switching flexibly between different brake force distributions to guarantee both, maximized recovery potential and high
Mitsching, Thomas, Heydrich, Marius, Ivanov, Valentin
Quantifying the Impact of Towing on BEV Energy Use: Instrumented On Road Testing and Chassis Dynamometer Reproduction2026-01-04314/7/2026
Electrification is rapidly entering all vehicle classes, including light- and heavy-duty trucks designed for heavy towing capabilities. Still, the quantitative impact of towing on battery-electric vehicle (BEV) energy use and range remains under-characterized. We conducted controlled towing tests with a Ford F-150 Lightning using two trailers of different sizes and varying payloads to isolate aerodynamic and mass effects and to span the full range of towable payloads within the vehicle’s rated capacity. The vehicle was instrumented at the CAN bus level, capturing motor power, torque, speed, and related internal signals from different control modules. On-road testing consisted of repeated back-and-forth passes on level, straight road segments at set speeds focusing on highway operation, where aerodynamic drag is stronger and real-world towing use cases occur. From these data, we extracted road load equations and dynamometer coefficients for each trailer combination, then reproduced
Timermans Ladero, Inigo
Predictive Assessment of Drum Brake Squeal Utilizing Advanced Time-Domain CAE Synthesis2026-01-02214/7/2026
With the growing trend of electric vehicles (EVs) incorporating regenerative braking systems, many compact SUVs, including hybrids and EVs, still utilize drum brakes on the rear wheels to strike a balance between cost, performance, and durability. Drum brake squeal remains a complex and persistent challenge in the field of vehicle noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH). This issue stems from dynamic instability caused by time–dependent friction forces. Traditional linear modal analysis has been used to study the mechanisms behind drum brake squeal, focusing on harmonic vibrations in large–scale models. However, these methods often fail to accurately correlate with real world behavior due to the presence of extra, non-physical modes. To address this, time–domain analysis approaches have been explored, incorporating detailed friction models and contact mechanics. These methods consider different root causes for high and low–frequency squeal and have shown promising results in accurately
Song, Gavin, Kazimierczyk, Stanislaus, Vlademar, Michael, Venugopal, Narayana
Control Strategy Optimization to Improve Energy Efficiency of Electric Wheel Loader Wheel Drive System02-19-02-00113/27/2026
Driven by the dual-carbon goals of “peak carbon emissions” and “carbon neutrality,” improving energy efficiency in electric construction machinery has become a key focus. This study proposes an energy-saving torque control strategy for the traction motor of electric wheel loaders, aiming to reduce drive system energy consumption. The innovation lies in coupling parameter optimization of the pedal–torque mapping and regenerative braking to enhance overall efficiency. An electric model was built using Cruise and validated against real-world V-cycle test data, showing good agreement with an average relative error of 4.08%. Based on the model, two optimized control strategies were developed and evaluated through simulations and field tests. The results showed energy savings of 7.08% and 16.18% in simulation, and 6.83% and 15.51% in tests, respectively, demonstrating the effectiveness and practical value of the proposed method.
Ming, Qiaohong, Wang, Yangyang, Wang, Feng
Yaw Coordinated Control Based on Fuzzy Control and Stability Region Theory10-10-03-00182/23/2026
Electric vehicle chassis integration control aims to improve vehicle handling and comfort. Previous studies encountered significant practical limitations, such as computational overhead in real-time execution scenarios. Designing effective and efficient algorithms for actuator coordination remains challenging. This article presents a synergetic controller for chassis coordination, combining fuzzy logic and stability region theory. First, the controller targets are the yaw rate and side slip angle, which are obtained from a highly accurate multi-body dynamic model. In addition, based on the generated fuzzy rules, the system calculates the required additional yaw moments for each actuator and optimizes their output. Then, the designed controller can distribute control effort optimally in real-time between braking and rear-wheel steering based on the stability status of the vehicle. Furthermore, a stability factor approach is used to formulate a dynamic safety strategy executed by the
Liao, Yinsheng, Hu, Zhiming, Cheng, Yuanshu, Lin, Ruya, Sun, Yue, Gao, Sixiao, Zhang, Junzhi
Sensitivity Analysis toward Differential Braking as Backup Steering Functionality2026-01-50132/20/2026
This paper presents a novel sensitivity analysis framework for differential braking as a backup steering solution in fail-operational Steer-by-Wire systems. The fault-tolerant design approach of Steer-by-Wire and steering systems for highly automated driving relies on the availability of road wheel actuators (RWA). Redundancies are therefore commonly used to ensure fail-operationality. Since its widespread implementation in production vehicles through electronic stability control, the use of differential braking as a cost-effective measure is desirable to increase functional diversity. However, feasible lateral accelerations through this backup solution are limited compared to conventional steering systems and lie close to ordinary driving scenarios. To address this limitation, this work investigates the influence of chassis parameters on differential braking performance. After defining characteristic values and a simulation test plan, a preliminary analysis using a linear single-track
Salzwedel, Leon, Iatropoulos, Jannes, Heise, Cedric, Frohn, Christian, Henze, Roman
Benchmark of Conventional and By-Wire Brake System Layouts for Electric Vehicle Applications by Numerical Simulations2026-01-50082/3/2026
The recently increasing global concern about sustainability and greenhouse gas emission reduction has boosted the diffusion of electric vehicles. Research on this topic mainly focuses on either re-designing or adapting most conventional vehicle subsystems, especially the propulsion motor and the braking components. In this context, the present work aims to model, analyze, and compare three-braking system layouts design alternatives focusing on their contribution to vehicle performance and efficiency: a commercial vacuum-boosted hydraulic braking system, a commercial integrated electrohydraulic braking system, and a concept distributed electrohydraulic brake system. Braking systems performance are evaluated by simulating key maneuvers adopting a full model of a battery electric vehicle (BEV), which includes all relevant components like tires, and powertrain dynamics, which is validated against real-world data. Implementation and integration of the first two systems are discussed
Savi, Lorenzo, Garosio, Damiano, Floros, Dimosthenis, Vignati, Michele, Travagliati, Alessandro, Braghin, Francesco
A Complex Road Surface Parameter Estimation Method Based on the Fusion Framework of Visual Classifier and Dynamics Observer10-10-02-00131/16/2026
Special vehicles such as off-road vehicles and planetary rovers frequently operate on complex, unpaved road surfaces with varying mechanical parameters. Inaccurate estimation of these parameters can cause subsidence or rollover. Existing methods either lack proactive perception or high precision. This article proposes a fusion framework integrating a visual classifier and a dynamics observer for stable, accurate estimation of road surface parameters. The visual classifier uses an adaptive segmentation system for unpaved roads, leveraging a large-scale vision model and a lightweight network to classify upcoming road surfaces. The dynamics observer employs an online wheel-–ground interaction model using stress approximation, integrating strong tracking theory into an unscented Kalman filter for real-time parameter estimation. The fusion framework performs integration of the classifier and observer outputs at data, feature, and decision levels. An adaptive fading factor and recursive
Zhang, Chenhao, Xia, Guang, Zhang, Yang, Zhou, Dayang, Shi, Qin
Enhancing Range Prediction Accuracy for the BEV: Bridging the Gap between Simulation and Real-World Testing2026-26-05211/16/2026
Accurate range estimation in battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is essential for optimizing performance, energy efficiency, and customer expectations. This study investigates the discrepancies between physical test data and simulation predictions for the BEV model. A detailed range delta analysis identifies key contributors to the observed deviations, including regenerative braking inefficiencies, increased propulsion demand, auxiliary loads, and estimated drivetrain losses within the Electric Drive Module (EDM) during traction and regen. Results indicate that the test vehicle exhibits lower regenerative braking efficiency, higher traction forces and lower regen energy than predicted by simulations, primarily due to EDM inefficiencies and friction brake usage during regeneration. The study underscores the importance of refining simulation methodologies by integrating real-world, test based EDM loss maps to improve accuracy and better align predictive models with actual vehicle
Mahajan, Prasad, Kesarkar, Sidhesh, Ali, Shoaib
Simulation Research on Torque Vectoring, Braking, Chassis Control Strategies for Electric & Hybrid Vehicles using System Simulation2026-26-04231/16/2026
Electric Vehicles and Plug-in Hybrids alleviate the energy crisis but pose a unique challenge for vehicle dynamics. Though significant developments in motor control strategy and energy density management are evolving, we face significant challenges in torque management, with several ADAS features being an integral part of the EVs/xHEVs. It demands high-fidelity physical and control model exchanges between electric chassis, ride-handling, tire modelling, steering assist, powertrain, and validation using a 0D–1D platform. This paper explicates a unified strategy for improving overall vehicle performance by intelligently distributing and coordinating drive torque to enhance traction, stability, and drivability across diverse operating conditions through co-simulation. The co-simulation platform includes physical models in AMESIM, and control strategies integrated in MATLAB/Simulink. The platform features comprehensive representations of digital vehicles that require detailed modelling of
Eruva, Patrickxavier, Sarapalli Ramachandran, Raghuveeran, Chougule, Sourabh, Natanamani-Pillai, Siva Subramanian, Scheider, Clement, Leclerc, Cedric, Natarajasundaram, Balasubramanian
Optimization of Inverter Control Strategies for Improved Powertrain Efficiency Using E-Motor Emulation Platforms2026-26-05091/16/2026
As the brain and the core of the electric powertrain, the traction inverter is an essential part of electric vehicles (EVs). It controls the power conversion from DC to AC between the electric motor and the high-voltage battery to enable effective propulsion and regenerative braking. Strong and scalable inverter testing solutions are becoming more essential as EV adoption rises, particularly in developing nations like India. In India, traditional testing techniques that use actual batteries and e-motors present several difficulties, such as significant safety hazards, inadequate infrastructure, expensive battery prices, and a shortage of prototype-grade parts. This paper presents a comprehensive approach for traction inverter validation using the AVL Inverter TS™ system incorporating an advanced Power Hardware-in-the-Loop (PHiL) test system based on e-motor emulation technology. It enables safe, efficient, and reliable testing eradicating the need for actual batteries or mechanical
Mehrotra, Soumya, Chhabra, Rishabh
Predictive SoC Management for Enhanced Recuperation Efficiency in Electric Vehicles2026-26-01541/16/2026
In recent years, the automotive industry has been looking into alternatives for conventional vehicles to promote a sustainable transportation future having a lesser carbon footprint. Electric Vehicles (EV) are a promising choice as they produce zero tail pipe emissions. However, even with the demand for EVs increasing, the charging infrastructure is still a concern, which leads to range anxiety. This necessitates the judicious use of battery charge and reduce the energy wastage occurring at any point. In EVs, regenerative braking is an additional option which helps in recuperating the battery energy during vehicle deceleration. The amount of energy recuperated mainly depends on the current State of Charge (SoC) of the battery and the battery temperature. Typically, the amount of recuperable energy reduces as the current SoC moves closer to 100%. Once this limit is reached, the excess energy available for recuperation is discharged through the brake resistor/pads. This paper proposes a
Barik, Madhusmita, S, Sethuraman, Aruljothi, Sathishkumar
Scalable and Modular Data-Driven Hybrid Chassis Dynamometer Framework for EV Powertrain Evaluation2026-26-03631/16/2026
In its conventional form, dynamometers typically provide a fixed architecture for measuring torque, speed, and power, with their scope primarily centered on these parameters and only limited emphasis on capturing aggregated real-time performance factors such as battery load and energy flow across the diverse range of emerging electric vehicle (EV) powertrain architectures. The objective of this work is to develop a valid, appropriate, scalable modular test framework that combines a real-time virtual twin of a compact physical dynamometer with world leading real-time mechanical and energy parameters/attributes useful for its virtual validation, as well as the evaluation of other unknown parameters that respectively span iterations of hybrid and electric vehicle configurations, ultimately allowing the assessment of multiple chassis without having to modify the physical testing facility's test bench. This integration enables a blended approach, using a live data source for now, providing
Kumar, Akhilesh, V, Yashvati
Regenerative Braking Control Strategy for Electric Commercial Bus under Indian Road Condition Using Artificial Neural Network2026-26-06451/16/2026
The main focus of this paper is to create a more efficient regenerative braking control strategy for electric commercial buses operating under Indian road conditions. The strategy uses Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) to optimize regenerative braking process. Regenerative braking helps to recover energy that would otherwise be lost during braking and convert it back into usable power for the vehicle. The challenge is to design a system that works effectively on the diverse and often challenging road conditions found in India, such as varying gradients, traffic patterns, and road surface types. This study begins by collecting data (which includes vehicle speed, traffic condition, etc.) from real-world driving conditions and aims to train an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) using a large set of driving data which is collected under various conditions to predict the most efficient regenerative braking settings for different driving scenarios. This research brings a new approach to the
Saurabh, Saurabh, Bhardwaj, Rohit, Patil, Nikhil, Gadve, Dhananjay, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya
High-Fidelity Modeling of Vehicle Dynamics for Control-Oriented Stability Enhancement2026-26-00931/16/2026
This study presents an integrated vehicle dynamics framework combining a 12-degree-of-freedom full vehicle model with advanced control strategies to enhance both ride comfort and handling stability. Unlike simplified models, it incorporates linear and nonlinear tire characteristics to simulate real-world dynamic behavior with higher accuracy. An active roll control system using rear suspension actuators is developed to mitigate excessive body roll and yaw instability during cornering and maneuvers. A co-simulation environment is established by coupling MATLAB/Simulink-based control algorithms with high-fidelity multibody dynamics modeled in ADAMS Car, enabling precise, real-time interaction between control logic and vehicle response. The model is calibrated and validated against data from an instrumented test vehicle, ensuring practical relevance. Simulation results show significant reductions in roll angle, yaw rate deviation, and lateral acceleration, highlighting the effectiveness
Duraikannu, Dinesh, Dumpala, Gangi Reddi
Design Optimization of the Propeller Shaft and Transfer Case for High-Speed 4WD Vehicles2026-26-03431/16/2026
Nowadays, vehicle enthusiasts often vary the driving patterns, from high-speed driving to off-roading. This leads to a continuous increase in demand for four-wheel drive (4WD) vehicles. A 4WD vehicle have better traction control with enhanced stability. The performance and reliability of 4WD vehicles at high speeds are significantly influenced by driveline stiffness and natural frequency, which are largely affected by the propeller shaft and transfer case. This study focuses on the design optimization of the transfer case and the propeller shafts to enhance the vehicle performance at high speeds. The analysis begins with a comprehensive study of factors affecting the power transfer path, transfer case stiffness, and critical frequency, including material properties, propeller shaft geometry, and different boundary conditions. Advanced computational methods are employed to model the dynamic behavior of the powertrain, identifying the natural frequency of the transfer case and propeller
Kumar, Sarvesh, Yadav, Sahdev, S, Manickaraja, Sanjay, L, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Jain, Saurabh Kumar, Deole, Subodh M
Active Thermal Management of EMB Motors Considering Winding Heat Imbalance2025-01-733112/31/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) system represents a novel dry brake-by-wire technology renowned for their superior control performance and compact structure, effectively meeting the demands of intelligent electric vehicles. However, its performance can be compromised under extreme ambient temperatures and non-uniform heat generation across the coils. This study addresses the critical challenge of single-phase overheating in the EMB motor actuator during low-speed high-torque operations by proposing a novel Maximum Duration Per Torque (MDPT) control strategy. The core of this method is to optimize the allocation of dq-axis currents. It aims to extend the safe operating duration of the EMB while respecting its thermal constraints and maintaining full braking performance. Firstly, based on the operational characteristics of the EMB, we establish a lumped parameter thermal network (LPTN) model. This model accurately captures the uneven thermal distribution among the three-phase windings
Zeng, Jie, Xiong, Lu, Zhuo, Guirong, Duan, Yanlong, Wang, Xinjian
Research on Wheel Slip Ratio Control for Electro-Mechanical Brake System: From PI to High-Order Sliding Mode Control2025-01-733212/31/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) system is a novel dry-type brake-by-wire system that features superior control performance and a compact structural design, effectively meeting the development demands of intelligent and electrified vehicles. However, current research on anti-lock braking system (ABS) primarily focuses on hydraulic brake system and mostly remains at the simulation and hardware-in-the-loop testing stages. Therefore, this paper validates the feasibility of slip ratio control based on EMB actuators through both simulation and real-vehicle experiments. First, this paper establishes an equivalent second-order response model for the closed-loop EMB control system through theoretical derivation and identifies the dynamic response characteristics of the EMB actuator via sinusoidal frequency sweep testing. Next, it compares two control strategies: one that uses the reference slip ratio as the direct control target, and another that uses reference wheel speed as the direct
Cheng, Yulin, Qiao, Le, Wang, Chenyu, Li, Congcong, Zhuo, Guirong, Wei, Wei
Coordinated Control of DYC/ABS for Cornering Braking Based on Driver Intention2025-01-734012/31/2025
This paper proposes a DYC/ABS coordinated control strategy for cornering and braking based on driver intention. A hierarchical control structure is established, where the upper-level controller uses a vehicle dynamics model to calculate the additional yaw moment required by the DYC controller to track the desired yaw rate and sideslip angle, as well as the driver’s intended braking intensity. Taking multiple constraints into account, a quadratic programming algorithm is employed to optimize the distribution of braking forces among the four wheels. The lower-level ABS controller is designed with multiple thresholds and corresponding control phases to precisely regulate the hydraulic pressure of individual wheel cylinders. In emergency braking scenarios where ABS intervention may conflict with the upper-layer braking force allocation, a rule-based, stepwise diagonal pressure reduction compensation strategy is proposed. This strategy fully considers the influence of longitudinal and
Zou, Yan, Ma, Yao, Kong, Yan, Pei, Xiaofei
A Unified Layer-by-Layer Progressive Framework for Sensorless Control of Brake-By-Wire Systems2025-01-732812/31/2025
Conventional control of Brake-by-Wire (BBW) systems, including electro-hydraulic brake(EHB) and electro-mechanical brake(EMB), relys on pressure sensors, the errors of which usually resulted inaccurate braking force tracking bringing a lot of safety hazards, e.g., wheel locking and slipping. To address challenges of accurate braking force control under the circumstance of the system nonliearities (such as friction) and uncertainties (such as stiffness characteristics) for a sensorless BBW system, this paper proposes a unified Layer-by-Layer Progressive (LLP) control framework to enable fast and precise brake control. The work has been conducted with three new contributions in the three cascaded stages within the control framework: in the coarse compensation stage, a load-adaptive LuGre friction model is proposed to handle modellable nonlinearities; in the fine compensation stage, an Adaptive Extended Disturbance Observer (AEDO) is developed to estimate and compensate for parameter
Zhou, Quan, Lv, Zongyu, Han, Wei, Li, Congcong, Zhao, Xinyu, Xiong, Lu, Shu, Qiang
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