Browse Topic: Electronic braking systems

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Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus2025-01-0266To be published on 07/02/2025
Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of
Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias
Technical Paper
Wheel Hop Detection in High-Torque Vehicles: A Machine Learning Approach with Focus on Data Coverage and Model Generalization2025-01-0271To be published on 07/02/2025
Wheel hop is a vibration phenomenon that occurs in cars with a high torque during high accelerations from low speed. Drivers perceive wheel hop as vertical oscillations in the vehicle frame. In severe cases, it can lead to component damage or deformation. Therefore, the affected vehicles must be safeguarded against these vibrations through safe component design and additional software-based functions. Conventional software-based solutions such as the traction control system (TCS) are not explicitly designed to prevent wheel hop. These systems often intervene too late and apply abrupt torque adjustments that compromise driving comfort. Based on observations on real measurements the TCS intervention in some cases leads to an amplification of the wheel hop effect. To address these challenges, we propose a novel approach based on machine learning (ML) for the early detection of wheel hop by leveraging real-time measurements from a rear-wheel drive vehicle. Unlike conventional methods, our
Chehoudi, Moatez, Moisidis, Ioannis, Sailer, Marc, Peters, Steven
Technical Paper
Longitudinal Dynamic Metrics for Describing and Developing the Deceleration Behavior of Vehicles in the Concept Phase2025-01-0264To be published on 07/02/2025
The brake system is a critical safety component in motor vehicles. Advances in the electrification of the powertrain and the rise of autonomous driving technologies are profoundly influencing the brake system, driving innovative approaches to brake concepts and necessitating the development of new deceleration strategies. A significant technological advancement is the decoupling of the driver from the brake system through Brake-by-Wire technology. A crucial attribute is the attainment of a consistent and concept-independent deceleration behavior and pedal feel. To establish a consistent and OEM-specific deceleration behavior and pedal feel in the early development phase, objective criteria and perceptual thresholds are required, describing the desired subjective braking behavior. Moreover, objective criteria are indispensable for the virtual phase of the vehicle development process. In this article the focus is in deceleration from a straight-ahead drive. To identify objective criteria
Biller, Ralph, Udovicic, Matej, Ketzmerick, Erik, Kirch, Sebastian, Mayr, Stefan, Prokop, Günther, Wagner, Andreas
Technical Paper
Development and Evaluation of a Combined Driveline Oscillation and Traction Controller Using Model Predictive Control and Reinforcement Learning: A Comparative Case Study2025-01-0291To be published on 07/02/2025
In electric vehicles, the control of driveline oscillations and tire trac- tion is critical for guaranteeing driver comfort and safety. Yet, achiev- ing sufficient driveline control performance remains challenging in the presence of rapidly varying road conditions. Two promising avenues for further improving driveline control are adaptive model predictive control (MPC) and model-based reinforcement learning (RL). We de- rive such controllers from the same non-linear vehicle model and vali- date them through pre-defined test scenarios. The MPC approach em- ploys input and output trajectory tracking with soft constraints to en- sure feasible control actions even in the presence of constraint viola- tions and is further supported by a Kalman filter for robust state estima- tion and prediction. In contrast, the RL controller leverages the model- based DreamerV3 algorithm to learn control policies autonomously, adapting to different road conditions without relying on external infor- mation
Uhl, Ramón Tamino, Schüle, Isabel, Ludmann, Laurin, Geist, A. René
Technical Paper
Kinetic Energy Recovery: Assessment on the impact of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor and Battery Dynamic models2025-01-0303To be published on 07/02/2025
This paper examines the influence of a detailed dynamic model of a Surface Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (SPMSM) on the accurate evaluation of kinetic energy recovery during braking in a mild hybrid vehicle. The model, implemented in MATLAB Simulink, is based on the motor's DQ equivalent circuit, accounting for transient effects, inductance variability, and magnetic saturation. Also, a 2nd Order Thevenin Equivalent model of the battery is used in order to take into account the bus voltage variability. Simulations reveal that the dynamic model predicts significant variations in energy recovery potential, with differences of up to 25% compared to static models under specific braking conditions. These discrepancies are particularly pronounced during high-speed high-torque transitions, where transient electrical behaviors strongly influence energy recovery. The model’s accuracy enhances the reliability of energy simulations, especially in scenarios involving frequent or intense
Lombardi, Simone, Federici, Leonardo, Tribioli, Laura, Bella, Gino
Technical Paper
Electric Bus NVH Challenges and Refinement Using Innovative Approach2025-01-0080To be published on 05/05/2025
The trend towards electrification propulsion in the automotive industry is highly in demand due to zero-emission and becoming more significant across the world. Battery electric vehicles have lower overall noise as compared to conventional I.C Engine counterparts due to the absence of combustion engine noise. However, other narrowband and tonal noises are becoming dominant and are strongly perceived inside the cabin. With the ongoing push towards electrification, there is likely to be increased focus on the noise impact of gearing required for the transmission of power from the electric motor to the road. Direct coupling of E-motors with Axle has resulted in severe tonal noises from the driveline due to instant e-motor torque ramp up from 0 rpm and reverse torque on driving axle during regenerative braking. The tonal noises from the rear axle during vehicle running become very critical for customer perception. For automotive NVH engineers, it has become a challenge to balance expected
Doshi, Sohin, Kalsule, Dhanaji, Sawangikar, Pradeep, Suresh, Vineeth, Sharma, Manish
Technical Paper
Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) System Performance TestingJ3087_202504 (Current)04/14/2025
This document describes an SAE Recommended Practice for Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) system performance testing which: Establishes uniform vehicle level test procedures Identifies target equipment, test scenarios, and measurement methods Identifies and explains the performance data of interest Does not exclude any particular system or sensor technology Identifies the known limitations of the information contained within (assumptions and “gaps”) Is intended to be a guide toward standard practice and is subject to change on pace with the technology Focuses on “Vehicle Front to Rear, In Lane Scenarios” expanded to include additional offset impacts This document describes the equipment, facilities, methods, and procedures needed to evaluate the ability of Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) systems to detect and respond to another vehicle, in its forward path, as it is approached from the rear. This document does not specify test conditions (e.g., speeds, decelerations, clearance gaps
Active Safety Systems Standards Committee
Recommended Practice
Compatibility between Stability and Curving Ability of Railway Vehicles Using Conventional and Unconventional Bogie Frame Models02-18-03-001404/09/2025
This article analyses the fundamental curving mechanics in the context of conditions of perfect steering off-flanging and on-flanging. Then conventional, radial, and asymmetric suspension bogie frame models are presented, and expressions of overall bending stiffness kb and overall shear stiffness ks of each model are derived to formulate the uniform equations of motion on a tangent and circular track. A 4 degree of freedom steady-state curving model is formulated, and performance indices such as stability, curving, and several parameters including angle of attack, tread wear index, and off-flanging performance are investigated for different bogie frame configurations. The compatibility between stability and curving is analyzed concerning those configurations and compared. The critical parameters influencing hunting stability and curving ability are evaluated, and a trade-off between them is analyzed. For the verification, the damped natural frequencies and mean square acceleration
Sharma, Rakesh Chandmal, Sharma, Sunil Kumar, Palli, Srihari, Rallabandi, Sivasankara Raju, Sharma, Neeraj
Journal Article
Development of Deep Reinforcement Learning Traction Controllers for Front and Rear Wheel Drive Electrified Vehicles2025-01-880304/01/2025
Traction control plays a key role in improving vehicle safety, especially for driving scenarios involving low levels of tire-road friction. Over the past 30 years, academic and industrial research in traction controllers has mainly favored deterministic approaches. This paper introduces a traction control strategy based on a deep reinforcement learning agent tailored for straight-line acceleration maneuvers from standstill in low-friction conditions. The proposed agent is trained on two different electric vehicles, a front-wheel drive city car (from EU vehicle segment A), and a rear-wheel drive sedan (from EU vehicle segment D). The paper presents a deep reinforcement learning agent formulation suitable for training on different vehicles, assesses the performance of the resulting controllers in comparison with a benchmarking integral sliding mode controller, and evaluates their response to changes in vehicle mass, powertrain parameters and tire-road friction conditions. The assessment
Caponio, Carmine, Mihalkov, Mario, Hankovszki, Zoltan, Fuse, Hiroyuki, Ivanov, Valentin, Sorniotti, Aldo, Gruber, Patrick, Montanaro, Umberto
Technical Paper
Research on Composite Braking Strategy of Pure Electric Commercial Vehicle on Downhill Low-Adhesion Road Considering Rainfall Intensity2025-01-881304/01/2025
As a distributed wire control brake system, the electro-mechanical brake (EMB) may face challenges due to the need to integrate the actuator in the limited space beside the wheel. During extended downhill braking, especially on wet roads with reduced adhesion, the EMB must operate at high intensity. The significant heat generated by friction can lead to thermal deformation of components, such as the lead screw, compromising braking stability. This paper focuses on pure electric light trucks and proposes a tandem composite braking method. This approach uses an eddy current retarder (ECR) or motor to provide basic braking torque, while the EMB supplies the dynamic portion of the braking torque, thereby alleviating the braking pressure on the EMB. First, a driver model, tire model, motor model, and braking models are developed based on the vehicle's longitudinal dynamics. In addition, the impact of various factors, such as rainfall intensity, road slope, ramp length and vehicle speed, on
Liu, Wang, Zhang, Yu, Xiao, Hongbiao, Shen, Leiming
Technical Paper
Evaluation and Prevention of Brake Drum Freezing by Aerodynamic Measures2025-01-877504/01/2025
The use of drum brakes in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) offers numerous benefits, including energy efficiency, reduced brake dust emissions, and reliable performance under challenging weather conditions. The capability of regenerative braking reduces the friction brake application frequency in BEVs and therefore the brakes can be prone to corrosion and performance degradation especially considering conventional disc brake systems. The closed design of a drum brake prevents corrosion of the friction-components by sealing out water, dirt or snow. A common sealing concept is performed with a labyrinth between the gap of the rotating drum and the axle mounted backplate. A hermetical isolation of water and snow ingress into the drum cannot be achieved with this concept, so additional aerodynamic measures are necessary to deflect the air/water path and protect the inner brake components. Additionally, interfaces like wheel cylinders, electric park brake parts, brake shoe pins, and axle
Hennicke, Tim, Kuthada, Timo, Bernhard, Adrian, Reichhart, Leander, Weber, Eugen, Moers, Michael, Rettig, Marc
Technical Paper
An Integrated Data-Driven and Physics-Based Approach for Dynamic Operation Simulation of Electric Vehicles2025-01-860404/01/2025
To address the challenges of complex operational simulation for Electric Vehicles (EVs) caused by spatial-temporal variations and driver behavior heterogeneity, this study introduces a dynamic operation simulation model that integrates both data-driven and physics-based principles, referred to as the Electric Vehicle-Dynamic Operation Simulation (EV-DOS) model. The physics-based component encompasses critical aspects such as the powertrain energy transfer module, heat transfer module, charge/discharge module, and battery state estimation module. The data-driven component derives key features and labels from second-by-second real-world vehicle driving status data and incorporates a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network to develop a State-of-Health (SOH) prediction model for the EV power pack. This model framework combines the interpretability of physical modeling with the rapid simulation capabilities of data-driven techniques under dynamic operating conditions. Finally, this study
Jing, Hao, HU, Jianyao, Ouyang, Jianheng, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn)
Technical Paper
Research on Energy Recovery Strategy in Braking of Electric Tractor-Semitrailer2025-01-829004/01/2025
Tractor-semitrailers play an important role in the transportation industry. However, global warming and the rapid advancement of energy technologies have driven the transformation of high-emission vehicles, such as tractor-semitrailers, to be powered by new energy sources in order to achieve goals related to energy conservation, emission reduction, and cost savings. By using the motor as the primary driving force, the energy recovered during braking or coasting can be converted into electricity and stored in the battery for later use. While much research has been conducted on braking control and energy recovery for passenger cars, there is limited research on tractor-semitrailers. Additionally, the jackknife is a critical factor to consider under high-speed conditions. To investigate the braking energy recovery of electric tractor-semitrailers, tire and motor models were developed based on the turning and braking conditions of such vehicles. Taking into account the load transfer effect
Chen, Runping, Duan, Yupeng
Technical Paper
Concept of an Electromechanical Brake-By-Wire System for Battery-Electric Vehicles2025-01-880404/01/2025
Brake-by-wire systems have received more and more attention in the recent years, but a close look on the available systems shows, that they have not reached full by-wire level yet. Most systems are still using hydraulic connections between main cylinder and the brake calipers on at least one axle to ensure functional safety. Mostly, this is the front axle, since the front brakes have to convert more kinetic energy during braking manoeuvers. Electromechanical actuators are currently used for rear brakes in hybrid brake-by-wire applications solely, since a loss of the front brake calipers can lead to severe conditions and control loss of the vehicle during braking. Further, the higher mass of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) leads to much higher braking forces on both axles and to increased sizes of the electromechanical calipers. This article presents a concept for a brake-by-wire system for battery electric vehicles, which features electromechanical brake actuators on all corners and a
Heydrich, Marius, Lenz, Matthias, Ivanov, Valentin, Stoev, Julian, Lecoutere, Johan
Technical Paper
Decelerations for Vehicles with Anti-Lock Brake Systems (ABS) during Wet-to-Dry Transitions on Asphalt and Concrete Road Surfaces2025-01-870304/01/2025
The braking performance of newer anti-lock braking system (ABS) equipped vehicles on roads with varying wetness levels is not well studied. Two late-model ABS-equipped vehicles were used to perform ABS-engaged braking tests on dry and wet asphalt and concrete surfaces from which vehicle speed and deceleration as a function of time were calculated. Tests were initially conducted on a dry surface before a water truck distributed water onto the road to create a wet road condition. A continuous series of tests were then performed until the road dried and the cycle was repeated multiple times. Across all tests of both vehicles on both road surfaces, deceleration levels generally decreased when the road was wet and returned to dry levels only when less than 25% of the road surface remained wet. Also, wet deceleration levels were high compared to the historical values used for wet roads. These findings provide a useful and readily identifiable boundary between what can be considered a dry and
Miller, Ian, King, David, Siegmund, Gunter
Technical Paper
Study on Emergency Obstacle Avoidance Lateral Stability Control of Tractor Semitrailer Vehicles2025-01-829604/01/2025
As a crucial component of highway freight systems, tractor semitrailer vehicles play a key role in the transportation industry. However, their complex vehicle structure can lead to significant lateral instability during emergency obstacle avoidance, posing challenges to the vehicle's dynamic stability and safety. To enhance the emergency obstacle avoidance lateral stability of tractor semitrailer vehicles, a direct yaw moment lateral stability control strategy based on differential driving/braking is proposed. First, a 3-degree-of-freedom ideal linear dynamic model of the tractor-semitrailer is established, and its accuracy is validated. Then, a lateral stability control strategy for emergency obstacle avoidance is proposed. The upper-layer controller employs an improved feedforward differential model-free adaptive control (IMFAC) method to track the target yaw rate and vehicle sideslip angle, while the lower-layer controller focuses on optimizing tire load rate. Additionally, a drive
Guo, Shaozhong, Dou, Jingyang
Technical Paper
Bi-Level Control Co-Design for Parallel Electric-Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles2025-01-858204/01/2025
This study presents a control co-design method that utilizes a bi-level optimization framework for parallel electric-hydraulic hybrid powertrains, specifically targeting heavy-duty vehicles like class 8 semi-trailer trucks. The primary objective is to minimize battery energy consumption, particularly under high torque demand at low speed, thereby extending both battery lifespan and vehicle driving range. The proposed method formulates a bi-level optimization problem to ensure global optimality in hydraulic energy storage sizing and the development of a high-level energy management strategy. Two nested loops are used: the outer loop applies a Genetic Algorithm (GA) to optimize key design parameters such as accumulator volume and pre-charged pressure, while the inner loop leverages Dynamic Programming (DP) to optimize the energy control strategy in an open-loop format without predefined structural constraints. Both loops use a single objective function, i.e. battery energy consumption
Taaghi, Amirhossein, Yoon, Yongsoon
Technical Paper
A Drive Anti-Slip and Lateral Stability Control Technique for Distributed Three-Axis Drive Vehicle2025-01-830304/01/2025
The research object of this project is the anti-slip and lateral stability control technique for a distributed three-axis drive vehicle. What differs from the traditional four-motor power system layout is that the third axle has two motors, while the second axle only has one motor. Compared with the traditional design, this layout can reduce dependence on battery performance and maintain motor operation in a high-efficiency range by switching between different operating modes. For example, when driving at high speeds, only the motor on the second axle works, which can improve motor efficiency. When accelerating or climbing, all motors work to provide a large power output. In the research, the vehicle model was first established in Simulink, and then co-simulated with TruckSim. The drive anti-slip control first identified the optimal slip rate for the road, and then used the sliding mode control to determine the driving torque for each wheel, achieving good control effects under various
Shen, Ruiteng, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zong, Changfu
Technical Paper
Smart Boosting: A Control Strategy for Optimized Energy Management with Boost Converter in Hybrid Electric Vehicles2025-01-858004/01/2025
In hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), optimizing energy management and reducing system losses are critical for enhancing overall efficiency and performance. This paper presents a novel control strategy for the boost converter in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), aimed at minimizing energy losses and optimizing performance by modulating to a higher boost converter voltage only when necessary. Traditional approaches to boost converter control often lead to unnecessary energy consumption by maintaining higher voltage levels even when not required. In contrast, the proposed strategy dynamically adjusts the converter's operation based on real-time vehicle demands, such as driver input, Engine Start-Stop (ESS) events, Active Electric Motor Damping (AEMD), entry and exit transitions for Engine Fuel Cut-Off (DFCO), Noise-Vibration-Harshness (NVH) events like lash-zone crossing and other specific operational conditions. The control strategy leverages predictive algorithms and real-time monitoring
Basutkar, Ameya, Huo, Shichao, Sullivan, Claire, Berger, Daniel, Tischendorf, Christoph
Technical Paper
Research on Anti-Slip Traction Control for Aircraft Engine-off Towing System2025-01-829204/01/2025
When the aircraft towbarless towing vehicle (TLTV) drives on road surfaces that are wet, icy, oily, or covered with debris, as well as under conditions such as overloaded towing, uneven distribution of aircraft weight, sudden acceleration and sharp turns, brake system failures, or severe tire wear, it may slip due to a mismatch between traction force and ground adhesion. As a key piece of ground support equipment at airports, the anti-slip performance of TLTV is crucial for ensuring safe and efficient ground movement of aircraft. With continuous advancements in control technology, extensive research has been conducted on anti-slip control strategies for TLTV. This paper reviews relevant literature in the field of anti-slip control for TLTV in recent years, focusing on the current status of anti-slip control technology development, control strategies, and the application of co-simulation technology in anti-slip control. Based on co-simulation using Matlab and Adams software, this paper
Yao, Yanan, Xu, Yitong, Zhu, Hengjia
Technical Paper
A Control and Fault-Tolerant Strategy Based on Electromechanical Brake System2025-01-826504/01/2025
With the development of automotive electrification and intelligent technology, vehicles have higher and higher requirements for braking systems. On the one hand, it requires it to have an active braking function, and at the same time facilitates the integration with other control systems of the chassis domain. The system should minimize oil pollution as much as possible, and under the premise of ensuring the pedal force, it can be used to recover the brake energy as much as possible to improve the range of electric vehicles as possible. The new brake system based on Electronic mechanical brake (EMB) as a line -controlled decoupling braking system can not only meet the needs of the brake pedal sensation, but also achieve continuous and accurate control of braking power. It can effectively Taking into account braking economy, braking safety, and braking comfort. In addition, the development of EMB technology is still immature and the failure rate is high, so research on EMB's fault
Li, Xuesong, Qin, Keyun, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Technical Paper
Stability Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Using Particle Filter and Fuzzy Integral Sliding Mode Control2025-01-881104/01/2025
The Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles (DDEVs) offer advantages such as independently controllable driving and braking forces at each wheel, rapid response, and precise control. These features enable effective electronic stability control (ESC) by appropriately distributing torque across each wheel. However, traditional ESC systems typically employ single-wheel hydraulic differential braking, failing to fully utilize the independent torque control capabilities of DDEVs. This study proposes a hierarchical control strategy for distributed driving and braking ESC based on particle filter (PF) and fuzzy integral sliding mode control (FISMC). First, the vehicle state estimation layer uses a three-degree-of-freedom vehicle model and the PF to estimate sideslip angle and vehicle speed. Next, the target torque decision layer includes a target speed tracking controller and a yaw moment decision controller. The yaw moment decision controller uses the FISMC to determine additional yaw moment by
Li, Xiaolong, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Technical Paper
A Nonlinear Characteristics Identification and Compensation Control Method for Electromechanical Brake System2025-01-881004/01/2025
Clamping force control in Electromechanical Brake (EMB) systems must overcome various nonlinear characteristics, such as motor distorted voltage, Back Electromotive Force (EMF), and actuator friction disturbances. Therefore, modeling and parameter identification of these nonlinearities are necessary. This paper first proposes a motor parameter identification method based on the mathematical model of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM). A combination of the Least Square Method and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is used to stepwise identify both the electrical and mechanical parameters of the motor. The accuracy of the identified parameters is validated by comparing simulation results with test bench responses. The identified parameters are applied to design the motor Back EMF compensation module, the distorted voltage compensation module, and to tune the current loop parameters. Next, a lumped parameter friction model suitable for closed-loop clamping force control in EMB
Qiao, Le, Xiong, Lu, Zhuo, Guirong, Shu, Qiang
Technical Paper
Dynamics Analysis and Stability Control of a Lunar Unicycle Self-Balancing Robot2025-01-830104/01/2025
The unicycle self-balancing mobility system offers superior maneuverability and flexibility due to its unique single-wheel grounding feature, which allows it to autonomously perform exploration and delivery tasks in narrow and rough terrains. In this paper, a unicycle self-balancing robot traveling on the lunar terrain is proposed for autonomous exploration on the lunar surface. First, a multi-body dynamics model of the robot is derived based on quasi-Hamilton equations. A three-dimensional terramechancis model is used to describe the interaction between the robot wheels and the lunar soil. To achieve stable control of the robot's attitude, series PID controllers are used for pitch and roll attitude self-balancing control as well as velocity control. The whole robot model and control strategy were built in MATLAB and the robot's traveling stability was analyzed on the lunar terrain.
Shi, Junwei, Zhang, Kaidi, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Technical Paper
Cost-Effective Sideslip Measurement: Beta for the People!2025-01-879604/01/2025
Vehicle sideslip is a valuable measurement for ground vehicles in both passenger vehicle and racing contexts. At relevant speeds, the total vehicle sideslip, beta, can help drivers and engineers know how close to the limits of yaw stability a vehicle is during the driving maneuver. For production vehicles or racing contexts, this measurement can trigger Electronic Stability Control (ESC). For racing contexts, the method can be used for driver training to compare driver techniques and vehicle cornering performance. In a fleet context with Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAVS) any vehicle telemetry reporting large vehicle sideslip can indicate an emergency scenario. Traditionally, sideslip estimation methods involve expensive and complex sensors, often including precise inertial measurement units (IMUs) and dead reckoning, plus complicated sensor fusion techniques. Standard GPS measurements can provide Course Over Ground (COG) with quite high accuracy and, surprisingly, the most
Hannah, Andrew, Compere, Marc
Technical Paper
Mercedes proposes ‘in-drive brakes’ for better EVs25AUTP03_1003/01/2025
From humble Chevrolet Bolts to six-figure Lucid Airs, every EV can reverse its electric motors to slow the vehicle while harvesting energy for the battery, the efficient tag-team process known as regenerative braking. Today's EVs do this so well that traditional friction brakes, which clamp onto a spinning wheel rotor or drum, can seem an afterthought. Witness Volkswagen's decision to equip its ID.4 with old-fashioned rear drum brakes, with VW claiming drums reduce EV rolling resistance and offer superior performance after long periods of disuse.
Ulrich, Lawrence
Magazine Article
Refining Control, Charging, and Battery Chemistry for CO 2 e Savings in Heavy-Duty Off-Road Plug-In Series Hybrid14-14-02-000902/27/2025
With current and future regulations continuing to drive reductions in carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions in the on-road industry, the off-road industry is also likely to be regulated for fuel and CO2e savings. This work focuses on converting a heavy-duty off-road material handler from a conventional diesel powertrain to a plug-in series hybrid, achieving a 49% fuel reduction and 29% CO2e reduction via simulation. Control strategies were refined for energy savings, including a regenerative braking strategy to increase regenerative braking and a load-following hydraulic strategy to decrease electrical energy consumption. The load-following hydraulic control shuts off the hydraulic electric machine when it is not needed—an approach not previously seen in a load-sensing, pressure-compensated system. These strategies achieved a 24.1% fuel savings, resulting in total savings of 61% in fuel and 41% in CO2e in the plug-in series compared to the conventional machine. Beyond control
Goodenough, Bryant, Czarnecki, Alexander, Robinette, Darrell, Worm, Jeremy, Subert, David, Kiefer, Dylan, Heath, Matthew, Brunet, Bob, Kisul, Robert, Latendresse, Phil, Westman, John, Black, Andrew
Journal Article
Time-Varying Gain-Scheduled Path-Tracking Controller with Delay Compensation (TGDC) for Autonomous Vehicles10-09-02-001202/19/2025
Path-tracking control occupies a critical role within autonomous driving systems, directly reflecting vehicle motion and impacting both safety and user experience. However, the ever-changing vehicle states, road conditions, and delay characteristics of control systems present new challenges to the path tracking of autonomous vehicles, thereby limiting further enhancements in performance. This article introduces a path-tracking controller, time-varying gain-scheduled path-tracking controller with delay compensation (TGDC), which utilizes a linear parameter-varying system and optimal control theory to account for time-varying vehicle states, road conditions, and steering control system delays. Subsequently, a polytopic-based path-tracking model is applied to design the control law, reducing the computational complexity of TGDC. To evaluate the effectiveness and real-time capability of TGDC, it was tested under a series of complex conditions using a hardware-in-the-loop platform. The
Hu, XuePeng, Zhang, Yu, Hu, Yuxuan, Wang, Zhenfeng, Qin, Yechen
Journal Article
Modeling and Analysis of Comfort Braking Control Based on Brake-by-Wire and Active Suspension Systems10-09-02-001102/07/2025
As wire control systems advance, they have given rise to a diverse suite of advanced driver assistance services and sophisticated fusion control capabilities. This article presents an innovative strategy for achieving comfortable braking in electric vehicles, propelled by the unwavering goal of enhancing driving experience. By integrating active suspension systems with brake-by-wire technology, the approach ensures that drivers retain their confidence throughout the braking process. The brake-by-wire system adeptly discerns the driver’s braking intent through the pedal’s displacement sensor. Utilizing this technology, we have developed a pioneering function aimed at delivering comfort braking control (CBC). This function not only refines the braking experience but also solidifies the driver’s trust in the braking system. Designed to counteract the head nodding effect during vehicle deceleration, the CBC system minimizes or even eradicates the jarring sensation of pitching for both the
Tian, Boshi, Li, Liang, Liao, Yinsheng, Lv, Haijun, Qu, Wenying, Hu, Zhiming, Sun, Yue
Journal Article
Feedforward Control of Clamping Force in Electronic Mechanical Brake System Based on Inertia Identification and Load Torque Observation2025-01-705101/31/2025
The braking system is an essential element for ensuring the safe operation of vehicles. This research investigates the influence of electronic mechanical brakes on the control performance of permanent magnet synchronous motors, with a particular focus on variations in the load torque and inertial load. This study addresses challenges such as delayed responses in the clamping force and diminished control accuracy. To mitigate these issues, a Luenberger load torque observer is utilized for the real-time identification of load torque. The identified load torque is subsequently converted into a compensation current, which is integrated into the current loop as a feed-forward compensation signal to enhance the control performance. Additionally, to reduce the impact of variations in inertial load on the overall control system, this study employs a model reference adaptive algorithm for the online identification of rotational inertia, with the identification results being fed back to the load
Wan, Xiaobo, Shang, Ruipeng, Li, Yingchun
Technical Paper
Enhancing Vehicle Safety: Investigating the Role of Active Anti-Roll Bars in Vehicle Dynamics2024-36-005812/20/2024
A serious problem of public healthcare around the world is the number of road vehicle accidents, every year almost 1,3 million people die and approximately 20 to 50 million people suffer a non-fatal accident because of a road vehicle accident [1]. As a result of that, in 2021 the World Health Organization stated the “The Second Decade of Action for Road Safety”, which the goal is to prevent at least 50% of deaths and injuries due traffic by 2030. To achieve this goal, the automobile companies have invested in technology and products that can enhance vehicle safety. Despite exist some control systems able to reduce roll, and consequently the roll over, such as active suspension, semi-active suspension, and stability control systems, none of them have as main purpose reduce the number of rollovers. The following study aims to examine the effects of an active anti roll bar, to improve the vehicle dynamics during corners and reduce the risk of a rollover by reducing the roll of the sprung
Gomes, Pedro Carvalho, Teixeira, Evandro Leonardo Silva, Morais, Marcus Vinicius Girão, Fortaleza, Eugenio Liborio Feitora, Santos Gioria, Gustavo
Technical Paper
Modeling and Simulation of an Electromagnetic Brake-by-Wire System for Formula SAE Vehicles2024-36-016912/20/2024
Electric vehicles represent a shift towards sustainability in the automotive industry, with the Brake-by-Wire (BBW) system as an innovation to enhance safety, and performance. This study proposes an electromagnetic BBW system for Formula SAE vehicles, optimizing an electromagnet with a genetic algorithm as the actuator. Through a selection process from a million individuals, the system was modeled. Integrated with electric motors using CarMaker® software, the optimized electromagnet surpassed the minimum required force of 228.08 N without reaching its nominal current of 12.5 A, achieving a force of 231.1 N for 150 W power, indicating an energy efficiency of 0.706 N/Watt. The system also exhibited a response time of 17.92ms for an 80 bar increase, 1.52 times better than compared systems. Simulation under varying braking intensities demonstrated dynamic behavior, with settling times for slow, moderate, and sharp braking at 193 ms, 62 ms, and 21 ms, respectively. Efficiency during
Salgado, Vinícius Batista Alves, Gomes, Deilton Gonçalves, Andrade Lima, Cláudio
Technical Paper
Trajectory Planning and Tracking Control for Single Lane Changing with Different Driving Styles of Intelligent Vehicles Based on Seventh-Degree Polynomial12-08-03-002812/14/2024
Single lane changing is one of the typical scenarios in vehicle driving. Planning an appropriate lane change trajectory is crucial in autonomous and semi-autonomous vehicle research. Existing polynomial trajectory planning mostly uses cubic or quintic polynomials, neglecting the lateral jerk constraints during lane changes. This study uses seventh-degree polynomials for lane change trajectory planning by considering the vehicle lateral jerk constraints. Simulation results show that the utilization of the seventh-degree method results in a 41% reduction in jerk compared to the fifth-degree polynomial. Furthermore, this study also proposes lane change trajectory schemes that can cater to different driving styles (e.g., safety, efficiency, comfort, and balanced performance). Depending on the driving style, the planned lane change trajectory ensures that the vehicle achieves optimal performance in one or more aspects during the lane change process. For example, with the trajectory that
Lai, Fei, Huang, Chaoqun
Journal Article
Optimizing Search Testing Method for Brake Boost Degradation Based on Electrical Chassis System M-HIL Bench2024-01-705012/13/2024
With the technology of electronic chassis control systems of automobile is widely used, the functional interaction between brake system and the other electronic systems may lead to brake boost degradation. Therefore, it is necessary to find out brake boost degradation events in the quite large number of driving scenarios. To solve the difficulty of thoroughly and quickly searching for brake boost degradation conditions in the large number of driving scenarios, based on Mechatronic-Hardware-In-the-Loop (M-HIL) technology, this paper constructs an electrical chassis system M-HIL bench to verify the function and performance of the electronic brake control system under actual chassis system conditions. To search and locate the brake boost degradation conditions rapidly and enhance the searching efficiency of levels boundary of affecting factors for brake boost degradation, firstly, based on pair-wise coverage combinatorial testing, brake boost degradation occurrence rate is estimated and
Guo, Xiaotong, Li, Lun, Chen, Zhicheng, Zhang, Liliang, Yan, Luping, Wang, Wei, Zh, Bing
Technical Paper
Active Hydro-Pneumatic Suspension Active Disturbance Rejection Sliding Mode Control for Improved Vehicle Stability2024-28-021512/05/2024
Hydro-pneumatic suspension is widely used because of its desirable nonlinear stiffness and damping characteristics. However, the presence of parameter uncertainties and high nonlinearities in the system, lead to unsatisfactory control performance of the traditional controller in practical applications. In response to this challenge, this paper proposes a novel stability control method for active hydro-pneumatic suspension (AHPS). Firstly, a nonlinear mathematical model of the hydro-pneumatic suspension, considering the seal friction, is established based on the hydraulic principle and the knowledge of Fluid dynamics. On the basis of the established hydro-pneumatic suspension nonlinear model, a vehicle dynamics model is established. Secondly, an active disturbance rejection sliding mode controller (ADRSMC) is designed for the vertical, roll, and pitch motions of the sprung mass. The lumped disturbance caused by the model nonlinearities and uncertainties is estimated by the extended
Niu, Changsheng, Liu, Xiaoang, Jia, Xing, Gong, Bo, Xu, Bo
Technical Paper
NASA’s Inspection Technology for Spacecraft Tests Quality of Seacraft HullsTBMG-5222312/05/2024
Shipbuilders didn’t have the option of fiberglass when the nonprofit American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) was established 160 years ago to help safeguard life and property on the seas. Fortunately, technology to help better ensure the safety of ocean vessels has also come a long way in that time, in part because people have become a spacefaring species.
Magazine Article
Komatsu employs ‘slick’ battery swapping for underground LHD machine24TOFHP12_1012/01/2024
Komatsu introduced its first battery-electric load-haul-dump (LHD) machine, the WX04B, at the MINExpo tradeshow in September. The WX04B is designed specifically for narrow vein mines in underground hard rock mining operations. Komatsu is pairing the electric LHD with its new OEM-agnostic 150-kW battery charger that was also revealed in Las Vegas. The 4-tonne WX04B LHD features what Komatsu claims is best-in-class energy density, offering up to four hours of runtime on a single charge. The Li-ion NMC (nickel-manganese-cobalt) battery from Proterra has a capacity of 165 kWh and nominal voltage of 660 V. Fewer charge cycles are needed compared to competitors, the company claims, which helps to maximize operational efficiency and minimize downtime. Proterra and Komatsu began their collaboration on the LHD's H Series battery system in 2021, long before Komatsu's acquisition of American Battery Solutions (ABS) in December 2023.
Gehm, Ryan
Magazine Article
Antilock Brake Systems Energy Consumption Test Procedure for Air-Brake-Equipped Truck Tractors, Buses, Trailers, and DolliesJ2255_202411 (Current)11/22/2024
This SAE Recommended Practice provides instructions and test procedures for measuring air consumption of air braked vehicles equipped with Antilock Brake Systems (ABS) used on highways.
Truck and Bus Brake Systems Committee
Recommended Practice
Research on Direct-Drive Brake Actuator and Its Control Method for Electric Vehicles10-09-01-000311/08/2024
With the rapid development of electric vehicles, the need for improved reliability and safety performance of electric vehicle braking systems has become paramount. In response to this demand, a novel direct-drive brake-by-wire actuator based on linear motors was designed to address these challenges. This article presents the structure and principles of the proposed braking actuator. Leveraging the traditional electromechanical brake systems as a foundation, the prototype was modified and fabricated. Additionally, the control and drive system for the braking actuator was established using the TMS320F28335 digital signal processor. Moreover, the current-position dual closed-loop control algorithm was devised to regulate the braking force accurately. Experimental results demonstrate that the direct-drive brake-by-wire actuator exhibits rapid responsiveness and precise braking force modulation, showcasing promising prospects in the field of electric vehicle braking.
He, Haitao, He, Chunrong, Gong, Xiaoxiang, Deng, Zhenghua, Li, Tianle, Wang, Xun, Zhang, Hong, Xu, Rong
Journal Article
Safety Concepts for Future Electromechanical Brake Central Control Systems15-18-01-000410/25/2024
Electromechanical brakes (EMB) are currently coming into focus in the automotive industry. This trend was confirmed in 2022, when a first automotive supplier [1] announced the series production of EMB systems. One major driver is safety, especially if EMB systems are implemented with smart actuators that install redundant electronic control units (ECU) and distributed software [1]. Earlier, the authors have addressed safety mechanisms in EMB actuators [2]. In this article the authors extend their investigation to address safety mechanisms in future EMB central control systems (CCS). Impact of different brake system topologies (X-, H-, centralized) vis-à-vis potential safety mechanisms within communication buses and ECUs is analyzed.
Schrade, Simon, Röhler, Andreas, Nowak, Xi, Verhagen, Armin, Schramm, Dieter
Journal Article
Integrated Control of Intelligent Vehicle Driving Stability Using Three-Dimensional Phase Space10-09-01-000210/16/2024
To enhance vehicle dynamic stability during driving, we developed a three-dimensional phase space model that incorporates the sideslip angle of center of mass, yaw rate, and lateral load transfer rate. This model enabled real-time evaluation and active control of vehicle stability. First, longitudinal and lateral controllers were implemented to ensure precise vehicle trajectory. Second, a hierarchical control strategy was designed to actively manage the desired sideslip angle, yaw rate, and roll angle based on the vehicle’s destabilizing conditions, thereby maintaining the vehicle within a stable state space. We simulated and tested the stability analysis methods and integrated control strategies for both cars and trucks under DLC (double lane change) and CDC (circular driving condition) scenarios using joint simulations with CarSim/TruckSim and Simulink. The proposed integrated stability control strategy, which combined MPC-based trajectory tracking with direct yaw moment control and
Lai, Fei, Xiao, Hao, Huang, Chaoqun
Journal Article
Experimental Study on Quality Control and Variable Valve Timing Strategy of Hydrogen Engine for High Efficiency and Low Emission at Low Load2024-01-509510/15/2024
In order to reduce the pumping loss of low loads and maximize the lean combustion advantage of hydrogen, the paper proposes a load control strategy based on hydrogen mass, called quality control, for improving thermal efficiency and emissions at low loads. The advantages of quality control and the effect of VVT on the combustion performance of hydrogen internal combustion engines under low loads were discussed. The results show that when the relative air–fuel ratio (λ) increases to more than 2.5, the NOx emissions are reduced to less than 3.5 g/kW · h at the brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) below 8 bar, especially when the BMEP is less than 5 bar, the NOx is within 0.2 g/kW · h. Compared to quantity control based on air mass, the quality control strategy based on hydrogen mass achieves over a 2.0% reduction in pumping loss at BMEP levels lower than 4.4 bar. Furthermore, it enhances thermal efficiency by up to 5% at low loads, while maintaining NOx emissions within 0.2 g/kW · h at
Li, Yong, Chen, Hong, Fu, Zhen, Du, Jiakun, Wu, Weilong
Technical Paper
Integrated Motion Control Strategy Considering Parameter Robustness for Distributed Vehicle by Wire10-08-04-003110/10/2024
To address the issues of functional conflicts in execution subsystems and the deterioration of control performance due to model parameter uncertainties in the motion control of distributed vehicle by wire, this article proposes an integrated control strategy considering parameter robustness. This strategy aims to compensate for model mismatch, resolve functional conflicts, and achieve motion coordination. Based on the over-actuation characteristics of distributed vehicle by wire, this article constructs the dynamic model and utilizes the tire cornering properties along with phase portraits to delineate the working regions of the execution subsystems. To deal with model parameter uncertainties and mismatch, tube-based model predictive control (tube-based MPC) is applied to the control strategy design, which compensates for model deviations through state feedback and constructs a robust positively invariant set (RPI) to constrain the system state. Correspondingly, the weights of control
Chen, Guoying, Bi, Chenxiao, Zhao, Xuanming, Yang, Liunan, Tang, Zhuo, Yu, Huili
Journal Article
An Economical Multilevel Backup Strategy for Electro-Hydraulic Braking System by Integrating Driving and Electronic Parking Brake Systems10-08-04-002909/24/2024
The braking system stands as a vital component within a vehicle; its malfunction has the potential to precipitate catastrophic or severe accidents. There are two primary backup strategies: one involves hardware redundancy, and the other is the optimization of software strategies in conjunction with other systems. Redundancy among various actuators of the second strategy not only maximizes the vehicle’s inherent capabilities but also results in cost savings. In this article, a multilevel backup strategy that integrates electro-hydraulic braking, driving systems, and electronic parking brake systems is explored. Utilizing a self-developed braking safety control system, a proposal is made for the electronic parking brake to participate in service braking. Additionally, two functional modules, pre-clamping and deceleration following, have been meticulously designed to tackle the challenges of response delay and insufficient control precision that are commonly associated with electronic
Tian, Boshi, Li, Liang, Liao, Yinsheng, Lv, Haijun, Wang, Xiangyu, Hu, Zhiming, Sun, Yue, Qu, Wenying
Journal Article
Understanding the Actuation Point Stiffness of Electromechanical Drum Brakes15-18-01-000209/24/2024
Electromechanically actuated drum brakes are one interesting option for the realization of brake-by-wire systems for future electric vehicles. A key characteristic for the design and control of electromechanical brake actuators is the actuation point stiffness, as this quantity relates the actuation force to the required actuator position. The various known approaches for the control of electromechanical brakes, which primarily focus on disc foundation brakes, typically rely on the stiffness curve at least to some extent. A transfer of these approaches to drum brakes is not straightforward, because the actuation point stiffness for drum brakes is much more complex compared to disc brakes. In particular, a strong hysteretic behavior is observed for the standing drum and a considerable change of the stiffness and hysteresis can be observed for the rotating drum. Although drum brakes have been used for decades these effects have not been thoroughly discussed in literature, yet. Hence
Peter, Simon, Janhsen, Michael, Stümke, Daniel, Görges, Daniel
Journal Article
Niobium Alloyed Ferritic Nitrocarburized Brake Rotors2024-01-303109/08/2024
Niobium (Nb) alloyed Grey cast iron in combination with Ferritic Nitrocarburize (FNC) case hardening heat treatment is proposed to improve wear resistance and reduce brake dust generation of brake rotors. Standard Eutectic and Hypereutectic Grey irons alloyed with Niobium were evaluated in comparison to baseline unalloyed compositions. Brake speed snub sensitivity tribological testing was performed on a matrix including Niobium alloyed, Unalloyed, FNC, Non FNC, Non-Asbestos Organic (NAO) friction and Low metallic (Low Met) friction materials. Full size brake rotors were evaluated by Block Wear and Corrosion Cleanability. Improved wear, corrosion resistance and reduced brake dust debris were demonstrated by the Niobium alloyed FNC brake rotor combinations. Corrosion is an important consideration when evaluating brake performance. Combining cyclic corrosion and brake rotor testing provides the best comparison with field exposure.
Holly, Mike
Technical Paper
Brake Heat Capacity Prediction Using a Machine-Learned Friction Coefficient Model and Virtual Wheel Brake2024-01-305409/08/2024
Recently, the increasing complexity of systems and diverse customer demands have necessitated the development of highly efficient vehicles. The ability to accurately predict vehicle performance through simulation allows for the determination of design specifications before the construction of test vehicles, leading to reduced development schedules and costs. Therefore, detailed brake thermal performance predictions are required both for the front and rear brakes. Moreover, scenarios requiring validation, such as alpine conditions that apply braking severity to xEV with the regenerative braking system, have become increasingly diverse. To address this challenge, this study proposes a co-simulation method that incorporates a machine-learned brake pad friction coefficient prediction model to enhance the accuracy of brake thermal capacity predictions within the vehicle simulation environment. This innovative method allows for the simultaneous prediction of both front and rear-wheel brakes
Cho, Sunghyun, Baek, SangHeum, Kim, Min Soo, Hong, Incheol, Kim, Hyun Ki, Kim, Gwichul, Lee, Jounghee
Technical Paper
Design, Modeling, and Control of Electronic Mechanical Brake System: A Review10-08-04-002608/28/2024
The electronic mechanical brake (EMB) system is a critical actuator for achieving brake-by-wire control. This review categorizes and summarizes the literature related to EMB into three sections: actuator, mathematical modeling, and control strategies. In the actuator aspect, this article compares and analyzes motors, motion conversion mechanisms, and self-reinforcing mechanisms. For mathematical modeling, this article reviews modeling methods for EMB systems concerning motors, transmission mechanisms, friction, contact collisions, nonlinear stiffness, and hysteresis characteristics. Regarding control strategies, this article consolidates methods for clamp force control, clamp force estimation, and gap management. Finally, the article discusses potential future research directions in EMB from both hardware structure and software algorithm perspectives.
Yan, Zhoudong, Peng, Hang, Chen, Xinbo, Yan, Min
Journal Article
Intelligent Vehicle Path Tracking and Stability Cooperative Control Strategy Based on Stable Domain10-08-04-002508/14/2024
Vehicle path tracking and stability management are critical technologies for intelligent driving. However, their controls are mutually constrained. This article proposes a cooperative control strategy for intelligent vehicle path tracking and stability, based on the stable domain. First, using the vehicle’s two-degrees-of-freedom (DOF) model and the Dugoff tire model, a phase plane representation is constructed for the vehicle’s sideslip angle and sideslip angular velocity. An enhanced method utilizing five eigenvalues is employed to partition the vehicle stability domain. Second, by employing the divided vehicle stable domain, the design of a fuzzy controller utilizes the Takagi–Sugeno (TS) methodology to determine the weight matrix gain for path tracking and stability control. Subsequently, a fuzzy model predictive control (TS-MPC) cooperative control strategy is designed, which takes into account both the precision of path tracking and the stability of the vehicle. Finally, a
Jiang, Shuhuai, Wu, Guangqiang, Li, Yihang, Mao, Libo, Zhang, Dong
Journal Article
Analysis of road safety implementation strategies to support the easiest introduction of autonomous braking products for complex vehicle combinations2024-36-031908/09/2024
In contrast to passenger cars, whose regulation allowed only a simple trailer combination, the autonomous technologies implementation of Electronic Stability Control (ESC) and Advanced Emergency Braking System (AEBS) for commercial vehicles demands more application and calibration efforts. At this case, the focus is on dynamic control of towing vehicles when applying the service brakes of trailer, in special when complex combination as bi-train and road-train, allowed in North and South America. However, the major risk is present occurrence when an ESC or AEBS equipped towing vehicles is connected to a double or triple trailer combination with a conventional braking system, it means: a system that is not equipped with Anti-lock Braking System (ABS). For instance, if during autonomous control, trailers wheels lock, a jackknifing phenomenon can easily occur. Therefore, in case longer and heavier vehicles (LHV) or megatrucks as called in Europe, the strategy for safety assistance systems
Guarenghi, Vinicius Mendes, Pizzi, Rafael Fortuna, Depetris, Alessandro, Pinto, Gustavo Laranjeira Nunes, Collobialli, Germano
Technical Paper
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