Browse Topic: Electronic braking systems

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Optimizing the structural finite element method based process to evaluate the sustainable human accidental sliding load of automobile airvent knob design made with thermoplastic PC - ABS2025-28-0289To be published on 11/06/2025
The research work elaborated the structural integrity of airvent by skipping the assembly level snap fit analysis of knob to reduce computational complexity of air vent knob sliding test post stopper. During assembly, the strain based mechanical breakage prediction of airvent sliding knob snaps is investigated in prestressed condition. The function of airvent knob is to rotate the vertical fins to divert the air flow as per comfort in intended direction identified by passenger. The airvent knob slides on central horizontal fin on a grove feature provided. Post sliding the knob to extreme end it gets stopped at end of grove feature of H fin. The sliding knob is assembled by compressing it against a silicon rubber elastomer inlay. The compression of inlay produces a constant tension on the knob snaps. The knob assembly has to sustain a passenger accidental and abrupt sliding loads while in stopped condition. The knob snaps in this press fit condition are the weak link in the accidental
Shah, Viren, Wani, Dishant, Miraje, Jitendra
Power Electronics: The Backbone of Sustainable Electrification2025-28-0228To be published on 11/06/2025
Power electronics is fundamental to sustainable electrification, enhancing energy efficiency, integrating renewable energy sources, and reducing carbon emissions. In electric vehicles (EVs), power electronics is crucial for efficient energy conversion, management, and distribution. Key components like inverters, rectifiers, and DC-DC converters optimize power from renewable sources to meet EV system requirements. In EVs, power electronics converts energy from the battery to the electric motor, ensuring efficient propulsion and regenerative braking. Inverters convert DC power from the battery to AC power for the motor, while DC-DC converters manage voltage levels for various vehicle systems. These components maximize EV energy efficiency, reduce energy losses, and extend driving range. Power electronics also supports fast and efficient battery charging, critical for widespread EV adoption. Advanced charging solutions enable rapid charging times and integration with renewable energy
Pipaliya, Akash Pravinbhai, Hatkar, Chetan
Evaluation of Alternative Cooling Method for High Performance Resistors in Zero-Emission Trucks2025-28-035910/30/2025
High Performance Resistors (HPR), also known as brake resistors are used in zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) to dissipate excess electrical energy produced during regenerative braking, as heat energy. It is necessary to use a suitable cooling technique to release this heat energy into the atmosphere in a regulated manner. Currently in most of the ZEVs, liquid cooled HPR with its dedicated heat exchanger and other auxiliaries such as pump, surge tank, Coolant and coolant lines, is used which increases the cost, packaging space and assembly time. This paper presents air cooling as a substitute heat-exchanging technique for high-performance resistors which eliminates the need of auxiliaries mentioned above, resulting in space optimization and reduction in assembly time. An air cooled HPR, designed for this study consists of a heat exchanger, which accommodates a resistor wire within its tubes. The design was made to fit commercial vehicle use, specific to trucks, due to packaging constraints
Menariya, Pravin Ganesh, Kumar, Vishnu, Arhanth, Mahima, Umesha, Sathwik, Jagadish, Harshitha
Integral–Derivative-Tilted Controller for Semi-Active Magnetorheological Truck Suspension System Using Combined Multi-Objective Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm02-19-02-000910/29/2025
This study proposes a novel control strategy for a semi-active truck suspension system using an integral–derivative-tilted (ID-T) controller, developed as a modification of the TID controller. The ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm is employed to tune the controller parameters. Performance is evaluated on an eight-degrees-of-freedom semi-active suspension system equipped with MR dampers. The objective is to minimize essential dynamic responses (displacement, velocity, and acceleration) of the sprung mass, cabin, and seat. The controller also considers the nonlinear effects including suspension travel, pitch dynamics, dynamic tire loads, and seat-level vibration dose value (VDV). System performance is assessed under both single bump and random road excitations. The ACO-tuned ID-T controller is compared against passive suspension, MR passive (OFF/ON), and ACO-tuned PID and TID controllers. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed controller achieves superior performance in
Gad, S., Metered, H., Bassiuny, A. M.
Optimal Control Strategy for Dual-Motor EVs with CVT: Comparison of Simulation of Steady-State and Dynamic Programming Methods2025-01-040710/07/2025
This study investigates an optimal control strategy for a battery electric vehicle (BEV) equipped with a high-speed motor and a continuously variable transmission (CVT). The proposed dual-motor powertrain model activates only one motor at a time, with Motor A routed through a CVT and Motor B through a fixed gear. To improve energy efficiency, two optimization methods are evaluated: a quasi-steady-state map-based approach and a dynamic programming (DP) method. The DP approach applies Bellman’s principle to derive the globally optimal CVT ratio and motor torque trajectory over the WLTC cycle. Simulation results demonstrate that the DP method significantly improves overall efficiency compared to traditional control logic. Furthermore, the study proposes using DP-derived maps to refine practical control strategies, offering a systematic alternative to conventional experimental calibration.
Zhao, Hanqing, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Kuboyama, Tatsuya
Comparative Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Performance of Electric and Counterpart Diesel Tractors2025-01-041710/07/2025
The objective of this trial was to compare the energy efficiency and performance of battery electric and conventional diesel tractors. Controlled road tests replicating normal operations were conducted using two electric and two diesel day-cab tractors. The test protocol was based on the TMC - Type III RP 1103A and SAE J1526 test procedures. The tests were conducted on a 110 km long route that included a 59 km hilly portion with a maximum altitude difference of 307 m. The tractors were divided into test groups of two vehicles. Trailers and drivers were switched throughout the trial between the tractors in a test group. The tests found that the two electric trucks consumed 60% and 63% less energy than their counterpart diesel trucks, respectively. Considering the average emission factor for production of electricity in Canada, the electric trucks emitted on average 82% less GHG emissions than the conventional diesel-powered tractors. The two diesel trucks showed similar fuel consumption
Surcel, Marius-Dorin, Partington, Mark, Tanguay-Laflèche, Maxime, Schumacher, Richard
Automotive Engineering: October 202525AUTP1010/02/2025
Engineering EV, charger safety and security From a quick access port to help firefighters fight EV battery fires faster than otherwise possible to preventing public charger vandalism, here are some developments that haven't made the big headlines. Electronic stability control builds the foundation for safer roads How a mechanically simple idea has kept cars stable for decades, and why it can still evolve for an autonomous future. The factory's hidden power grid Why smart electrical distribution is the new frontier in sustainable manufacturing. Safety by design: a next-gen blueprint for EV batteries The EV industry can - and should - stop pushing decades-old battery architecture well past its limits. Vehicle fire safety with Erbis Biscarri Author turns classroom quest into a tome for anyone who wants to engineer safer cars. Editorial IAA Mobility: A new class of auto show Supplier Eye The new supplier strategy playbook BMW brings EV motor production to Steyr in Austria Ford unveils its
Enhancing Capacitance of High-Rate Electric Double-Layer Capacitors with CO 2 -Activated Mesoporous Carbon Gel Electrodes2025-01-506410/02/2025
Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) store charge by adsorbing ions at the electrode–electrolyte interface, offering fast charge–discharge rates, high power density, minimal heat generation, and long cycle life. These characteristics make EDLCs ideal for memory backup in electronic devices and power assistance in electric and hybrid vehicles, where rapid energy response and high-power delivery are critical. However, their energy density remains lower than that of batteries, requiring improvements in capacitance and operating voltage. Activated carbon with high surface area is commonly used as the electrode material, but its microporous structure limits ion transport at high rates, reducing power performance. This limitation is especially critical in automotive motor drive systems. Recent research has shifted toward mesoporous carbon materials, which improve ion diffusion and accessibility. In this study, resorcinol–formaldehyde carbon cryogels (RFCCs) with controlled mesoporous
Cheng, Zairan, Okamura, Tsubasa, Ohnishi, Yuto, Nakagawa, Kiyoharu
Enhanced Vehicle Capability Through Innovative High Voltage Power Solutions2025-01-050609/16/2025
Increasing the mission capability of ground combat and tactical vehicles can lead to new concepts of operation that enhance safety and effectiveness of warfighters. High-temperature power electronics enabled by wide-bandgap semiconductors such as silicon carbide can provide the required power density to package new capabilities into space-constrained vehicles and provide features including silent mobility, boost acceleration, regenerative braking, adaptive cooling, and power for future protection systems and command and control (C2) on the move. An architecture using high voltage [1] would best satisfy the ever-increasing power demands to enable defense against unmanned aerial systems (UAS) and offensive directed energy (DE) systems for advanced survivability and lethality capabilities.
Eddins, R., Lambert, C., Habic, D., Haynes, A., Spina, J., Schwartz, E.
Enhancing Robustness of Electro-Hydraulic Brake-by-Wire Actuators via Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control2025-01-034109/15/2025
In recent years, motorsport has increasingly focused on environmental concerns, leading to the rise of hybrid and fully electric competitions. In this scenario, electric motors and batteries take a crucial role in reducing the environmental impact by recovering energy during braking. However, due to inherent limitations, motors and battery cannot fully capture all braking power, necessitating the use of standard friction brakes. To achieve an efficient balance between electric motors and friction brakes, the brake pressure can no longer be directly controlled by the driver. Instead, it must be computed by the Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) and sent to a smart actuator, i.e. the Brake-By-Wire (BBW), which ensures that the required pressure is applied. The standard approach to achieve precise pressure control is to design a nested Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control architecture, which requires an accurate nominal model of the system dynamics to meet the desired tracking
Gimondi, Alex, Dubbini, Alberto, Riva, Giorgio, Cantoni, Carlo
Applying Specialized System Analysis for Brake by Wire in Software Defined Vehicles: The Development of a System Analysis Tool (SAT)2025-01-035509/15/2025
The emergence of Software Defined Vehicles (SDVs) has introduced significant complexity in automotive system design, particularly for safety-critical domains such as braking. A key principle of SDV architecture is the centralization of control software, decoupled from sensing and actuation. When applied to Brake-by-Wire (BbW) systems, this leads to decentralized brake actuation that demands precise coordination across numerous distributed electronic components. The absence of mechanical backup in BbW systems further necessitates fail-operational redundancy, increasing system complexity and placing greater emphasis on rigorous system-level design validation. A comprehensive understanding of component interdependencies, failure propagation, and redundancy effectiveness is essential for optimizing such systems. This paper presents a custom-built System Analysis Tool (SAT), along with a specialized methodology tailored for modeling and analyzing BbW architectures in the context of SDVs
Heil, Edward, Zuzga, Sean, Babul, Caitlin
Active Online Estimation of the Electromechanical Brake Coulomb Friction2025-01-034209/15/2025
Electro-mechanical braking (EMB) system has emerged as a potential candidate that serves the brake-by-wire technology. Several mechanisms are used to transmit the clamp force, where each has efficiency losses due to static friction and viscous damping. Compensating these losses is essential for accurate responses such that meeting the performance goal and improving the stopping distance of the EMB. Mathematical and empirical models are used to estimate these losses so that clamp force is accurately estimated and controlled. However, none of these models are capable of addressing the part-to-part variation or predicting the impact of other noise factors on these losses such as operating temperature and degradation. The purpose of this work is to online estimate the EMB coulomb friction by introducing an external torque command over a period of time while observing the system’s response. This approach continuously measures the coulomb friction while the system is in normal operation
Aljoaba, Sharif, Ramakrishnan, Raja, Dobbs, Jeremy
Actuator-to-Vehicle Joint Estimation of Clamping Force for Sensorless Control of the Electro-Mechanical Brake System2025-01-033809/15/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) is a promising brake actuating system for electrified vehicle. To enhance the system function safety while saving space from redundancy sensors, this paper studied sensorless climbing force control for the EMB where a new climbing force estimator is proposed by fusing the information from vehicle dynamics and EMB states. The work was done with three contributions: 1) The priori clamping force characteristics were implemented to build the estimator with two parallel models, one of which was derived from the actuator rigid-body dynamics while the other was derived from vehicle longitudinal dynamics model; 2) a proportional-integral (PI) observer utilizing wheel speed residual signals was developed to correct the initial estimates iteratively; 3) a fuzzy control controller was proposed to optimize the key parameters of the PI observer. Comparative study was conducted on a co-simulation platform and the results showed that the actuator-to-vehicle joint
Xing, Yipu, Zhou, Quan, Cheng, Yulin, Li, Congcong, Han, Wei, Zhuo, Guirong, Xiong, Lu
Bolstering Driver Braking Confidence – Considerations for “Deceleration Adder” Technologies2025-01-035309/15/2025
Over the life of a typical vehicle (often estimated as 15 years or 300,00 km), an average driver can be expected to apply the brakes about 1.6 million times – almost 9 times per mile and over 290 times per day, and an “exuberant” driver can be expected to do this over 2.2 million times. Without question, the driver becomes accustomed to how the vehicle responds to braking control (and all of the normal variation around it), and even develops expectations for how it will respond the next time the brakes are employed. In the rare event of a failure or malfunction in the brake system resulting in an appreciably different vehicle response to the brake input, this can be surprising and even alarming to the driver, sometimes to the extent of causing hesitation in braking. Fortunately, with the rise of mechatronic braking actuators in the 1980’s and 1990’s paved the way for features such as “Driver Brake Assist” (which provides additional pressure beyond what the primary brake actuator can at
Antanaitis, David
A Study on the Development of Optimal Brakes for Electric Vehicles Using Simulation2025-01-034509/15/2025
As the ICE vehicle changes into the EV, we can use regenerative brake. It can improve not only the energy consumption but also reduce the hydraulic brake usage. The less hydraulic brake usage mitigates the heat loading on the brake disc. From this reason, the lightweight brake can be used in the EV. However, when the lightweight brake is applied, the brake NVH can be increased. The optimization design of the lightweight brake should be done to prevent the brake NVH. In this paper, the optimal brake disc thickness and brake interfaces are determined by using of disc heat capacity analysis. The lightweight brake should be optimized by using of the brake squeal analysis. We can verify the results from both analysis and test. Finally, we can have the lightweight brake, which is competitive in terms of cost, weight and robust to the brake NVH.
Kim, Sungho, Kim, Jeongkyu, Hwang, Jaekeun, Kang, Donghoon
An Eco-Charging Strategy for Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles via Graph Optimization2025-24-011609/07/2025
An optimization framework for trip and charging planning for electric heavy-duty vehicles is proposed in this paper. Building upon and extending previous work on light-duty vehicles, our approach models energy-aware routing by constructing a state-augmented graph that jointly captures geographic position and battery state-of-charge. We refine the route model to include detailed vehicle dynamics and speed constraints specific to heavy-duty vehicles, and introduce an alternative graph construction method that avoids the computational complexity of lexicographic products by generating only feasible nodes. The resulting framework enables efficient trip planning that accounts for driving behavior, road characteristics, and charging infrastructure. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach in reducing energy consumption and ensuring operational feasibility for long-haul freight transport.
Zonetti, Daniele, Sciarretta, Antonio, De Nunzio, Giovanni
Longitudinal Dynamic Metrics for Describing and Developing the Deceleration Behavior of Vehicles in the Concept Phase2025-01-026407/02/2025
The brake system is a critical safety component in motor vehicles. Advances in the electrification of the powertrain and the rise of autonomous driving technologies are significantly impacting the brake system, which allows innovative approaches and necessitating the development of new brake concepts and new deceleration strategies. A major technological advance is the decoupling of the driver from the brake system through Brake-by-wire technology. A crucial attribute of Brake-by-wire systems is the attainment of a concept-independent deceleration behavior. To establish a consistent and brand-specific deceleration behavior in the early development phase, objective metrics and perceptual thresholds are required to describe the desired subjective braking behavior. Moreover, objective metrics are indispensable for the virtual phase of the vehicle development process. This article focuses on deceleration from a straight-ahead drive. To identify objective metrics and perceptual thresholds
Biller, Ralph, Udovicic, Matej, Ketzmerick, Erik, Kirch, Sebastian, Mayr, Stefan, Prokop, Günther, Wagner, Andreas
Kinetic Energy Recovery: Assessment on the impact of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor and Battery Dynamic models2025-01-030307/02/2025
This paper examines the influence of a detailed dynamic model of a Surface Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (SPMSM) on the accurate evaluation of kinetic energy recovery during braking in a mild hybrid vehicle. The model, implemented in MATLAB Simulink, is based on the motor’s DQ equivalent circuit, accounting for transient effects, inductance variability, and magnetic saturation. Also, a 2nd Order Thevenin Equivalent model of the battery is used in order to take into account the bus voltage variability. Simulations reveal that the dynamic model predicts significant variations in energy recovery potential, with differences of up to 25% compared to static models under specific braking conditions. These discrepancies are particularly pronounced during high-speed high-torque transitions, where transient electrical behaviors strongly influence energy recovery. The model’s accuracy enhances the reliability of energy simulations, especially in scenarios involving frequent or intense
Lombardi, Simone, Federici, Leonardo, Tribioli, Laura, Bella, Gino
Power Hop Detection in High-Torque Vehicles: A Machine Learning Approach with Focus on Data Coverage and Model Generalization2025-01-027107/02/2025
Power hop is a vibration phenomenon that occurs during high accelerations from low speed. In severe cases it can lead to component damage or deformation. Therefore, the affected vehicles must be safeguarded against these vibrations by a safe design of the components and by additional software-based functions. Conventional software-based solutions, such as Traction Control Systems (TCS), often perform delayed interventions and apply harsh torque adjustments that reduce driving comfort. Motivated by these challenges, this paper proposes a novel approach for power hop detection in a high-torque vehicle based on Long Short-Term-Memory Network (LSTM) and real-time measurements. Unlike conventional methods, our LSTM precisely detects the start of power hop, enabling proactive torque adjustments. Due to its impact on vehicle stability, the model must achieve a high level of reliability and robustness. Given the importance of data quality in Machine Learning (ML), we consider data-related
Chehoudi, Moatez, Moisidis, Ioannis, Sailer, Marc, Peters, Steven
Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus2025-01-026607/02/2025
Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of
Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias
Development and Evaluation of a Combined Driveline Oscillation and Traction Controller Using Model Predictive Control and Reinforcement Learning: A Comparative Case Study2025-01-029107/02/2025
In electric vehicles, the control of driveline oscillations and tire traction is critical for guaranteeing driver comfort and safety. Yet, achieving sufficient driveline control performance remains challenging in the presence of rapidly varying road conditions. Two promising avenues for further improving driveline control are adaptive model predictive control (MPC) and model-based reinforcement learning (RL). We derive such controllers from the same non-linear vehicle model and validate them through pre-defined test scenarios. The MPC approach employs input and output trajectory tracking with soft constraints to ensure feasible control actions even in the presence of constraint violations and is further supported by a Kalman filter for robust state estimation and prediction. In contrast, the RL controller leverages the model-based DreamerV3 algorithm to learn control policies autonomously, adapting to different road conditions without relying on external information. The results
Uhl, Ramón Tamino, Schüle, Isabel, Ludmann, Laurin, Geist, A. René
Early Detection of the Loss of Control of Motorsport Vehicles10-09-03-002906/30/2025
The article investigates how to detect as quickly as possible whether the driver will lose control of a vehicle, after a disturbance has occurred. Typical disturbances refer to wind gusts, obstacle avoidance, a sudden steer, traversing a pothole, a kick by another vehicle, and so on. The driver may be either human or non-human. Focus will be devoted to human drivers, but the extension to automated or autonomous cars is straightforward. Since the dynamic behavior of vehicle and driver is described by a saddle-type limit cycle, a proper theory is developed to use the limit cycle as a reference trajectory to forecast the loss of control. The Floquet theory has been used to compute a scalar index to forecast stable or unstable motion. The scalar index, named degree of stability (DoS), is computed very early, in the best case, in a few milliseconds after the disturbance has ended. Investigations have been performed at a dynamic driving simulator. A 14 DoF vehicle model, virtually driven by
Della Rossa, Fabio, Fontana, Matteo, Giacintucci, Samuele, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Mastinu, Giampiero, Previati, Giorgio
Developing Military Light Utility Vehicle Performance Based on Air Semi-Active Suspension System Using Recurrent Neural Network–Based Controller10-09-04-003006/19/2025
This research presents a semi-active suspension system that combines an air spring and a magneto-rheological (MR) fluid damper to produce both active force and variable damping rates based on the road conditions. The suspension system used for the military light utility vehicle (MLUV) has seven degrees of freedom. A nonlinear model predictive control system generates the desired active force for the air spring control signal, while the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) estimates the target tracking of the intended damping force. The recurrent neural network is designed to develop a controller for an identification system. To achieve the optimal voltage for the MR damper without log time, it is used to simultaneously determine the active control force of the air spring by modifying the necessary damping force tracking. The MLUV suspension system is integrated with the traction control system to improve overall vehicle stability. A fuzzy traction controller adjusts the throttle angle
Shehata Gad, Ahmed
Braking Force Distribution Strategy for Brake-by-Wire Systems: Enhancing Safety and Redundancy10-09-03-002806/09/2025
Brake-by-wire (BBW) systems, characterized by fast response, high precision, ease installation, and simplified maintenance, are highly likely to become the future braking systems. However, the reliability of BBW is currently inferior to that of traditional hydraulic braking systems. Considering ECE R13 regulations, actuator reliability, and braking efficiency, this article first proposes a new braking force distribution strategy to prevent braking failure and enhance vehicle safety without modifying the actuator itself. The strategy reduces the operating frequency of rear actuators during low- and medium-intensity braking, thereby extending their service life and operational reliability. Then, the co-simulation model combining Simulink and AMESim was established for simulation validation based on direct drive braking actuator. Additionally, the real-vehicle test platform was built for typical braking scenarios. The simulation and experimental results show that this strategy
Li, Tianle, Gong, Xiaoxiang, He, Chunrong, Deng, Zhenghua, Zhang, Hong, Xu, Rong, He, Haitao, Wang, Xun, Zhang, Huaiyue
Letter from the Guest Editors10-09-02-000905/19/2025
Letter from the Guest Editors
Wang, Zhenfeng, Zhang, Yunqing, Qi, Ronghuai, Lu, Yukun
Simulation and Experimental: Enhanced Stability Control of Electric Vehicle Based on Phase Plane Boundary Analysis10-09-02-001705/05/2025
To optimize vehicle chassis handling stability and ride safety, a layered joint control algorithm based on phase plane stability domain is proposed to promote chassis performance under complicated driving conditions. First, combining two degrees-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model considering tire nonlinearity with phase plane theory, a yaw rate and side slip angle phase plane stability domain boundary is drew in real time. Then based on the real-time stability domain and hierarchical control theory, an integrated control system with active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC) is designed, and the stability of the controller is validated by Lyapunov theory. Finally, the lateral stability of the vehicle is validated by Simulink and CarSim simulations, real car data, and driving simulators under moose test and pylon course slalom test. The experimental results confirm that the algorithm can enhance the maneuverability and ride safety for intelligent vehicles.
Liao, Yinsheng, Zhang, Zhijie, Su, Ailin, Zhao, Binggen, Wang, Zhenfeng
Electric Bus NVH Challenges and Refinement Using Innovative Approach2025-01-008005/05/2025
The trend towards electrification propulsion in the automotive industry is highly in demand due to zero-emission and becoming more significant across the world. Battery electric vehicles have lower overall noise as compared to conventional I.C Engine counterparts due to the absence of engine combustion and mechanical noise. However, other narrowband and tonal noises are becoming dominant and are strongly perceived inside the cabin. With the ongoing push towards electrification, there is likely to be increased focus on the noise impact of gearing required for the transmission of power from the electric motor to the road. Direct coupling of E-motors with Axle has resulted in severe tonal noises from the driveline due to instant e-motor torque ramp up from 0 rpm and reverse torque on driving axle during regenerative braking. The tonal noises from the rear axle during vehicle running become very critical for customer perception. For automotive NVH engineers, it has become a challenge to
Doshi, Sohin, Kalsule, Dhanaji, Sawangikar, Pradeep, Suresh, Vineeth, Sharma, Manish
Development of an Imperceptible Brake Failure Control Technology and Real Vehicle Application10-09-02-001504/26/2025
With the advancement of control technology in the automotive field, there is a possibility of cross-system redundant control between various actuators. As for the braking system, current brake-by-wire system often uses mechanical backup braking methods to give the vehicle a certain braking capacity after failure. However, in the mechanical backup braking mode, the brake master cylinder is connected to the supporting wheel cylinder, and the brake assist is lost, which leads to an increase in brake pressure and makes it difficult for the driver to step on the brake pedal. Meanwhile, due to the limitation of the brake master cylinder stroke, the maximum braking deceleration of the vehicle is only 3 m/s2 after the driver fully presses the brake pedal. The above two defects greatly affect the safety of the vehicle during backup braking. To solve the above problems, this article takes electric vehicles as the research object, designs a new type of hydraulic circuit for the braking system
Tian, Boshi, Li, Liang, Liao, Yinsheng, Lv, Haijun, Hu, Zhiming, Sun, Yue, Qu, Wenying
Compatibility between Stability and Curving Ability of Railway Vehicles Using Conventional and Unconventional Bogie Frame Models02-18-03-001404/09/2025
This article analyses the fundamental curving mechanics in the context of conditions of perfect steering off-flanging and on-flanging. Then conventional, radial, and asymmetric suspension bogie frame models are presented, and expressions of overall bending stiffness kb and overall shear stiffness ks of each model are derived to formulate the uniform equations of motion on a tangent and circular track. A 4 degree of freedom steady-state curving model is formulated, and performance indices such as stability, curving, and several parameters including angle of attack, tread wear index, and off-flanging performance are investigated for different bogie frame configurations. The compatibility between stability and curving is analyzed concerning those configurations and compared. The critical parameters influencing hunting stability and curving ability are evaluated, and a trade-off between them is analyzed. For the verification, the damped natural frequencies and mean square acceleration
Sharma, Rakesh Chandmal, Sharma, Sunil Kumar, Palli, Srihari, Rallabandi, Sivasankara Raju, Sharma, Neeraj
Dynamics Analysis and Stability Control of a Lunar Unicycle Self-Balancing Robot2025-01-830104/01/2025
The unicycle self-balancing mobility system offers superior maneuverability and flexibility due to its unique single-wheel grounding feature, which allows it to autonomously perform exploration and delivery tasks in narrow and rough terrains. In this paper, a unicycle self-balancing robot traveling on the lunar terrain is proposed for autonomous exploration on the lunar surface. First, a multi-body dynamics model of the robot is derived based on quasi-Hamilton equations. A three-dimensional terramechancis model is used to describe the interaction between the robot wheels and the lunar soil. To achieve stable control of the robot's attitude, series PID controllers are used for pitch and roll attitude self-balancing control as well as velocity control. The whole robot model and control strategy were built in MATLAB and the robot's traveling stability was analyzed on the lunar terrain.
Shi, Junwei, Zhang, Kaidi, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
A Control and Fault-Tolerant Strategy Based on Electromechanical Brake System2025-01-826504/01/2025
With the development of automotive electrification and intelligent technology, vehicles have higher and higher requirements for braking systems. On the one hand, it requires it to have an active braking function, and at the same time facilitates the integration with other control systems of the chassis domain. The system should minimize oil pollution as much as possible, and under the premise of ensuring the pedal force, it can be used to recover the brake energy as much as possible to improve the range of electric vehicles as possible. The new brake system based on Electronic mechanical brake (EMB) as a line -controlled decoupling braking system can not only meet the needs of the brake pedal sensation, but also achieve continuous and accurate control of braking power. It can effectively Taking into account braking economy, braking safety, and braking comfort. In addition, the development of EMB technology is still immature and the failure rate is high, so research on EMB's fault
Li, Xuesong, Qin, Keyun, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
A Nonlinear Characteristics Identification and Compensation Control Method for Electromechanical Brake System2025-01-881004/01/2025
Clamping force control in Electromechanical Brake (EMB) systems must overcome various nonlinear characteristics, such as motor distorted voltage, Back Electromotive Force (EMF), and actuator friction disturbances. Therefore, modeling and parameter identification of these nonlinearities are necessary. This paper first proposes a motor parameter identification method based on the mathematical model of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM). A combination of the Least Square Method and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is used to stepwise identify both the electrical and mechanical parameters of the motor. The accuracy of the identified parameters is validated by comparing simulation results with test bench responses. The identified parameters are applied to design the motor Back EMF compensation module, the distorted voltage compensation module, and to tune the current loop parameters. Next, a lumped parameter friction model suitable for closed-loop clamping force control in EMB
Qiao, Le, Xiong, Lu, Zhuo, Guirong, Shu, Qiang
Research on Composite Braking Strategy of Pure Electric Commercial Vehicle on Downhill Low-Adhesion Road Considering Rainfall Intensity2025-01-881304/01/2025
As a distributed wire control brake system, the electro-mechanical brake (EMB) may face challenges due to the need to integrate the actuator in the limited space beside the wheel. During extended downhill braking, especially on wet roads with reduced adhesion, the EMB must operate at high intensity. The significant heat generated by friction can lead to thermal deformation of components, such as the lead screw, compromising braking stability. This paper focuses on pure electric light trucks and proposes a tandem composite braking method. This approach uses an eddy current retarder (ECR) or motor to provide basic braking torque, while the EMB supplies the dynamic portion of the braking torque, thereby alleviating the braking pressure on the EMB. First, a driver model, tire model, motor model, and braking models are developed based on the vehicle's longitudinal dynamics. In addition, the impact of various factors, such as rainfall intensity, road slope, ramp length and vehicle speed, on
Liu, Wang, Zhang, Yu, Xiao, Hongbiao, Shen, Leiming
Concept of an Electromechanical Brake-By-Wire System for Battery-Electric Vehicles2025-01-880404/01/2025
Brake-by-wire systems have received more and more attention in the recent years, but a close look on the available systems shows, that they have not reached full by-wire level yet. Most systems are still using hydraulic connections between main cylinder and the brake calipers on at least one axle to ensure functional safety. Mostly, this is the front axle, since the front brakes have to convert more kinetic energy during braking manoeuvers. Electromechanical actuators are currently used for rear brakes in hybrid brake-by-wire applications solely, since a loss of the front brake calipers can lead to severe conditions and control loss of the vehicle during braking. Further, the higher mass of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) leads to much higher braking forces on both axles and to increased sizes of the electromechanical calipers. This article presents a concept for a brake-by-wire system for battery electric vehicles, which features electromechanical brake actuators on all corners and a
Heydrich, Marius, Lenz, Matthias, Ivanov, Valentin, Stoev, Julian, Lecoutere, Johan
Cost-Effective Sideslip Measurement: Beta for the People!2025-01-879604/01/2025
Vehicle sideslip is a valuable measurement for ground vehicles in both passenger vehicle and racing contexts. At relevant speeds, the total vehicle sideslip, beta, can help drivers and engineers know how close to the limits of yaw stability a vehicle is during the driving maneuver. For production vehicles or racing contexts, this measurement can trigger Electronic Stability Control (ESC). For racing contexts, the method can be used for driver training to compare driver techniques and vehicle cornering performance. In a fleet context with Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAVS) any vehicle telemetry reporting large vehicle sideslip can indicate an emergency scenario. Traditionally, sideslip estimation methods involve expensive and complex sensors, often including precise inertial measurement units (IMUs) and dead reckoning, plus complicated sensor fusion techniques. Standard GPS measurements can provide Course Over Ground (COG) with quite high accuracy and, surprisingly, the most
Hannah, Andrew, Compere, Marc
Research on Energy Recovery Strategy in Braking of Electric Tractor-Semitrailer2025-01-829004/01/2025
Tractor-semitrailers play an important role in the transportation industry. However, global warming and the rapid advancement of energy technologies have driven the transformation of high-emission vehicles, such as tractor-semitrailers, to be powered by new energy sources in order to achieve goals related to energy conservation, emission reduction, and cost savings. By using the motor as the primary driving force, the energy recovered during braking or coasting can be converted into electricity and stored in the battery for later use. While much research has been conducted on braking control and energy recovery for passenger cars, there is limited research on tractor-semitrailers. Additionally, the jackknife is a critical factor to consider under high-speed conditions. To investigate the braking energy recovery of electric tractor-semitrailers, tire and motor models were developed based on the turning and braking conditions of such vehicles. Taking into account the load transfer effect
Chen, Runping, Duan, Yupeng
Research on Anti-Slip Traction Control for Aircraft Engine-off Towing System2025-01-829204/01/2025
When the aircraft towbarless towing vehicle (TLTV) drives on road surfaces that are wet, icy, oily, or covered with debris, as well as under conditions such as overloaded towing, uneven distribution of aircraft weight, sudden acceleration and sharp turns, brake system failures, or severe tire wear, it may slip due to a mismatch between traction force and ground adhesion. As a key piece of ground support equipment at airports, the anti-slip performance of TLTV is crucial for ensuring safe and efficient ground movement of aircraft. With continuous advancements in control technology, extensive research has been conducted on anti-slip control strategies for TLTV. This paper reviews relevant literature in the field of anti-slip control for TLTV in recent years, focusing on the current status of anti-slip control technology development, control strategies, and the application of co-simulation technology in anti-slip control. Based on co-simulation using Matlab and Adams software, this paper
Yao, Yanan, Xu, Yitong, Zhu, Hengjia
An Integrated Data-Driven and Physics-Based Approach for Dynamic Operation Simulation of Electric Vehicles2025-01-860404/01/2025
To address the challenges of complex operational simulation for Electric Vehicles (EVs) caused by spatial-temporal variations and driver behavior heterogeneity, this study introduces a dynamic operation simulation model that integrates both data-driven and physics-based principles, referred to as the Electric Vehicle-Dynamic Operation Simulation (EV-DOS) model. The physics-based component encompasses critical aspects such as the powertrain energy transfer module, heat transfer module, charge/discharge module, and battery state estimation module. The data-driven component derives key features and labels from second-by-second real-world vehicle driving status data and incorporates a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network to develop a State-of-Health (SOH) prediction model for the EV power pack. This model framework combines the interpretability of physical modeling with the rapid simulation capabilities of data-driven techniques under dynamic operating conditions. Finally, this study
Jing, Hao, HU, Jianyao, Ouyang, Jianheng, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn)
Development of Deep Reinforcement Learning Traction Controllers for Front and Rear Wheel Drive Electrified Vehicles2025-01-880304/01/2025
Traction control plays a key role in improving vehicle safety, especially for driving scenarios involving low levels of tire-road friction. Over the past 30 years, academic and industrial research in traction controllers has mainly favored deterministic approaches. This paper introduces a traction control strategy based on a deep reinforcement learning agent tailored for straight-line acceleration maneuvers from standstill in low-friction conditions. The proposed agent is trained on two different electric vehicles, a front-wheel drive city car (from EU vehicle segment A), and a rear-wheel drive sedan (from EU vehicle segment D). The paper presents a deep reinforcement learning agent formulation suitable for training on different vehicles, assesses the performance of the resulting controllers in comparison with a benchmarking integral sliding mode controller, and evaluates their response to changes in vehicle mass, powertrain parameters and tire-road friction conditions. The assessment
Caponio, Carmine, Mihalkov, Mario, Hankovszki, Zoltan, Fuse, Hiroyuki, Ivanov, Valentin, Sorniotti, Aldo, Gruber, Patrick, Montanaro, Umberto
Decelerations for Vehicles with Anti-Lock Brake Systems (ABS) during Wet-to-Dry Transitions on Asphalt and Concrete Road Surfaces2025-01-870304/01/2025
The braking performance of newer anti-lock braking system (ABS) equipped vehicles on roads with varying wetness levels is not well studied. Two late-model ABS-equipped vehicles were used to perform ABS-engaged braking tests on dry and wet asphalt and concrete surfaces from which vehicle speed and deceleration as a function of time were calculated. Tests were initially conducted on a dry surface before a water truck distributed water onto the road to create a wet road condition. A continuous series of tests were then performed until the road dried and the cycle was repeated multiple times. Across all tests of both vehicles on both road surfaces, deceleration levels generally decreased when the road was wet and returned to dry levels only when less than 25% of the road surface remained wet. Also, wet deceleration levels were high compared to the historical values used for wet roads. These findings provide a useful and readily identifiable boundary between what can be considered a dry and
Miller, Ian, King, David, Siegmund, Gunter
Stability Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Using Particle Filter and Fuzzy Integral Sliding Mode Control2025-01-881104/01/2025
The Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles (DDEVs) offer advantages such as independently controllable driving and braking forces at each wheel, rapid response, and precise control. These features enable effective electronic stability control (ESC) by appropriately distributing torque across each wheel. However, traditional ESC systems typically employ single-wheel hydraulic differential braking, failing to fully utilize the independent torque control capabilities of DDEVs. This study proposes a hierarchical control strategy for distributed driving and braking ESC based on particle filter (PF) and fuzzy integral sliding mode control (FISMC). First, the vehicle state estimation layer uses a three-degree-of-freedom vehicle model and the PF to estimate sideslip angle and vehicle speed. Next, the target torque decision layer includes a target speed tracking controller and a yaw moment decision controller. The yaw moment decision controller uses the FISMC to determine additional yaw moment by
Li, Xiaolong, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Smart Boosting: A Control Strategy for Optimized Energy Management with Boost Converter in Hybrid Electric Vehicles2025-01-858004/01/2025
In hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), optimizing energy management and reducing system losses are critical for enhancing overall efficiency and performance. This paper presents a novel control strategy for the boost converter in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), aimed at minimizing energy losses and optimizing performance by modulating to a higher boost converter voltage only when necessary. Traditional approaches to boost converter control often lead to unnecessary energy consumption by maintaining higher voltage levels even when not required. In contrast, the proposed strategy dynamically adjusts the converter's operation based on real-time vehicle demands, such as driver input, Engine Start-Stop (ESS) events, Active Electric Motor Damping (AEMD), entry and exit transitions for Engine Fuel Cut-Off (DFCO), Noise-Vibration-Harshness (NVH) events like lash-zone crossing and other specific operational conditions. The control strategy leverages predictive algorithms and real-time monitoring
Basutkar, Ameya, Huo, Shichao, Sullivan, Claire, Berger, Daniel, Tischendorf, Christoph
A Drive Anti-Slip and Lateral Stability Control Technique for Distributed Three-Axis Drive Vehicle2025-01-830304/01/2025
The research object of this project is the anti-slip and lateral stability control technique for a distributed three-axis drive vehicle. What differs from the traditional four-motor power system layout is that the third axle has two motors, while the second axle only has one motor. Compared with the traditional design, this layout can reduce dependence on battery performance and maintain motor operation in a high-efficiency range by switching between different operating modes. For example, when driving at high speeds, only the motor on the second axle works, which can improve motor efficiency. When accelerating or climbing, all motors work to provide a large power output. In the research, the vehicle model was first established in Simulink, and then co-simulated with TruckSim. The drive anti-slip control first identified the optimal slip rate for the road, and then used the sliding mode control to determine the driving torque for each wheel, achieving good control effects under various
Shen, Ruiteng, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zong, Changfu
Study on Emergency Obstacle Avoidance Lateral Stability Control of Tractor Semitrailer Vehicles2025-01-829604/01/2025
As a crucial component of highway freight systems, tractor semitrailer vehicles play a key role in the transportation industry. However, their complex vehicle structure can lead to significant lateral instability during emergency obstacle avoidance, posing challenges to the vehicle's dynamic stability and safety. To enhance the emergency obstacle avoidance lateral stability of tractor semitrailer vehicles, a direct yaw moment lateral stability control strategy based on differential driving/braking is proposed. First, a 3-degree-of-freedom ideal linear dynamic model of the tractor-semitrailer is established, and its accuracy is validated. Then, a lateral stability control strategy for emergency obstacle avoidance is proposed. The upper-layer controller employs an improved feedforward differential model-free adaptive control (IMFAC) method to track the target yaw rate and vehicle sideslip angle, while the lower-layer controller focuses on optimizing tire load rate. Additionally, a drive
Guo, Shaozhong, Dou, Jingyang
Bi-Level Control Co-Design for Parallel Electric-Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles2025-01-858204/01/2025
This study presents a control co-design method that utilizes a bi-level optimization framework for parallel electric-hydraulic hybrid powertrains, specifically targeting heavy-duty vehicles like class 8 semi-trailer trucks. The primary objective is to minimize battery energy consumption, particularly under high torque demand at low speed, thereby extending both battery lifespan and vehicle driving range. The proposed method formulates a bi-level optimization problem to ensure global optimality in hydraulic energy storage sizing and the development of a high-level energy management strategy. Two nested loops are used: the outer loop applies a Genetic Algorithm (GA) to optimize key design parameters such as accumulator volume and pre-charged pressure, while the inner loop leverages Dynamic Programming (DP) to optimize the energy control strategy in an open-loop format without predefined structural constraints. Both loops use a single objective function, i.e. battery energy consumption
Taaghi, Amirhossein, Yoon, Yongsoon
Evaluation and Prevention of Brake Drum Freezing by Aerodynamic Measures2025-01-877504/01/2025
The use of drum brakes in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) offers numerous benefits, including energy efficiency, reduced brake dust emissions, and reliable performance under challenging weather conditions. The capability of regenerative braking reduces the friction brake application frequency in BEVs and therefore the brakes can be prone to corrosion and performance degradation especially considering conventional disc brake systems. The closed design of a drum brake prevents corrosion of the friction-components by sealing out water, dirt or snow. A common sealing concept is performed with a labyrinth between the gap of the rotating drum and the axle mounted backplate. A hermetical isolation of water and snow ingress into the drum cannot be achieved with this concept, so additional aerodynamic measures are necessary to deflect the air/water path and protect the inner brake components. Additionally, interfaces like wheel cylinders, electric park brake parts, brake shoe pins, and axle
Hennicke, Tim, Kuthada, Timo, Bernhard, Adrian, Reichhart, Leander, Weber, Eugen, Moers, Michael, Rettig, Marc
Stability-Based Coordinated Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle Trajectory Tracking and Handling Stability2025-01-830704/01/2025
To address the issue of poor yaw stability in distributed drive electric vehicles under extreme trajectory tracking conditions, this paper proposes a novel control approach that coordinates upper-layer trajectory tracking and stability control with lower-layer active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC). Firstly, a stability domain boundary is defined in the β−β̇phase plane, and the instability factor is derived based on boundary line characteristics. This factor is used as a weight in the objective function to establish a model predictive control (MPC) for trajectory tracking and handling stability, thereby adjusting the control target weights for both objectives. Secondly, fuzzy logic is used to change the boundary of the phase plane transition field according to the vehicle state to dynamically adjust the intervention timing of the stability control, while AFS and DYC control are used to modify the front wheel steering angle and yaw moment control in the MPC
Dou, Jingyang, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Mercedes proposes ‘in-drive brakes’ for better EVs25AUTP03_1003/01/2025
From humble Chevrolet Bolts to six-figure Lucid Airs, every EV can reverse its electric motors to slow the vehicle while harvesting energy for the battery, the efficient tag-team process known as regenerative braking. Today's EVs do this so well that traditional friction brakes, which clamp onto a spinning wheel rotor or drum, can seem an afterthought. Witness Volkswagen's decision to equip its ID.4 with old-fashioned rear drum brakes, with VW claiming drums reduce EV rolling resistance and offer superior performance after long periods of disuse.
Ulrich, Lawrence
Refining Control, Charging, and Battery Chemistry for CO 2 e Savings in Heavy-Duty Off-Road Plug-In Series Hybrid14-14-02-000902/27/2025
With current and future regulations continuing to drive reductions in carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions in the on-road industry, the off-road industry is also likely to be regulated for fuel and CO2e savings. This work focuses on converting a heavy-duty off-road material handler from a conventional diesel powertrain to a plug-in series hybrid, achieving a 49% fuel reduction and 29% CO2e reduction via simulation. Control strategies were refined for energy savings, including a regenerative braking strategy to increase regenerative braking and a load-following hydraulic strategy to decrease electrical energy consumption. The load-following hydraulic control shuts off the hydraulic electric machine when it is not needed—an approach not previously seen in a load-sensing, pressure-compensated system. These strategies achieved a 24.1% fuel savings, resulting in total savings of 61% in fuel and 41% in CO2e in the plug-in series compared to the conventional machine. Beyond control
Goodenough, Bryant, Czarnecki, Alexander, Robinette, Darrell, Worm, Jeremy, Subert, David, Kiefer, Dylan, Heath, Matthew, Brunet, Bob, Kisul, Robert, Latendresse, Phil, Westman, John, Black, Andrew
Time-Varying Gain-Scheduled Path-Tracking Controller with Delay Compensation (TGDC) for Autonomous Vehicles10-09-02-001202/19/2025
Path-tracking control occupies a critical role within autonomous driving systems, directly reflecting vehicle motion and impacting both safety and user experience. However, the ever-changing vehicle states, road conditions, and delay characteristics of control systems present new challenges to the path tracking of autonomous vehicles, thereby limiting further enhancements in performance. This article introduces a path-tracking controller, time-varying gain-scheduled path-tracking controller with delay compensation (TGDC), which utilizes a linear parameter-varying system and optimal control theory to account for time-varying vehicle states, road conditions, and steering control system delays. Subsequently, a polytopic-based path-tracking model is applied to design the control law, reducing the computational complexity of TGDC. To evaluate the effectiveness and real-time capability of TGDC, it was tested under a series of complex conditions using a hardware-in-the-loop platform. The
Hu, XuePeng, Zhang, Yu, Hu, Yuxuan, Wang, Zhenfeng, Qin, Yechen
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