Browse Topic: Electronic braking systems

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Research on Vehicle and Longitudinal Tire Model Parameters Identification Based on Electro-Mechanical Brake System2026-01-0634To be published on 04/07/2026
The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system is a novel type of brake by wire systems with independently controllable characteristics. This system aids in the decoupling analysis of the vehicle and actuator dynamics, thereby improving the accuracy of parameter identification. Therefore, this paper proposes an innovative parameter identification method for vehicle parameters and longitudinal tire model parameters, based on the characteristics of the EMB system and onboard sensors. First, based on the wind resistance and rolling resistance coefficients obtained from the vehicle coasting conditions, a decoupled constant clamping force sequence braking condition for the front and rear axles is designed by integrating the characteristics of the EMB actuator and vehicle dynamics. This approach enables the identification of vehicle and nonlinear longitudinal tire model parameters, significantly improving the accuracy of parameter identification. Next, considering the nonlinear characteristics of
Huang, Jiayi, Cheng, Yulin, Zhuo, Guirong, Le, Qiao, Wei, Wei, Shu, Qiang
An Adaptive Brake Force Allocation Strategy for Rear-Wheel Driven EVs2026-01-0636To be published on 04/07/2026
Due to changed requirements compared to conventional propulsion concepts, electromobility demands new and innovative strategies for energy-efficient vehicle motion control. For example, the challenge in purely rear-wheel drive (RWD) electric vehicles (EVs) is to achieve a maximum of regenerative braking power in order to increase energy recovery and to ensure, that this does not impair the braking stability. Within this conflict between energy efficiency and braking dynamics, it is necessary to design an intelligent strategy to optimise recuperation. This paper presents such a strategy, which improves an existing approach formerly presented by the authors, but specifically optimises it to overcome weaknesses. The previous approach had two major limitations: First, the efficiency map of the in-wheel machines (IWMs) was not considered. Second, there was no possibility of switching flexibly between different brake force distributions to guarantee both, maximized recovery potential and
Mitsching, Thomas, Heydrich, Marius, Ivanov, Valentin
Backlash Evasion Strategy for Enhancing Vehicle Cornering Performance2026-01-0640To be published on 04/07/2026
This study presents a torque distribution control strategy for EVs with e4WD powertrain to overcome the trade-off between ensuring vehicle acceleration and deceleration responsiveness and mitigating backlash shock in the driving system. The deterioration of the drivability which occurs from the intrinsic hardware characteristics of the drivetrain is prevented by designing a response-priority drive mode in which neither front or rear motor torque is allowed to change its sign. Instead, in such drive mode, the front motor torque is only allowed to perform regenerative braking while the rear motor torque is only allowed to produce positive acceleration torque. In order to avoid sacrificing the maximum acceleration by applying such strategy, the mode transition function is implemented as well. In addition, in order to prevent backlash impact due to drivetrain compliance, variable offset torque based on drivetrain compliance model is evaluated in real time and applied to each motor command
Oh, JIWON, Lee, Ho Wook
Study on performance parameters of retarder in mountain condition of hybrid electric vehicle2026-01-0617To be published on 04/07/2026
In mountain driving scenarios, the continuous braking demands of vehicles pose significant challenges to the performance and reliability of braking systems. Traditional fuel-powered vehicles primarily rely on friction brakes for deceleration, which face issues such as high thermal fade risks and severe brake wear. While pure electric vehicles can utilize motor energy recovery to provide braking force and recover energy, their braking capacity is limited by the maximum regenerative torque of the motor. Moreover, when the battery State of Charge (SOC) is high, the energy recovery function may be restricted or disabled to protect the battery, leading to a sharp reduction or complete loss of braking torque—a safety hazard. Range-extended hybrid vehicles combine the advantages of both engine and electric drive systems. During long downhill operations, their motors can also serve as priority decelerators for efficient energy recovery. However, similar to pure electric vehicles, their motor
duan, xianqi, Tan, Gangfeng, Li, LiuYuanHeng, Tian, Tian, Yang, Yong
Modular 3-D Lumped Parameter Thermal Network for Thermal Estimation of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors in Electro-Mechanical Braking Systems2026-01-0136To be published on 04/07/2026
With the development of electric intelligent vehicles, drive-by-wire systems are gradually popularized, the thermal reliability of electro-mechanical brake (EMB) motors, as the key actuators of drive-by-wire systems, is closely related to vehicle safety. However, the blocked-rotation operating condition of EMB motors typically involves applying unequal DC currents to the three-phase windings to achieve braking. This results in uneven winding heating, and conventional thermal models may fail to accurately represent the heat transfer dynamics arising from such tangential thermal imbalance, creating risks of motor local overheating. This paper is focused on thermal performance analysis of EMB motors under blocked-run conditions. First, a single-tooth lumped-parameter thermal network module (tooth module) incorporating external interfaces was developed. This module was adapted using experimental and simulation data, with its internal thermal parameters identified via a particle swarm
duan, yanlong, Xiong, Lu, Wang, Xinjian, Zhuo, Guirong, Zeng, Jie
Dynamics and Control Research of a Momentum-Wheel-Based Two-Wheeled Self-Balancing Vehicle Based on Cascade PID2026-01-0216To be published on 04/07/2026
Momentum wheel-based two-wheeled self-balancing vehicle represent typical underactuated, nonlinear systems, posing significant challenges for stability control under varying operating conditions. To achieve self-stabilizing control during uniform horizontal motion, a cascaded PID control method is proposed. This approach stabilizes the frame tilt angle via an outer-loop PID controller while simultaneously controlling the handlebar angle and momentum wheel speed through an inner-loop PID controller, thereby enabling constant-speed self-balancing vehicle operation. First, based on the Lagrange method, the five rigid-body Lagrangian functions of the self-balancing vehicle are derived. The nonlinear dynamic equations of the self-balancing vehicle system, incorporating Lagrange multipliers, are established. Using Taylor series expansion, these equations are approximated linearly near the system's equilibrium point, leading to the linearized dynamic equations of the self-balancing vehicle
wang, nannan, lu, jiahao, zhao, yanlei, fan, yigang
Study of Approaches for Enhanced Traction Control Response for Hybrid Powertrain Architectures2026-01-0415To be published on 04/07/2026
Traction Control functionality requires fast and accurate response by powertrain system for wheel slip control. Close loop control effort of wheel slip shall be greatly reduced with more accurate feedforward torque. This paper explores the method of achieving requested traction control torque with better accuracy for torque converter-based hybrid electric powertrain architectures using improved dynamic modeling of torque converter. This method uses input inertia compensation involving feedforward and closed loop control modeling of torque converter and includes conversion of traction control intervention request through appropriate domains. Commanded torques by hybrid controller at wheel with and without these approaches are compared in Model in the loop simulation environment to identify optimum approach.
Karogal, Indrasen, Ober, Mitchell, Banuso, Abdulquadri, Sharma, Ashay
Characterizing Regenerative Braking of Tesla Model 3 Using Dynamometer Testing2026-01-0453To be published on 04/07/2026
Regenerative braking has a strong influence on the energy efficiency and drivability of battery-electric vehicles. This study establishes an empirical baseline analysis under controlled conditions of the regenerative braking behavior of the 2020 Tesla Model 3 to support the interpretation of on-road performance and serve as a reference for subsequent testing and analysis. The tests were performed on a four-wheel-drive chassis dynamometer at Argonne National Laboratory, combining Multi Cycle Testing (MCT) to simulate real world driving patterns (city, highway) with coast-down tests to isolate periods where the motor is operating in regen mode and compare the behavior across different parameters. Vehicle data was collected from the vehicle using taps in the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus as well as a high-resolution power analyzer. The vehicle displayed the highest efficiency during simulated city driving conditions (3.62 miles/kWh followed by highway (3.40 miles/kWh) and aggressive
Pierce, Benjamin Branch, Di Russo, Miriam, Das, DEBASHIS, Zhan, Lu
A Study of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 126 and 136 Test Procedures on a Class 5 Vehicle2026-01-0616To be published on 04/07/2026
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 126 and 136 are standards imposed on four of the eight recognized road vehicle classes in The United States. These standards make it mandatory for Electronic Stability Control modules (ESC) to be mounted to Class 1,2,7, and 8 vehicles. These modules strategically activate the vehicle brakes via the Antilock Brake System (ABS) to limit the recorded yaw rate and lateral displacement of a vehicle during an extreme cornering maneuver such as a sudden swerve to avoid an obstacle on the road. The two aforementioned FMVSS mandates also specify three different driving maneuvers that are conducted to profile and analyze ESC module performance. There is now an interest in creating a new FMVSS that makes ESC modules mandatory for Class 5 vehicles. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how one specific Class 5 vehicle’s ESC module performed when subjected to the two test procedures that correspond to FMVSS 126 and 136. As will be seen, the vehicle’s
Cazares, Richard Isaac, Guenther, Dennis, Heydinger, Gary
Research on Fault-Tolerant Control Strategy for Drive System Failure of Corner Module-by-Wire Chassis Vehicles2026-01-0620To be published on 04/07/2026
As an emerging research focus, corner module-by-wire chassis vehicles address the pain points of traditional chassis in flexibility, cost, and development efficiency, and have become one of the key infrastructures in the autonomous driving era. However, their large number of actuators significantly increases the risk of failures. This paper analyzes the characteristics of such vehicles and studies the fault-tolerant control for their drive system failures. Firstly, a full-vehicle dynamic model was established, with mathematical modeling conducted for the vehicle body, motor, tire, and corner module system models. Secondly, a hierarchical yaw stability control strategy was designed for the non-faulty actuator scenario: the decision-making and control layer adopted both Sliding Mode Control (SMC) and fuzzy PID control, selecting the method with better performance to output the additional yaw moment; the control allocation layer used a quadratic programming algorithm based on tire load
Zheng, Hongyu, Zhang, Tianhao, Zhang, Yuzhou
The Effect of Tread Depth on Antilock-Brake System (ABS)-Equipped Decelerations for Dry and Wet Asphalt and Concrete Road Surfaces2026-01-0549To be published on 04/07/2026
The effect of tire tread depth on the performance of anti-lock brake systems (ABS) in newer vehicles is not well studied. A single ABS-equipped SUV was used to perform a series of 216 ABS-engaged braking tests on dry and wet asphalt and concrete surfaces using uniform sets of tires with tread depths varying from 0.8 mm (1/32”) to 7.1 mm (9/32”). Vehicle speed and deceleration as a function of time were calculated from 5th-wheel data sampled at 200 Hz. Tests were initially conducted on a dry surface, with tire sets changed between tests. A water truck then distributed water onto the road to create a wet condition and additional tests of each tire set were conducted. Deceleration levels did not change significantly from 7.1 mm (9/32”) down to 2.4 mm (3/32”) of remaining tread on both surfaces in both conditions. Compared to the deceleration levels at these larger tread depths, dry deceleration levels increased for tread depths of about 0.8 mm (1/32”) and 1.8 mm (2/32”) on both asphalt
Miller, Ian, King, David, Siegmund, Gunter P.
Vehicle Deceleration Levels during Wet-to-Dry Transitions on an Asphalt Surface with a High Proportion of Aggregate2026-01-0542To be published on 04/07/2026
The goal of this study is to quantify how the braking performance of newer anti-lock braking systems (ABS) changes as the level of road wetness varies on an asphalt road surface with a high proportion of aggregate present in the asphalt matrix. To achieve this goal, we conducted 375 straight-line braking tests using a late-model sedan and SUV on a public road in Mississauga, ON. Each vehicle was equipped with a 5th wheel (resolution 0.1 mm) sampled at 200 Hz, from which vehicle speed and deceleration were calculated. The road surface was wetted four times and allowed to dry each time under ambient conditions over a period of about one hour. As the road transitioned from wet to dry, a continuous series of ABS-braking tests were performed from an initial speed of 60 km/h. Both the maximum and average decelerations for each braking event were compared between six “wetness” categories assigned to the road surface condition present for each test. We found that the vehicles were able to
Ahrens, Matthew, Arnold, Nikolas, Miller, Ian, Siegmund, Gunter P.
Advanced Power Dissipation Strategies for Friction Brake Usage Reduction under high-load conditions in Electric Vehicles2026-01-0452To be published on 04/07/2026
This paper presents a powertrain control strategy for hybrid and battery electric vehicles. The architecture that was used for simulation and testing is an extended-range electric vehicles (EREVs) equipped with dual electric drive motors and a generator-coupled internal combustion engine (ICE) that is not mechanically connected to the wheels, but the same feature may be used for any vehicle that relies on a combination of regenerative and mechanical brakes. During prolonged downhill driving under high-load conditions—such as high battery State of Charge (SOC), full passenger or cargo load, and towing—regenerative braking may be insufficient, increasing reliance on friction brakes and risking overheating. To address this, the proposed feature activates a combination of discrete and continuous energy dissipation mechanisms to absorb excess power and enhance braking performance. Discrete dissipators include the battery thermal conditioning system, ICE cooling system, and induced motor
Nogueira, Leonardo, de Souza, João Pedro, Bhakare, Allwyn, Arora, Dushyant, Murjani, Jash, Walsh, McKenize, Abedinilaksar, Mohammadjavad, LE, Truc, Senft, Stefan, ESSABRI, Ayoub
Two-Channel Pressure Control Using an Electric Cylinder and a Solenoid Valve for Electronically Controlled Brake Systems2026-01-0638To be published on 04/07/2026
With the rapid proliferation of electrified vehicles (xEVs), maximizing regenerative energy recovery has become a crucial challenge in realizing zero-emission mobility. In front-wheel-drive (FWD) vehicles, regenerative braking acts only on the front axle, resulting in a braking-force distribution biased toward the front. When uniform hydraulic pressure is applied to both axles, excessive braking force on the front wheels may cause premature wheel lock and hinder the intended regenerative braking effect. To address this issue, it is essential to implement an independent pressure control strategy (two-channel pressure control) that appropriately reduces front pressure according to regenerative force while independently maintaining adequate rear pressure. This study proposes a new two-channel pressure control architecture utilizing a simple and reasonable actuator set consisting of one electric cylinder and one solenoid valve. The electric cylinder generates hydraulic pressure by
Kaneko, Shosuke, Deno, Yoshitomo, Kobayashi, Tatsushi, Kawamura, Hikaru
A Study on TSC(Technical Safety Concept) design and verification in EMB(Brake By Wire) Systems2026-01-0095To be published on 04/07/2026
The Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) system, a dry-type Brake-by-Wire technology, represents a significant advancement in eco-friendly and intelligent vehicle braking systems. Unlike conventional hydraulic brakes, EMB eliminates fluid-based components by directly controlling friction braking through electrical actuators installed at each wheel. This not only reduces environmental impact but also enhances system responsiveness and integration with advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). The EMB architecture comprises six controllers: a Main Center Control Unit, a Backup Center Control Unit for redundancy, and four Wheel Control Units. These controllers communicate seamlessly using multiple vehicle communication protocols, including CAN, Ethernet, and FlexRay. This distributed control structure is essential for achieving compliance with ISO 26262, the international standard for functional safety in road vehicles. As EMB systems become more complex, they introduce new safety risks that
KIM, Dokun
Embedded Real-Time Control of a Distributed Trailer Propulsion System with Regenerative Braking for Net Neutral Load Towing2026-01-0065To be published on 04/07/2026
Towing significantly degrades vehicle efficiency, reducing battery-electric vehicle (BEV) range by up to 50% and increasing internal-combustion engine (ICE) fuel consumption by ~30%. To address this challenge, this paper presents a real-time embedded control architecture for a distributed trailer propulsion system that actively regulates drawbar force to achieve net neutral load towing while enabling regenerative braking. Unlike prior e-trailer concepts, this platform demonstrates a cost-effective, fully networked, model-based control implementation using commercial off-the-shelf components. The control system integrates dual Raspberry Pi controllers running ROS 2: one samples a hitch-mounted load cell at 100 Hz and the other processes OBD-II/CAN messages. Controllers designed in MATLAB/Simulink are deployed to a 5 kWh LiFePO₄ pack and a 5 kW traction motor, utilising embedded Linux for real-time scheduling and onboard data logging. Two operating modes are implemented: (i) PI
Joshi, Gaurav, Adelman, Ian, Liu, Jun, Donnaway, Ruthie
Quantifying the Impact of Towing on BEV Energy Use: Instrumented On Road Testing and Chassis Dynamometer Reproduction2026-01-0431To be published on 04/07/2026
Electrification is rapidly entering all vehicle classes, including light- and heavy-duty trucks designed for heavy towing capabilities. Still, the quantitative impact of towing on battery-electric vehicle (BEV) energy use and range remains under-characterized. We conducted controlled towing tests with a Ford F-150 Lightning using two trailers of different sizes and varying payloads to isolate aerodynamic and mass effects across the vehicle’s rated towing capacity. The vehicle was instrumented at the CAN bus level to capture motor power, torque, speed, and other related internal signals. On-road testing consisted of repeated back-and-forth passes on level, straight road segments at set speeds focusing on highway operation, where aerodynamic drag is stronger and real-world towing use cases occur. From these data, we extracted road load equations and dynamometer coefficients for each trailer combination, then reproduced equivalent conditions on a four-wheel drive chassis dynamometer
Timermans Ladero, Inigo
Benchmark of Conventional and By-Wire Brake System Layouts for Electric Vehicle Applications by Numerical Simulations2026-01-50082/3/2026
The recently increasing global concern about sustainability and greenhouse gas emission reduction has boosted the diffusion of electric vehicles. Research on this topic mainly focuses on either re-designing or adapting most conventional vehicle subsystems, especially the propulsion motor and the braking components. In this context, the present work aims to model, analyze, and compare three-braking system layouts design alternatives focusing on their contribution to vehicle performance and efficiency: a commercial vacuum-boosted hydraulic braking system, a commercial integrated electrohydraulic braking system, and a concept distributed electrohydraulic brake system. Braking systems performance are evaluated by simulating key maneuvers adopting a full model of a battery electric vehicle (BEV), which includes all relevant components like tires, and powertrain dynamics, which is validated against real-world data. Implementation and integration of the first two systems are discussed
Savi, Lorenzo, Garosio, Damiano, Floros, Dimosthenis, Vignati, Michele, Travagliati, Alessandro, Braghin, Francesco
A Complex Road Surface Parameter Estimation Method Based on the Fusion Framework of Visual Classifier and Dynamics Observer10-10-02-00131/16/2026
Special vehicles such as off-road vehicles and planetary rovers frequently operate on complex, unpaved road surfaces with varying mechanical parameters. Inaccurate estimation of these parameters can cause subsidence or rollover. Existing methods either lack proactive perception or high precision. This article proposes a fusion framework integrating a visual classifier and a dynamics observer for stable, accurate estimation of road surface parameters. The visual classifier uses an adaptive segmentation system for unpaved roads, leveraging a large-scale vision model and a lightweight network to classify upcoming road surfaces. The dynamics observer employs an online wheel-–ground interaction model using stress approximation, integrating strong tracking theory into an unscented Kalman filter for real-time parameter estimation. The fusion framework performs integration of the classifier and observer outputs at data, feature, and decision levels. An adaptive fading factor and recursive
Zhang, Chenhao, Xia, Guang, Zhang, Yang, Zhou, Dayang, Shi, Qin
Enhancing Range Prediction Accuracy for the BEV: Bridging the Gap between Simulation and Real-World Testing2026-26-05211/16/2026
Accurate range estimation in battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is essential for optimizing performance, energy efficiency, and customer expectations. This study investigates the discrepancies between physical test data and simulation predictions for the BEV model. A detailed range delta analysis identifies key contributors to the observed deviations, including regenerative braking inefficiencies, increased propulsion demand, auxiliary loads, and estimated drivetrain losses within the Electric Drive Module (EDM) during traction and regen. Results indicate that the test vehicle exhibits lower regenerative braking efficiency, higher traction forces and lower regen energy than predicted by simulations, primarily due to EDM inefficiencies and friction brake usage during regeneration. The study underscores the importance of refining simulation methodologies by integrating real-world, test based EDM loss maps to improve accuracy and better align predictive models with actual vehicle
Mahajan, Prasad, Kesarkar, Sidhesh, Ali, Shoaib
Predictive SoC Management for Enhanced Recuperation Efficiency in Electric Vehicles2026-26-01541/16/2026
In recent years, the automotive industry has been looking into alternatives for conventional vehicles to promote a sustainable transportation future having a lesser carbon footprint. Electric Vehicles (EV) are a promising choice as they produce zero tail pipe emissions. However, even with the demand for EVs increasing, the charging infrastructure is still a concern, which leads to range anxiety. This necessitates the judicious use of battery charge and reduce the energy wastage occurring at any point. In EVs, regenerative braking is an additional option which helps in recuperating the battery energy during vehicle deceleration. The amount of energy recuperated mainly depends on the current State of Charge (SoC) of the battery and the battery temperature. Typically, the amount of recuperable energy reduces as the current SoC moves closer to 100%. Once this limit is reached, the excess energy available for recuperation is discharged through the brake resistor/pads. This paper proposes a
Barik, Madhusmita, S, Sethuraman, Aruljothi, Sathishkumar
Simulation Research on Torque Vectoring, Braking, Chassis Control Strategies for Electric & Hybrid Vehicles using System Simulation2026-26-04231/16/2026
Electric Vehicles and Plug-in Hybrids alleviate the energy crisis but pose a unique challenge for vehicle dynamics. Though significant developments in motor control strategy and energy density management are evolving, we face significant challenges in torque management, with several ADAS features being an integral part of the EVs/xHEVs. It demands high-fidelity physical and control model exchanges between electric chassis, ride-handling, tire modelling, steering assist, powertrain, and validation using a 0D–1D platform. This paper explicates a unified strategy for improving overall vehicle performance by intelligently distributing and coordinating drive torque to enhance traction, stability, and drivability across diverse operating conditions through co-simulation. The co-simulation platform includes physical models in AMESIM, and control strategies integrated in MATLAB/Simulink. The platform features comprehensive representations of digital vehicles that require detailed modelling of
Eruva, Patrickxavier, Sarapalli Ramachandran, Raghuveeran, Chougule, Sourabh, Natanamani-Pillai, Siva Subramanian, Scheider, Clement, Leclerc, Cedric, Natarajasundaram, Balasubramanian
Design Optimization of the Propeller Shaft and Transfer Case for High-Speed 4WD Vehicles2026-26-03431/16/2026
Nowadays, vehicle enthusiasts often vary the driving patterns, from high-speed driving to off-roading. This leads to a continuous increase in demand for four-wheel drive (4WD) vehicles. A 4WD vehicle have better traction control with enhanced stability. The performance and reliability of 4WD vehicles at high speeds are significantly influenced by driveline stiffness and natural frequency, which are largely affected by the propeller shaft and transfer case. This study focuses on the design optimization of the transfer case and the propeller shafts to enhance the vehicle performance at high speeds. The analysis begins with a comprehensive study of factors affecting the power transfer path, transfer case stiffness, and critical frequency, including material properties, propeller shaft geometry, and different boundary conditions. Advanced computational methods are employed to model the dynamic behavior of the powertrain, identifying the natural frequency of the transfer case and propeller
Kumar, Sarvesh, Yadav, Sahdev, S, Manickaraja, Sanjay, L, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Jain, Saurabh Kumar, Deole, Subodh M
High-Fidelity Modeling of Vehicle Dynamics for Control-Oriented Stability Enhancement2026-26-00931/16/2026
This study presents an integrated vehicle dynamics framework combining a 12-degree-of-freedom full vehicle model with advanced control strategies to enhance both ride comfort and handling stability. Unlike simplified models, it incorporates linear and nonlinear tire characteristics to simulate real-world dynamic behavior with higher accuracy. An active roll control system using rear suspension actuators is developed to mitigate excessive body roll and yaw instability during cornering and maneuvers. A co-simulation environment is established by coupling MATLAB/Simulink-based control algorithms with high-fidelity multibody dynamics modeled in ADAMS Car, enabling precise, real-time interaction between control logic and vehicle response. The model is calibrated and validated against data from an instrumented test vehicle, ensuring practical relevance. Simulation results show significant reductions in roll angle, yaw rate deviation, and lateral acceleration, highlighting the effectiveness
Duraikannu, Dinesh, Dumpala, Gangi Reddi
Scalable and Modular Data-Driven Hybrid Chassis Dynamometer Framework for EV Powertrain Evaluation2026-26-03631/16/2026
In its conventional form, dynamometers typically provide a fixed architecture for measuring torque, speed, and power, with their scope primarily centered on these parameters and only limited emphasis on capturing aggregated real-time performance factors such as battery load and energy flow across the diverse range of emerging electric vehicle (EV) powertrain architectures. The objective of this work is to develop a valid, appropriate, scalable modular test framework that combines a real-time virtual twin of a compact physical dynamometer with world leading real-time mechanical and energy parameters/attributes useful for its virtual validation, as well as the evaluation of other unknown parameters that respectively span iterations of hybrid and electric vehicle configurations, ultimately allowing the assessment of multiple chassis without having to modify the physical testing facility's test bench. This integration enables a blended approach, using a live data source for now, providing
Kumar, Akhilesh, V, Yashvati
Optimization of Inverter Control Strategies for Improved Powertrain Efficiency Using E-Motor Emulation Platforms2026-26-05091/16/2026
As the brain and the core of the electric powertrain, the traction inverter is an essential part of electric vehicles (EVs). It controls the power conversion from DC to AC between the electric motor and the high-voltage battery to enable effective propulsion and regenerative braking. Strong and scalable inverter testing solutions are becoming more essential as EV adoption rises, particularly in developing nations like India. In India, traditional testing techniques that use actual batteries and e-motors present several difficulties, such as significant safety hazards, inadequate infrastructure, expensive battery prices, and a shortage of prototype-grade parts. This paper presents a comprehensive approach for traction inverter validation using the AVL Inverter TS™ system incorporating an advanced Power Hardware-in-the-Loop (PHiL) test system based on e-motor emulation technology. It enables safe, efficient, and reliable testing eradicating the need for actual batteries or mechanical
Mehrotra, Soumya, Chhabra, Rishabh
Regenerative Braking Control Strategy for Electric Commercial Bus under Indian Road Condition Using Artificial Neural Network2026-26-06451/16/2026
The main focus of this paper is to create a more efficient regenerative braking control strategy for electric commercial buses operating under Indian road conditions. The strategy uses Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) to optimize regenerative braking process. Regenerative braking helps to recover energy that would otherwise be lost during braking and convert it back into usable power for the vehicle. The challenge is to design a system that works effectively on the diverse and often challenging road conditions found in India, such as varying gradients, traffic patterns, and road surface types. This study begins by collecting data (which includes vehicle speed, traffic condition, etc.) from real-world driving conditions and aims to train an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) using a large set of driving data which is collected under various conditions to predict the most efficient regenerative braking settings for different driving scenarios. This research brings a new approach to the
Saurabh, Saurabh, Bhardwaj, Rohit, Patil, Nikhil, Gadve, Dhananjay, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya
Simulation of EV Range Estimation for Different Payload of Vehicle2026-26-03891/16/2026
The electrification of transportation is revolutionizing the automotive and logistics sectors, with electric vehicles (EVs) assuming an increasingly pivotal role in both passenger mobility and commercial activities. As the adoption of EVs rises, the necessity for precise range estimation becomes essential, especially under diverse operational circumstances, including vehicle and battery characteristics, driving conditions, environmental influences, vehicle configurations, and user-specific behaviors. Among the varying factors, a key fluctuating one is user behavior—most notably, increased payload, which significantly affects EV range. A key business challenge lies in the significant variability of EV range due to changes in vehicle load, which can affect performance, operational efficiency, and cost-effectiveness—especially for fleet-based services. This research aims to tackle the technical deficiency in forecasting electric vehicle (EV) range under various payload conditions
Khatal, Swaraj, Gupta, Anjali, Krishna, Thallapaka
Emergency Motion Control of Autonomous Vehicles under Tire Blowout Conditions2025-01-733612/31/2025
As one of the most common types of traffic accidents, tire blowout has become a significant safety issue in the stability control of autonomous vehicles. This paper presents a coordinated control strategy for autonomous vehicles operating under tire blowout conditions. A simplified three-degree-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model and a preview-based kinematic model are developed to capture the complex interactions between lateral and longitudinal motions during a blowout event. Then, the proposed control framework integrates sliding mode control (SMC) with a prescribed-performance function to constrain lateral deviation and heading error within predefined boundaries. To improve emergency path tracking and ensure stability, a transformation-based error bounding method is introduced. Lyapunov-based stability analysis verifies the convergence properties of the closed-loop system. Simulation results validate the effectiveness of the proposed method under both tubeless and tubed tire blowout
Xia, Hongyang, Yang, Ming, Li, Hongluo, Huang, Yongxian
Active Thermal Management of EMB Motors Considering Winding Heat Imbalance2025-01-733112/31/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) system represents a novel dry brake-by-wire technology renowned for their superior control performance and compact structure, effectively meeting the demands of intelligent electric vehicles. However, its performance can be compromised under extreme ambient temperatures and non-uniform heat generation across the coils. This study addresses the critical challenge of single-phase overheating in the EMB motor actuator during low-speed high-torque operations by proposing a novel Maximum Duration Per Torque (MDPT) control strategy. The core of this method is to optimize the allocation of dq-axis currents. It aims to extend the safe operating duration of the EMB while respecting its thermal constraints and maintaining full braking performance. Firstly, based on the operational characteristics of the EMB, we establish a lumped parameter thermal network (LPTN) model. This model accurately captures the uneven thermal distribution among the three-phase windings
Zeng, Jie, Xiong, Lu, Zhuo, Guirong, Duan, Yanlong, Wang, Xinjian
Wheel Speed Control for Corner Module ABS with Full Brake-By-Wire System2025-01-732212/31/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB), with its continuous torque control characteristic, can enhance the performance of anti-lock braking control in intelligent chassis system. Therefore, in this study, a corner module anti-lock braking system (ABS) using EMB is proposed for intelligent chassis driven by in-wheel motors (IWMs). The corner module design can directly utilize the high-bandwidth speed signal of the IWM. This transforms traditional ABS wheel slip rate control into low-latency, high-bandwidth wheel speed tracking control under strong transient conditions. As a result, the control loop is simplified and signal transmission delay is reduced, which allows EMB to fully exploit its performance advantages. Additionally, this study proposes an Improved Higher-order Sliding Mode Control strategy with Super-Twisting Algorithm (IHSMC-STA) for wheel speed tracking control. The proposed strategy enhances the traditional first-order sliding mode exponential reaching law and integrates the
Chang, Cheng, Chu, Liang, Zhao, Di
Research on Wheel Slip Ratio Control for Electro-Mechanical Brake System: From PI to High-Order Sliding Mode Control2025-01-733212/31/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) system is a novel dry-type brake-by-wire system that features superior control performance and a compact structural design, effectively meeting the development demands of intelligent and electrified vehicles. However, current research on anti-lock braking system (ABS) primarily focuses on hydraulic brake system and mostly remains at the simulation and hardware-in-the-loop testing stages. Therefore, this paper validates the feasibility of slip ratio control based on EMB actuators through both simulation and real-vehicle experiments. First, this paper establishes an equivalent second-order response model for the closed-loop EMB control system through theoretical derivation and identifies the dynamic response characteristics of the EMB actuator via sinusoidal frequency sweep testing. Next, it compares two control strategies: one that uses the reference slip ratio as the direct control target, and another that uses reference wheel speed as the direct
Cheng, Yulin, Qiao, Le, Wang, Chenyu, Li, Congcong, Zhuo, Guirong, Wei, Wei
Coordinated Control of DYC/ABS for Cornering Braking Based on Driver Intention2025-01-734012/31/2025
This paper proposes a DYC/ABS coordinated control strategy for cornering and braking based on driver intention. A hierarchical control structure is established, where the upper-level controller uses a vehicle dynamics model to calculate the additional yaw moment required by the DYC controller to track the desired yaw rate and sideslip angle, as well as the driver’s intended braking intensity. Taking multiple constraints into account, a quadratic programming algorithm is employed to optimize the distribution of braking forces among the four wheels. The lower-level ABS controller is designed with multiple thresholds and corresponding control phases to precisely regulate the hydraulic pressure of individual wheel cylinders. In emergency braking scenarios where ABS intervention may conflict with the upper-layer braking force allocation, a rule-based, stepwise diagonal pressure reduction compensation strategy is proposed. This strategy fully considers the influence of longitudinal and
Zou, Yan, Ma, Yao, Kong, Yan, Pei, Xiaofei
A Unified Layer-by-Layer Progressive Framework for Sensorless Control of Brake-By-Wire Systems2025-01-732812/31/2025
Conventional control of Brake-by-Wire (BBW) systems, including electro-hydraulic brake(EHB) and electro-mechanical brake(EMB), relys on pressure sensors, the errors of which usually resulted inaccurate braking force tracking bringing a lot of safety hazards, e.g., wheel locking and slipping. To address challenges of accurate braking force control under the circumstance of the system nonliearities (such as friction) and uncertainties (such as stiffness characteristics) for a sensorless BBW system, this paper proposes a unified Layer-by-Layer Progressive (LLP) control framework to enable fast and precise brake control. The work has been conducted with three new contributions in the three cascaded stages within the control framework: in the coarse compensation stage, a load-adaptive LuGre friction model is proposed to handle modellable nonlinearities; in the fine compensation stage, an Adaptive Extended Disturbance Observer (AEDO) is developed to estimate and compensate for parameter
Zhou, Quan, Lv, Zongyu, Han, Wei, Li, Congcong, Zhao, Xinyu, Xiong, Lu, Shu, Qiang
Predictive Control Applied to Antilock Braking Systems of Heavy Vehicles on Deformable Terrain2025-36-000412/18/2025
Antilock braking systems (ABS) are critical to ensuring vehicle safety, particularly in challenging off-road environments where the braking dynamics is highly complex. This study focuses on the development of an advanced ABS controller for heavy off-road vehicles to improve operational safety and reliability. For this purpose, a Model-based Predictive Control (MPC) is proposed. The predictive capabilities of MPC, which optimize control actions based on system dynamics and constraints, are highlighted as a key aspect of this approach. The controlled system is modeled and simulated using a quarter-car model and a deformable ground model, providing a realistic representation of off-road conditions. Comparative simulations are conducted to evaluate the performance of both controllers, focusing on their effectiveness in maintaining stability and improving braking efficiency.
Sawada, Fernando Satoshi, Santos, Luís Guilherme Cavalcante, Rodrigues, Gustavo Simão, Rossi Lopes, Elias Dias
Fuzzy Logic-Based Traction Control for a 4WD In-Wheel Electric Formula Vehicle2025-36-011412/18/2025
Vehicle dynamic control is crucial for ensuring safety, efficiency and high performance. In formula-type electric vehicles equipped with in-wheel motors (4WD), traction control combined with torque vectoring enhances stability and optimizes overall performance. Precise regulation of the torque applied to each wheel minimizes energy losses caused by excessive slipping or grip loss, improving both energy efficiency and component durability. Effective traction control is particularly essential in high-performance applications, where maintaining optimal tire grip is critical for achieving maximum acceleration, braking, and cornering capabilities. This study evaluates the benefits of Fuzzy Logic-based traction control and torque distribution for each motor. The traction control system continuously monitors wheel slip, ensuring they operate within the optimal slip range. Then, torque is distributed to each motor according to its angular speed, maximizing vehicle efficiency and performance
Oliveira, Vivian Fernandes, Hayashi, Daniela Tiemi, Dias, Gabriel Henrique Rodrigues, Andrade Estevos, Jaqueline, Guerreiro, Joel Filipe, Ribeiro, Rodrigo Eustaquio, Eckert, Jony Javorski
Limited Slip Predictive Traction Control System for Light Vehicles2025-36-000312/18/2025
Traction control is a critical technique to prevent wheel slip in vehicles, ensuring optimal traction force between the tire and the ground. This study proposes a system that leverages Model-based Predictive Control (MPC) to effectively manage and control longitudinal slip. The proposed system introduces constraints specifically designed to limit longitudinal slip, offering a significant improvement over traditional approaches. The system is evaluated with simulations of a single-corner model, using the Pacejka’s Magic Formula to define the tire force. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the control in maintaining maximum traction and highlight its advancements compared to previous work.
Rosa, Tobias José Degli Esposte, Rodrigues, Gustavo Simão, Lopes, Elias Dias Rossi
Research on the Rotation Resistance Coefficient Experiment Based on the 6 Degree-of-Freedom Rig2025-99-030812/17/2025
The rotational resistance coefficient of the bogie is a critical parameter for assessing the operational safety of vehicles, significantly influencing the stability of the vehicle’s snaking motion and the safety of curve negotiation. This paper conducts measurements of the rotational resistance coefficient using a 6- degree-of-freedom bogie test rig, evaluating the variation patterns of the indicator under different vehicle load conditions and air spring inflation states. By establishing a SIMPACK dynamic model of the 6-DOF platform, it is possible to obtain actuator displacement control curves that comply with the EN 14363 standard. Taking a specific subway trailer bogie as an example, the rotational resistance coefficient under various operating conditions was measured. The test results indicate that under the condition of air spring deflation, the rotational resistance coefficient is significantly higher than that under air spring inflation. Moreover, under the condition of air
Li, Li, Hu, Jie
Identification of Runway Friction Coefficient Using Extended Kalman Filter09-13-02-001212/11/2025
Aircraft operations during landing or takeoff depend strongly on runway surface conditions. Safe runway operations depend on the tire-to-runway frictional force and the drag offered by the aircraft. In the present research article, a methodology is developed to estimate the braking friction coefficient for varied runway conditions accurately in real-time. To this end, the extended Kalman filtering technique (EKF) is applied to sensor-measured data using the on-ground mathematical model of aircraft and wheel dynamics. The aircraft velocity and wheel angular velocity are formulated as system states, and the friction coefficient is estimated as an augmented state. The relation between the friction coefficient and wheel slip ratio is established using both simulated and actual ground roll data. Also, the technique is evaluated with the simulated data as well as real aircraft taxi data. The accuracy of friction estimation, with and without the measurement of normal reaction force on the
T.K., Khadeeja Nusrath, Singh, Jatinder
Measurement of Road Friction Coefficient with Strain at Tire Sidewall: Verification by Actual Vehicle Driving Experiments10-10-01-000511/20/2025
If road friction coefficient can be measured in a car driving, the performance of advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) such as antilock braking system (ABS) and automatic braking systems can be improved. Generally, ADAS uses information obtained from wheel speed sensors, acceleration sensors, and the like. However, it is difficult to measure accurately road friction coefficients with these sensors. Therefore, many studies measured road friction coefficients from strain or deformation in the bottom of a tire (tread), which is the only place to contact with a road surface. However, a sensor installed on the bottom of a tire is easy to peel or damage because greater deformation occurs locally on the bottom of a tire. Therefore, this study develops a method of measuring the road friction coefficient from the strain induced in a tire sidewall. If the tire sidewall can be used, stable measurement can be expected because the sidewall is harder to deform locally than the bottom of a tire
Higuchi, Masahiro, Tachiya, Hiroshi
Research on Low-Power Control of Offshore Wind Sail Stabilization Devices Based on Single Pendulum Control Simulation2025-99-013111/11/2025
To tackle persistent operational instability and excessive energy consumption in marine observation platforms under wave-induced disturbances, this paper introduces a novel ultra-low-power stabilization system based on pendulum dynamics. The system employs an innovative mechanical configuration to deliberately decouple the rotation axis from the center of mass, creating controlled dynamic asymmetry. In this behavior, the fixed axis serves as a virtual suspension pivot while the camera payload functions as a concentrated mass block. This configuration generates intrinsic gravitational restoring torque, enabling passive disturbance attenuation. And its passive foundation is synergistically integrated with an actively controlled brushless DC motor system. During platform oscillation, embedded algorithms detect angular motion reversals. In addition, their detection triggers an instantaneous transition from motor drive to regenerative braking mode, and transition facilitates bidirectional
Zhang, Tianlin, Liu, Shixuan, Xu, Yuzhe
Research on Off-Road Performance Optimization Strategy for Agricultural Smart Vehicles Based on Traction Control System2025-99-011811/11/2025
(TC)The paper presents a designed and evaluated optimal traction control (TC) strategy for unmanned agriculture vehicle, where onboard sensors acquire various real-time information about wheel speed, load sharing, and terrain characteristics to achieve the precise control of the powertrain by establishing an optimal control command; moreover, the developed AMT-adaptive SMC combines the AMT adaptive control algorithm and the SMC to implement the dynamic gear shifting, torque output, and driving mode switching to obtain an optimal power distribution according to different speed demand and harvest load. Based on the establishment of models of the autonomous agriculture vehicle and corresponding tire model, a MATLAB/Simulink method based on dynamic simulation is adopted to simulate the unmanned agricultural vehicle traversing different terrains conditions. The results from comparison show that the energy saving reaches 19.0%, rising from 2. 1 kWh/km to 1. 7 kWh/km, an increase in
Feng, Zhenghao, Lu, Yunfan, Gao, Duan, An, Yi, Zhou, Chuanbo
Research on Methods for Quantitative Assessment of Vehicle Controllability Level2025-99-010111/11/2025
As one of the main indexes of functional safety evaluation, controllability is of critical significance. According to ISO26262 standard, by analyzing the impact of potential faults such as unexpected torque and regenerative braking force loss on vehicle controllability under different working conditions, this paper designs a vehicle controllability test scheme under abnormal motor function under multiple scenarios such as straights, lane changes and curves, and builds a test scheme under abnormal motor function. The mapping relationship between vehicle dynamic state data and controllability level provides a new idea for quantitative analysis of vehicle controllability.
Yang, Xuezhu, He, Lei, Li, Chao, Ren, Zhiqiang
Power Electronics: The Backbone of Sustainable Electrification2025-28-022811/6/2025
Power electronics are fundamental to sustainable electrification, enhancing energy, efficiency, integrating renewable energy sources, and reducing carbon emissions. In electric vehicles (EVs), power electronics is crucial for efficient energy conversion, management, and distribution. Key components like inverters, rectifiers, and DC-DC converters optimize power from renewable sources to meet EV system requirements. In EVs, power electronics convert energy from the lithium-ion battery to the electric vehicle motor, with sufficient propulsion and regenerative braking. Inverters is used to transfer DC power from the lithium-ion eEV battery to alternating current for the motor, while DC-DC converters manage voltage levels for various vehicle systems. These components maximize EV energy efficiency, reduce energy losses, and extend driving range. Power electronics also support fast and efficient battery charging, critical for widespread EV adoption. Advanced charging solutions enable rapid
Pipaliya, Akash Pravinbhai, Hatkar, Chetan
Optimizing the Structural Finite Element Method based Process to Evaluate the Sustainable Human Accidental Sliding Load of Automobile Airvent Knob Design Made with Thermoplastic PC - ABS2025-28-028911/6/2025
The research work elaborated the structural integrity of airvent by skipping the assembly level snap fit finite element analysis of knob to reduce computational complexity of air vent knob sliding test post stopper. During assembly, the strain based mechanical breakage prediction of airvent sliding knob snaps is investigated in non-prestressed condition. The research work proposes a FEM based analysis approach to evaluate the mechanical breakage load of airvent knob assembly for accidental sliding load. This process skips the assembly level snap insertion load case along with silicone rubber pad compression which could serve as the prerequisite simulation. This prerequisite simulation is computationally expensive and complex to solve due to polymer plasticity and silicone rubber elastomer hyper-elasticity and moving frictional contacts between parts. If the accidental sliding load case without considering pre-tension on snaps is simulated, the load causing mechanical failure in the FEM
Shah, Viren, Wani, Dishant, Miraje, Jitendra
Evaluation of Alternative Cooling Method for High Performance Resistors in Zero-Emission Trucks2025-28-035910/30/2025
High Performance Resistors (HPR), also known as brake resistors are used in zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) to dissipate excess electrical energy produced during regenerative braking, as heat energy. It is necessary to use a suitable cooling technique to release this heat energy into the atmosphere in a regulated manner. Currently in most of the ZEVs, liquid cooled HPR with its dedicated heat exchanger and other auxiliaries such as pump, surge tank, Coolant and coolant lines, is used which increases the cost, packaging space and assembly time. This paper presents air cooling as a substitute heat-exchanging technique for high-performance resistors which eliminates the need of auxiliaries mentioned above, resulting in space optimization and reduction in assembly time. An air cooled HPR, designed for this study consists of a heat exchanger, which accommodates a resistor wire within its tubes. The design was made to fit commercial vehicle use, specific to trucks, due to packaging constraints
Menariya, Pravin Ganesh, Kumar, Vishnu, Arhanth, Mahima, Umesha, Sathwik, Jagadish, Harshitha
Integral–Derivative-Tilted Controller for Semi-Active Magnetorheological Truck Suspension System Using Combined Multi-Objective Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm02-19-02-000910/29/2025
This study proposes a novel control strategy for a semi-active truck suspension system using an integral–derivative-tilted (ID-T) controller, developed as a modification of the TID controller. The ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm is employed to tune the controller parameters. Performance is evaluated on an eight-degrees-of-freedom semi-active suspension system equipped with MR dampers. The objective is to minimize essential dynamic responses (displacement, velocity, and acceleration) of the sprung mass, cabin, and seat. The controller also considers the nonlinear effects including suspension travel, pitch dynamics, dynamic tire loads, and seat-level vibration dose value (VDV). System performance is assessed under both single bump and random road excitations. The ACO-tuned ID-T controller is compared against passive suspension, MR passive (OFF/ON), and ACO-tuned PID and TID controllers. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed controller achieves superior performance in
Gad, S., Metered, H., Bassiuny, A. M.
Coordinated Strategy of Trajectory Tracking and Stability Control for Autonomous Vehicles with Switched Envelope and Composite Evaluation10-10-01-000310/13/2025
Trajectory tracking and lateral stability under extreme conditions are critical yet conflicting control objectives due to nonlinear tire dynamics and road adhesion limitation, where accurate characterization of vehicle dynamics for each objective is essential to enable coordinated performance. This article proposes a coordinated control strategy based on switched envelope and composite evaluation to improve both tracking accuracy and stability. Unlike previous stability envelope methods that rely solely on the vehicle’s rear tire saturation boundary to prevent instability, the switched envelope approach incorporates both front and rear tire saturation boundaries to simultaneously mitigate steering loss and instability in trajectory tracking. A critical steering angle, derived from tire slip dynamics and phase plane stability analysis, is formulated as the switching criterion. Additionally, a composite stability evaluation is developed by combining a future disturbance resistance index
Shi, Wenbo, Wang, Junlong, Ding, Haitao, Xu, Nan
Comparative Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Performance of Electric and Counterpart Diesel Tractors2025-01-041710/7/2025
The objective of this trial was to compare the energy efficiency and performance of battery electric and conventional diesel tractors. Controlled road tests replicating normal operations were conducted using two electric and two diesel day-cab tractors. The test protocol was based on the TMC - Type III RP 1103A and SAE J1526 test procedures. The tests were conducted on a 110 km long route that included a 59 km hilly portion with a maximum altitude difference of 307 m. The tractors were divided into test groups of two vehicles. Trailers and drivers were switched throughout the trial between the tractors in a test group. The tests found that the two electric trucks consumed 60% and 63% less energy than their counterpart diesel trucks, respectively. Considering the average emission factor for production of electricity in Canada, the electric trucks emitted on average 82% less GHG emissions than the conventional diesel-powered tractors. The two diesel trucks showed similar fuel consumption
Surcel, Marius-Dorin, Partington, Mark, Tanguay-Laflèche, Maxime, Schumacher, Richard
Optimal Control Strategy for Dual-Motor EVs with CVT: Comparison of Simulation of Steady-State and Dynamic Programming Methods2025-01-040710/7/2025
This study investigates an optimal control strategy for a battery electric vehicle (BEV) equipped with a high-speed motor and a continuously variable transmission (CVT). The proposed dual-motor powertrain model activates only one motor at a time, with Motor A routed through a CVT and Motor B through a fixed gear. To improve energy efficiency, two optimization methods are evaluated: a quasi-steady-state map-based approach and a dynamic programming (DP) method. The DP approach applies Bellman’s principle to derive the globally optimal CVT ratio and motor torque trajectory over the WLTC cycle. Simulation results demonstrate that the DP method significantly improves overall efficiency compared to traditional control logic. Furthermore, the study proposes using DP-derived maps to refine practical control strategies, offering a systematic alternative to conventional experimental calibration.
Zhao, Hanqing, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Kuboyama, Tatsuya
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