Browse Topic: Electronic braking systems

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Predictive SoC Management for Enhanced Recuperation Efficiency in Electric Vehicles2026-26-0154To be published on 01/16/2026
In recent years, the automotive industry has been looking into alternatives for conventional vehicles to promote a sustainable transportation future having a lesser carbon footprint. Electric Vehicles (EV) are a promising choice as they produce zero tail pipe emissions. However, even with the demand for EVs increasing, the charging infrastructure is still a concern, which leads to range anxiety. This necessitates the judicious use of battery charge and reduce the energy wastage occurring at any point. In EVs, regenerative braking is an additional option which helps in recuperating the battery energy during vehicle deceleration. The amount of energy recuperated mainly depends on the current State of Charge (SoC) of the battery and the battery temperature. Typically, the amount of recuperable energy reduces as the current SoC moves closer to 100%. Once this limit is reached, the excess energy available for recuperation is discharged through the brake resistor/pads. This paper proposes a
Barik, Madhusmita, S, Sethuraman, Aruljothi, Sathishkumar
Enhancing Range Prediction Accuracy for the BEV: Bridging the Gap Between Simulation and Real-World Testing2026-26-0521To be published on 01/16/2026
Accurate range estimation in battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is essential for optimizing performance, energy efficiency, and customer expectations. This study investigates the discrepancies between physical test data and simulation predictions for the Jeep Wagoneer model. A detailed range delta analysis identifies key contributors to the observed deviations, including regenerative braking inefficiencies, increased propulsion demand, auxiliary loads, and estimated drivetrain losses within the Electric Drive Module (EDM) during traction and regen. Results indicate that the test vehicle exhibits lower regenerative braking efficiency and higher traction and lower regen consumption than predicted by simulations, primarily due to EDM inefficiencies and friction brake usage during regeneration. The study underscores the importance of refining simulation methodologies by integrating real-world, test based EDM loss maps to improve accuracy and better align predictive models with actual vehicle
Mahajan, Prasad, Kesarkar, Sidhesh, Ali, Shoaib
Optimization of Inverter Control Strategies for Improved Powertrain Efficiency Using E-Motor Emulation Platforms2026-26-0509To be published on 01/16/2026
The traction inverter is a critical component in electric vehicles (EVs), functioning as the heart and brain of the electric powertrain. It controls the power conversion between the high-voltage battery and the electric motor, enabling efficient propulsion and regenerative braking. As EV adoption grows, especially in emerging markets like India, the need for robust and scalable inverter testing solutions becomes paramount. Traditional testing methods involving real batteries and e-motors pose several challenges in the Indian context, including high safety risks, infrastructure limitations, high battery costs, and limited availability of prototype-grade components. This paper presents a comprehensive approach to inverter validation using the AVL Inverter TS™ system— an advanced Power Hardware-in-the-Loop (PHiL) test system based on e-motor emulation technology.. It enables safe, efficient, and reliable testing without the need for actual batteries or mechanical loads. The system
Mehrotra, Soumya, Chhabra, Rishabh
Simulation Research on Torque Vectoring, Braking, Chassis control Strategies for Electric & hybrid Vehicles using System Simulation2026-26-0423To be published on 01/16/2026
Electric Vehicles and Plug-in Hybrids alleviate the energy crisis but pose a unique challenge for vehicle dynamics. Though significant developments in motor control strategy and energy density management are evolving, we face significant challenges in Torque Management with several ADAS features being integral part of the EV's/xHEV's. It demands high-fidelity physical and control model exchanges between electric-chassis, ride-handling, tire modelling, Steering Assist, powertrain and validate using 0D-1D platform. This paper explicates a unified strategy for improving overall vehicle performance by intelligently distributing and coordinating drive torque to enhance traction, stability, and drivability across diverse operating conditions through the co-simulation. Co-Simulation platform includes physical models in AMESIM, and control strategies integrated in MATLAB/Simulink. The platform features comprehensive representations of digital vehicle that requires detailed modelling of
Eruva, Patrickxavier, Sarapalli Ramachandran, Raghuveeran, Chougule, Sourabh, Natanamani-Pillai, Siva Subramanian, Scheider, Clement, Leclerc, Cedric, Natarajasundaram, Balasubramanian
Simulation of EV range Estimation for different payload of vehicle.2026-26-0389To be published on 01/16/2026
The electrification of transportation is reshaping the automotive and logistics industries, with electric vehicles (EVs) playing an increasingly central role in passenger mobility and commercial operations. As EV adoption grows, the need for accurate range estimation becomes critical, particularly under varying operational conditions such as increased payload. A key business challenge lies in the significant variability of EV range due to changes in vehicle load, which can affect performance, operational efficiency, and cost-effectiveness—especially for fleet-based services. This study focuses on addressing the technical gap in predicting EV range with respect to different payload conditions. Traditional range estimation methods often fail to account for real-world variables like additional cargo weight, leading to suboptimal route planning, increased energy consumption, and unanticipated charging requirements. Payload-induced range degradation can result in up to some deviation in
Khatal, Swaraj, Gupta, Anjali, Krishna, Thallapaka
Design optimization of the propeller shaft and transfer case for high-speed 4WD vehicles2026-26-0343To be published on 01/16/2026
Nowadays, vehicle enthusiasts often vary their driving patterns, ranging from driving at very high speeds to off-roading. Due to these driving patterns, 4WD vehicle demand is continuously growing day by day. A 4WD vehicle used to have better traction control with enhanced stability. The 4WD vehicle performance and reliability at high speed are critically influenced by driveline stiffness and natural frequency. Driveline stiffness and natural frequency are very critical parameter for high-speed vehicles, that significantly influenced by the propeller shaft and transfer case. This study focuses on the design optimization of the transfer case and critical frequency of propeller shafts to enhance vehicle performance at high speeds. The analysis begins with a comprehensive study of the factors affecting power transfer path, transfer case stiffness, critical frequency, including material properties, propeller shaft geometry and the boundary conditions. Advanced computational methods are
Kumar, Sarvesh, Yadav, Sahdev, S, Manickaraja, Sanjay, L, Kanagaraj, Pothiraj, Jain, Saurabh Kumar, Deole, Subodh M
Regenerative braking control strategy for electric commercial bus under Indian road condition using artificial neural network2026-26-0645To be published on 01/16/2026
The main objective of this research is to create a more efficient regenerative braking control strategy for electric commercial buses operating under Indian road conditions. The strategy uses Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) to optimize the regenerative braking process. Regenerative braking helps to recover energy that would otherwise be lost during braking and convert it back into usable power for the vehicle. The challenge is to design a system that works effectively on the diverse and often challenging road conditions found in India, such as varying gradients, traffic patterns, and road surface types. This study begins by collecting data (which includes vehicle speed, road gradient, traffic condition, etc.) from real-world driving conditions and aims to train an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) using a large set of driving data collected under various conditions to predict the most efficient regenerative braking settings for different driving scenarios. While the results are
Saurabh, Saurabh, Bhardwaj, Rohit, Patil, Nikhil, Gadve, Dhananjay, Amancharla, Naga Chaithanya
Digital Twin-Enhanced Chassis Dynamometer for EV Drivetrain Testing2026-26-0363To be published on 01/16/2026
Accurate prediction of drivetrain performance and energy efficiency in electric vehicles (EVs) remains a challenge due to the limitations of conventional chassis dynamometer testing, which often overlooks dynamic vehicle-roller interactions, suspension responses, and regenerative braking effects. This paper presents a novel digital twin-enabled testing framework using a compact, two-roller chassis dynamometer integrated with real-time multibody dynamics and electromechanical co-simulation. The physical test bench is coupled with a virtual model of the EV, including suspension geometry, rear-to-front axle load distribution, tire–roller contact mechanics, and motor-inverter dynamics. By enabling bi-directional data exchange between the physical and virtual domains, the system emulates real-world load shifts, torque demand variations, and energy recovery under standardized drive cycles. This integrated approach enhances simulation fidelity, supports certification-compliant testing, and
Kumar, Akhilesh, V, Yashvati
Coordinated Control of DYC/ABS for Cornering Braking Based on Driver Intention2025-01-734012/31/2025
This paper proposes a DYC/ABS coordinated control strategy for cornering and braking based on driver intention. A hierarchical control structure is established, where the upper-level controller uses a vehicle dynamics model to calculate the additional yaw moment required by the DYC controller to track the desired yaw rate and sideslip angle, as well as the driver’s intended braking intensity. Taking multiple constraints into account, a quadratic programming algorithm is employed to optimize the distribution of braking forces among the four wheels. The lower-level ABS controller is designed with multiple thresholds and corresponding control phases to precisely regulate the hydraulic pressure of individual wheel cylinders. In emergency braking scenarios where ABS intervention may conflict with the upper-layer braking force allocation, a rule-based, stepwise diagonal pressure reduction compensation strategy is proposed. This strategy fully considers the influence of longitudinal and
Zou, Yan, Ma, Yao, Kong, Yan, Pei, Xiaofei
A Unified Layer-by-Layer Progressive Framework for Sensorless Control of Brake-By-Wire Systems2025-01-732812/31/2025
Conventional control of Brake-by-Wire (BBW) systems, including electro-hydraulic brake(EHB) and electro-mechanical brake(EMB), relys on pressure sensors, the errors of which usually resulted inaccurate braking force tracking bringing a lot of safety hazards, e.g., wheel locking and slipping. To address challenges of accurate braking force control under the circumstance of the system nonliearities (such as friction) and uncertainties (such as stiffness characteristics) for a sensorless BBW system, this paper proposes a unified Layer-by-Layer Progressive (LLP) control framework to enable fast and precise brake control. The work has been conducted with three new contributions in the three cascaded stages within the control framework: in the coarse compensation stage, a load-adaptive LuGre friction model is proposed to handle modellable nonlinearities; in the fine compensation stage, an Adaptive Extended Disturbance Observer (AEDO) is developed to estimate and compensate for parameter
Zhou, Quan, Lv, Zongyu, Han, Wei, Li, Congcong, Zhao, Xinyu, Xiong, Lu, Shu, Qiang
Emergency Motion Control of Autonomous Vehicles under Tire Blowout Conditions2025-01-733612/31/2025
As one of the most common types of traffic accidents, tire blowout has become a significant safety issue in the stability control of autonomous vehicles. This paper presents a coordinated control strategy for autonomous vehicles operating under tire blowout conditions. A simplified three-degree-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model and a preview-based kinematic model are developed to capture the complex interactions between lateral and longitudinal motions during a blowout event. Then, the proposed control framework integrates sliding mode control (SMC) with a prescribed-performance function to constrain lateral deviation and heading error within predefined boundaries. To improve emergency path tracking and ensure stability, a transformation-based error bounding method is introduced. Lyapunov-based stability analysis verifies the convergence properties of the closed-loop system. Simulation results validate the effectiveness of the proposed method under both tubeless and tubed tire blowout
Xia, Hongyang, Yang, Ming, Li, Hongluo, Huang, Yongxian
Active Thermal Management of EMB Motors Considering Winding Heat Imbalance2025-01-733112/31/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) system represents a novel dry brake-by-wire technology renowned for their superior control performance and compact structure, effectively meeting the demands of intelligent electric vehicles. However, its performance can be compromised under extreme ambient temperatures and non-uniform heat generation across the coils. This study addresses the critical challenge of single-phase overheating in the EMB motor actuator during low-speed high-torque operations by proposing a novel Maximum Duration Per Torque (MDPT) control strategy. The core of this method is to optimize the allocation of dq-axis currents. It aims to extend the safe operating duration of the EMB while respecting its thermal constraints and maintaining full braking performance. Firstly, based on the operational characteristics of the EMB, we establish a lumped parameter thermal network (LPTN) model. This model accurately captures the uneven thermal distribution among the three-phase windings
Zeng, Jie, Xiong, Lu, Zhuo, Guirong, Duan, Yanlong, Wang, Xinjian
Wheel Speed Control for Corner Module ABS with Full Brake-By-Wire System2025-01-732212/31/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB), with its continuous torque control characteristic, can enhance the performance of anti-lock braking control in intelligent chassis system. Therefore, in this study, a corner module anti-lock braking system (ABS) using EMB is proposed for intelligent chassis driven by in-wheel motors (IWMs). The corner module design can directly utilize the high-bandwidth speed signal of the IWM. This transforms traditional ABS wheel slip rate control into low-latency, high-bandwidth wheel speed tracking control under strong transient conditions. As a result, the control loop is simplified and signal transmission delay is reduced, which allows EMB to fully exploit its performance advantages. Additionally, this study proposes an Improved Higher-order Sliding Mode Control strategy with Super-Twisting Algorithm (IHSMC-STA) for wheel speed tracking control. The proposed strategy enhances the traditional first-order sliding mode exponential reaching law and integrates the
Chang, Cheng, Chu, Liang, Zhao, Di
Research on Wheel Slip Ratio Control for Electro-Mechanical Brake System: From PI to High-Order Sliding Mode Control2025-01-733212/31/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) system is a novel dry-type brake-by-wire system that features superior control performance and a compact structural design, effectively meeting the development demands of intelligent and electrified vehicles. However, current research on anti-lock braking system (ABS) primarily focuses on hydraulic brake system and mostly remains at the simulation and hardware-in-the-loop testing stages. Therefore, this paper validates the feasibility of slip ratio control based on EMB actuators through both simulation and real-vehicle experiments. First, this paper establishes an equivalent second-order response model for the closed-loop EMB control system through theoretical derivation and identifies the dynamic response characteristics of the EMB actuator via sinusoidal frequency sweep testing. Next, it compares two control strategies: one that uses the reference slip ratio as the direct control target, and another that uses reference wheel speed as the direct
Cheng, Yulin, Qiao, Le, Wang, Chenyu, Li, Congcong, Zhuo, Guirong, Wei, Wei
Predictive Control Applied to Antilock Braking Systems of Heavy Vehicles on Deformable Terrain2025-36-000412/18/2025
Antilock braking systems (ABS) are critical to ensuring vehicle safety, particularly in challenging off-road environments where the braking dynamics is highly complex. This study focuses on the development of an advanced ABS controller for heavy off-road vehicles to improve operational safety and reliability. For this purpose, a Model-based Predictive Control (MPC) is proposed. The predictive capabilities of MPC, which optimize control actions based on system dynamics and constraints, are highlighted as a key aspect of this approach. The controlled system is modeled and simulated using a quarter-car model and a deformable ground model, providing a realistic representation of off-road conditions. Comparative simulations are conducted to evaluate the performance of both controllers, focusing on their effectiveness in maintaining stability and improving braking efficiency.
Sawada, Fernando Satoshi, Santos, Luís Guilherme Cavalcante, Rodrigues, Gustavo Simão, Rossi Lopes, Elias Dias
Limited Slip Predictive Traction Control System for Light Vehicles2025-36-000312/18/2025
Traction control is a critical technique to prevent wheel slip in vehicles, ensuring optimal traction force between the tire and the ground. This study proposes a system that leverages Model-based Predictive Control (MPC) to effectively manage and control longitudinal slip. The proposed system introduces constraints specifically designed to limit longitudinal slip, offering a significant improvement over traditional approaches. The system is evaluated with simulations of a single-corner model, using the Pacejka’s Magic Formula to define the tire force. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of the control in maintaining maximum traction and highlight its advancements compared to previous work.
Rosa, Tobias José Degli Esposte, Rodrigues, Gustavo Simão, Lopes, Elias Dias Rossi
Fuzzy Logic-Based Traction Control for a 4WD In-Wheel Electric Formula Vehicle2025-36-011412/18/2025
Vehicle dynamic control is crucial for ensuring safety, efficiency and high performance. In formula-type electric vehicles equipped with in-wheel motors (4WD), traction control combined with torque vectoring enhances stability and optimizes overall performance. Precise regulation of the torque applied to each wheel minimizes energy losses caused by excessive slipping or grip loss, improving both energy efficiency and component durability. Effective traction control is particularly essential in high-performance applications, where maintaining optimal tire grip is critical for achieving maximum acceleration, braking, and cornering capabilities. This study evaluates the benefits of Fuzzy Logic-based traction control and torque distribution for each motor. The traction control system continuously monitors wheel slip, ensuring they operate within the optimal slip range. Then, torque is distributed to each motor according to its angular speed, maximizing vehicle efficiency and performance
Oliveira, Vivian Fernandes, Hayashi, Daniela Tiemi, Dias, Gabriel Henrique Rodrigues, Andrade Estevos, Jaqueline, Guerreiro, Joel Filipe, Ribeiro, Rodrigo Eustaquio, Eckert, Jony Javorski
Research on the Rotation Resistance Coefficient Experiment Based on the 6 Degree-of-Freedom Rig2025-99-030812/17/2025
The rotational resistance coefficient of the bogie is a critical parameter for assessing the operational safety of vehicles, significantly influencing the stability of the vehicle’s snaking motion and the safety of curve negotiation. This paper conducts measurements of the rotational resistance coefficient using a 6- degree-of-freedom bogie test rig, evaluating the variation patterns of the indicator under different vehicle load conditions and air spring inflation states. By establishing a SIMPACK dynamic model of the 6-DOF platform, it is possible to obtain actuator displacement control curves that comply with the EN 14363 standard. Taking a specific subway trailer bogie as an example, the rotational resistance coefficient under various operating conditions was measured. The test results indicate that under the condition of air spring deflation, the rotational resistance coefficient is significantly higher than that under air spring inflation. Moreover, under the condition of air
Li, Li, Hu, Jie
Identification of Runway Friction Coefficient Using Extended Kalman Filter09-13-02-001212/11/2025
Aircraft operations during landing or takeoff depend strongly on runway surface conditions. Safe runway operations depend on the tire-to-runway frictional force and the drag offered by the aircraft. In the present research article, a methodology is developed to estimate the braking friction coefficient for varied runway conditions accurately in real-time. To this end, the extended Kalman filtering technique (EKF) is applied to sensor-measured data using the on-ground mathematical model of aircraft and wheel dynamics. The aircraft velocity and wheel angular velocity are formulated as system states, and the friction coefficient is estimated as an augmented state. The relation between the friction coefficient and wheel slip ratio is established using both simulated and actual ground roll data. Also, the technique is evaluated with the simulated data as well as real aircraft taxi data. The accuracy of friction estimation, with and without the measurement of normal reaction force on the
T.K., Khadeeja Nusrath, Singh, Jatinder
Measurement of Road Friction Coefficient with Strain at Tire Sidewall: Verification by Actual Vehicle Driving Experiments10-10-01-000511/20/2025
If road friction coefficient can be measured in a car driving, the performance of advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) such as antilock braking system (ABS) and automatic braking systems can be improved. Generally, ADAS uses information obtained from wheel speed sensors, acceleration sensors, and the like. However, it is difficult to measure accurately road friction coefficients with these sensors. Therefore, many studies measured road friction coefficients from strain or deformation in the bottom of a tire (tread), which is the only place to contact with a road surface. However, a sensor installed on the bottom of a tire is easy to peel or damage because greater deformation occurs locally on the bottom of a tire. Therefore, this study develops a method of measuring the road friction coefficient from the strain induced in a tire sidewall. If the tire sidewall can be used, stable measurement can be expected because the sidewall is harder to deform locally than the bottom of a tire
Higuchi, Masahiro, Tachiya, Hiroshi
Research on Off-Road Performance Optimization Strategy for Agricultural Smart Vehicles Based on Traction Control System2025-99-011811/11/2025
(TC)The paper presents a designed and evaluated optimal traction control (TC) strategy for unmanned agriculture vehicle, where onboard sensors acquire various real-time information about wheel speed, load sharing, and terrain characteristics to achieve the precise control of the powertrain by establishing an optimal control command; moreover, the developed AMT-adaptive SMC combines the AMT adaptive control algorithm and the SMC to implement the dynamic gear shifting, torque output, and driving mode switching to obtain an optimal power distribution according to different speed demand and harvest load. Based on the establishment of models of the autonomous agriculture vehicle and corresponding tire model, a MATLAB/Simulink method based on dynamic simulation is adopted to simulate the unmanned agricultural vehicle traversing different terrains conditions. The results from comparison show that the energy saving reaches 19.0%, rising from 2. 1 kWh/km to 1. 7 kWh/km, an increase in
Feng, Zhenghao, Lu, Yunfan, Gao, Duan, An, Yi, Zhou, Chuanbo
Research on Methods for Quantitative Assessment of Vehicle Controllability Level2025-99-010111/11/2025
As one of the main indexes of functional safety evaluation, controllability is of critical significance. According to ISO26262 standard, by analyzing the impact of potential faults such as unexpected torque and regenerative braking force loss on vehicle controllability under different working conditions, this paper designs a vehicle controllability test scheme under abnormal motor function under multiple scenarios such as straights, lane changes and curves, and builds a test scheme under abnormal motor function. The mapping relationship between vehicle dynamic state data and controllability level provides a new idea for quantitative analysis of vehicle controllability.
Yang, Xuezhu, He, Lei, Li, Chao, Ren, Zhiqiang
Research on Low-Power Control of Offshore Wind Sail Stabilization Devices Based on Single Pendulum Control Simulation2025-99-013111/11/2025
To tackle persistent operational instability and excessive energy consumption in marine observation platforms under wave-induced disturbances, this paper introduces a novel ultra-low-power stabilization system based on pendulum dynamics. The system employs an innovative mechanical configuration to deliberately decouple the rotation axis from the center of mass, creating controlled dynamic asymmetry. In this behavior, the fixed axis serves as a virtual suspension pivot while the camera payload functions as a concentrated mass block. This configuration generates intrinsic gravitational restoring torque, enabling passive disturbance attenuation. And its passive foundation is synergistically integrated with an actively controlled brushless DC motor system. During platform oscillation, embedded algorithms detect angular motion reversals. In addition, their detection triggers an instantaneous transition from motor drive to regenerative braking mode, and transition facilitates bidirectional
Zhang, Tianlin, Liu, Shixuan, Xu, Yuzhe
Power Electronics: The Backbone of Sustainable Electrification2025-28-022811/06/2025
Power electronics are fundamental to sustainable electrification, enhancing energy, efficiency, integrating renewable energy sources, and reducing carbon emissions. In electric vehicles (EVs), power electronics is crucial for efficient energy conversion, management, and distribution. Key components like inverters, rectifiers, and DC-DC converters optimize power from renewable sources to meet EV system requirements. In EVs, power electronics convert energy from the lithium-ion battery to the electric vehicle motor, with sufficient propulsion and regenerative braking. Inverters is used to transfer DC power from the lithium-ion eEV battery to alternating current for the motor, while DC-DC converters manage voltage levels for various vehicle systems. These components maximize EV energy efficiency, reduce energy losses, and extend driving range. Power electronics also support fast and efficient battery charging, critical for widespread EV adoption. Advanced charging solutions enable rapid
Pipaliya, Akash Pravinbhai, Hatkar, Chetan
Optimizing the Structural Finite Element Method based Process to Evaluate the Sustainable Human Accidental Sliding Load of Automobile Airvent Knob Design Made with Thermoplastic PC - ABS2025-28-028911/06/2025
The research work elaborated the structural integrity of airvent by skipping the assembly level snap fit finite element analysis of knob to reduce computational complexity of air vent knob sliding test post stopper. During assembly, the strain based mechanical breakage prediction of airvent sliding knob snaps is investigated in non-prestressed condition. The research work proposes a FEM based analysis approach to evaluate the mechanical breakage load of airvent knob assembly for accidental sliding load. This process skips the assembly level snap insertion load case along with silicone rubber pad compression which could serve as the prerequisite simulation. This prerequisite simulation is computationally expensive and complex to solve due to polymer plasticity and silicone rubber elastomer hyper-elasticity and moving frictional contacts between parts. If the accidental sliding load case without considering pre-tension on snaps is simulated, the load causing mechanical failure in the FEM
Shah, Viren, Wani, Dishant, Miraje, Jitendra
Evaluation of Alternative Cooling Method for High Performance Resistors in Zero-Emission Trucks2025-28-035910/30/2025
High Performance Resistors (HPR), also known as brake resistors are used in zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) to dissipate excess electrical energy produced during regenerative braking, as heat energy. It is necessary to use a suitable cooling technique to release this heat energy into the atmosphere in a regulated manner. Currently in most of the ZEVs, liquid cooled HPR with its dedicated heat exchanger and other auxiliaries such as pump, surge tank, Coolant and coolant lines, is used which increases the cost, packaging space and assembly time. This paper presents air cooling as a substitute heat-exchanging technique for high-performance resistors which eliminates the need of auxiliaries mentioned above, resulting in space optimization and reduction in assembly time. An air cooled HPR, designed for this study consists of a heat exchanger, which accommodates a resistor wire within its tubes. The design was made to fit commercial vehicle use, specific to trucks, due to packaging constraints
Menariya, Pravin Ganesh, Kumar, Vishnu, Arhanth, Mahima, Umesha, Sathwik, Jagadish, Harshitha
Integral–Derivative-Tilted Controller for Semi-Active Magnetorheological Truck Suspension System Using Combined Multi-Objective Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm02-19-02-000910/29/2025
This study proposes a novel control strategy for a semi-active truck suspension system using an integral–derivative-tilted (ID-T) controller, developed as a modification of the TID controller. The ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm is employed to tune the controller parameters. Performance is evaluated on an eight-degrees-of-freedom semi-active suspension system equipped with MR dampers. The objective is to minimize essential dynamic responses (displacement, velocity, and acceleration) of the sprung mass, cabin, and seat. The controller also considers the nonlinear effects including suspension travel, pitch dynamics, dynamic tire loads, and seat-level vibration dose value (VDV). System performance is assessed under both single bump and random road excitations. The ACO-tuned ID-T controller is compared against passive suspension, MR passive (OFF/ON), and ACO-tuned PID and TID controllers. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed controller achieves superior performance in
Gad, S., Metered, H., Bassiuny, A. M.
Comparative Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Performance of Electric and Counterpart Diesel Tractors2025-01-041710/07/2025
The objective of this trial was to compare the energy efficiency and performance of battery electric and conventional diesel tractors. Controlled road tests replicating normal operations were conducted using two electric and two diesel day-cab tractors. The test protocol was based on the TMC - Type III RP 1103A and SAE J1526 test procedures. The tests were conducted on a 110 km long route that included a 59 km hilly portion with a maximum altitude difference of 307 m. The tractors were divided into test groups of two vehicles. Trailers and drivers were switched throughout the trial between the tractors in a test group. The tests found that the two electric trucks consumed 60% and 63% less energy than their counterpart diesel trucks, respectively. Considering the average emission factor for production of electricity in Canada, the electric trucks emitted on average 82% less GHG emissions than the conventional diesel-powered tractors. The two diesel trucks showed similar fuel consumption
Surcel, Marius-Dorin, Partington, Mark, Tanguay-Laflèche, Maxime, Schumacher, Richard
Optimal Control Strategy for Dual-Motor EVs with CVT: Comparison of Simulation of Steady-State and Dynamic Programming Methods2025-01-040710/07/2025
This study investigates an optimal control strategy for a battery electric vehicle (BEV) equipped with a high-speed motor and a continuously variable transmission (CVT). The proposed dual-motor powertrain model activates only one motor at a time, with Motor A routed through a CVT and Motor B through a fixed gear. To improve energy efficiency, two optimization methods are evaluated: a quasi-steady-state map-based approach and a dynamic programming (DP) method. The DP approach applies Bellman’s principle to derive the globally optimal CVT ratio and motor torque trajectory over the WLTC cycle. Simulation results demonstrate that the DP method significantly improves overall efficiency compared to traditional control logic. Furthermore, the study proposes using DP-derived maps to refine practical control strategies, offering a systematic alternative to conventional experimental calibration.
Zhao, Hanqing, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Kuboyama, Tatsuya
Automotive Engineering: October 202525AUTP1010/02/2025
Engineering EV, charger safety and security From a quick access port to help firefighters fight EV battery fires faster than otherwise possible to preventing public charger vandalism, here are some developments that haven't made the big headlines. Electronic stability control builds the foundation for safer roads How a mechanically simple idea has kept cars stable for decades, and why it can still evolve for an autonomous future. The factory's hidden power grid Why smart electrical distribution is the new frontier in sustainable manufacturing. Safety by design: a next-gen blueprint for EV batteries The EV industry can - and should - stop pushing decades-old battery architecture well past its limits. Vehicle fire safety with Erbis Biscarri Author turns classroom quest into a tome for anyone who wants to engineer safer cars. Editorial IAA Mobility: A new class of auto show Supplier Eye The new supplier strategy playbook BMW brings EV motor production to Steyr in Austria Ford unveils its
Enhancing Capacitance of High-Rate Electric Double-Layer Capacitors with CO 2 -Activated Mesoporous Carbon Gel Electrodes2025-01-506410/02/2025
Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) store charge by adsorbing ions at the electrode–electrolyte interface, offering fast charge–discharge rates, high power density, minimal heat generation, and long cycle life. These characteristics make EDLCs ideal for memory backup in electronic devices and power assistance in electric and hybrid vehicles, where rapid energy response and high-power delivery are critical. However, their energy density remains lower than that of batteries, requiring improvements in capacitance and operating voltage. Activated carbon with high surface area is commonly used as the electrode material, but its microporous structure limits ion transport at high rates, reducing power performance. This limitation is especially critical in automotive motor drive systems. Recent research has shifted toward mesoporous carbon materials, which improve ion diffusion and accessibility. In this study, resorcinol–formaldehyde carbon cryogels (RFCCs) with controlled mesoporous
Cheng, Zairan, Okamura, Tsubasa, Ohnishi, Yuto, Nakagawa, Kiyoharu
Enhanced Vehicle Capability Through Innovative High Voltage Power Solutions2025-01-050609/16/2025
Increasing the mission capability of ground combat and tactical vehicles can lead to new concepts of operation that enhance safety and effectiveness of warfighters. High-temperature power electronics enabled by wide-bandgap semiconductors such as silicon carbide can provide the required power density to package new capabilities into space-constrained vehicles and provide features including silent mobility, boost acceleration, regenerative braking, adaptive cooling, and power for future protection systems and command and control (C2) on the move. An architecture using high voltage [1] would best satisfy the ever-increasing power demands to enable defense against unmanned aerial systems (UAS) and offensive directed energy (DE) systems for advanced survivability and lethality capabilities.
Eddins, R., Lambert, C., Habic, D., Haynes, A., Spina, J., Schwartz, E.
Enhancing Robustness of Electro-Hydraulic Brake-by-Wire Actuators via Linear Active Disturbance Rejection Control2025-01-034109/15/2025
In recent years, motorsport has increasingly focused on environmental concerns, leading to the rise of hybrid and fully electric competitions. In this scenario, electric motors and batteries take a crucial role in reducing the environmental impact by recovering energy during braking. However, due to inherent limitations, motors and battery cannot fully capture all braking power, necessitating the use of standard friction brakes. To achieve an efficient balance between electric motors and friction brakes, the brake pressure can no longer be directly controlled by the driver. Instead, it must be computed by the Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) and sent to a smart actuator, i.e. the Brake-By-Wire (BBW), which ensures that the required pressure is applied. The standard approach to achieve precise pressure control is to design a nested Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control architecture, which requires an accurate nominal model of the system dynamics to meet the desired tracking
Gimondi, Alex, Dubbini, Alberto, Riva, Giorgio, Cantoni, Carlo
Applying Specialized System Analysis for Brake by Wire in Software Defined Vehicles: The Development of a System Analysis Tool (SAT)2025-01-035509/15/2025
The emergence of Software Defined Vehicles (SDVs) has introduced significant complexity in automotive system design, particularly for safety-critical domains such as braking. A key principle of SDV architecture is the centralization of control software, decoupled from sensing and actuation. When applied to Brake-by-Wire (BbW) systems, this leads to decentralized brake actuation that demands precise coordination across numerous distributed electronic components. The absence of mechanical backup in BbW systems further necessitates fail-operational redundancy, increasing system complexity and placing greater emphasis on rigorous system-level design validation. A comprehensive understanding of component interdependencies, failure propagation, and redundancy effectiveness is essential for optimizing such systems. This paper presents a custom-built System Analysis Tool (SAT), along with a specialized methodology tailored for modeling and analyzing BbW architectures in the context of SDVs
Heil, Edward, Zuzga, Sean, Babul, Caitlin
Active Online Estimation of the Electromechanical Brake Coulomb Friction2025-01-034209/15/2025
Electro-mechanical braking (EMB) system has emerged as a potential candidate that serves the brake-by-wire technology. Several mechanisms are used to transmit the clamp force, where each has efficiency losses due to static friction and viscous damping. Compensating these losses is essential for accurate responses such that meeting the performance goal and improving the stopping distance of the EMB. Mathematical and empirical models are used to estimate these losses so that clamp force is accurately estimated and controlled. However, none of these models are capable of addressing the part-to-part variation or predicting the impact of other noise factors on these losses such as operating temperature and degradation. The purpose of this work is to online estimate the EMB coulomb friction by introducing an external torque command over a period of time while observing the system’s response. This approach continuously measures the coulomb friction while the system is in normal operation
Aljoaba, Sharif, Ramakrishnan, Raja, Dobbs, Jeremy
Actuator-to-Vehicle Joint Estimation of Clamping Force for Sensorless Control of the Electro-Mechanical Brake System2025-01-033809/15/2025
The electro-mechanical brake (EMB) is a promising brake actuating system for electrified vehicle. To enhance the system function safety while saving space from redundancy sensors, this paper studied sensorless climbing force control for the EMB where a new climbing force estimator is proposed by fusing the information from vehicle dynamics and EMB states. The work was done with three contributions: 1) The priori clamping force characteristics were implemented to build the estimator with two parallel models, one of which was derived from the actuator rigid-body dynamics while the other was derived from vehicle longitudinal dynamics model; 2) a proportional-integral (PI) observer utilizing wheel speed residual signals was developed to correct the initial estimates iteratively; 3) a fuzzy control controller was proposed to optimize the key parameters of the PI observer. Comparative study was conducted on a co-simulation platform and the results showed that the actuator-to-vehicle joint
Xing, Yipu, Zhou, Quan, Cheng, Yulin, Li, Congcong, Han, Wei, Zhuo, Guirong, Xiong, Lu
Bolstering Driver Braking Confidence – Considerations for “Deceleration Adder” Technologies2025-01-035309/15/2025
Over the life of a typical vehicle (often estimated as 15 years or 300,00 km), an average driver can be expected to apply the brakes about 1.6 million times – almost 9 times per mile and over 290 times per day, and an “exuberant” driver can be expected to do this over 2.2 million times. Without question, the driver becomes accustomed to how the vehicle responds to braking control (and all of the normal variation around it), and even develops expectations for how it will respond the next time the brakes are employed. In the rare event of a failure or malfunction in the brake system resulting in an appreciably different vehicle response to the brake input, this can be surprising and even alarming to the driver, sometimes to the extent of causing hesitation in braking. Fortunately, with the rise of mechatronic braking actuators in the 1980’s and 1990’s paved the way for features such as “Driver Brake Assist” (which provides additional pressure beyond what the primary brake actuator can at
Antanaitis, David
A Study on the Development of Optimal Brakes for Electric Vehicles Using Simulation2025-01-034509/15/2025
As the ICE vehicle changes into the EV, we can use regenerative brake. It can improve not only the energy consumption but also reduce the hydraulic brake usage. The less hydraulic brake usage mitigates the heat loading on the brake disc. From this reason, the lightweight brake can be used in the EV. However, when the lightweight brake is applied, the brake NVH can be increased. The optimization design of the lightweight brake should be done to prevent the brake NVH. In this paper, the optimal brake disc thickness and brake interfaces are determined by using of disc heat capacity analysis. The lightweight brake should be optimized by using of the brake squeal analysis. We can verify the results from both analysis and test. Finally, we can have the lightweight brake, which is competitive in terms of cost, weight and robust to the brake NVH.
Kim, Sungho, Kim, Jeongkyu, Hwang, Jaekeun, Kang, Donghoon
An Eco-Charging Strategy for Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles via Graph Optimization2025-24-011609/07/2025
An optimization framework for trip and charging planning for electric heavy-duty vehicles is proposed in this paper. Building upon and extending previous work on light-duty vehicles, our approach models energy-aware routing by constructing a state-augmented graph that jointly captures geographic position and battery state-of-charge. We refine the route model to include detailed vehicle dynamics and speed constraints specific to heavy-duty vehicles, and introduce an alternative graph construction method that avoids the computational complexity of lexicographic products by generating only feasible nodes. The resulting framework enables efficient trip planning that accounts for driving behavior, road characteristics, and charging infrastructure. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach in reducing energy consumption and ensuring operational feasibility for long-haul freight transport.
Zonetti, Daniele, Sciarretta, Antonio, De Nunzio, Giovanni
Longitudinal Dynamic Metrics for Describing and Developing the Deceleration Behavior of Vehicles in the Concept Phase2025-01-026407/02/2025
The brake system is a critical safety component in motor vehicles. Advances in the electrification of the powertrain and the rise of autonomous driving technologies are significantly impacting the brake system, which allows innovative approaches and necessitating the development of new brake concepts and new deceleration strategies. A major technological advance is the decoupling of the driver from the brake system through Brake-by-wire technology. A crucial attribute of Brake-by-wire systems is the attainment of a concept-independent deceleration behavior. To establish a consistent and brand-specific deceleration behavior in the early development phase, objective metrics and perceptual thresholds are required to describe the desired subjective braking behavior. Moreover, objective metrics are indispensable for the virtual phase of the vehicle development process. This article focuses on deceleration from a straight-ahead drive. To identify objective metrics and perceptual thresholds
Biller, Ralph, Udovicic, Matej, Ketzmerick, Erik, Kirch, Sebastian, Mayr, Stefan, Prokop, Günther, Wagner, Andreas
Kinetic Energy Recovery: Assessment on the impact of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor and Battery Dynamic models2025-01-030307/02/2025
This paper examines the influence of a detailed dynamic model of a Surface Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (SPMSM) on the accurate evaluation of kinetic energy recovery during braking in a mild hybrid vehicle. The model, implemented in MATLAB Simulink, is based on the motor’s DQ equivalent circuit, accounting for transient effects, inductance variability, and magnetic saturation. Also, a 2nd Order Thevenin Equivalent model of the battery is used in order to take into account the bus voltage variability. Simulations reveal that the dynamic model predicts significant variations in energy recovery potential, with differences of up to 25% compared to static models under specific braking conditions. These discrepancies are particularly pronounced during high-speed high-torque transitions, where transient electrical behaviors strongly influence energy recovery. The model’s accuracy enhances the reliability of energy simulations, especially in scenarios involving frequent or intense
Lombardi, Simone, Federici, Leonardo, Tribioli, Laura, Bella, Gino
Power Hop Detection in High-Torque Vehicles: A Machine Learning Approach with Focus on Data Coverage and Model Generalization2025-01-027107/02/2025
Power hop is a vibration phenomenon that occurs during high accelerations from low speed. In severe cases it can lead to component damage or deformation. Therefore, the affected vehicles must be safeguarded against these vibrations by a safe design of the components and by additional software-based functions. Conventional software-based solutions, such as Traction Control Systems (TCS), often perform delayed interventions and apply harsh torque adjustments that reduce driving comfort. Motivated by these challenges, this paper proposes a novel approach for power hop detection in a high-torque vehicle based on Long Short-Term-Memory Network (LSTM) and real-time measurements. Unlike conventional methods, our LSTM precisely detects the start of power hop, enabling proactive torque adjustments. Due to its impact on vehicle stability, the model must achieve a high level of reliability and robustness. Given the importance of data quality in Machine Learning (ML), we consider data-related
Chehoudi, Moatez, Moisidis, Ioannis, Sailer, Marc, Peters, Steven
Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus2025-01-026607/02/2025
Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of
Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias
Development and Evaluation of a Combined Driveline Oscillation and Traction Controller Using Model Predictive Control and Reinforcement Learning: A Comparative Case Study2025-01-029107/02/2025
In electric vehicles, the control of driveline oscillations and tire traction is critical for guaranteeing driver comfort and safety. Yet, achieving sufficient driveline control performance remains challenging in the presence of rapidly varying road conditions. Two promising avenues for further improving driveline control are adaptive model predictive control (MPC) and model-based reinforcement learning (RL). We derive such controllers from the same non-linear vehicle model and validate them through pre-defined test scenarios. The MPC approach employs input and output trajectory tracking with soft constraints to ensure feasible control actions even in the presence of constraint violations and is further supported by a Kalman filter for robust state estimation and prediction. In contrast, the RL controller leverages the model-based DreamerV3 algorithm to learn control policies autonomously, adapting to different road conditions without relying on external information. The results
Uhl, Ramón Tamino, Schüle, Isabel, Ludmann, Laurin, Geist, A. René
Early Detection of the Loss of Control of Motorsport Vehicles10-09-03-002906/30/2025
The article investigates how to detect as quickly as possible whether the driver will lose control of a vehicle, after a disturbance has occurred. Typical disturbances refer to wind gusts, obstacle avoidance, a sudden steer, traversing a pothole, a kick by another vehicle, and so on. The driver may be either human or non-human. Focus will be devoted to human drivers, but the extension to automated or autonomous cars is straightforward. Since the dynamic behavior of vehicle and driver is described by a saddle-type limit cycle, a proper theory is developed to use the limit cycle as a reference trajectory to forecast the loss of control. The Floquet theory has been used to compute a scalar index to forecast stable or unstable motion. The scalar index, named degree of stability (DoS), is computed very early, in the best case, in a few milliseconds after the disturbance has ended. Investigations have been performed at a dynamic driving simulator. A 14 DoF vehicle model, virtually driven by
Della Rossa, Fabio, Fontana, Matteo, Giacintucci, Samuele, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Mastinu, Giampiero, Previati, Giorgio
Developing Military Light Utility Vehicle Performance Based on Air Semi-Active Suspension System Using Recurrent Neural Network–Based Controller10-09-04-003006/19/2025
This research presents a semi-active suspension system that combines an air spring and a magneto-rheological (MR) fluid damper to produce both active force and variable damping rates based on the road conditions. The suspension system used for the military light utility vehicle (MLUV) has seven degrees of freedom. A nonlinear model predictive control system generates the desired active force for the air spring control signal, while the linear quadratic regulator (LQR) estimates the target tracking of the intended damping force. The recurrent neural network is designed to develop a controller for an identification system. To achieve the optimal voltage for the MR damper without log time, it is used to simultaneously determine the active control force of the air spring by modifying the necessary damping force tracking. The MLUV suspension system is integrated with the traction control system to improve overall vehicle stability. A fuzzy traction controller adjusts the throttle angle
Shehata Gad, Ahmed
Braking Force Distribution Strategy for Brake-by-Wire Systems: Enhancing Safety and Redundancy10-09-03-002806/09/2025
Brake-by-wire (BBW) systems, characterized by fast response, high precision, ease installation, and simplified maintenance, are highly likely to become the future braking systems. However, the reliability of BBW is currently inferior to that of traditional hydraulic braking systems. Considering ECE R13 regulations, actuator reliability, and braking efficiency, this article first proposes a new braking force distribution strategy to prevent braking failure and enhance vehicle safety without modifying the actuator itself. The strategy reduces the operating frequency of rear actuators during low- and medium-intensity braking, thereby extending their service life and operational reliability. Then, the co-simulation model combining Simulink and AMESim was established for simulation validation based on direct drive braking actuator. Additionally, the real-vehicle test platform was built for typical braking scenarios. The simulation and experimental results show that this strategy
Li, Tianle, Gong, Xiaoxiang, He, Chunrong, Deng, Zhenghua, Zhang, Hong, Xu, Rong, He, Haitao, Wang, Xun, Zhang, Huaiyue
Letter from the Guest Editors10-09-02-000905/19/2025
Letter from the Guest Editors
Wang, Zhenfeng, Zhang, Yunqing, Qi, Ronghuai, Lu, Yukun
Simulation and Experimental: Enhanced Stability Control of Electric Vehicle Based on Phase Plane Boundary Analysis10-09-02-001705/05/2025
To optimize vehicle chassis handling stability and ride safety, a layered joint control algorithm based on phase plane stability domain is proposed to promote chassis performance under complicated driving conditions. First, combining two degrees-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model considering tire nonlinearity with phase plane theory, a yaw rate and side slip angle phase plane stability domain boundary is drew in real time. Then based on the real-time stability domain and hierarchical control theory, an integrated control system with active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC) is designed, and the stability of the controller is validated by Lyapunov theory. Finally, the lateral stability of the vehicle is validated by Simulink and CarSim simulations, real car data, and driving simulators under moose test and pylon course slalom test. The experimental results confirm that the algorithm can enhance the maneuverability and ride safety for intelligent vehicles.
Liao, Yinsheng, Zhang, Zhijie, Su, Ailin, Zhao, Binggen, Wang, Zhenfeng
Electric Bus NVH Challenges and Refinement Using Innovative Approach2025-01-008005/05/2025
The trend towards electrification propulsion in the automotive industry is highly in demand due to zero-emission and becoming more significant across the world. Battery electric vehicles have lower overall noise as compared to conventional I.C Engine counterparts due to the absence of engine combustion and mechanical noise. However, other narrowband and tonal noises are becoming dominant and are strongly perceived inside the cabin. With the ongoing push towards electrification, there is likely to be increased focus on the noise impact of gearing required for the transmission of power from the electric motor to the road. Direct coupling of E-motors with Axle has resulted in severe tonal noises from the driveline due to instant e-motor torque ramp up from 0 rpm and reverse torque on driving axle during regenerative braking. The tonal noises from the rear axle during vehicle running become very critical for customer perception. For automotive NVH engineers, it has become a challenge to
Doshi, Sohin, Kalsule, Dhanaji, Sawangikar, Pradeep, Suresh, Vineeth, Sharma, Manish
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