Agricultural vehicles operating in rough environments experience increased fatigue damage accumulation, which may decrease machine safety and reliability. Autonomous agricultural machines offer an opportunity to incorporate fatigue damage considerations into path planning. This work investigates whether machine learning can predict fatigue damage to a tractor chassis using light detection and ranging (LiDAR)-based terrain features, vehicle speed, and rotational vehicle state data (e.g., triaxial angle, angular velocity, and angular acceleration). Fatigue damage was estimated using the Rupp filter and the Durability Transfer Concept. Following poor predictive performance of the machine learning models, an exploratory analysis of damage histograms, dominant frequency, and acceleration magnitude was performed. Results indicated that most estimated fatigue damage occurred in the 0–2 Hz band, which coincides with the frequency range of terrain-induced acceleration. On-road driving led to

Govers, Megan Emily, Hamilton-Wright, Andrew, Hassan, Marwan, Oliver, Michele L.

Coordinated Path Tracking and Stability Strategy for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Using Model Predictive Control with Dual Feedback Adjustment

10-10-04-0034

6/3/2026

Distributed drive electric vehicles (DDEVs) provide enhanced maneuverability through independent wheel torque control, but coordinating precise path tracking with lateral stability remains challenging under aggressive driving conditions. This paper presents a coordinated control strategy that integrates model predictive control (MPC) for path tracking with a proportional gain controller for stability regulation. The proposed framework adopts a hierarchical design. The path tracking control leverages MPC to compute front steering commands while accounting for vehicle dynamics and preview errors. The stability adjustment uses dual proportional gain controllers to generate an additional yaw moment, which is adaptively balanced through a phase plane coordination mechanism, enhancing yaw stability during path tracking. The generated yaw moment is subsequently distributed to individual in-wheel motors with an optimization torque allocation method, respecting tire force limitations. The

He, Yang, Zhu, Yuzheng, Guo, Ruixin, Zhu, Yueying, Xing, Chao, Liu, Shuangxi, Lin, Yier

Hybrid Physics-Informed Neural Network and PID Control for Fault-Tolerant Autonomous Multi-Copters

2026-26-0770

6/1/2026

This paper addresses the critical challenge of fault-tolerant control in autonomous multi-copters, particularly under conditions of one or two rotor failures a scenario that often leads to severe instability and a complete loss of directional control due to unbalanced torque and resultant autorotation. Existing advanced control strategies, including optimal approaches such as LQR, typically require precise system modeling and state estimation, which are difficult to achieve in real-world, dynamic failure scenarios. Alternative methods like fuzzy logic, sliding mode control, and gain-scheduling either lack robust generalization or are impractical for enumerating all possible failure cases. In this work, a hybrid control framework integrating Physics Informed Neural Networks (PINN) with a standard PID controller is proposed for fault-tolerant operation of autonomous multi-copters subject to multiple actuator failures. PINNs incorporate governing physical laws as regularization in their

Charapalle, Samruddhi, Venugopalan, Nandagopalan, Nerkundram Muralidharan, Arun, Sundararaj, Laveen

Coupled Loads Analysis of a Single Stage Launch Vehicle for Vibration Test Level Generation

2026-26-0741

6/1/2026

Gaganyaan is an ambitious and recover safety mission for the Indian space program to launch humans into space. The success of the mission depends on the development of required technology and systems. A test vehicle is developed for the technological demonstration for all envisioned abort flight scenarios of Gaganyaan mission. A new configuration of launch vehicle with single liquid stage is planned for multiple flights. Coupled Loads analysis of launch vehicle system is a standard practice to estimate response and loads for the design of structures and generating sine vibration test levels. Usually a vehicle rests on the launch pad through base shroud with horizontal support and no vertical restraint. Upon ignition of the engine, thrust builds up and upon overcoming gravity the vehicle takes off. In the current analysis the launch vehicle is held in position using a holding / retracting mechanism and at a predefined time the vehicle is released. The boundary condition required a novel

Kurudimath, Kottresh Maharudraiah, Jalan, Salil, Rose, Jancy

Neural Network Enabled Synthetic Air Data System: Development and Validation

2026-26-07206/1/2026

Synthetic Air Data System (SADS) provides a smart solution that can be used to predict critical air data parameters in the absence of conventional air data sensors. Traditional air data sensors, such as pitot-static tubes and vanes, are generally expensive, require regular maintenance, and can fail in harsh weather conditions. In addition, these sensors, along with their processor and computers, add weight to the aircraft. To address these issues, a synthetic air data system is proposed using a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN). Several flight variables were checked for Pearson correlation coefficient with respect to the angle-of-attack and angle-of-sideslip, and thereafter, input features were selected based on the thresholding technique. The proposed neural network has two hidden layers and regularization technique was implemented by adding two dropout layers to each hidden layer to prevent overfitting of the model. The neural network was trained using actual flight test data

Sahu, Sanju, C, Poornima, Kaliyari, Dushyant, TK, Khadeeja Nusrath, Hebbar, Archana

Effect of Strap-On Geometry on the Aerodynamics of Multibody Launch Vehicle

2026-26-0727

6/1/2026

Strap-on boosters play a crucial role in heavy launch vehicles by providing additional liftoff thrust without major changes to the baseline design, enabling launch with existing propulsion systems. However, strap-on boosters introduce additional pressure drag and alter the overall aerodynamics of the vehicle. While efforts have been previously made to derive empirical relationships to predict the aerodynamics of different strap-on configurations, most are case-specific and primarily limited to estimating drag coefficients (CD). The present study focuses on geometric parameters of strap-on such as length, diameter and radial gap between strap-on and core. The results are used to derive an empirical relationship which can be applied during preliminary design stage of a launch vehicle to predict axial force coefficient (CA), normal force coefficient (CN) and pitching moment coefficient (CPM), which are required for mission design and structural load estimation. In the current study

Muraleedharan, Archana P., G, Ramana Bharathi, S, Gnanasekar

Estimation of Dynamic Responses at Internal Points of a Nested Sub-Structure with Two-Level Craig-Bampton Reduction

2026-26-0747

6/1/2026

Dynamic responses at critical locations of a spacecraft due to excitations expected during the ascent phase of a launch vehicle mission are usually estimated through a Coupled Loads Analysis (CLA) using the structural dynamic finite element model of the launch vehicle coupled with that of the spacecraft. Generally, the full physical structural dynamic model of a spacecraft has lakhs of degrees-of-freedom (DOFs). Coupling such a model with a similar model for the launch vehicle results in exorbitantly high computational costs for CLA. Hence, dynamic analysis of such large and complex structural assemblies usually employ sub-structure coupling or Component Mode Synthesis (CMS) methods. The most widely used CMS method for dynamic analyses is the Craig-Bampton (CB) method. Conventionally, a full launch vehicle CLA involves one level of CB-reduction wherein a reduced-order dynamic model of the spacecraft is first generated using the fixed-interface CB-method. This reduced-order model is

Ramachandran, Nirmal

A Robust 6-DOF Dynamic Soaring Framework Incorporating Variable Aerodynamic Derivatives

2026-26-0771

6/1/2026

Dynamic soaring is a flight technique that exploits wind shear for sustained flight. It is commonly observed in birds such as albatrosses and holds significant potential for unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) missions. Previous research has primarily focused on trajectory generation using direct optimal control or differential flatness. This paper proposes an enhancement to the existing six-degree-of-freedom (6-DOF) trajectory generation method based on differential flatness. The proposed formulation includes sideslip and accounts for all stability and control derivatives. A Vortex Lattice Method (VLM) solver is then used to compute steady aerodynamic forces and moments, which are compared against the constant-derivative-based trajectories. To assess the validity of the constant-derivative assumption, a 6-DOF UAV model is simulated in a dynamic soaring orbit with stability augmentation provided by a Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR). The observed divergence in this simulation highlights the

Swaminathan, Bharath

Intelligent Vehicle Trajectory Tracking Control Using ILQR-MPC

15-19-02-0008

5/23/2026

Trajectory tracking control is a core technology in intelligent vehicle autonomous driving systems, directly influencing both driving safety and control accuracy. To overcome the limitations of traditional model predictive control (MPC) in real-time performance under complex operating conditions, as well as the limited robustness of linear quadratic regulators (LQR) against system uncertainties, this article proposes a hybrid iterative LQR–MPC (ILQR-MPC) control strategy. First, a dynamic model of the intelligent vehicle is developed to capture its behavior during high-speed driving and cornering. Next, an ILQR-MPC hybrid framework is designed. By exploiting the rapid iterative optimization capabilities of the ILQR algorithm, an initial control sequence is generated for the MPC, thereby reducing the computational load during MPC’s online rolling-horizon optimization. This approach preserves MPC’s advantages in handling constraints and maintaining robustness against parameter variations

Lai, Fei, Sun, Junhao, Huang, Chaoqun

Computational Analysis of Platform Motion and Wave Effects on the Aerodynamics and Wake of the IEA 22 MW Floating Wind Turbine

2026-99-1735

5/22/2026

This study investigates the unsteady aerodynamic response, wake evolution, and vortex dynamics of an ultra-large floating offshore wind turbine (FOWT) under coupled motion–wave conditions. A high-fidelity aero–hydrodynamic CFD model is employed for the IEA 22 MW reference turbine. Platform pitch and surge motions are prescribed via sinusoidal functions, and wave conditions are independently introduced by considering two representative sea states (H = 4 m and 7 m) and a no-wave case. Results show that pitch and combined pitch–surge motions significantly amplify unsteady aerodynamic effects, increasing peak power from 81.1 MW (P5S0) to 92.6 MW (P5S5), with periodic negative power output and severe dynamic stall. Under strong motion, waves further raise peak power to 93.4 MW (H7P5S5), indicating a coupled amplification effect. Dynamic stall is mainly triggered by pitch motion, expanding in scope and duration with motion amplitude; wave effects on stall remain limited. Platform motion also

Xie, Bin, Sun, Haiying, Chen, Ye

A Simulation Method for Automotive Door Jitter Containment

10-10-03-0022

5/21/2026

This article describes multi-body dynamics simulation to investigate door jitter issues caused by the limiter during door operations. A simulation model integrating a rigid limiter and a flexible door-body system was developed to replicate the dynamic process of wide-angle door opening/closing. Through iterative refinements—including correlation of simulation results with test data, optimization of internal door connection methods, and solid-element hinge modeling—simulation accuracy was improved to over 89.7%. Using the validated model, quantitative metrics were established to evaluate door jitter severity. Key parameters that influence the door operation smoothness were identified, and an optimization scheme was proposed for a specific vehicle model, incorporating slope-holding performance requirements under hill-parking conditions. Finally, prototype testing validated the approach’s effectiveness. The developed simulation method provides a technical foundation for virtually

Xiao, Yongfu, Deng, Jianjiao, Li, Jingtan, Yang, Tao, Hou, Hangshen, Han, Chao, Gao, Meng, Wang, Yiqi, Liu, Yihong

A Novel Stiffness Prediction Model of Rolling Lobe Air Springs Considering Irregular Piston Contour Geometry: Development and Experimental Validation

15-19-02-0006

5/18/2026

An accurate air spring model is essential for the design and optimization of air suspension systems to achieve superior performance. This article presents a novel stiffness model for a rolling lobe air spring (RLAS), formulated using stiffness characteristic parameters. Prediction models for these parameters, including effective area and its change rate, as well as effective volume and its change rate, are derived through geometric analysis, based on polynomial fitting of the irregular piston contour. The local contour cone angle of the piston is determined by differentiating the polynomial function, capturing the geometry-dependent variation across the profile. Additionally, a nonlinear hysteresis model for the rubber bellows is integrated, combining a Berg friction component and a Kelvin-Voigt fractional derivative viscoelastic model to represent the amplitude- and frequency-dependent behavior of the RLAS. The proposed model is parameterized through quasi-static and dynamic bench

Xia, Xiaojun, Zhang, Hong, Zou, Yi, Ye, Lei, Lu, Yi, Chen, Rui, Zou, Hantong, Wang, Yang

Limit Stability Control for Corner Module Vehicles Based on Hierarchical Hybrid Game

10-10-04-0032

5/18/2026

Corner module vehicles (CMVs) achieve the decoupling of driving, braking, steering, and suspension, significantly enhancing vehicle handling potential, but under extreme operating conditions, the interactions between actuators severely constrain the improvement of vehicle handling performance. In order to mitigate conflicts between subsystems and enhance vehicle handling stability, a hierarchical hybrid game–based limit stability control method for CMVs is proposed in this article. Taking into account the handling potential of subsystems under limit conditions, a Stackelberg leader–follower game is designed by first designating Direct Yaw moment Control (DYC) as the leader and Active Rear Steering (ARS) as the follower. Subsequently, the DYC–ARS and Active Suspension System (ASS) were constructed into a non-cooperative game system, and the Nash equilibrium solution was solved through iteration. The lower-level controllers, respectively, established a tire force distribution model that

Peng, Jinxin, Xiao, Feng, Ke, Yuan, Jin, Liqiang

Torque Coordination Control Strategy for Dual-Motor Electric Vehicles Considering Load Transfer and Slip Energy Dissipation

2026-99-0709

5/15/2026

To address the issues of significant slip energy dissipation induced by severe tire slip, degradation of vehicle control stability, and insufficient accuracy of vehicle speed tracking under low-adhesion road conditions, a torque coordination control strategy for dual-motor electric vehicles (DM-EVs) considering load transfer and slip energy dissipation is proposed. First, a vehicle dynamics model integrating suspension system dynamics and tire slip characteristics is developed, fully accounting for the influence of front-rear axle load transfer on the tire slip ratio. Next, founded on the energy dissipation mechanism of tire slip, a quantitative model for energy dissipation during tire slip is developed. Finally, a longitudinal coordinated control system for vehicles according to nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) is introduced. By comprehensively considering the tire slip ratio and vehicle load distribution, multi-objective coordinated optimization of wheel torque is achieved

Hou, Yingming, Li, Jie, Bai, Xianxu

Multi-Mode Control Strategy for Controllable Vehicle Suspension Systems

2026-99-0712

5/15/2026

2−3

Li, Zhiying, Li, Jei, Zhu, Anding, Bai, Xianxu, Li, Weihan, Li, Rui

Linear Trajectory Planning of Hydrogen Storage Tank with Unequal Polar Holes

2026-99-0718

5/15/2026

In this paper, the design and process research of uniform filling linear trajectory for filament wound hydrogen storage tank with unequal polar holes are carried out. Firstly, by optimizing the slip coefficient, the winding angles of the left and right heads are smoothly and continuously transitioned to the cylindrical section. We study the necessary conditions for achieving the central angle of uniform filling, and calculate the tangent points of the trajectory line based on the continuous fraction principle. Meanwhile, the slip coefficients at the left and right ends that satisfy stable winding and uniform covering are determined. Based on the equal contour constraint conditions, we analyze the motion trajectory equation of the four-axis winding machine and convert it into the corresponding machine code for actual winding operations. Experimental results show that stable winding of fibers on the surface of the unequal-polar-hole mandrel is achieved, and uniform filling and winding

Chen, Baosen, Fu, Jianhui, Cao, Xuewen, Yu, Libin

Diffusion Framework with Cross-Modality Fusion Perception for Autonomous Driving in Urban Traffic

2026-99-0749

5/15/2026

End-to-end autonomous driving in urban environments faces three core challenges. First, camera and LiDAR sensor heterogeneity causes cross-modal perception inconsistencies and sensor fusion instability. Second, diffusion models suffer from training instability due to scale variance and distribution changes, which limits generalization. Third, traditional trajectory decoders lack structured interaction with semantic elements, thereby undermining planning rationality. To address these issues, CMFPNet introduces an integrated framework with three key modules. The HGCF-Backbone integrates LiDAR and camera features using channel focus, deformable cross-focus, and state space modeling to enhance semantic alignment. The NST module maps physical trajectories to normalized space, employing truncated diffusion sampling for stable generation in just 2–4 steps. The NDA models trajectory generation as a semantic narrative, utilizing a six-stage semantic attention flow incorporating BEV context

Qu, Yanwei, Mo, Hangjie

Robust Curvature Preview Drift Control Using STA-ISMC under Parameter Uncertainty

10-10-03-0021

5/6/2026

Autonomous vehicles exhibit extremely strong nonlinearity during drift. However, existing autonomous drift algorithms often neglect previewed path curvature and offer only limited consideration of road surface uncertainty because of the influence of vehicle nonlinear dynamics, which can affect tracking accuracy and robustness of drift control. To solve these problems, this study proposes a robust optimal drift control framework based on curvature preview. First, a preview vehicle kinematic model is constructed, and a preview model predictive control path-tracking controller that considers the forthcoming curvature is designed. Through the analysis of equilibrium points with additional yaw moment, a robust optimal drift controller is developed, which employs a three-degrees-of-freedom vehicle model with an additional yaw moment. This controller adopts integral sliding mode control with a super-twisting algorithm (STA) and exhibits good stability, which is verified through Lyapunov

Gan, Yurun, Song, Ziyu, Gu, Tongtong, Ding, Haitao, Xu, Nan, Zhang, Jianwei

Machine Learning–Driven Safety Analysis of Automated Vehicles in Simulated Mixed Traffic Environments

09-14-01-0021

5/4/2026

Automated Vehicles (AV) pose new challenges in road safety, multimodal interaction, and urban planning, requiring a holistic approach that prioritizes sustainability and protects all road users. The KASSA.AST project addresses this by deploying and evaluating an automated shuttle in southern Austria on three routes. The study area is a Park & Ride zone near a train station, enabling seamless transfers and higher transit use. To assess the safety impacts of the automated shuttle, four Mobility Observation Boxes (MOBs) were deployed. These AI-based systems detect and classify road users, track their trajectories and geospatial coordinates, and identify safety-critical events via Surrogate Safety Measures (SSMs). Over 10 days, a trajectory dataset captured interactions among vehicles and the shuttle. The resulting real-world dataset is a core contribution. This dataset underpins microscopic behavior modeling. Trajectory pairs yield car-following and interaction metrics (relative distance

Losada Arias, Ángel, Rosenkranz, Paul, Hula, Andreas, Aleksa, Michael, Saleh, Peter, Erdelean, Isabela

Advanced Tool for Traffic Crash Analysis: An AI-Driven Multi-Agent Approach to Pre-Crash Reconstruction

09-14-01-0033

5/4/2026

Traffic collision reconstruction traditionally relies on human expertise and, when performed properly, can be incredibly accurate. However, attempting to perform pre-crash reconstruction, i.e., reconstructing the driver and vehicle behaviors that preceded the actual crash, poses significantly more challenges. This study develops a multi-agent artificial intelligence (AI) framework that reconstructs pre-crash scenarios and infers vehicle behaviors from fragmented collision data. We present a two-phase collaborative framework combining reconstruction and reasoning phases. The system processes 277 rear-end lead vehicle deceleration (LVD) collisions from the Crash Investigation Sampling System (CISS; 2017–2022), integrating textual crash reports, structured tabular data, and visual scene diagrams. Phase I generates natural language crash reconstructions from multimodal inputs. Phase II performs in-depth crash reasoning by combining these reconstructions with the temporal event data

Xu, Gerui, Chen, Boyou, Guo, Huizhong, LeBlanc, Dave, Kusari, Arpan, Yarbasi, Efe, Ahmed, Ananna, Sun, Zhaonan, Bao, Shan

A Comparative Assessment of Fuel Cell and Battery Powertrains for Formula Student Electric Applications

2026-01-5032

4/27/2026

The organizers of the most prominent Formula Student competitions have recently initiated a preliminary feasibility study on the application of hydrogen-based propulsion technologies in future single-seater race vehicles. These include electric powertrains with electrochemically converted hydrogen in fuel cell–powered vehicles, competing within the electric championship league. Based on the initial set of regulations, this study presents a model-based comparison between battery-powered (BEVs) and fuel cell–powered electric vehicles (FCVs) for Formula Student. The analysis is conducted using energy, power, and efficiency metrics from four candidate models of propulsion systems, implemented in an open and publicly available MATLAB script: two BEVs with varying battery capacities, and two FCVs employing different hybridization strategies. The aim of this study is to pinpoint and quantify the advantages and disadvantages of each technology for the Formula Student use case, and to identify

Martoccia, Lorenzo, Breda, Sebastiano, Fontanesi, Stefano, d’Adamo, Alessandro

Thermal Management of Electric Microtruck Motors

2026-01-5026

4/9/2026

This study investigates the gradeability performance of an L7e-class electric micro truck from both vehicle dynamics and thermal perspectives. A 1D simulation model (Amesim) was developed and validated with multiple test results. Using inputs such as motor characteristics, drivetrain configuration, and vehicle mass, the model analyzed vehicle performance on a 20% gradient, calculating the required torque, achievable motor speed, and corresponding vehicle speed. Furthermore, gradeability limits were evaluated, and the effects of gear ratio and airflow rate around the air-cooled motor on both gradeability and thermal behavior were examined. The findings provide practical insights for improving the powertrain and cooling system design of lightweight electric vehicles. The results showed that selecting an appropriate gear ratio can enable the motor to operate more efficiently under demanding driving conditions. A 20% increase in the gear ratio was found to delay motor heating by up to 10

Turan, Azim, Kantaroğlu, Hasan Hüseyin, Akbaba, Mahir, Kasım, Recep Faruk, Yarar, Göktuğ

A Sub Optimal Fuzzy Control Strategy for Balancing Driver Demand and Actuator Acceleration in Electrified Powertrains

2026-01-0451

4/7/2026

Electrified powertrains—such as Power Splits, Series Hybrids, and EVs with Disconnect Actuators—enable flexible management of actuator acceleration and torque from shared power sources. In power-limited or high-demand conditions, the Hybrid Supervisor must balance available power to sustain performance and drivability; poor coordination can cause control imbalance, reduced actuator performance, and unintended motion. Conventional methods often favor a single control objective, compromising overall system efficiency. This paper introduces FLAIR (Fuzzy Learning Adaptive Integral Response) Control, a supervisory strategy for actuator speed profiling and driver demand tracking in single-input multi-output (SIMO) systems. FLAIR integrates an integral of tracking error with fuzzy inferencing to dynamically weigh multiple control goals, adapting acceleration limits in real time while preserving driver power demand tracking. It enables bi-directional power-flow decisions—allocating system

Banuso, Abdulquadri, Sha, Hangxing, Shenoy, Aayush, Madireddy, Krishna Chaitanya

Development and Validation of Torque Vectoring and Traction Control Strategies in a FSAE Vehicle Using a Dual-Axle Dynamometer HiL Platform

2026-01-0644

4/7/2026

This study presents the vehicle control optimization of a Formula SAE (FSAE) electric vehicle developed by National Taiwan University Racing Team (NTU Racing), utilizing a dual-axle dynamometer and a real-time Hardware-in-the-Loop platform from Chroma. The novelty of this work lies in the comprehensive system-level validation of independent torque control strategies, namely Torque Vectoring (TV) and Traction Control (TC), implemented directly within the vehicle control unit (VCU), and the high-fidelity simulation of dynamic driving scenarios based on the FSAE circuit. The vehicle features an independently controlled rear-axle, two-wheel drive (2WD) configuration, consisting of two in-wheel motors, self-developed inverters, and planetary gearboxes. During testing, a pre-built CarSim driver model provides throttle, brake, and steering inputs to the VCU via Controller Area Network (CAN) interface. The VCU, in turn, computes the independent torque commands according to the TV and TC

Hsiao, Tsung-Yu, Chen, Zhi-Ren, Jian, Rong-Wei, Chen, Tai-Hsiang, Wang, Tai-Jie, Hu, Wei-Zhe, Ho, Hui-Ting, Wu, Ting-Yu, Lin, Ting-He, Chiu, Joseph

A Correction Method to Estimate Wake Effects for Aerodynamic Performance Metrics

2026-01-0601

4/7/2026

Wake effects modify the aerodynamic performance of a road vehicle when driving in traffic. Analysis of wind-tunnel measurements conducted in flows with wake characteristics, using a traffic-wake-simulation system, suggests that conventional uniform-wind performance coefficients can be scaled, using wake-flow-field information, to predict the influence of wake effects. This paper presents a flow-field-averaging method that estimates a dynamic-pressure correction and yaw-angle correction for application to uniform-wind data, to account for changes in performance due to wake effects. This first-order method is shown to provide reasonably-good accuracy when reverse correcting the wind-tunnel wake-effects measurements. Drag-coefficient data for light-duty-vehicle models, which showed wake effects exceeding 20%, were corrected to within 5% of uniform-wind values, while data for heavy-duty-vehicle models, which showed wake effects exceeding 15%, were corrected to within 2% of uniform-wind

McAuliffe, Brian

Integrated Design and Validation of a Robust Lane Centering Controller for Automated Driving

2026-01-0037

4/7/2026

Lane centering is a critical active safety feature whose effectiveness depends on robust design and validation across diverse driving conditions. This paper presents the development of a Lane Centering Controller (LCC) using a structured model-based design workflow in MATLAB and Simulink. A kinematic bicycle model was employed to simulate vehicle dynamics and evaluate an angle based steering controller integrating both feedforward and feedback control paths. The controller was tested across multiple road geometries and speeds up to 65 mph to ensure tracking consistency and stability under nominal and perturbed conditions. Perception noise models for lane curvature and curvature rate were extracted from onboard camera data under controlled conditions, revealing Gaussian characteristics. No filtering was applied, allowing direct evaluation of the controller’s inherent robustness to raw signal variability. The LCC maintained a peak lateral offset within ±0.35 m and lateral jerk within ±9

Bijinepalli, Ravi Teja, Tambolkar, Pooja, Midlam-Mohler, Shawn

Intersection Assist for Vehicle with Dual-Trailers using Nonlinear Model Predictive Control and Unscented Kalman Filter

2026-01-0074

4/7/2026

This paper presents an approach utilizing Nonlinear Model Predictive Control (NMPC) and Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) to predict system state and control the trajectory of the vehicle with dual trailers in an intersection turn scenario. The UKF estimates vehicle and trailers’ lateral traversal velocity states and the NMPC controls the vehicle acceleration and steering to maintain the vehicle’s desired heading through the turn. The vehicle’s lateral traversal velocity function is formulated using Lyapunov based method which is used as a propagation function in the UKF to improve the estimation accuracy. The lateral traversal velocity is then used as one of the constraints in the NMPC problem. The overall estimation and the control scheme are formulated and assessed in the simulation environment. The simulation results show good tracking and curb avoidance performance.

Malla, Rijan

Reconstruction of Pedestrian-Vehicle Collisions Using 3D Skeletal Estimation from Vehicle-Mounted Camera Video

2026-01-0575

4/7/2026

Pedestrian fatalities in traffic accidents continue to rise, with severe injuries often resulting from both vehicle impact and subsequent ground contact, frequently occurring outside the field of view of vehicle-mounted cameras. This study presents a proof-of-concept (PoC) approach for reconstructing three-dimensional pedestrian motion—including occluded regions—using dashcam video. The method integrates 2D human pose estimation (MMPose) and monocular depth estimation (Depth Anything V2),the latter was fine-tuned on a custom dataset, to generate 3D skeletal coordinates.To evaluate motion matching, the reconstructed pedestrian poses were quantitatively compared with a database of vehicle collision simulations using the THUMS human body model and skeletal data representing real-world crash scenarios generated in PC-Crash. Composite similarity indices based on thoracic center of gravity trajectory and torso orientation vectors were employed for this comparison. Preliminary results

Onishi, Koji, Wang, Kewang, Uno, Eriko, Ichikawa, Koji, Tanase, Noboru, Ando, Takahiro

Impact of User-Adjustable Vehicle-Dynamics Tuning on Vehicle Durability

2026-01-0194

4/7/2026

Software-defined vehicles offer customers a greater degree of customization of vehicle controls and driving experience. One such feature is user-adjustable tuning of vehicle ride and handling, where customers can vary ride height, damper stiffness, front-rear torque balance, and other aspects of vehicle dynamics. While promising a great customer experience, such a feature can expose the vehicle to a wider range of structural loads than those in the nominal design condition, particularly when such tuning is extended to cover spirited “sport” mode driving, off-road driving, etc. In this paper we present a novel methodology combining Road Load Data Acquisition (RLDA) data and real-world telemetry data to estimate the impact of user-adjustable vehicle-dynamics tuning on structural durability. In doing so, the method combines the physics of damage accumulation (from RLDA data) with user behavior (from telemetry data) to present an accurate assessment of the impact on durability, moving

Demiri, Albion, Ramakrishnan, Sankaran, White, Dylan, Khapane, Prashant, Borton, Zackery

The Effect of Tire Tread Depth on Antilock-Brake System (ABS) Decelerations on Dry and Wet Asphalt and Concrete Road Surfaces

2026-01-0549

4/7/2026

The effect of tire tread depth on the deceleration performance of anti-lock brake systems (ABS) in newer vehicles is not well studied. A single sport-utility vehicle (SUV) was used to perform a series of 216 ABS-engaged braking tests on dry and wet asphalt and concrete surfaces using six sets of four tires with tread depths varying from 0.8 mm (1/32″) to 7.1 mm (9/32″). Vehicle speed and deceleration as a function of time were calculated from 5th-wheel displacement data sampled at 200 Hz. Braking tests were initially conducted on a dry surface, after which a water truck distributed water onto the road to create a wet condition and additional tests of each tire set were conducted. Overall, average deceleration levels did not vary significantly across the tires sets with tread depths from 7.1 mm (9/32″) down to 2.4 mm (3/32″) for both road surfaces in both dry and wet conditions. Compared to the deceleration levels at these larger tread depths, dry deceleration levels were greater for

Miller, Ian, King, David, Siegmund, Gunter P.

WITHDRAWAL NOTICE

2026-01-0217.01

4/7/2026

Oscillatory Behavior of Understeering Vehicles

2026-01-0623

4/7/2026

Oscillations in understeering vehicles are occasionally described in the literature, primarily in terms of the poles of the yaw rate response, but perhaps not completely appreciated in their complexity. This work shows that as speed of an understeering vehicle increases, the increasingly underdamped poles of the yaw rate transfer function combine with the effects of a low frequency zero and a reduced steady-state response to result in oscillations greater than would be expected from eigenvalues alone. A speed range for acceptable yaw rate response is suggested, and it is shown that a typical understeering passenger car operates within this range. As the understeering vehicle’s speed increases beyond this range, the high-speed limit of the oscillation frequency is found.

Williams, Daniel

A Study of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 126 and 136 Test Procedures on a Class 5 Vehicle

2026-01-0616

4/7/2026

Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 126 and 136 are standards imposed on four of the eight recognized road vehicle classes in The United States. These standards make it mandatory for Electronic Stability Control modules (ESC) to be mounted to Class 1,2,7, and 8 vehicles. These modules strategically activate the vehicle brakes via the Antilock Brake System (ABS) to limit the recorded yaw rate and lateral displacement of a vehicle during an extreme cornering maneuver such as a sudden swerve to avoid an obstacle on the road. The two aforementioned FMVSS mandates also specify three different driving maneuvers that are conducted to profile and analyze ESC module performance. There is now an interest in creating a new FMVSS that makes ESC modules mandatory for Class 5 vehicles. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how one specific Class 5 vehicle’s ESC module performed when subjected to the two test procedures that correspond to FMVSS 126 and 136. As will be seen, the vehicle’s

Cazares, Richard Isaac, Guenther, Dennis, Heydinger, Gary

Testing of Rigid Two- and Three-Wheeled Vehicle Pitch-Over Threshold Models

2026-01-0538

4/7/2026

The phenomenon of bicycle pitch-over is simple in concept, yet determining threshold criteria for pitch-over has yet to be well established, particularly with respect to determining whether or not a bicycle’s front wheel will roll over a particular obstacle or not. Two prior SAE papers have laid out two different analytical approaches to predict this threshold – the Moment-Inversion and Brach Pitch-Over Threshold models - and this paper proposes a modification to the Moment-Inversion model to account for tire deflection. Testing began by measuring the center of gravity locations and moments of inertia for a bicycle with weights and training wheels and for a test rider on a bicycle and tricycle. These physical measurements were used to calculate the predicted pitch-over height for each system for each model. The test systems were then ridden over a series of progressively taller square edge obstacles until they transitioned from rolling over to stopping or pitching over. From this

Sweet, David Michael, O'Brien, Nathan, Bretting, Gerald

Curb Impact: Non-linear Structural FE Analyses in Multibody Dynamics Models

2026-01-0219

4/7/2026

In a few extreme customer abuse load cases such as curb impact and potholes, automotive structures see non-linear (plastic) deformations as well as large rigid body motion. The load cases can be simulated by a few tools: crash analysis tools such as LS-Dyna, non-linear structure analysis tools, or multi-body dynamics (MBD) analysis tools like Ansys Motion. The three simulation tools have pros and cons, respectively. In this study, a curb impact simulation was performed using the multi-body dynamic approach with nonlinear structural analysis capabilities included in Ansys Motion. The tool demonstrated the simulation was completed faster than other MBD tools due to smartly recycling the system Jacobian matrix when structural deformation was not significant. The results were compared with structural analysis and correlated reasonably well. The post-impact suspension alignment changes can also be simulated for reviewing design requirements. This approach proposes a new way to simulate

Hong, Hyung-Joo, Kim, Wangoo

A Dynamic Driver Comfort Index for Stabilizing Mixed Traffic Behavior

2026-01-0099

4/7/2026

Despite remarkable advances in vehicle technology - enhancing comfort, safety, and automation – productivity of transportation over the road continues to decline. Stop-and-go driving remains one of the most persistent inefficiencies in modern mobility systems, leading to greater travel delays, energy waste, emissions, and accident risk. As vehicle volumes rise, these effects compound into systemic challenges, including driver frustration, unstable flow dynamics, and elevated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To address these issues, an extensive data-driven evaluation was performed characterizing the underlying causes of traffic instability and uncovering hidden behavioral parameters influencing traffic flow. This research led to the identification of a previously unrecognized metric - the Driver Comfort Index (DCI) - which quantifies an inter-vehicle spacing behavior that reflects intrinsic human driving behavior. Building on this discovery, mixed traffic is explored to identify its

Schlueter, Georg J.

Simulation Study on Rear-Wheel Steering Control of FSAE Vehicles Based on Temporal Convolutional Network

2026-01-0650

4/7/2026

The Formula SAE (FSAE) race track is characterized by a large number of corners, making cornering performance a key factor affecting lap time. Based on the proportional control strategy for rear-wheel steering angles, this paper proposes a steering angle optimization method using a Temporal Convolutional Network (TCN). The TCN model features a faster training speed than traditional sequential neural networks. In addition, dilated convolutions enable an exponential expansion of the receptive field without increasing computational costs, making it particularly suitable for capturing the temporal dependencies of vehicle states. By processing vehicle dynamic parameters including front-wheel steering angle, vehicle speed, yaw rate and sideslip angle, the model calculates the correction value of the rear-wheel steering angle. This correction value is then superimposed with the reference value of the rear-wheel steering angle derived from the proportional control strategy, which serves as the

Liu, Xiyuan

Energy Efficiency Analysis of U-Haul Truck and Trailer Systems: Impact of Tongue Weight and Load Variations

2026-01-0466

4/7/2026

The demand for improved energy efficiency in real-world vehicle operations continues to grow with technology enhancement. When transporting large cargo loads with passenger pickup trucks and rental trailers, the interaction between vehicle payload, towing configuration, and fuel consumption becomes a key factor in overall system efficiency. Understanding how towing configurations and trailer loading influence fuel consumption and vehicle performance is critical for both consumer guidance and vehicle system design. This study investigates the energy efficiency of U-Haul truck and trailer systems, with a particular focus on the influence of trailer tongue weight. U-Haul truck and trailer simulation models were developed using AVL Vehicle Simulation Model (VSM) software, with an F-350 engine brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) map integrated to represent realistic engine performance. Two configurations with equal payload were evaluated: (1) a U-Haul truck alone, and (2) a U-Haul truck

Wang, Gang, Kathadi, Mohammad, Yang, William, Chen, Yan

The Effects of Collision-Related Power Loss on Toyota Safety Sense 3.0 Event Data

2026-01-0548

4/7/2026

Toyota vehicles equipped with Toyota Safety Sense (TSS) can record detailed information surrounding various driving events. Often, this data is employed in accident reconstruction to better understand the dynamics of a collision. TSS data is comprised of three main categories: Vehicle Control History (VCH), Freeze Frame Data (FFD), and image records. During an event, it is possible that a vehicle undergoes a catastrophic power loss from the damage sustained during the event. In this paper, the effects of sudden power loss on the VCH, FFD, and images are studied. Events are triggered on a TSS 3.0 equipped vehicle by driving toward a stationary target. After system activation, a total power loss is induced, triggered on the instrument cluster “BRAKE” alert message, at various delays after activation. This testing studies various signals recorded across VCH, FFD and image data including vehicle speed and time and date. Results show that there is a minimum time to record after system

Getz, Charles, Yeakley, Adam, DiSogra, Matthew

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