The aims of this study were to investigate the kinematics of child anthropomorphic test devices in a large sample of rear-facing child restraint system installations and the effects of anti-rebound features and load legs on the kinematics of rear-facing child anthropomorphic test devices. The test matrix included a general sample of 70 rear-facing child restraint system installations to observe trends in frontal crash tests; 14 full-scale crash tests with paired comparisons to investigate the effect of anti-rebound features; and five paired comparisons of rear-facing child restraint systems installed with and without a load leg. The paired t-test was used to determine the statistical significance of differences in kinematic responses. In the general sample, 84% of anthropomorphic test devices in infant seats with the base in outboard seats interacted with the first-row seat. In 52% of tests, the anthropomorphic test device head directly contacted the front seatback. Head accelerations

Tylko, Suzanne, Tang, Kathy

Assessing Injury Prediction with Human Body Models: Application to Rib Fracture Risk Prediction Using SAFER HBM

09-14-01-0023

4/8/2026

As a consequence of the introduction of mathematical human body models (HBMs) in consumer information programs, there is an increased need for reliable methods that can demonstrate and build trust in the capability of HBMs to predict human response and injury risk in crashes. Therefore, a framework for validation of strain-based injury prediction is proposed. The framework comprises stepwise validation with the final step to validate the utility of risk predictions by means of the area under the curve (AUC) combined with Brier scores. SAFER HBM V11.1.0 previously validated at component and body part levels was selected for the demonstration of the final step of the framework to validate the capability to predict fracture risk in frontal, oblique, and lateral loading. For frontal loading, five postmortem human surrogate (PMHS) test series with 43 PMHS (age range: 19–88 years) were reconstructed. The predicted rib fracture risk for 2+ and 3+ fractured ribs was compared to the number of

Pipkorn, Bengt, Niranjan Poojary, Yash, Osth, Jonas, Larsson, Karl-Johan, Iraeus, Johan

New Era of Automotive Cybersecurity

2026-01-0086

4/7/2026

The automotive industry is evolving from a reactive, independently self-determined approach to cybersecurity, complicated by a complex supply chain. Over time, this has resulted in a fragmented industry comprised of any number of proprietary solutions verses a standardized, regulated paradigm to facilitate a platform-oriented approach. This document, an update on collaborative work from the SAE Vehicle Electrical Hardware Security Task Force (TEVEES18B) and GlobalPlatform Automotive Task Force, outlines this transition strategy. An extensible number of additional examples of use cases of Global Platform Technologies are explored in this document.

Mazzara, Bill, Rawlings, Craig

Collision Avoidance Testing of the Waymo Automated Driving System

2026-01-0519

4/7/2026

This paper describes Waymo's Collision Avoidance Testing (CAT) methodology: a scenario-based testing method that evaluates the safety of the Waymo Driver Automated Driving Systems' (ADS) intended functionality in conflict situations initiated by other road users that require urgent evasive maneuvers. Because SAE Level 4 ADS are responsible for the dynamic driving task (DDT), when engaged, without immediate human intervention, evaluating a Level 4 ADS using scenario-based testing is difficult due to the potentially infinite number of operational scenarios in which hazardous situations may unfold. To that end, in this paper we first describe the safety test objectives for the CAT methodology, including the collision and serious injury metrics and the reference behavior model representing a non-impaired eyes on conflict human driver used to form an acceptance criterion. Afterward, we introduce the process for identifying potentially hazardous situations from a combination of human data

Kusano, Kristofer, Beatty, Kurt, Schnelle, Scott, Favaro, Francesca, Crary, Cam, Victor, Trent

Understanding Adversarial Transferability in Vision-Language Models for Autonomous Driving: A Cross-Architecture Analysis

2026-01-0170

4/7/2026

Vision-language models (VLMs) are increasingly used in autonomous driving because they combine visual perception with language-based reasoning, supporting more interpretable decision-making, yet their robustness to physical adversarial attacks, especially whether such attacks transfer across different VLM architectures, is not well understood and poses a practical risk when attackers do not know which model a vehicle uses. We address this gap with a systematic cross-architecture study of adversarial transferability in VLM-based driving, evaluating three representative architectures (Dolphins, OmniDrive, and LeapVAD) using physically realizable patches placed on roadside infrastructure in both crosswalk and highway scenarios. Our transfer-matrix evaluation shows high cross-architecture effectiveness, with transfer rates of 73–91% (mean TR = 0.815 for crosswalk and 0.833 for highway) and sustained frame-level manipulation over 64.7–79.4% of the critical decision window even when patches

Fernandez, David, MohajerAnsari, Pedram, Salarpour, Amir, Pese, Mert D.

Self-Supervised Gaussian-Based Framework for Robust Static-Dynamic Decomposition and Real-Time Urban Scene Reconstruction

2026-01-0010

4/7/2026

High-fidelity 3D reconstruction of large-scale urban scenes is critical for autonomous driving perception and simulation. Existing neural rendering methods, including NeRF and Gaussian-based variants, often face challenges like unstable geometry, noisy motion segmentation, and poor performance under sparse viewpoints or varying illumination. This paper presents a self-supervised Gaussian-based framework to address these challenges, enabling robust static–dynamic decomposition and real-time scene reconstruction. The proposed method introduces three innovations: (1) a semantic–geometric feature fusion module that combines semantic context and geometric cues for reliable motion prior estimation; (2) a cross-sequence geometric consistency constraint that enforces depth and surface continuity across time and viewpoints; (3) an efficient Gaussian parameter optimization strategy that stabilizes geometry by jointly constraining scale and normal updates. Experiments on the Waymo Open Dataset

Feng, Runlei, Wang, Ning, Zhang, Zhihao

Evaluating the Effects of Improper Positioning and Unbuckling of a Restraint System on a 10-Year-Old Child ATD in a Far Side Side-Impact Environment

2026-01-0562

4/7/2026

Five sled tests were performed with a Hybrid III (H-III) 10-year-old child sized Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD) positioned in the 2nd row left seat of a three row 2006 Sport Utility Vehicle (SUV). A HYGE Sled buck was positioned to represent/replicate a side impact collision to the passenger (right) side of the SUV, with a Principal Direction of Force (PDOF) of 60 degrees, resulting in a far side side-impact for the ATD. Of the 5 tests performed, three of the five tests were performed with a delta-V of 17 mph, and two of the tests at a delta-V of 24 mph. Of the 17 mph tests, one test was performed with a properly restrained ATD, and two tests performed with improper restraint positioning. Both of the 24 mph tests were performed with improper restraint positioning, effectively identical to the two 17 mph delta-V tests. The two improper restraint use tests (at both 17 and 24 mph delta-V) included two different improper restraint scenarios. The first scenario of improper restraint

Luepke, Peter, Hewett, Natalie, Betts, Kevin, Van Arsdell, William, Weber, Paul, Stankewich, Charles, Miller, Gregory, Watson, Richard, Sochor, Mark

Sideswipe Impact Severity Testing and Analysis with an Instrumented Hybrid III Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD)

2026-01-0532

4/7/2026

Vehicle-to-vehicle sideswipe collisions are unique in their impact characteristics because the vehicles typically do not reach a common velocity at impact. To better understand the characteristics and dynamics of sideswipe collisions, vehicle-to-vehicle crash testing was performed to find the relationships between variables related to the impact, such as closing speed, relative angle, and overlap depth. This paper discusses data collected for three sideswipe (oblique) impact tests conducted at a testing facility in Buffalo, New York. The tests were conducted using a passenger vehicle as the sideswiping vehicle, which impacted a stationary cargo van. The passenger vehicle was towed into the van at relative angles ranging from 8 to 15 degrees and at velocities of 5 to 20 mph. Two different (but identical) passenger cars and two cargo vans were used during the testing series. Test results were then utilized to investigate a methodology of analyzing sideswipe collisions as a combination of

Danaher, David, McDonough, Sean, Donaldson, Andrew, Neale, William, Cochran, Reece

Reconstruction of Pedestrian-Vehicle Collisions Using 3D Skeletal Estimation from Vehicle-Mounted Camera Video

2026-01-0575

4/7/2026

Pedestrian fatalities in traffic accidents continue to rise, with severe injuries often resulting from both vehicle impact and subsequent ground contact, frequently occurring outside the field of view of vehicle-mounted cameras. This study presents a proof-of-concept (PoC) approach for reconstructing three-dimensional pedestrian motion—including occluded regions—using dashcam video. The method integrates 2D human pose estimation (MMPose) and monocular depth estimation (Depth Anything V2),the latter was fine-tuned on a custom dataset, to generate 3D skeletal coordinates.To evaluate motion matching, the reconstructed pedestrian poses were quantitatively compared with a database of vehicle collision simulations using the THUMS human body model and skeletal data representing real-world crash scenarios generated in PC-Crash. Composite similarity indices based on thoracic center of gravity trajectory and torso orientation vectors were employed for this comparison. Preliminary results

Onishi, Koji, Wang, Kewang, Uno, Eriko, Ichikawa, Koji, Tanase, Noboru, Ando, Takahiro

Modification and Validation of a Finite Element Model of a Pedestrian Dummy

09-14-01-0012

4/7/2026

Aims of the research This study aims to modify the lower body (the pelvis, thigh, and leg) of the mid-sized male pedestrian dummy FE model by considering the latest version of the physical dummy and to evaluate both the accuracy by comparing test results of the past studies and the biofidelity specified in SAE J2782 in both component and full-scale validations. Methods 1 Component validation The validation of the modified pelvis model was performed in dynamic lateral compression simulations. The sacrum and the pubis force-deflection responses of the iliac or the acetabulum impact were measured. The modified thigh and leg models were evaluated in a dynamic 3-point lateral bending simulation, measuring the force-deflection responses. The results from the simulations were compared with test results and the biofidelity requirements. 2 Full-scale validation The whole-body model was updated by incorporating these modified component models. The model of the generic buck developed for the

Asanuma, Hiroyuki, Gunji, Yasuaki, Mori, Fumie, Nagashima, Akiko

Residual “Non-Zero” Speedometer Readings in Crash Tests Using a HYGE ^TM Crash Simulation System

2026-01-0537

4/7/2026

The design trend among analog speedometer and tachometer instruments in recent decades has been toward stepper motor drives. If power is interrupted during a traffic crash, such gauges often do not return to a zero reading. Speedometers and tachometers displaying residual readings after a crash have been observed with increasing frequency in recent years. In conducting a crash reconstruction, a question often arises as to whether such a residual reading corresponds to the indicated vehicle speed at the time of impact in the crash. Prior publications in this area have included a variety of crash tests under a wide range of relatively uncontrolled conditions. The present investigation evaluated a total of nine instrument clusters with a range of static torque required to move the needles when unpowered. The clusters were mounted on a HYGETM crash simulation sled and subjected to consistent impulses at orientations representing frontal, rear, left and right lateral, and left and right

Walker, James, Duran, Amanda, Kent, Steven, Barnes, Daniel, Osterhout, Aaron, Clayton, Aidan

Inertial Pedal Displacement and Brake Switch Activation in Frontal Crash Events

2026-01-0541

4/7/2026

This paper presents research into the inertial displacement of brake pedals and the subsequent activation of brake light switches during crash events. In certain scenarios, such as multiple-impact crashes or crashes with pre-impact interactions such as curb strikes or sideswipes, inertial forces alone may generate sufficient brake pedal movement to trigger the brake switch, activating the brake lights. Such signals may be recorded by an Event Data Recorder (EDR) or observed by witnesses and incorrectly interpreted as an indication of intentional driver braking. To investigate this phenomenon, HYGE sled tests were performed using brake pedal assemblies and associated components from a Toyota Tacoma pickup truck and a Cadillac DeVille passenger sedan. The assemblies were subjected to acceleration pulses simulating a frontal impact, with high-speed video used to capture brake pedal displacement and brake light activation. The tests demonstrated that inertial loading from a pulse with a

Walker, James, Duran, Amanda, Barnes, Daniel, Osterhout, Aaron, Clayton, Aidan

Real-Time End-to-End Stop Sign and Traffic Light Detection Development and Vehicle Testing

2026-01-0014

4/7/2026

With the rise of end-to-end autonomous driving, visual perception for environmental understanding has become a key research topic in advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) development. Most existing end-to-end models generate only executable control commands or planned trajectories, making the prediction process difficult to interpret. In this study, we present an end-to-end approach for traffic-light recognition and stop-sign detection built on top of the open-source openpilot framework. Instead of deploying separate object detection networks, we extend the existing backbone with two lightweight multi-task heads: a traffic-light detection and classification head, and a stop-sign detection head with confidence estimation. The modified architecture preserves openpilot’s core driving functionality by reusing shared features and incorporating compact residual and feed-forward layers. The additional perception outputs are appended to the original outputs, ensuring that the model’s

Wang, Hanchen, Li, Taozhe, Hajnorouzali, Yasaman, Burch, Collin, li, Victoria, Tan, Lin, Arjmanzdadeh, Ziba, Xu, Bin

Optimizing EV Battery Models for Full Vehicle Simulations

2026-01-0389

4/7/2026

The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) demands accurate yet computationally efficient battery models that can be integrated into full vehicle simulations. At the cell level, mechanical battery models often employ fine-scale elements to capture localized deformation and failure phenomena. While such detailed discretization enables high-fidelity predictions, it also imposes significant computational costs that become prohibitive when scaling up to pack-level or full-vehicle crash and durability simulations. This research addresses the challenge by systematically simplifying cell-level mechanical models to reduce computational burden while preserving predictive accuracy. We propose an approach in which larger elements and reduced complexity representations are introduced without compromising the model’s ability to replicate experimentally observed behaviors. The methodology emphasizes model validation against targeted loading conditions, ensuring that the essential mechanics

Sahraei, Elham, Parmar, Dhruv, Muralidharan, Umachandran

Effects of Child Anthropometry, Seatback Angle, Seat Rotation Angle, Seatbelt Force Limiting, and Collision Type on Injury Risk of Child Occupants in Highly Automated Vehicles

2026-01-0570

4/7/2026

This study aimed to evaluate the influence of child anthropometry, seating postures (recline and rotation), seatbelt force limiting, and frontal collision scenarios on the kinematic response and injury risk in highly automated vehicles. The TUST IBMs 6YO-O model was conducted the frontal collisions in sled tests. This simulation matrix includes five percentiles six-year-old occupants (P3, P25, P50, P75, and P97), three seatback angles (20°, 30°, and 45°), four seat rotation angles (0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°), three seatbelt force limiting (2.6 kN, 3.6 kN, and 4.6 kN), and three frontal collision types. Injury risks were assessed including the child occupant's head, neck, chest/abdomen, and lumbar region in each simulation (n=540). The results indicate that the child anthropometry, the seatback angle, and the seat rotation angle have a significant influence on the motion responses. Statistically significant differences between all the groups within each independent variable category were

Wang, Yanxin, Zhao, Hongqian, Li, Haiyan, He, Lijuan, Cui, Shihai, Lv, Wenle

Statistical Assessment of Pretensioner and Load Limiter Effects on the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD Response in Frontal Impacts

2026-01-0550

4/7/2026

Enhancing child occupant protection requires a clear understanding of how seatbelt restraint parameters influence crash injury metrics. Real-world vehicles mostly include pretensioner and load limiter technologies to mitigate injuries, but rear seat restraints often do not include these. The FMVSS No. 213 test bench closely represents current restraint systems but does not involve such active vehicle restraint features. This study explores the response of the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD to evaluate potential injury mitigation under FMVSS No. 213 frontal sled test conditions. A simulation-based full factorial design was implemented in LS-DYNA to vary pretensioner retraction, retractor load-limiting thresholds, and webbing payout, with injury measures including head acceleration, head excursion, chest compression, and abdominal pressure twin sensors (APTS). Statistical evaluation using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey-Kramer post-hoc tests quantified main and interaction

Khattak, Mohid Muneeb, Bendig, Colleen, Louden, Allison, Noll, Scott

Pre-Crash Scenario Analysis and Generation for Integrated Safety System Virtual Testing with Real Accident Data

2026-01-0062

4/7/2026

Integrated active and passive safety protection systems have made substantial contributions to reducing traffic accidents and mitigating human injuries. However, assessing such systems through vehicle collision tests is limited, as this approach cannot cover the wide range of accident scenarios. To address this gap, identifying and generating representative pre-crash scenarios from real-world accidents provides key boundary conditions for the setup of virtual test scenarios. In this study, we used the Future Mobile Traffic Accident Scenario Study (FASS) dataset to reconstruct 112 two-wheeler accidents. For each case, we extracted pre-crash dynamic information, static attributes, and environmental context. An autoencoder was employed to encode high-dimensional features of scenarios, and K-means clustering was applied to categorize the accidents into eight representative pre-crash scenarios. For each scenario, we examined the motion states of participants and further compared the

Wang, Guojie, Gao, Xin, Liu, Siyuan, Liu, Jiaxin, Li, Quan, Shi, Liangliang, Nie, Bingbing

Occupant and Seat Responses in Various Moderate- to High-Speed Rear Impact Conditions: Focus on Head-to-Head Restraint Interactions

2026-01-0565

4/7/2026

Head restraint requirements and designs have evolved to minimize the delay in head support and reduce differential loading in the neck. As a result, they have become bigger, closer to the occupant’s head, and angled forward relative to the seat back. Head restraints have been found missing or detached in the field; they may be removed pre-crash due to occupant comfort issues, or post-crash for better accessibility during extrication. Additionally, although rare, head restraints may become detached in severe rear impacts due to occupant loading. To better understand occupant-to-head restraint dynamic interactions, nine rear sled tests were conducted. The test conditions were selected to represent worst case severe loading scenarios. An instrumented 50th Hybrid III ATD (Anthropomorphic Test Device) was lap-shoulder belted on a right-front seat. The neck was equipped with a bracket and lower neck load cell designed for rear impacts. Three series of sled tests were performed wherein the

Parenteau, Chantal, Burnett, Roger, Davidson, Russell

Radar-Based Dynamic Pixel Activation in Camera Sensors for Optimized Image Processing, Power Efficiency, and Thermal Management

2026-01-0047

4/7/2026

The increased integration of radar and vision sensors in modern vehicles has significantly improved environmental perception, safety, and automation. Nevertheless, conventional camera modules capture images in fixed, continuous frames, leading to unnecessary data processing, power consumption, and heat generation in the limited space of small sensors. The paper discusses the technology of Radar Based Dynamic Pixel Activation (RDPA); whereby radar data can be used to dynamically activate specific pixels on the camera sensor, optimizing image capture and processing. Through a systematic literature review of peer-reviewed articles published between 2021 and 2025, we examined the literature on radar-camera fusion, adaptive imaging, and sensor design that is efficient in power consumption. The review indicates a research gap that there is no current paradigm that dynamically activates sensor pixels at the hardware level using radar data. We aggregated ten topical studies and proposed a

Kasarla, Nagender Reddy

Numerical Investigation on Thorax Rib Deflections of 50th Male in Vehicle Side Oblique Pole Impact Using Human Body Model

2026-01-0566

4/7/2026

The WorldSID-50M dummy is widely adopted in regulatory and third-party testing programs (e.g., ECE, Euro-NCAP, C-NCAP) owing to its advanced design and superior biofidelity. However, in vehicle side oblique pole crash tests involving shoulder-covered side airbags - an expanded testing modality - excessive deflection of the upper thoracic ribs was observed. Notably, this phenomenon was absent in standard side moving deformable barrier (SMDB) tests. This study pursued two core objectives: (1) to systematically document the excessive upper thoracic rib deflection of the WorldSID-50M dummy in side oblique pole crash tests; and (2) to investigate the influence of arm-thorax interaction on such deflection using a Human Body Model (HBM) representative of a 50th percentile male occupant. Numerical simulation results reveal that while arm-thorax interaction does contribute to rib deflection, its impact on the excessive deflection of the upper thoracic ribs is negligible.

Zhou, DY, Chen, Shaopeng, Yan, Li, Wu, Jing, Liu, Chong, Lv, Xiaojiang, Yang, Heping

AI-Enhanced Functional Safety in ADAS Controllers: Predictive Fault Management under ISO 26262

2026-01-0036

4/7/2026

Ensuring ISO 26262 functional safety in advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) is increasingly complex as these platforms integrate artificial intelligence (AI) for perception, decision-making, and vehicle control. Traditional safety mechanisms are largely deterministic, but AI introduces non-determinism, creating challenges for verification, validation, and certification. Real-time vehicle telemetry, sensor outputs, and environmental inputs are processed through machine learning algorithms that forecast hardware and software faults before they escalate into hazardous conditions. These predictions are systematically integrated with ISO 26262 safety measures, enabling adaptive diagnostics, fault isolation, and rapid recovery strategies. The AI model introduces hazards such as data bias, model drift, opaque decision-making, and unsafe automation. A dedicated AI Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment addresses data quality, validation, monitoring, explainability, and fail-safe mechanisms

Abdul Karim, Abdul Salam

Vault-Induced Pitchover Crash Testing of a Recreational Off-Highway Vehicle (ROV)

2026-01-0546

4/7/2026

Vehicle pitchover crashes can result in very severe accelerations and forces. Literature and test data available on pitchover crashes is sparse. This paper presents the results of a full-scale pitchover/rollover crash test using an instrumented vehicle in a controlled and documented off-road environment. The test vehicle was driven to the launch point by an off-board operator using remote steering and throttle controls. The test vehicle then experienced an airborne phase during which forward pitching occurred, followed by a front-to-ground impact which induced additional pitchover motion. Then, following the initial front and rear impacts, the vehicle transitioned from a pitchover to rollover motion before coming to rest. The resulting vehicle motion, vehicle damage markings, and ground markings were documented with various slow motion and real time camera views. The test vehicle was instrumented with accelerometers, rotation rate sensors, and other sensors, the results of which

Warner, Mark, Warner, Wyatt, Swensen, Grant, Perl, Mark

A Cloud-Vehicle Integrated Closed-Loop Testing Framework for Intelligent Chassis

2026-01-0051

4/7/2026

Vehicle system testing serves as a critical phase in obtaining road certification for prototype vehicles. While direct road testing with physical vehicles yields the most authentic data, this approach entails significant costs, challenges in reproducing extreme scenarios, and inherent safety risks. In contrast, virtual vehicle-based testing technologies represent advanced simulation methodologies for enhancing development efficiency and quality, effectively mitigating risks associated with complex real-world operating conditions and hazardous physical testing. However, virtual vehicle models often rely on idealized parameters, limiting their ability to reflect real-world dynamics and resulting in lower credibility of test outcomes. Furthermore, as evidenced in current mainstream virtual testing software, environmental simulations predominantly remain confined to the visual domain, with limited direct interaction between dynamic environmental changes and virtual vehicle responses. To

Liao, Yinsheng, Cheng, Qing Hua, Qu, Wenying, Wang, Zhenfeng, Wu, Yan, He, Chengkun, Zhang, Junzhi, Lu, Yukun

Safety Monitor for Off-Road Planning with Uncertainty Bounded Bekker Costs

2026-01-0141

4/7/2026

Reliable off-road autonomy requires operational constraints so that behavior stays predictable and safe when soil strength is uncertain. This paper presents a runtime assurance safety monitor that collaborates with any planner and uses a Bekker-based cost model with bounded uncertainty. The monitor builds an upper confidence traversal cost from a lightweight pressure sinkage model identified in field tests and checks each planned motion against two limits: maximum sinkage and rollover margin. If the risk of crossing either limit is too high, the monitor switches to a certified fallback that reduces vehicle speed, increases standoff from soft ground, or stops on firmer soil. This separation lets the planner focus on efficiency while the monitor keeps the vehicle within clear safety limits on board. Wheel geometry, wheel load estimate, and a soil raster serve as inputs, which tie safety directly to vehicle design and let the monitor set clear limits on speed, curvature, and stopping at

Naik, Akshay, Norris, William, Sreenivas, Ramavarapu S., Soylemezoglu, Ahmet, Nottage, Dustin S., Patterson, Albert

A Study on the Injury Risk of Occupant with Different Head and Neck Rotating Postures under the Frontal Impact Sled Conditions

2026-01-0574

4/7/2026

Drivers obtain road information through head and neck rotation. In order to study the influences of head and neck rotation posture on occupant injury in frontal impact scenario, the THUMS (Total Human Model for Safety) AM50 human body model with five different head and neck rotation postures but without active muscles was adopted to study the biomechanical injury responses of occupant under the frontal impact scenario at 56 km/h in this study. Firstly, the kinematic responses of total body and head acceleration curves at the center of gravity predicted by PMHS (Post Mortem Human Subject) and THUMS AM50 human model under the sled test conditions were compared to verify the simulation model for subsequent study. Then, the THUMS AM50 human model with standard occupant seating posture was adjusted to have five different head and neck rotation postures with 0°, ±20°, and ±40° rotation angle, respectively. Finally, a series of frontal impact sled with or without airbag simulations were

Li, Dongqiang, jiang, Yejie, Tan, Chun, Li, Yanyan, Gong, Chuangye, Wu, Hequan, Jiang, Binhui

Wind-Tunnel Investigation of Snow/Ice Drag on a 30%-Scale DrivAer Model

2026-01-0604

4/7/2026

Wind-tunnel tests were conducted using a 30%-scale DrivAer model, in estateback and notchback rear-geometry configurations, to investigate aerodynamic performance changes associated with snow and ice buildup on passenger vehicles. Around 20 snow/ice accumulation patterns were tested, at a Reynolds number of 2.8 × 106 based on model wheelbase, for each of the notchback and estateback variants. 5 additional patterns were tested on the estateback with roof-rack support bars. Snow accumulation was modelled with foam, while ice accumulation was simulated with aluminum tape hand-formed to the desired shape. A simulated full-scale snow thickness of 58 mm on the hood, roof and trunk increased the wind-averaged drag coefficient by 16% for both model variants. With 90 mm of snow, the drag of the estateback variant increased by 19%. Drag changes increased with, but were not proportional to, snow thickness. Chamfered front and rear edges, representing windblown shapes, reduced the drag penalty

de Souza, Fenella, McAuliffe, Brian

Application of Reliability Growth Methods in Conjunction with Design for Reliability Framework to Validate Heavy Truck Design

2026-01-0137

4/7/2026

Why field campaigns in the automotive industry have been going up over the years despite the strong development of technical knowledge, computational design tools and techniques to secure higher reliability standards since early stages of development phases? Uncertainties created by product complexity have been a factor that affects the ability of the manufacturers to prevent design failures before the product launch. Another factor is the shorter product development time, less test time to validate the product means that the new design will not have enough exposure to the real truck application and so some failures may not be able to be detected during the project. To deal effectively with uncertainties this study shows an application of reliability growth techniques in conjunction with DfR- Design for Reliability framework to validate the truck design in the customer application. The Crow - AMSAA method is applied to measure the reliability growth of the complete vehicle in various

Coitinho, Marcos

Safety-Centered Scenario Generation for Autonomous Vehicles

2026-01-0529

4/7/2026

This paper presents a scenario generation framework that creates diverse, parametrized, and safety-critical driving situations to validate the safety features of autonomous vehicles in simulation [1]. By modeling factors such as road geometry, traffic participants, environmental conditions, and perception uncertainties, the framework enables repeatable and scalable testing of safety mechanisms, including emergency braking, evasive maneuvers, and vulnerable road user protection. The framework supports both regulatory and edge case scenarios, mapped to hazards and safety goals derived from Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment (HARA), ensuring traceability to ISO 26262 functional safety requirements and performance limitations. The output from these simulations provides quantitative safety metrics such as time-to-collision, minimum distance, braking and steering performance, and residual collision severity. These metrics enable the systematic evaluation of evasive maneuvering as a safety

Chandra Shekar, Kiruthiga, Arab, Aliasghar

The Necessity of a Holistic Safety Evaluation Framework for AI-Based Automation Features

2026-01-0522

4/7/2026

The intersection of Safety of Intended Functionality (SOTIF) and Functional Safety (FuSa) analysis of driving automation features has traditionally excluded Quality Management (QM) components from rigorous safety impact evaluations. While QM components are not typically classified as safety-relevant, recent developments in artificial intelligence (AI) integration reveal that such components can contribute to SOTIF-related hazardous risks. Compliance with emerging AI safety standards, such as ISO/PAS 8800, necessitates re-evaluating safety considerations for these components. This paper examines the necessity of conducting holistic safety analysis and risk assessment on AI components, emphasizing their potential to introduce hazards with the capacity to violate risk acceptance criteria when deployed in safety-critical driving systems, particularly in perception algorithms. Using case studies, we demonstrate how deficiencies in AI-driven perception systems can emerge even in QM

Abbaspour, Ali Reza, Mahadevan, Shabin, Zwirglmaier, Kilian, Stafford, Jeff

Agile Safety Case Assessments for Autonomous Vehicle Fleets

2026-01-0521

4/7/2026

Rapidly upcoming deployment of autonomous vehicles (AVs), including robotaxis and trucks, has intensified the need for rigorous safety assessment of complex AI-driven systems. While considerable effort has been invested in constructing safety cases for AVs, systematic approaches for evaluating these safety cases remain underdeveloped. This paper presents a three-stage methodology for assessing AV safety cases. A process for assessing argumentation is presented that involves traceability to pre-reviewed and peer-reviewed safety cases such as the Open Autonomy Safety Case (OASC). Next, we present a structured process for evaluating the quality of evidence supporting these arguments. We applied this methodology to evaluate safety cases from multiple AV developers, enabling iterative refinement throughout the development lifecycle. Our agile approach supports efficient assessments by establishing clear traceability to industry standards and enabling early identification of potential gaps

Wagner, Michael

High Biofidelity Modification of Thoracolumbar Structure in THOR Model for Reclined Occupant

2026-01-0196

4/7/2026

With the rapid development of automated driving and the increasing adoption of “zero-gravity” seats, the crash safety of highly reclined occupants has become a critical issue. The current THOR dummy, designed for frontal impacts in the standard upright posture, exhibits limitations when directly applied to reclined seating configurations, including insufficient spinal flexion capability and excessive posterior pelvic rotation. In this study, the thoracolumbar spine kinematics of the THUMS human body model, reconstructed against post-mortem human subject (PMHS) tests, were analyzed. A two-segment linear fitting was employed to characterize a “dummy-like” spinal flexion response, yielding a virtual rotational hinge located near the thoracolumbar joint of the original THOR model. The characteristic rotation angle obtained from THUMS showed a strong linear correlation with the flexion moment of the T12–L1 vertebrae. Based on this relationship, the rotational joint of the THOR dummy was

Guo, Wencheng, Kuang, Gaoyuan, Shen, Wenxuan, Tan, Puyuan, Zhou, Qing

The Characterization of Longitudinal Lumbar Acceleration in Low-Speed Rear-End Impacts Across Different Surrogate Occupant Types

2026-01-0552

4/7/2026

Longitudinal lumbar acceleration is often overlooked as a key variable when biomechanically assessing lumbar response in rear-end collisions. The objective of this study is twofold: (1) to conduct a comprehensive literature review of peak longitudinal lumbar acceleration to statistically evaluate differences between three surrogate occupant types: human volunteers, post-mortem human subjects (PMHS), and anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) and (2) to construct a mathematical predictive model of longitudinal lumbar acceleration using peak longitudinal vehicle or sled change in velocity (delta-V) and vehicle acceleration in rear-end impacts. Peak longitudinal lumbar acceleration was obtained from peer-reviewed literature and the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety database. Tests included belted human volunteers, PMHS, and ATD occupants seated upright in unmodified, conventional driver seats. Compared to human volunteers instrumented at L5-S1, BioRID ATDs instrumented at L1 displayed

Zambare, Keya, Ogbu Felix, Jordan, Arana Barcala, Emily, Westrom, Clyde, Caraan, John, Adanty, Kevin, Shimada, Sean

Injury Risk Analysis of Occupant with Different Lower Limb Postures under the Frontal Impact Sled Conditions

2026-01-0572

4/7/2026

To investigate the characteristics of injuries sustained by occupant with different lower limb postures under the frontal impact sled conditions. Using the finite element method a series of simulation analyses were conducted on THUMS (Total Human Model for Safety) AM50 human body model with four different postures, including standing posture, lower limb bent at 100°, 90°, and crossed forward-backward, under the frontal impact scenario at 56 km/h in this study. The simulation results indicated that the overall injury risk predicted by the THUMS AM50 huma body model with lower limb crossed forward-backward was higher than that predicted by the model with other postures. The values of injury criteria including of HIC (Head Injury Criterion), head resultant acceleration, and thoracic VC (Viscous Criterion) predicted by the THUMS AM50 huma body model with lower limb crossed forward-backward were highest in these series simulations. Also, the biomechanical responses, including stress or

Li, Dongqiang, jiang, Yejie, Tan, Chun, Li, Yanyan, Li, Yihui, Wu, Hequan, Jiang, Binhui, Zhu, Feng

Developing Safety Case for Automated Driving following UL 4600 & ISO 5083

2026-01-0527

4/7/2026

Automated Driving Systems (ADS) rely on AI algorithms, machine learning, and sensor fusion to perform autonomous driving tasks. Safety challenges arise due to the probabilistic behavior of AI/ML algorithms and the need to ensure safety within defined Operational Design Domains (ODDs). Traditional standards such as ISO 26262[3] (Functional Safety) and ISO 21448[4] (SOTIF) address hardware and software failures or functional deficiencies but are insufficient for higher-level autonomous systems (SAE Levels 3–5). To close this gap, additional standards such as UL 4600[1] and ISO 5083[2] provide complementary frameworks for ADS safety assurance. UL 4600[1] establishes a claim-based safety case encompassing the vehicle, infrastructure, and processes, emphasizing structured arguments supported by evidence and reasoning. It offers guidance on autonomy functions, V & V, tool qualification, dependability, and safety culture. ISO 5083[2] focuses on design, verification, and validation of ADS

Mudunuri, Venkateswara Raju, Almasri, Hossam, Fan, Hsing-Hua

Effects of Obstacle Height and Vehicle Roll Behavior on Electric Vehicle Side Impact Safety

2026-01-0405

4/7/2026

Electric vehicles (EVs) face unique safety challenges under pole side impact conditions, largely due to the presence of floor-mounted battery packs. Existing regulatory test procedures, such as FMVSS 214, primarily address occupant injury using full-height cylindrical obstacles. These procedures were originally developed for internal combustion vehicles (ICVs). However, real-world roadside crashes frequently involve obstacles of varying heights, such as guardrails, curbs, and median bases. While these obstacles pose limited risk to the passenger compartment, they can intrude into the battery pack and trigger thermal runaway. This study investigates the influence of obstacle height on EV pole side impacts. Finite element simulations of a commercially available sedan were conducted against rigid obstacles of different heights. Results reveal a non-monotonic trend of battery intrusion governed by the interplay between rollover dynamics and structural stiffness. Theoretical analyses were

Ma, Chenghao, Xing, Bobin, Zhou, Qing, Xia, Yong

SUNRISE - A Harmonised Safety Assurance Framework For Connected, Automated Mobility Systems

2026-01-0060

4/7/2026

Safety assurance of Cooperative, Connected, and Automated Mobility (CCAM) systems is a crucial factor for their successful adoption in society, yet it remains a significant challenge. The SUNRISE project has consolidated previous and on-going efforts, and developed a harmonised Safety Assurance Framework (SAF) designed to operationalise the UNECE New Assessment/Test Method (NATM), targeting a wide range of stakeholders including (but not limited to) certifiers, regulators, manufacturers, suppliers, researchers, and assessors. It incorporates a scenario-based approach, underpinned by the system’s Operational Design Domain (ODD) and behaviour for safety assessment. In line with NATM, the SAF consists of multiple pillars: the Audit of manufacturer processes and Safety Management Systems, In-Service Monitoring and Reporting (ISMR) to ensure continued safety during deployment, and Performance Assurance to generate and evaluate safety evidence pre-deployment. While all pillars are integral

Zhang, Xizhe, Khastgir, Siddartha, de Vries, Stefan, Hillbrand, Bernhard, Op den Camp, Olaf, Bolovinou, Anastasia, Bourauel, Bryan, Ehrenhofer Gronvall, John Fredrik, Menzel, Thaddäus, Nieto, Marcos, Stettinger, Georg, Jennings, Paul

Study of Automatic Emergency Braking Effects on Human and Surrogate Passengers

2026-01-0556

4/7/2026

The influence of modern Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) on the head and neck behavior of the occupants in a vehicle continues to be an active area of research. Occupant kinematics and kinetics were evaluated using a vehicle equipped with a pedestrian AEB system. The vehicle was tested in several different scenarios with speeds between 15 and 45 mph. Two instrumented 50th-percentile male Hybrid-III Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATD) were positioned in certain seats of the vehicle, while minimally instrumented human volunteers occupied the remaining seats. Displacement transducers and video analysis were utilized to capture the kinematics of each occupant. The findings of this study indicate that in AEB-only events with belted-occupants, the test vehicle did not result in any occupant motion that would have placed the occupants out-of-position (OOP) had an impact occurred immediately following the AEB event. This means that when evaluating real-world AEB events, it may not be necessary

Bartholomew, Meredith, Dahiya, Akshay, Russell, Caleb, Morr, Douglas, Castro, Elaine, Nguyen, An

Machine Learning Based Meta-Analysis of IIHS Moderate Overlap Frontal Crash Test for Rear Seat Occupant Safety Performance

2026-01-0579

4/7/2026

A machine learning (ML)-based meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate rear seat occupant safety performance in the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) Moderate Overlap Frontal (MOF) 2.0 crash test. ML models were trained on historical IIHS crash test data to predict rear passenger injury metrics using vehicle architecture, restraint system characteristics, crash pulse parameters, and vehicle kinematics as input features. The models demonstrated high predictive accuracy and were subsequently used in a Sobol sensitivity analysis to identify critical design parameters influencing injury outcomes. The analysis revealed that rear passenger injury metrics were most sensitive to restraint system parameters. Specifically, crash pulse magnitude was the dominant factor for head injury metrics, pretensioner activation time for neck tension force, and lap belt force for the Neck Injury Criterion (Nij). For chest-related metrics—sternum deflection, dynamic belt position, and maximum belt

Lalwala, Mitesh, Kim, Wonhee, Furton, Lisa, Song, Jay

Embedded Real-Time Control of a Distributed Trailer Propulsion System with Regenerative Braking for Net Neutral Load Towing

2026-01-0065

4/7/2026

Towing imposes substantial efficiency penalties on both battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, reducing range by 30-50%. This paper presents a proof-of-concept embedded control architecture for distributed trailer propulsion that actively regulates drawbar force to reduce towing loads. Unlike proprietary e-trailer systems requiring specialized hardware, the proposed implementation demonstrates feasibility using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components and open-source software. The distributed architecture employs dual Raspberry Pi 4B single-board computers communicating via ROS 2 at 20 Hz. The trailer-mounted controller executes a Simulink-generated control node coordinating load cell acquisition (HX711 ADC), motor CAN bus telemetry, and throttle commands to a 5 kW BLDC traction motor powered by a 5 kWh LiFePO4 battery pack. A vehicle-mounted controller logs OBD-II/CAN validation data. The control pipeline implements cascaded EWMA/Hampel

Joshi, Gaurav, Adelman, Ian, Liu, Jun, Donnaway, Ruthie

Optimizing Virtual Scenario Testing for Autonomous Vehicles with Large-Scale Scenario Generation

2026-01-0050

4/7/2026

The validation of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Automated Driving (AD) Systems, especially at higher automation levels such as SAE Level 3 or 4, demands the testing of a vast array of scenario variants far exceeding the scope of standard safety specifications like Euro NCAP (The European New Car Assessment Programme). Autonomous vehicles require thorough real-world testing to ensure automotive safety. However, public road tests are costly and risky. Instead, virtual scenarios - digital twins of real environments - offer a safe, cost-effective testing alternative. Exhaustive simulation across this high-dimensional scenario space, which includes variations in actor behavior, environmental conditions, and event characteristics, is computationally infeasible. We propose a constraint-solving approach to address this challenge that leverages mathematical and geometric techniques to analytically assess the existence and validity of scenario variants prior to simulation. Two

Karve, Omkar, Saurav, Saket, Purwar, Prabhanshu

Frontal Crash Classification and Occupant Outcomes from 2017 to 2023 US Field Cases

09-14-01-0024

4/2/2026

This study provides an updated characterization of real-world frontal crash types—considering overlap and obliquity—based on their overall frequency and associated injury outcomes. The results of this study will support an evaluation of how well NHTSA’s frontal oblique crash test condition addresses the current population of serious frontal crashes, as compared to frontal test modes in existing crashworthiness programs. U.S. field crash data from 2017 to 2023 were analyzed to classify frontal crashes by coded damage characteristics. Oblique frontal crashes were defined as those with principal direction of force between 10°–40° and 320°–350°. Non-ejected belted first and second row occupants in model year 2000 and newer passenger vehicles absent a rollover event were included. Occupants were stratified by sex, age, and body mass index, and injury outcomes based on moderate, serious, and fatal thresholds were analyzed across crash configurations. Among the belted first row occupants

Rudd, Rodney W.

Characterization of Front Row Occupants Involved in Motor Vehicle Crashes Compared to ATDs and the U.S. Population

09-14-01-0027

4/1/2026

Currently, adult anthropomorphic test devices used in regulatory and consumer information crash testing in the United States are targeted to represent a small female (5th percentile) and an average male (50th percentile). The anthropometry determined previously might not represent the current population, or as investigated in the current study, those that are at least moderately injured during a motor vehicle crash. The objective of this study was to use field data to determine if the current frontal anthropomorphic test devices are representative. Data from the National Automotive Sampling System–Crashworthiness Data System (2010-2015) and Crash Investigation Sampling System (2017–2023) were queried for sex, age, size, and injury information for front seat occupants in frontal crashes. Additional datasets used were from the National Trauma Data Bank and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. According to field data, the most frequently injured female and male is approximately

McNeil, Elizabeth, Atwood, Jonathan, Rudd, Rodney, Craig, Matthew

Effects of Vehicle Speed, Category, and Front-End Design on Full-Body Injury Risks of a Midsized Male Pedestrian

09-14-01-0017

3/28/2026

This study investigated how vehicle front-end geometry, impact speed, and vehicle category influence injury risk to a midsize male pedestrian. Eighty-one generic vehicle (GV) models representing sedans, sport utility vehicles (SUVs), pickup trucks, and minivans sold in the United States were developed by morphing three base models using an automated pipeline. Front-end parameters that were varied included ground clearance (GC), bumper height (BH), hood leading-edge (HLE) height, hood length (HL), bumper lead angle (BLA), hood angle (HA), and windshield angle (WSA). Each vehicle impacted the Global Human Body Models Consortium 50th percentile male simplified pedestrian (GHBMC M50-PS) model at 30, 40, and 50 kph, totaling 243 simulations. Boundary conditions followed the European New Car Assessment Program (Euro NCAP) pedestrian test protocol. Thirty-five injury metrics were extracted across the head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and lower extremities. Linear mixed-effects regression

Poveda, Luis, Miller, Logan E., Edwards, Colin C., Pollock, Madeline, Armstrong, William M., Hsu, Fang-Chi, Gayzik, Scott F., Weaver, Ashley A., Stitzel, Joel D., Devane, Karan S.

Machine Learning–Driven Safety Analysis of Automated Vehicles in Simulated Mixed Traffic Environments

09-14-01-0021

3/20/2026

Automated Vehicles (AV) pose new challenges in road safety, multimodal interaction, and urban planning, requiring a holistic approach that prioritizes sustainability and protects all road users. The KASSA.AST project addresses this by deploying and evaluating an automated shuttle in southern Austria on three routes. The study area is a Park & Ride zone near a train station, enabling seamless transfers and higher transit use. To assess the safety impacts of the automated shuttle, four Mobility Observation Boxes (MOBs) were deployed. These AI-based systems detect and classify road users, track their trajectories and geospatial coordinates, and identify safety-critical events via Surrogate Safety Measures (SSMs). Over 10 days, a trajectory dataset captured interactions among vehicles and the shuttle. The resulting real-world dataset is a core contribution. This dataset underpins microscopic behavior modeling. Trajectory pairs yield car-following and interaction metrics (relative distance

Losada Arias, Ángel, Rosenkranz, Paul, Hula, Andreas, Aleksa, Michael, Saleh, Peter, Erdelean, Isabela

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