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Letter from the Guest Editors09-14-03-000810/26/2026
Letter from the Guest Editors
Mueller, Becky, Forman, Jason
Influence of Helmet Surface Protrusions on Youth Bicycle Helmet Impact Performance09-14-03-001910/26/2026
Youth bicycle helmet manufacturers often add shell protrusions to make helmets more attractive or fun for children, yet the safety implications of these features are not well understood. While prior work suggests protrusions may affect head impact kinematics, no study has evaluated their effectiveness in location-matched impacts between helmets with and without protrusions. Twelve youth bicycle helmet models, with protrusions intact and removed, underwent matched oblique impacts at three locations and 4.2 m/s to capture resulting peak linear acceleration (PLA) and peak rotational acceleration (PRA). A linear mixed model was used to quantify the effect of protrusion presence on PLA, PRA, and impact duration. The youth bicycle helmet models produced a wide range of kinematics. Protrusion presence had a strong effect on PLA, PRA, and impact duration. PLA averaged 103.0 ± 22.8 g for helmets with protrusions compared to 143.9 ± 21.4 g for helmets without protrusions, while PRA averaged 4432 ± 1570 rad/s2 for helmets with protrusions and 5177 ± 2110 rad/s2 for helmets without protrusions. These findings suggest that helmet protrusions can reduce peak head accelerations in youth bicycle helmet impacts.
Jung, Caitlyn, Stark, Nicole E.-P., Rowson, Steve
Failure Tolerance of Male and Female Lower Extremities under Pure Bending and Combined Loading Modes09-14-03-001410/26/2026
Lower extremity injuries remain common in frontal motor vehicle crashes, with evidence suggesting increased vulnerability among female occupants. While prior research has established failure tolerances of midsize male lower extremities under bending and combined loading conditions, limited data exist for small female specimens. This study aimed to characterize and compare the failure tolerance of small female and midsize male postmortem human subject lower leg specimens under combined axial compression and posterior–anterior (PA) bending using consistent boundary conditions. Twenty-four lower leg specimens, including the tibia, fibula, and surrounding soft tissue, were obtained from 50th percentile male (n = 12) and 5th percentile female (n = 12) donors. Dynamic tests to failure were conducted at 1.5 m/s using a test apparatus designed to apply three-point bending in the PA direction with varying levels of superimposed axial compression (0, 2, 4, and 6 kN). When paired left and right legs from the same donor were available, they were assigned to different loading conditions to assess the influence of axial compression magnitude. Fracture timing was determined using force, strain, acoustic emission data, high-speed video, and post-test CT imaging. Results indicated that 18 specimens fractured at the tibial shaft, 5 near the potting interface, and 1 did not fracture. Under pure bending, mean failure moments were 255 ± 57 Nm for males and 156 ± 15 Nm for females. At 6 kN axial compression, failure moments decreased to 195 Nm and 72 Nm for male and female specimens, respectively. Among matched pairs, increasing axial load resulted in an average 21% reduction in bending moment at failure. These findings demonstrate reduced failure tolerance with increasing axial compression and highlight sex-based differences. The data provide a foundation for developing improved injury risk functions and scaling methodologies for diverse occupant populations as well as informing anthropometric test devices and human body models.
Carbon, Maria, Nazari, Isabella, Edinger, Timothy, Shin, Jeesoo, Hanggi, Connor, Kerrigan, Jason, Forman, Jason
Preliminary Impact and Injury Response of Varied Anthropometry Postmortem Human Surrogates in Frontal Sled Tests09-14-03-000910/26/2026
Robust restraint system design requires effectiveness across varied anthropometries. Biofidelity reference datasets of postmortem human surrogates (PMHS), a necessary component of informing and assessing restraint system design, exist for the midsize males and small females, but there is limited research for other anthropometries such as the midsize female and obese populations. The goal of this study was to evaluate the kinematic and injury response of midsize female, elderly midsize female, obese female, and obese male PMHS in upright frontal impacts in a simplified restraint environment. The test condition in this study was a full-frontal 30 km/h impact. The test fixture consisted of a rigid seat, knee bolster, footpan, a custom 3 kN shoulder belt force limiter, and separate shoulder and lap belts. Twelve tests were performed with PMHS of varied anthropometries: three per occupant type (midsize female, elderly midsize female, obese female, and obese male). The restraint environment limited the movement of the lower extremities, isolating the thoracic response. Shoulder belt lengths and positioning varied by occupant type. Peak shoulder belt force values ranged between 2.8 and 4.4 kN. Differences in soft tissue distribution (including the hips, abdomen, and breasts) affected both the pre-test path of the shoulder belt on the thorax and the belt’s subsequent motion relative to the thorax during the test. Rib fractures were observed across all four occupant types ranging from 0 to 19 fractures. Occupant anthropometry affected the impact and injury response of the PMHS in this study, demonstrating the breadth of the population over which restraint system robustness is required.
Gallaher, Mary K., Donlon, John-Paul, Nazari, Isabella L., Mann, Logan M., Hollar, Reagan T., Sochor, Sara H., Noss, Junior R., Forman, Jason L.
Thoracic Biomechanical Responses of Small Female Postmortem Human Subjects in a Simplified Side-Impact Condition09-14-03-001010/26/2026
Biomechanical response targets for the thorax have largely focused on the 50th percentile male, limiting their relevance for smaller females. Previous studies have provided side-impact female postmortem human subjects (PMHS) data from either oversimplified or realistic boundary conditions. This study aimed to generate thoracic biomechanical responses of small female PMHS in a simplified side-impact condition with realistic components and compare responses between two input energy levels. Twelve small female PMHS were seated on a simplified seat with FMVSS No. 213a seat foam and fabric and impacted once on the left thorax with either a 14.0 kg (low energy) or 23.7 kg (high energy) pneumatic impactor at 4.5 m/s. A rectangular impactor face (22.9 × 25.4 cm) covered with FMVSS No. 213a armrest foam simulated an intruding door panel. Thoracic deflection was measured using a chestband. Inertially compensated force was recorded via a load cell. Spinal kinematics were captured using six-degree-of-freedom motion blocks. Biomechanical responses were compared between groups using two-sample t-tests. The high-energy group exhibited significantly higher peak forces (2.5 vs. 1.9 kN, p = 0.0001), greater thoracic deflections (41.0 vs. 33.9 mm, p = 0.016), and increased deformation energy (91.6 vs. 61.0 J, p = 0.0001). Effective stiffness did not differ significantly between groups (p = 0.734). Energy loss increased with impact severity (66.2 vs. 56.7%, p = 0.020). Kinematic responses also increased with increased input energy. Peak y-accelerations were significantly greater at T4 in the high-energy group (p = 0.049). The sternum exhibited significantly greater peak z-angular velocity in the high-energy group (p = 0.038). Mean BioRank System Score (BRSS) of the force–deflection corridors between groups was 0.93. In summary, these findings provide essential biomechanical data and establish an important foundation for developing improved testing conditions and advancing the evaluation of female human body models (HBMs) and anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) in side-impact scenarios.
Anantharamakrishnan, Srinivas, Kemper, Andrew, Baker, Gretchen H., Guettler, Allison J., Rhule, Heather, Kang, Yun-Seok, Agnew, Amanda M.
Multilevel Bayesian Model Updating for Satellite High-Stability Brackets Considering Welding Uncertainties2026-99-292510/19/2026
The high-stability bracket is the primary component in remote sensing satellites responsible for carrying the camera and attitude control equipment; its dynamic behavior directly affects imaging quality and in-orbit service life. Welding-based connections introduce uncertainties during manufacturing and assembly, leading to significant discrepancies between finite element analysis results and experimental data. To quantitatively assess the impact of welding processes on the accuracy of the high-stability bracket’s finite element model(FEM), this study proposes a Bayesian parameter correction method based on Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling and the Metropolis-Hastings (MH) algorithm. It employs a multilevel correction experimental framework—”material-level, component-level, and system-level”—to progressively refine material parameters and establish a high-fidelity FEM. First, the elastic modulus of the welded and non-welded regions were calculated using stress-strain curves obtained from static tensile tests on welded and non-welded plates; then, targeting the first two natural frequencies from dynamic impact tests on bar specimens, the material densities of the welded and non-welded regions were corrected using the Bayesian method; finally, the effectiveness of the correction method was verified through free vibration tests on the actual high-stability bracket. The results indicate that, compared to the undamaged region, the welded region exhibits a 13.87% loss in elastic modulus and a 55.32% loss in density. The relative errors in the first three natural frequencies of the corrected model were 0.59%, 0.01%, and 0.83%, respectively, verifying the high reliability of the proposed method in modal identification and providing a new technical approach for correcting spacecraft structural models.
Liu, Kun, Guo, Chongchong, Wu, Wenhua
Study on Low-Velocity Impact Damage of Glass Fiber Reinforced Composite Pipeline2026-99-14169/11/2026
Through low-velocity impact testing, the effects of punch shape (conical, hemispherical, and cylindrical) and impact energy (5, 10, and 15 J) on damage characteristics in glass fiber composite pipes were investigated. Ultrasonic A-scan inspection was employed to detect internal delamination damage at the impact points within the composite pipes. Test results indicate that the contact area between the punch and the pipe is a key factor influencing the severity of pipe damage. A smaller contact area results in a higher energy absorption rate, greater punch displacement, larger area under the load-displacement curve, and longer contact time, leading to more severe damage characteristics. When the conical punch delivered 15 J of impact energy, the energy absorption rate of the glass fiber composite pipe reached 91.6%, exhibiting multiple damage characteristics, including pitting, penetration, and cross-shaped cracks. As impact energy increases, the area of internal delamination damage caused by the three punch shapes exhibits near-linear growth. The conical punch induces severe damage characteristics in the thickness direction but results in the smallest delamination area. Blunt-shaped punches (hemispherical and cylindrical) disperse impact energy over a wider region, leading to increased delamination damage area.
Wang, Xuan, Cao, Yanzhen
Better safety through collaboration at Toyota research center26AUTP09_079/1/2026
The gathered journalists cover their ears as a loud hydraulic ram begins to load and a warning alarm sounds. Less than a minute later… FOOSH… BAM! A 9.9-pound model of a human head is launched into the front-end structure of a test vehicle, deforming the hood and sending the head bouncing to the ground. The violence of the moment, which is part of pedestrian safety research, is a stark reminder of the seriousness of all the testing that happens at Toyota's North American Research and Development Headquarters in York Township, Michigan. The $187-million (in 2007 dollars) facility includes 180,000 sq.ft. of research and testing space.
Clonts, Chris
Pelvis Lap Belt Engagement of Small-Sized Females in Frontal Impacts Using Seat-Integrated Restraints and Vehicle Seats for Alternative Seating Positions2026-22-00088/14/2026
Non-traditional vehicle seating postures challenge traditional occupant protection paradigms that promote pelvis lap belt engagement. Seat-integrated restraints may promote pelvis lap belt engagement in alternative seating postures but have not been evaluated with post-mortem human subjects (PMHS) in vehicle seats. The goal of this research was to perform three 38.8 g, 56 km/h frontal impact sled tests with small-sized female PMHS in a crash environment with a vehicle seat designed for alternative seating positions. PMHS pelvis kinematics, lap belt engagement, and submarining response were compared to that of the Hybrid III 5th female (HIII-5F) in the same environment. The seat was in the rearmost seat track position, reclined 40° from vertical, and incorporated a leg rest, which elevated the feet off the floor. A seat cushion airbag (SCAB), large passenger airbag (PAB), shoulder belt pretensioner (SB P/T), and seat-integrated belt (BIS) were incorporated into the testing environment. The SCAB restricted initial downward translation of the pelvis and induced 7.7°–11.8°of initial pelvis rearward rotation. Lap belt loading of the abdominal soft tissue occurred in each test via three distinct interactions: (1) initial pelvis lap belt engagement followed by pelvis fracture and subsequent submarining; (2) lack of initial pelvis engagement and direct abdominal loading; (3) initial pelvis lap belt engagement followed by submarining. In a matched test environment, the HIII-5F did not submarine nor reproduce the entire lap belt pelvis interactions observed by the PMHS. Future research must develop better tools for predicting lap belt engagement in alternative seating positions.
Newman, Rachel, Shin, Jeesoo, Sochor, Sara, Morgan, Neal R., Gepner, Bronislaw D., Kerrigan, Jason R., Kim, Yongtae, Kim, Sung Rae
Accelerometer Mass Compensation on Frequency Response Functions in Impact Testing Based on the Substructure Method2026-99-09118/7/2026
Impact testing utilizing instrumented hammers and accelerometers is a widely adopted technique in dynamic testing. The mass loading effect of the accelerometer alters the dynamic response of the test structure, leading to deviations between the measured frequency response functions (FRFs) and their true values. Furthermore, the effects on the FRFs are contingent upon the positioning of the accelerometer, thereby causing the measured FRFs between two points to fail to meet the principle of reciprocity. This paper investigates the compensation method for the mass of a single accelerometer in impact testing. Compensation formulas for both origin–FRF and cross–FRF are derived using the frequency domain substructure decoupling method. Numerical simulations on a cantilever beam and experimental tests with milling tools validate the proposed methodology. The compensation formulas for FRFs presented in this paper are expected to enhance the measurement accuracy of FRFs in modal testing of small structures, particularly relevant for lightweight components in aerospace, aircraft, and transportation systems, where precise dynamic characterization is critical.
Tang, Zhenrong, Yao, Zhenqiang
Microstructure and Property Evolution of T91 Steel under Deep Peak-Shaving Service Conditions2026-99-01687/31/2026
To address the safety assessment challenges of T91 steel heating surface components in the context of coal-fired power plant transformation toward deep peak-shaving, this study systematically investigates the evolution laws of microstructure and mechanical properties of in-service T91 pipes from different positions in a power plant after peak-shaving operation. Material properties were evaluated in accordance with standards such as GB/T 5310-2017 through metallographic analysis, tensile testing, impact testing, and hardness measurement, while the mechanisms linking microstructure to property degradation were explored. Results show that oxidation and decarburization occur on the outer surface of T91 pipes at all positions, with differences in the thickness of oxide/decarburized layers between the fire-facing and back-fire surfaces; the oxide layer exhibits fracture characteristics. After service, the tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, and hardness of the material still meet national standards. The performance at the platen and final superheater inlet is superior to that at the final reheater inlet, consistent with differences in operating temperature and pressure. This study indicates that the T91 steel provided in this study is in the early stage of its service life, providing a theoretical basis for the safe operation of the unit.
Huang, Liming, Li, Zutao, Zhang, Jie, Liu, Yaoren
Design and Application of A Pressure Measurement System Based on Spacecraft Chemical Propellant Engine Plume Test2026-99-16237/24/2026
Spacecraft with chemical propellant engines, especially spacecraft for exploring extraterrestrial objects, need to carry out plume tests on the ground in order to determine the influence of engine plumes on spacecraft. An important purpose of the plume test is to accurately measure the pressure field in key parts of the spacecraft. In this paper, according to the pressure measurement requirements of the spacecraft plume test, the design of a pressure measurement system is carried out, which mainly includes a pressure measurement sensor, a pressure difference measurement sensor, a pipeline, a cable, a measuring instrument, a data acquisition instrument, upper measurement software, and so on. The designed pressure measurement system was successfully applied to the plume impact test of Chang'e VII, which provided important technical support for the development of the spacecraft.
Wu, Yue, Guo, Qinliang, Wu, Dongliang, Liu, Xiaoning, Tao, Dongxing, Lin, Boying, Xie, Zheng, Wei, Xi, Niu, Tong
Fifteen Instrumented Motorcycle Crash Tests into a Barrier and Stiffness Comparison of Standard and Upside-Down Forks2026-01-50597/10/2026
Fifteen instrumented crash tests were performed using a 2005 Yamaha R6 motorcycle. Seven tests were performed with upside-down (USD) forks and eight tests were performed with standard forks. The 2005 Yamaha R6 provided a platform where both types of front forks could be interchanged. For all tests, the motorcycle was delivered into a concrete block at speeds varying between 5 and 23 mph. Seven tests were conducted at low speeds to determine the onset of permanent deformation. Eight tests were conducted at higher speeds to observe the wheelbase reduction of the motorcycle and its relationship to impact speed. This paper summarizes the data from these tests related to wheelbase reduction, impact dynamics, and post-impact movement, allowing comparison between two different suspension systems and historical datasets.
Lucernoni, Anthony, Boyd, Dusty, Wahba, Ronny, Taeuber, Andre, Stoner, Jacob, Law, Trevor
Impact Test Simulation for Aluminum Casted Wheel Including Tire Properties2026-01-50396/10/2026
Alloy wheels are essential safety components in two-wheeled vehicles. This study details the finite element analysis (FEA) used to simulate and evaluate the wheel and tire performance under the double mass impact load specified by the AIS-073 (Part-1) standard. The impact is carried out by dropping a striking mass along with a main mass onto the alloy wheel–tire assembly, as per the standard. The alloy wheel is modeled using a three-dimensional finite element model with elastic-plastic material behavior, and the tire is modeled with its internal elements (e.g., carcass, belt, etc.). The prediction of wheel impact failure is based on the total plastic work of the ductile fracture mechanism. The validity of results is confirmed by comparing the predicted permanent lateral rim deformation against the measured lateral deformation from a corresponding physical test.
Minz, Jai Shankar, Singh, Sanjay Kumar, Nirala, Deepak Kumar
Improvement of rCF Behaviour through the Introduction of NF2026-37-00396/9/2026
This study investigates the structural improvement of recycled carbon fibre composites through hybridisation with continuous flax fibres to address sustainability concerns and performance limitations. Recycled carbon fibres, while environmentally beneficial, suffer from short, randomized orientations and lower mechanical properties limiting their application beyond decorative uses. This research explores whether incorporating unidirectional flax fibres can enhance rCF behaviour for structural applications. Six hybrid composite layup variants and two plain composites were manufactured using cold compression moulding with Ampro Bio Resin. Each hybrid configuration comprised eight layers, divided into four layers of recycled carbon and four layers of flax fibres oriented at 0°. Complete mechanical characterization was performed following ISO standards for tensile (ISO 527), flexural (ISO 178), and impact (ISO 179) testing. Results demonstrated significant performance improvements in hybrid composites. Among hybrids, layup 2 achieved 212.5 MPa tensile strength whilst layup 3 managed to achieve 20.5 GPa in stiffness. Flexural testing revealed layup 6 achieved the highest flexural modulus of 19.6 GPa among hybrids. Impact resistance improved dramatically with layup 3 demonstrating 186% improvement in energy absorption over recycled carbon fibre. The study confirms that hybridisation creates a positive effect, producing more predictable and durable materials. The complementary behaviour between brittle and ductile materials enhances damage tolerance and structural integrity, establishing a foundation for sustainable engineering materials suitable for automotive applications without compromising reliability.
Hnatyk, Dawid, Chrysanthou, Andreas, De Vuyst, Tom, Ismail, Sikiru
PMHS Sled Testing of Reclined Small Female Occupants: Pelvic Dynamics and Injury Evaluation2026-22-00015/28/2026
As automated vehicle technologies enable increased seat recline angles during travel, understanding the biomechanics of injury under these novel occupant postures becomes imperative. This study evaluated the pelvis injury response and associated kinematics of reclined small female post-mortem human surrogates (PMHS) subjected to frontal sled tests across three restraint configurations. Each configuration varied in seat stiffness and the presence of a knee bolster to assess their influence on pelvic dynamics and submarining risk. Nine PMHS tests were conducted using a consistent reclined posture (38° thorax, 75–80° pelvis angle) and production restraint systems. Submarining probability was estimated using a validated logistic regression referenced from previous study. Distinct pelvic kinematics, fracture patterns, and associated injury mechanisms emerged across the test configurations in the current dataset. Configuration 1, featuring a stiffer seat without a knee bolster, exhibited complex pelvic fractures—most notably iliac wing fractures resulting from inward bending of the ilium—and a higher probability of submarining primarily due to rearward pelvic rotation. In contrast, Configuration 2, with a compliant seat and no knee bolster, produced comminuted iliac wing fractures, dominated by shear component and a moderate probability of submarining driven primarily by downward pelvic displacement. Configuration 3, which included a knee bolster, showed injury propagation to the posterior pelvis, and none of the subjects submarined. Each configuration included three specimens; therefore, results should be interpreted with caution. Despite the small sample size, the findings highlight the critical influence of seat stiffness and restraint design on pelvic kinematics and injury mechanisms under reclined conditions. The data provided could serve in validating computational models and anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) in reclined seating configurations.
Somasundaram, Karthik, Driesslein, Klaus, Pintar, Frank A.
Study on Impact Resistance of Sandwich-Structured Battery Protection Panels2026-99-17285/22/2026
With new energy vehicles developing rapidly, battery safety, as an important part of the impact on the range of new energy vehicles and vehicle safety, has become the focus of attention. The battery pack protection plate is a core component to protect the battery, its performance needs not only impact resistance, but also lightweight, honeycomb sandwich structure with its excellent energy absorption characteristics and weight reduction performance by the battery pack protection plate performance research. At present, the core-to-face sheet interaction in conventional sandwich structures subjected to impact loads has not been fully elucidated, and the quantitative characterization of damage is insufficient, so this paper aims to optimize the lightweight impact-resistant structure by exploring the synergistic energy dissipation mechanism between the high-strength core material and the steel plate. The study combines theory and simulation, adopting ideal rigid-plastic film theory to establish a critical response model to predict the structural failure threshold, equivalent single-layer theory to simplify the analysis of plywood, and a stiffness matrix model to quantify the structural mechanical contribution of each layer. A two-material synergistic design framework is proposed by fully considering the material properties and adopting the corresponding intrinsic structure and failure criteria for different materials. Analysis reveals that geometric confinement is a key characteristic of the honeycomb sandwich panel’s response and a strain gradient driving mechanism at low impact resistance, and a new energy distribution paradigm is found through the analysis of the energy absorption ratio. The theoretical and simulation results are in great agreement with each other, which just has a difference of 0.7% in the peak force, 1.4% in the critical displacement error, and less than 2% in the impulse integration error. The proposed dual-material co-design framework provides a solution for electric vehicle battery protection systems that balances lightweight and impact resistance.
Zhang, Guanghao, Zhang, Mingming, Luo, Changjie, Zhou, Jun, Zhang, Fengqiang, Yu, Wenze, Li, Jiongfeng, Guo, Qingrong
An Experimental and Numerical Correlation Study on the Bird Strike Response of a Helicopter Composite Cowling StructureF-0082-2026-02795/5/2026
The bird strike performance of the flight critical components of a rotorcraft is to be proved. The study investigates the bird strike performance of the cowling structure through experiments and simulations by considering a Building Block Approach. Based on this approach, bird impact tests on a rigid plate and composite panels are performed to validate Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics method (SPH) bird model and composite material model in LS-DYNA. The composite material properties are obtained from the coupon level test results. After the composite material model is calibrated and validated, the bird strike performance of the cowling structure at critical locations is assessed. A good correlation between the experimental and numerical results was obtained at coupon, sub-component and component levels. The developed composite material modeling technique and validated bird models may be used in showing bird resistances of other airframe components of similar structure of the rotorcraft.
Kambur, Çağdaş, Bayhan, Mesut
Characterization of Front Row Occupants Involved in Motor Vehicle Crashes Compared to ATDs and the U.S. Population09-14-01-00275/4/2026
Currently, adult anthropomorphic test devices used in regulatory and consumer information crash testing in the United States are targeted to represent a small female (5th percentile) and an average male (50th percentile). The anthropometry determined previously might not represent the current population, or as investigated in the current study, those that are at least moderately injured during a motor vehicle crash. The objective of this study was to use field data to determine if the current frontal anthropomorphic test devices are representative. Data from the National Automotive Sampling System–Crashworthiness Data System (2010-2015) and Crash Investigation Sampling System (2017–2023) were queried for sex, age, size, and injury information for front seat occupants in frontal crashes. Additional datasets used were from the National Trauma Data Bank and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. According to field data, the most frequently injured female and male is approximately 164 cm tall, weighing 72 kg and approximately 177 cm tall, weighing 81 kg, respectively. The distribution of those injured in frontal crashes aligns with all crash types and the current United States population. Differences between anthropomorphic test device specifications and recent data (particularly weight) should be the focus of future work.
McNeil, Elizabeth, Atwood, Jonathan, Rudd, Rodney, Craig, Matthew
Frontal Crash Classification and Occupant Outcomes from 2017 to 2023 US Field Cases09-14-01-00245/4/2026
This study provides an updated characterization of real-world frontal crash types—considering overlap and obliquity—based on their overall frequency and associated injury outcomes. The results of this study will support an evaluation of how well NHTSA’s frontal oblique crash test condition addresses the current population of serious frontal crashes, as compared to frontal test modes in existing crashworthiness programs. U.S. field crash data from 2017 to 2023 were analyzed to classify frontal crashes by coded damage characteristics. Oblique frontal crashes were defined as those with principal direction of force between 10°–40° and 320°–350°. Non-ejected belted first and second row occupants in model year 2000 and newer passenger vehicles absent a rollover event were included. Occupants were stratified by sex, age, and body mass index, and injury outcomes based on moderate, serious, and fatal thresholds were analyzed across crash configurations. Among the belted first row occupants considered in this study, more than 45% were exposed to oblique crashes while full overlap colinear crashes accounted for 18% of the occupants. Oblique crashes represent a disproportionately large number of AIS 3+ injured and fatal occupants. Older occupants and females showed a trend of higher injury frequency despite less exposure. Full overlap crashes still account for a representative portion of serious injuries among frontal crashes. Limitations include restriction of cases to those with complete vehicle and occupant details. Assessment of impact type was dependent on generic vehicle class-specific reference values. The findings reinforce the enduring relevance of oblique frontal crash conditions which remain a substantial contributor to serious injuries and fatalities, especially for older adults and female occupants.
Rudd, Rodney W.
Interactions of Rear-Facing Child Restraints in Frontal Crash Tests09-14-01-00105/4/2026
The aims of this study were to investigate the kinematics of child anthropomorphic test devices in a large sample of rear-facing child restraint system installations and the effects of anti-rebound features and load legs on the kinematics of rear-facing child anthropomorphic test devices. The test matrix included a general sample of 70 rear-facing child restraint system installations to observe trends in frontal crash tests; 14 full-scale crash tests with paired comparisons to investigate the effect of anti-rebound features; and five paired comparisons of rear-facing child restraint systems installed with and without a load leg. The paired t-test was used to determine the statistical significance of differences in kinematic responses. In the general sample, 84% of anthropomorphic test devices in infant seats with the base in outboard seats interacted with the first-row seat. In 52% of tests, the anthropomorphic test device head directly contacted the front seatback. Head accelerations > 80 g were caused by interactions between: the child restraint system and front seatback; the anthropomorphic test device head and the interior surface of the child restraint system; or the anthropomorphic test device head and front seatback. In the anti-rebound sample, head contact on rebound occurred in three infant seat installations, and all were associated with head resultant accelerations ≤33 g. The mean paired difference in head 3 ms clip was negligible (p > 0.05). In the load leg sample, the load leg limited forward excursion and forward rotation of the rear-facing child restraint system, thereby contributing to the containment of the anthropomorphic test device within the boundary of the child restraint system shell. In this study, anti-rebound features did not improve the kinematics of pediatric anthropomorphic test devices. The feasibility of including the use of the load leg in the Canadian regulatory test protocol should be explored.
Tylko, Suzanne, Tang, Kathy
The Effect of Initial Foot Position on THOR-50M and THOR-05F Lower Leg Response in a Realistic Vehicle Buck09-14-01-00085/4/2026
This study aims to explore and evaluate the effect of various foot positions on the kinematic and kinetic response of the lower extremity during frontal crashes using a realistic vehicle interior. Frontal impact sled tests were performed with the Test Device for Human Occupant Restraint, 50th-percentile Male (THOR-50M) and Test Device for Human Occupant Restraint, 5th-percentile Female (THOR-05F) anthropometric test device (ATD) in the driver’s seat of a midsize SUV testing buck (with realistic interior components including an instrument panel with steering wheel and steering wheel airbag, seat, three-point seat belt with pretensioner and force-limiter, accelerator pedal, brake pedal, knee airbag, and seat belt retractor pretensioner). Six sled tests were performed in two principal directions of force (PDOF) [three each in frontal (0°) and oblique (−20°) configurations]. The right foot was positioned on the accelerator pedal, fully on the brake, and half on the brake. A single test was conducted with the THOR-05F in an oblique configuration with the foot on the accelerator. Ankle response was analyzed from internal ATD instrumentation. Restraint engagement was found to be consistent across all testing cases. Ankle moment and angle varied based on PDOF and the tested foot condition. Right ankle moment ranged from 70 to −70 Nm in inversion/eversion. Right ankle angles ranged from 37° inversion to 28° eversion. Left ankle moment ranged from 10 to −41 Nm in inversion/eversion. Left ankle angles ranged from 10° eversion to 23° inversion. Differences in lower extremity motion and loading were observed for each testing condition. Placing the foot on the accelerator pedal produced greater ankle moment than either brake pedal condition. Placing the foot on the brake pedal resulted in the highest dorsiflexion angle response. Obliquity increased ankle moment and rotation for both ankles. The United States New Car Assessment Program (US-NCAP) foot position with an oblique PDOF created the highest ankle moment while the in-line brake position in oblique created the highest dorsiflexion rotation. By combining these findings with other efforts focused on naturalistic driving and foot positioning, these results might aid in development of additional testing practices that might enhance our understanding of the lower extremity in nonstandard initial positions.
Noss, Junior, Donlon, John-Paul, Morris, Anna, Samier, Germain, Park, Joseph, Forman, Jason
Neck and Spinal Responses in the Reclined Large Omnidirectional Child Anthropomorphic Test Device with and without a Booster Seat during Far-Side Lateral Oblique Impacts09-14-01-00115/4/2026
Objective The objective of this study was to examine the Large Omnidirectional Child (LODC) anthropomorphic test device (ATD) neck and spine responses in reclined seating configurations with and without a backless belt-positioning booster (BPB) in far-side lateral oblique impacts. Methods The LODC was seated on a production passenger seat with an integrated seatbelt and tested in nine lateral oblique impact (80° from frontal) sled tests (31.3 km/h). A condition with a nominal seatback angle (~25°) with a backless BPB and two conditions with reclined seatback angles (~45° and ~60°) with and without a BPB were compared. Each condition was repeated, except for the 60° without BPB. Peak upper neck tension force and lateral moment, T1, T6, and T12 lateral rotation, lumbar axial and lateral shear forces, and lumbar axial moment (Mz) were extracted. Results With noBPB, upper neck tension (45° noBPB: 2.0 ± 0.1 kN; 60° noBPB: 1.8 kN) and lateral moment (45° noBPB: 31.7 ± 2.3 Nm; 60° noBPB: 29.2 Nm) were greater than with the BPB in all seatback angles (25° BPB: 1.3 ± 0.04 kN; 21.6 ± 0.1 Nm; 45° BPB: 1.2 ± 0.1 kN, 22.5 ± 2.3 Nm; 60° BPB: 1.2 ± 0.03 kN, 17.6 ± 0.7 Nm). Thoracic spine rotation was smaller in reclined conditions with noBPB (41°–59°) than with BPB (63°–80°). Lumbar axial forces decreased with increasing seatback angle with the BPB (from 2.2 to 1.2 kN). Lumbar Mz showed increasing unbelted shoulder rotation toward the seatback with increasing seatback angle (from 29.8 to 37.8 Nm) with the BPB but not without. Discussion The presence of the BPB may improve neck and spine coupled motion during far-side lateral impacts. However, increased lumbar Mz with the BPB in recline seatbacks requires further understanding.
Graci, Valentina, Humm, John, Hauschild, Hans
Effects of Vehicle Speed, Category, and Front-End Design on Full-Body Injury Risks of a Midsized Male Pedestrian09-14-01-00175/4/2026
This study investigated how vehicle front-end geometry, impact speed, and vehicle category influence injury risk to a midsize male pedestrian. Eighty-one generic vehicle (GV) models representing sedans, sport utility vehicles (SUVs), pickup trucks, and minivans sold in the United States were developed by morphing three base models using an automated pipeline. Front-end parameters that were varied included ground clearance (GC), bumper height (BH), hood leading-edge (HLE) height, hood length (HL), bumper lead angle (BLA), hood angle (HA), and windshield angle (WSA). Each vehicle impacted the Global Human Body Models Consortium 50th percentile male simplified pedestrian (GHBMC M50-PS) model at 30, 40, and 50 kph, totaling 243 simulations. Boundary conditions followed the European New Car Assessment Program (Euro NCAP) pedestrian test protocol. Thirty-five injury metrics were extracted across the head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and lower extremities. Linear mixed-effects regression models assessed relationships between vehicle front-end geometry, impact speed, and injury outcomes, with predictor selection guided by principal component analysis (PCA) and collinearity diagnostics. Impact speed was the strongest predictor of injury severity across all body regions. GC and HLE height were also dominant predictors. Wrap-type trajectories were common at lower speeds and in SUVs, trucks, and minivans, while sedans and minivans showed roof vaulting at higher speeds. Head injury severity increased with speed and was influenced by HA and BLA. Minivans showed elevated brain injury criterion (BrIC) and cumulative strain damage measure (CSDM25) values, indicating increased diffuse brain injury risk. Trucks produced the highest thoracoabdominal injury metrics, which correlated with HL, HA, and HLE height. Sedans showed higher right-side (trailing leg) femur forces, slightly lower left-side femur forces than SUVs and minivans, and lowest tibia moments. Trucks had greater tibia bending moments, while SUVs and minivans had higher left femur moments compared to sedans. GC and impact speed exacerbated lower extremity injuries, varying by vehicle category. These effects are driven by geometry: Higher GC increases the unsupported span below the knee, promoting tibial bending, while lower HLE heights shift impact forces above the knee, elevating femur injury risk.
Poveda, Luis, Miller, Logan E., Edwards, Colin C., Pollock, Madeline, Armstrong, William M., Hsu, Fang-Chi, Gayzik, Scott F., Weaver, Ashley A., Stitzel, Joel D., Devane, Karan S.
Biomechanical Responses and Injuries of Male Post-Mortem Human Subjects in Rear-Facing Frontal Impacts with Unreinforced Airbag-Equipped Production Seats09-14-01-00305/4/2026
Previous rear-facing post-mortem human subject (PMHS) studies utilizing a reinforced seat have prompted questions as to whether the seat could have been a contributing factor to the severe rib and pelvis injuries observed in those experiments. In response, a recent PMHS study used an unreinforced seat in a similar experiment, which was expected to mitigate severe injuries by dissipating energy from seatback deformations. However, the PMHS tested in the unreinforced seat sustained even more severe rib fracture numbers than in the reinforced seat. No studies have investigated how additional variables (i.e., countermeasures) may influence rib fractures in high-speed rear-facing frontal impacts (HSRFFI). Therefore, this study aimed to explore the effect of an airbag-equipped seat (AES) on male PMHS responses and injuries. Rear-facing sled tests were conducted using five mid-size male PMHS seated in the AES at ΔV of 56 km/h: PMHS1 with no airbag as a baseline, PMHS2 with a seatback airbag (SA), PMHS3 with an extended seatback airbag (ESA), and PMHS4 and 5 with ESA and a wedge airbag (ESA+WA). An instrument panel (IP) and windshield were installed behind the seat to mimic realistic interior vehicle compartments. A chestband at mid-sternum, 6-degree motion blocks at the head, T1, T4, T8, T12, pelvis, and extremities, as well as rib strain gages and rosettes were installed on PMHS to understand potential mechanisms of injuries. A motion capture system was used to quantify whole-body PMHS and seatback kinematics. Maximum seatback rotation was 38.1° in the baseline test and 20.3°–25.1° with AES. Peak chest A-P compression in the anterior-posterior (A-P) direction was 25.7 mm for baseline and 7.3 mm–35.2 mm with AES (23.7 mm for SA, 7.3 mm for ESA, 35.2 and 8.7 mm for ESA+WA). The number of rib fractures (NRF) was high in baseline (32), SA (25), and ESA (27) conditions, but was reduced in ESA+WA (6 and 13). Strain rosette data indicated upward directions of principal strains on the posterior ribs, likely due to I-S deformation of the PMHS thoraces. Responses from thorax instrumentation showed that peak chest deflection (A-P) alone did not fully explain NRF, especially as rib fractures in all tests occurred after peak deflection in this direction. Instead, maximum principal strains in the I-S direction (shear), confirmed by strain rosette data, likely influenced rib fractures. ESA+WA effectively supported PMHS, maintaining upright postures and minimizing I-S chest shear, which reduced NRF. Limitations include a small sample size, possible age-related injury effects, and seat designs intended for low-speed rear impacts, not HSRFFI. Compression and shear loading to the PMHS thoraces were observed in HSRFFI. The shear loading was likely due to the large upward thorax deflection induced by the ramping motion and seatback rotation. One of the AES, ESA+WA, effectively maintained an upright spine and reduced NRF. This study offers important information for improving current safety tools and designing rear-facing countermeasures for automated driving systems.
Kang, Yun-Seok, DeWitt, Timothy, Wensink, Timothy, Marcallini, Angelo, Jung, Yong Hyun, Lee, Dong Gil, Harm, Jae Jun, Ko, Seokhoon, Hunter, Randee, Agnew, Amanda M.
Effects of Child Anthropometry, Seatback Angle, Seat Rotation Angle, Seatbelt Force Limiting, and Collision Type on Injury Risk of Child Occupants in Highly Automated Vehicles2026-01-05704/7/2026
This study aimed to evaluate the influence of child anthropometry, seating postures (recline and rotation), seatbelt force limiting, and frontal collision scenarios on the kinematic response and injury risk in highly automated vehicles. The TUST IBMs 6YO-O model was conducted the frontal collisions in sled tests. This simulation matrix includes five percentiles six-year-old occupants (P3, P25, P50, P75, and P97), three seatback angles (20°, 30°, and 45°), four seat rotation angles (0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°), three seatbelt force limiting (2.6 kN, 3.6 kN, and 4.6 kN), and three frontal collision types. Injury risks were assessed including the child occupant's head, neck, chest/abdomen, and lumbar region in each simulation (n=540). The results indicate that the child anthropometry, the seatback angle, and the seat rotation angle have a significant influence on the motion responses. Statistically significant differences between all the groups within each independent variable category were observed based on the analysis of variance. As the child dimension increases, the risk of head injury decreases showing by HIC15, while the risk of neck and lumbar injuries increases. As the seatback angle increases, biomechanical parameters of the head show an increasing trend. The risk of upper neck injury decreases, while the risk of lumbar injury decreases and then increases. As the seat rotation angle increases, the risks of head, neck, and chest injuries initially rise and subsequently decrease, while the risk of lumbar injury demonstrates a downward trend. Seatbelt force limiting exhibited a positive correlation with head, neck, and lumbar injury risks. Consequently, small percentile child experiences higher head loads in smart cockpits, with seatback angle and seat rotation angle being key factors contributing to child injuries. These findings highlight the critical need to address the vulnerability of smaller children in smart cockpits by adapting integrated active and passive safety systems to mitigate their injury risk.
Wang, Yanxin, Zhao, Hongqian, Li, Haiyan, He, Lijuan, Cui, Shihai, Lv, Wenle
Inertial Pedal Displacement and Brake Switch Activation in Frontal Crash Events2026-01-05414/7/2026
This paper presents research into the inertial displacement of brake pedals and the subsequent activation of brake light switches during crash events. In certain scenarios, such as multiple-impact crashes or crashes with pre-impact interactions such as curb strikes or sideswipes, inertial forces alone may generate sufficient brake pedal movement to trigger the brake switch, activating the brake lights. Such signals may be recorded by an Event Data Recorder (EDR) or observed by witnesses and incorrectly interpreted as an indication of intentional driver braking. To investigate this phenomenon, HYGE sled tests were performed using brake pedal assemblies and associated components from a Toyota Tacoma pickup truck and a Cadillac DeVille passenger sedan. The assemblies were subjected to acceleration pulses simulating a frontal impact, with high-speed video used to capture brake pedal displacement and brake light activation. The tests demonstrated that inertial loading from a pulse with a delta-V (change in velocity) as low as 12 mph could result in momentary brake light activation due to pedal displacement from inertial forces. Increasing the magnitude of the acceleration pulse produced greater displacement of the brake pedal and extended the duration of the brake light activation. An example is presented that demonstrates inertial pedal movement in a full-scale vehicle test conducted by striking a curb, which resulted in brake light activation with a delta-V considerably less than 12 mph. Additionally, a field survey of 50 passenger vehicles found that the brake switch activation threshold ranged from 0.25 to 0.56 inches of pedal travel for 80% of the vehicles measured. These findings indicate that relatively small crash accelerations and durations can produce sufficient inertial pedal movement to activate brake lights and that only minimal pedal displacement is required in most vehicles.
Walker, James, Duran, Amanda, Barnes, Daniel, Osterhout, Aaron, Clayton, Aidan
A Study on the Injury Risk of Occupant with Different Head and Neck Rotating Postures under the Frontal Impact Sled Conditions2026-01-05744/7/2026
Drivers obtain road information through head and neck rotation. In order to study the influences of head and neck rotation posture on occupant injury in frontal impact scenario, the THUMS (Total Human Model for Safety) AM50 human body model with five different head and neck rotation postures but without active muscles was adopted to study the biomechanical injury responses of occupant under the frontal impact scenario at 56 km/h in this study. Firstly, the kinematic responses of total body and head acceleration curves at the center of gravity predicted by PMHS (Post Mortem Human Subject) and THUMS AM50 human model under the sled test conditions were compared to verify the simulation model for subsequent study. Then, the THUMS AM50 human model with standard occupant seating posture was adjusted to have five different head and neck rotation postures with 0°, ±20°, and ±40° rotation angle, respectively. Finally, a series of frontal impact sled with or without airbag simulations were conducted for each THUMS AM50 human model with different head and neck rotation postures. The simulation results showed that with the increasing of head and neck rotation angle, the neck injury risk was increased while the thoracic injury risk was decreased. Regardless of whether airbags were present or absent, the model prediction for the standard posture indicated a lower injury risk. And regardless of whether the head and neck posture changed, the airbag always could provide a certain protection in that posture.
Li, Dongqiang, jiang, Yejie, Tan, Chun, Li, Yanyan, Gong, Chuangye, Wu, Hequan, Jiang, Binhui
Machine Learning Based Meta-Analysis of IIHS Moderate Overlap Frontal Crash Test for Rear Seat Occupant Safety Performance2026-01-05794/7/2026
A machine learning (ML)-based meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate rear seat occupant safety performance in the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) Moderate Overlap Frontal (MOF) 2.0 crash test. ML models were trained on historical IIHS crash test data to predict rear passenger injury metrics using vehicle architecture, restraint system characteristics, crash pulse parameters, and vehicle kinematics as input features. The models demonstrated high predictive accuracy and were subsequently used in a Sobol sensitivity analysis to identify critical design parameters influencing injury outcomes. The analysis revealed that rear passenger injury metrics were most sensitive to restraint system parameters. Specifically, crash pulse magnitude was the dominant factor for head injury metrics, pretensioner activation time for neck tension force, and lap belt force for the Neck Injury Criterion (Nij). For chest-related metrics—sternum deflection, dynamic belt position, and maximum belt position—the initial belt position emerged as the most influential factor. This study demonstrates the potential of ML models to uncover dominant injury mechanisms and critical design parameters without explicitly encoding biomechanical knowledge. The findings also offer actionable insights to guide future vehicle safety design improvements for rear seat occupants.
Lalwala, Mitesh, Kim, Wonhee, Furton, Lisa, Song, Jay
Vault-Induced Pitchover Crash Testing of a Recreational Off-Highway Vehicle (ROV)2026-01-05464/7/2026
Vehicle pitchover crashes can result in very severe accelerations and forces. Literature and test data available on pitchover crashes is sparse. This paper presents the results of a full-scale pitchover/rollover crash test using an instrumented vehicle in a controlled and documented off-road environment. The test vehicle was driven to the launch point by an off-board operator using remote steering and throttle controls. The test vehicle then experienced an airborne phase during which forward pitching occurred, followed by a front-to-ground impact which induced additional pitchover motion. Then, following the initial front and rear impacts, the vehicle transitioned from a pitchover to rollover motion before coming to rest. The resulting vehicle motion, vehicle damage markings, and ground markings were documented with various slow motion and real time camera views. The test vehicle was instrumented with accelerometers, rotation rate sensors, and other sensors, the results of which provide useful correlation with previously published test data. PC-Crash version 15.0.0.4a was used to analyze the pitchover test, and comparisons are derived between the real-world test and the motion calculated in the computer simulation. The PC-Crash program predicted launch speed to within 6% of the actual crash test. The results are useful for analysis and reconstruction of similar pitchover crashes.
Warner, Mark, Warner, Wyatt, Swensen, Grant, Perl, Mark
Sideswipe Impact Severity Testing and Analysis with an Instrumented Hybrid III Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD)2026-01-05324/7/2026
Vehicle-to-vehicle sideswipe collisions are unique in their impact characteristics because the vehicles typically do not reach a common velocity at impact. To better understand the characteristics and dynamics of sideswipe collisions, vehicle-to-vehicle crash testing was performed to find the relationships between variables related to the impact, such as closing speed, relative angle, and overlap depth. This paper discusses data collected for three sideswipe (oblique) impact tests conducted at a testing facility in Buffalo, New York. The tests were conducted using a passenger vehicle as the sideswiping vehicle, which impacted a stationary cargo van. The passenger vehicle was towed into the van at relative angles ranging from 8 to 15 degrees and at velocities of 5 to 20 mph. Two different (but identical) passenger cars and two cargo vans were used during the testing series. Test results were then utilized to investigate a methodology of analyzing sideswipe collisions as a combination of low-speed lateral impact in conjunction with longitudinal sliding friction for application to accident reconstruction. One instrumented Hybrid III 5th percentile female Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD) outfitted with a 15 pound weighted vest was placed in the front driver designated seating position according to instructions specified in the TP-208 Test Procedure. TP-208 is the USDOT laboratory test procedure for FMVSS 208, Occupant Crash Protection. The testing facility performed all acquisition, setup, and instrumentation operations for the vehicles utilized in crash testing, as well as provided the reported data obtained during testing. For testing, the ATD and test vehicles were instrumented with accelerometers, which were used to record the accelerations to the occupant and vehicles throughout each sideswipe impact test. The ATD was additionally instrumented with force transducers to measure the forces experienced by the ATD during the testing. The objective of this research was to examine the collision dynamics and the instrumented ATD responses for each sideswipe test performed to provide data relevant to accident reconstruction and biomechanical analysis. The research also compared the collected test data to a proposed methodology for reconstructing sideswipe collisions.
Danaher, David, McDonough, Sean, Donaldson, Andrew, Neale, William, Cochran, Reece
Evaluating the Effects of Improper Positioning and Unbuckling of a Restraint System on a 10-Year-Old Child ATD in a Far Side Side-Impact Environment2026-01-05624/7/2026
Five sled tests were performed with a Hybrid III (H-III) 10-year-old child sized Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD) positioned in the 2nd row left seat of a three row 2006 Sport Utility Vehicle (SUV). A HYGE Sled buck was positioned to represent/replicate a side impact collision to the passenger (right) side of the SUV, with a Principal Direction of Force (PDOF) of 60 degrees, resulting in a far side side-impact for the ATD. Of the 5 tests performed, three of the five tests were performed with a delta-V of 17 mph, and two of the tests at a delta-V of 24 mph. Of the 17 mph tests, one test was performed with a properly restrained ATD, and two tests performed with improper restraint positioning. Both of the 24 mph tests were performed with improper restraint positioning, effectively identical to the two 17 mph delta-V tests. The two improper restraint use tests (at both 17 and 24 mph delta-V) included two different improper restraint scenarios. The first scenario of improper restraint positioning involved moving the torso belt from the left shoulder, over the head, and onto the right shoulder. The second scenario involved the same belt re-positioning as the first scenario, but additionally a disengaged latch plate from the buckle, essentially creating a condition of seat belt entanglement. Each of the five tests utilized its own salvage-vehicle-harvested seat belt assembly, originating from the same model series of SUV. All tests were documented with 4 high-speed video cameras. Occupant kinematics and seat belt physical evidence were analyzed and compared across the test series. Head accelerations and upper neck loads were also evaluated. The results demonstrated the uniqueness of physical evidence left behind on components of the seat belt system, both in terms of locations of the evidence as well as the extent and geometric orientation of the evidence, across the three demonstrated scenarios (proper, improper, and improper and unbuckled). Additionally, the three scenarios exhibited significant differences with respect to the head accelerations and neck loads experienced by the ATD.
Luepke, Peter, Hewett, Natalie, Betts, Kevin, Van Arsdell, William, Weber, Paul, Stankewich, Charles, Miller, Gregory, Watson, Richard, Sochor, Mark
Occupant and Seat Responses in Various Moderate- to High-Speed Rear Impact Conditions: Focus on Head-to-Head Restraint Interactions2026-01-05654/7/2026
Head restraint requirements and designs have evolved to minimize the delay in head support and reduce differential loading in the neck. As a result, they have become bigger, closer to the occupant’s head, and angled forward relative to the seat back. Head restraints have been found missing or detached in the field; they may be removed pre-crash due to occupant comfort issues, or post-crash for better accessibility during extrication. Additionally, although rare, head restraints may become detached in severe rear impacts due to occupant loading. To better understand occupant-to-head restraint dynamic interactions, nine rear sled tests were conducted. The test conditions were selected to represent worst case severe loading scenarios. An instrumented 50th Hybrid III ATD (Anthropomorphic Test Device) was lap-shoulder belted on a right-front seat. The neck was equipped with a bracket and lower neck load cell designed for rear impacts. Three series of sled tests were performed wherein the kinematics and kinetics of a restrained ATD were compared across 3 seat configurations: a conventional modern seat, a rigidized modern seat, and an ABTS (all-belts-to seat). Occupant postures evaluated included seated nominally and leaning forward, as may occur in response to hard pre-impact braking and/or an initial frontal impact. Two crash severities were evaluated including a moderate speed (24 km/h delta V pulse based on Euro NCAP) and a very high-speed (49 km/h delta V) condition. Within each series, the sled pulse and ATD initial posture were held constant. The first series (Match #1) was conducted at 24 km/h with a leaned occupant. All biomechanical responses were below IARVs (Injury Assessment Reference Values). The highest responses relative to IARV were for upper and lower neck tension and extension. The Nij was greatest with the ABTS seat for upper neck and with the rigidized seat for lower neck, highlighting the importance of using both the upper neck and lower neck instrumentation. The second series (Match #2) was at 49 km/h with the nominally seated ATD, and the third (Match #3) was at 49 km/h with a leaning forward ATD. The biomechanical responses were below IARV when nominally seated. The biomechanical responses of Match #2 were more favourable than Match #3, highlighting the benefits of early energy absorption during the ride-down. For example, the upper neck Nij was 2.4 in the conventional seat, 4.2 in the rigidized seat and 5.1 in the ABTS. The corresponding lower neck Nij was 4.2, 5.5 and 2.3. The normalized chest 3 ms response was greatest in the rigidized seat, followed by the ABTS, irrespective of sitting posture. There are numerous reasons for an occupant to be out of position prior to a rear impact. In this study, the test conditions were selected to assess head-to-head restraint interactions in severe conditions, including leaning forward. Though the head restraints remained attached in all tests, the results provide insight on the seat and head restraint performance, and head and shoulder loading characteristics, in particular in some non-nominal postures.
Parenteau, Chantal, Burnett, Roger, Davidson, Russell
Optimizing Virtual Scenario Testing for Autonomous Vehicles with Large-Scale Scenario Generation2026-01-00504/7/2026
The validation of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Automated Driving (AD) Systems, especially at higher automation levels such as SAE Level 3 or 4, demands the testing of a vast array of scenario variants far exceeding the scope of standard safety specifications like Euro NCAP (The European New Car Assessment Programme). Autonomous vehicles require thorough real-world testing to ensure automotive safety. However, public road tests are costly and risky. Instead, virtual scenarios - digital twins of real environments - offer a safe, cost-effective testing alternative. Exhaustive simulation across this high-dimensional scenario space, which includes variations in actor behavior, environmental conditions, and event characteristics, is computationally infeasible. We propose a constraint-solving approach to address this challenge that leverages mathematical and geometric techniques to analytically assess the existence and validity of scenario variants prior to simulation. Two primary methods are explored: (1) random or sequential generation of scenario variants with a pre-simulation pruning step to eliminate invalid cases, and (2) direct generation of valid variants by solving constraint systems that ensure the desired events occur under specified conditions. Importantly, maintaining an effective balance between these two approaches is central to our methodology, as the optimal mix depends on the specific testing goals and requirements. This framework implemented using MATLAB®, Simulink®, the Automated Driving ToolboxTM, and the Euro NCAP Support Package®, systematically reduces the scenario space by excluding impossible cases. Our approach aims to significantly reduce reliance on extensive simulation and enable more targeted and efficient validation for safety compliance.
Karve, Omkar, Saurav, Saket, Purwar, Prabhanshu
Pre-Crash Scenario Analysis and Generation for Integrated Safety System Virtual Testing with Real Accident Data2026-01-00624/7/2026
Integrated active and passive safety protection systems have made substantial contributions to reducing traffic accidents and mitigating human injuries. However, assessing such systems through vehicle collision tests is limited, as this approach cannot cover the wide range of accident scenarios. To address this gap, identifying and generating representative pre-crash scenarios from real-world accidents provides key boundary conditions for the setup of virtual test scenarios. In this study, we used the Future Mobile Traffic Accident Scenario Study (FASS) dataset to reconstruct 112 two-wheeler accidents. For each case, we extracted pre-crash dynamic information, static attributes, and environmental context. An autoencoder was employed to encode high-dimensional features of scenarios, and K-means clustering was applied to categorize the accidents into eight representative pre-crash scenarios. For each scenario, we examined the motion states of participants and further compared the behaviors and injuries between motorcycle and bicycle accidents. The results show that motorcycles have a higher average pre-crash speed than bicycles (22.4 vs 16.2 km/h), resulting in a greater proportion of Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale (MAIS) 4+ cases (35.6% vs 18.9%). Furthermore, a Gaussian Mixture Model was applied to fit the scenario features. This model was then used to randomly generate the initial conditions of pre-crash scenarios, including the positions, speeds, and yaw angles of vehicles and two-wheelers. The proposed scenario generation method was first applied to pre-crash scenario construction for integrated safety systems tests, and it can create diverse, statistically grounded scenarios that reflect real-world accident distributions. These scenarios can broaden the test scope of integrated safety systems and support their implementation.
Wang, Guojie, Gao, Xin, Liu, Siyuan, Liu, Jiaxin, Li, Quan, Shi, Liangliang, Nie, Bingbing
Residual “Non-Zero” Speedometer Readings in Crash Tests Using a HYGE TM Crash Simulation System2026-01-05374/7/2026
The design trend among analog speedometer and tachometer instruments in recent decades has been toward stepper motor drives. If power is interrupted during a traffic crash, such gauges often do not return to a zero reading. Speedometers and tachometers displaying residual readings after a crash have been observed with increasing frequency in recent years. In conducting a crash reconstruction, a question often arises as to whether such a residual reading corresponds to the indicated vehicle speed at the time of impact in the crash. Prior publications in this area have included a variety of crash tests under a wide range of relatively uncontrolled conditions. The present investigation evaluated a total of nine instrument clusters with a range of static torque required to move the needles when unpowered. The clusters were mounted on a HYGETM crash simulation sled and subjected to consistent impulses at orientations representing frontal, rear, left and right lateral, and left and right oblique impacts. Prior crash tests in this area used unpowered instruments with the needles manually set to particular readings prior to impact. In the present investigation, the instrument clusters were powered and supplied with signals on their Controller Area Network (CAN) buses, causing them to indicate specific vehicle and engine speeds at the moment of impact. Electrical power to the clusters was interrupted during the crash impulse, simulating loss of power during a real-world crash event. The residual readings of each instrument were recorded. They varied considerably. Factors found to affect residual readings were the orientation of principal direction of force, the static torque required to move the needles when unpowered, and when during the crash impulse power was interrupted. Consistent with prior findings in this area, residual speedometer and tachometer readings should be addressed in the context of a complete crash reconstruction.
Walker, James, Duran, Amanda, Kent, Steven, Barnes, Daniel, Osterhout, Aaron, Clayton, Aidan
Numerical Investigation on Thorax Rib Deflections of 50th Male in Vehicle Side Oblique Pole Impact Using Human Body Model2026-01-05664/7/2026
The WorldSID-50M dummy is widely adopted in regulatory and third-party testing programs (e.g., ECE, Euro-NCAP, C-NCAP) owing to its advanced design and superior biofidelity. However, in vehicle side oblique pole crash tests involving shoulder-covered side airbags - an expanded testing modality - excessive deflection of the upper thoracic ribs was observed. Notably, this phenomenon was absent in standard side moving deformable barrier (SMDB) tests. This study pursued two core objectives: (1) to systematically document the excessive upper thoracic rib deflection of the WorldSID-50M dummy in side oblique pole crash tests; and (2) to investigate the influence of arm-thorax interaction on such deflection using a Human Body Model (HBM) representative of a 50th percentile male occupant. Numerical simulation results reveal that while arm-thorax interaction does contribute to rib deflection, its impact on the excessive deflection of the upper thoracic ribs is negligible.
Zhou, DY, Chen, Shaopeng, Yan, Li, Wu, Jing, Liu, Chong, Lv, Xiaojiang, Yang, Heping
Effects of Obstacle Height and Vehicle Roll Behavior on Electric Vehicle Side Impact Safety2026-01-04054/7/2026
Electric vehicles (EVs) face unique safety challenges under pole side impact conditions, largely due to the presence of floor-mounted battery packs. Existing regulatory test procedures, such as FMVSS 214, primarily address occupant injury using full-height cylindrical obstacles. These procedures were originally developed for internal combustion vehicles (ICVs). However, real-world roadside crashes frequently involve obstacles of varying heights, such as guardrails, curbs, and median bases. While these obstacles pose limited risk to the passenger compartment, they can intrude into the battery pack and trigger thermal runaway. This study investigates the influence of obstacle height on EV pole side impacts. Finite element simulations of a commercially available sedan were conducted against rigid obstacles of different heights. Results reveal a non-monotonic trend of battery intrusion governed by the interplay between rollover dynamics and structural stiffness. Theoretical analyses were conducted to clarify the underlying mechanisms. When the obstacle height falls below the window frame level, rollover effects become more significant. The longer roll moment arm allows part of the impact energy to be dissipated through vehicle roll motion, leading to a reduction in battery intrusion. However, as the obstacle height is further reduced into the threshold beam and battery side beam region, the supporting structural members are bypassed. The equivalent contact stiffness drops sharply, resulting in significant battery intrusion. The findings demonstrate that obstacle height governs EV battery safety through a competition between rollover energy dissipation and reduced contact stiffness. This work provides new insights for extending existing side impact tests to low-height obstacles and offers guidance for vehicle safety design.
Ma, Chenghao, Xing, Bobin, Zhou, Qing, Xia, Yong
Statistical Assessment of Pretensioner and Load Limiter Effects on the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD Response in Frontal Impacts2026-01-05504/7/2026
Enhancing child occupant protection requires a clear understanding of how seatbelt restraint parameters influence crash injury metrics. Real-world vehicles mostly include pretensioner and load limiter technologies to mitigate injuries, but rear seat restraints often do not include these. The FMVSS No. 213 test bench closely represents current restraint systems but does not involve such active vehicle restraint features. This study explores the response of the Large Omnidirectional Child ATD to evaluate potential injury mitigation under FMVSS No. 213 frontal sled test conditions. A simulation-based full factorial design was implemented in LS-DYNA to vary pretensioner retraction, retractor load-limiting thresholds, and webbing payout, with injury measures including head acceleration, head excursion, chest compression, and abdominal pressure twin sensors (APTS). Statistical evaluation using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey-Kramer post-hoc tests quantified main and interaction effects. Pretensioners consistently reduced head excursion and acceleration, while load limiters lowered chest compression but increased excursion, illustrating a performance trade-off. Webbing payout behavior showed strong coupling to load-limiting thresholds, revealing notable parameter interdependencies. These results demonstrate that integrating pretensioners and load limiters into child restraint systems could yield meaningful safety benefits but must be optimized holistically to balance competing injury metrics. The study provides both empirical insight and a statistical framework for evaluating advanced restraint configurations in pediatric occupant simulations.
Khattak, Mohid Muneeb, Bendig, Colleen, Louden, Allison, Noll, Scott
Accuracy Requirements for the Road Friction Coefficient Estimation of a Friction-Adaptive Automatic Emergency Braking System as a Software Solution for Integrated Chassis Control Systems10-10-02-00163/10/2026
As part of this work, the accuracy requirements for the road friction coefficient estimation of a friction-adaptive automatic emergency braking (AEB) system are determined using a complex, nonlinear vehicle model. The AEB system varies its trigger distance depending on an estimated value of the road friction coefficient. The accuracy requirements are determined at a driving speed of 40 km/h depending on the severity classification of ISO 26262 in the statistically relevant Euro NCAP test scenario with a stationary target vehicle. MATLAB/Simulink is used as simulation software. The permissible estimation error (difference between estimated value and road friction coefficient) is determined by the severity classification S1 (light and moderate injuries). The results show that the positive permissible estimation error (road friction coefficient is overestimated) must not exceed about 30% of the road friction coefficient to comply with the severity classification S1 of ISO 26262.
Ahrenhold, Tim, Wielitzka, Mark, Binnewies, Tomas, Henze, Roman
Thoracic Responses of Rear-Seated Midsized Male Surrogates during Frontal Sled Tests2025-22-00112/13/2026
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the thoracic responses of the 50th-percenitle male Hybrid III, THOR, and post mortem human surrogates (PMHS) in the rear seat during frontal sled tests using conventional and advanced restraints in multiple vehicle environments. Twenty-one sled tests were conducted using the Hybrid III and THOR in seven vehicle bucks, and 12 PMHS sled tests were performed using four vehicle bucks. Trends in chest deflections between vehicles and restraint conditions were compared between surrogates. The Hybrid III and THOR thoracic injury risk predictions were compared to the thoracic skeletal damage observed during the PMHS tests. The Hybrid III chest deflections were statistically significantly greater for vehicles equipped with conventional restraints compared to those equipped with advanced restraints. The THOR chest deflections generally followed this trend, but the differences between restraint types were not statistically significant. Hence, the THOR thoracic response and injury predictions might be less sensitive to the presence of advanced restraints. The PMHS sustained lower chest deflections and less damage, on average for the vehicles equipped with advanced restraints. However, this outcome was confounded by PMHS variability, the effect of submarining on thoracic response, and other design differences between vehicles, leading to no statistically significant difference in chest deflection between vehicles with and without advanced restraints. All PMHS sustained at least nine rib fractures regardless of restraint condition, so it was difficult to assess the accuracy of the THOR and Hybrid III injury risk predictions. However, both ATDs accurately predicted a high injury risk for the vehicle that resulted in the most severe PMHS damage. These results support previous studies that suggest the implementation of advanced restraints may reduce injury risk in the rear seat. However, the results also suggest that other vehicle characteristics, apart from restraint type, influence thoracic injury outcomes in the rear seat.
Albert, Devon L., Bianco, Samuel T., Guettler, Allison J., Boyle, David M., Kemper, Andrew R., Hardy, Warren N.
Crashworthiness of WC19 Wheelchairs in Horizontal Dynamic Aircraft Seating Tests09-14-02-00011/23/2026
At present, commercial air travel rules do not allow people to sit in their own wheelchairs during flight. However, airline seating often does not meet medical needs. In response to current requests to allow this seating option, we researched the crashworthiness and safety of wheelchairs for potential use in aircraft. For motor vehicle travel, many wheelchairs meet voluntary standards for crashworthiness and safety per RESNA WC19. This project assesses whether WC19-compliant wheelchairs can meet FAA aircraft seating standards when secured using 4-point tiedowns. For the FAA horizontal impact testing, computer modeling indicated that a trapezoidal sled pulse was sufficient to represent the more typical triangular pulse, and that due to the flexibility of the tiedown webbing, the effect of the simulated pitch/roll element was minimal. During the initial two horizontal impact tests, fracture of the left front wheelchair caster was observed. The remaining five wheelchairs were tested with an added vehicle-mounted lap belt and were successful at meeting occupant retention and structural integrity requirements. The outcomes show that it may be possible for people to remain seated in a WC19-compliant wheelchair for air travel without a significant decrement in safety.
Klinich, Kathleen D., Manary, Miriam A., Boyle, Kyle J., Vallier, Tyler, Orton, Nichole R.
Investigating Pelvic Locking and Torso Kinematics Using Human Body Models in Frontal Impact Scenarios2026-26-00021/16/2026
Occupant Safety systems are usually developed using anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs), such as the Hybrid III, THOR-50M, ES-2, and WorldSID. However, in compliance with NCAP and regulatory guidelines, these ATDs are designed for specific crash scenarios, typically frontal and side impacts involving upright occupants. As vehicles evolve (e.g., autonomous layouts, diverse occupant populations), ATDs are proving increasingly inadequate for capturing real-world injury mechanisms. This has led to the adoption of computational Human Body Models (HBMs), such as the Global Human Body Models Consortium (GHBMC) and Total Human Model for Safety (THUMS), which offer superior anatomical fidelity, variable anthropometry, active muscle behaviour modelling, and improved postural flexibility. HBMs can predict internal injuries that ATDs cannot, making them valuable tools for future vehicle safety development. This study uses a sled CAE simulation environment to analyze the kinematics of the HBMs model in a frontal crash scenario. The methodology includes the initial correlation of Hybrid III CAE simulation results with physical sled test data, followed by a comparative analysis with GHBMC M50-O v6-2 based simulations. A significant difference was observed in pelvic forward displacement between the Hybrid III and GHBMC M50-O v6-2. The difference in interaction originates from the difference in the construction of the pelvis between the Hybrid III and GHBMC. In the GHBMC, reduced displacement occurs because the pelvis locks in the seat. This interaction is absent in ATDs, resulting in increased torso rotation and a potential rise in upper extremity injury risk for HBMs. The study examines the various reasons for pelvic locking and increased upper body rotation. These evaluations aim to raise the negative consequences of pelvic locking on upper extremity injuries. The probable solutions that can reduce pelvis locking while preserving occupant stability is also discussed. The study highlights the significance of HBMs in understanding occupant interactions and supports their use in the development of next-generation restraint systems.
Raj, Pavan, Rao, Guruprakash, Pendurthi, Chaitanya Sagar, Nehe, Vaibhav, Chavan, Avinash
Optimization of Frontal Impact Force Scheme to Accelerate the Target Setting Process for Development of Front-End Structures in Vehicles2026-26-00011/16/2026
A passenger vehicle's front-end structure's structural integrity and crashworthiness are crucial to ensure compliance with various frontal impact safety standards (such as those set by Euro NCAP & IIHS). For a new front-end architecture, design targets must be defined at a component level for crush cans, longitudinal, bumper beam, subframe, suspension tower and backup structure. The traditional process of defining these targets involves multiple sensitivity studies in CAE. This paper explores the implementation of Physics-Informed Neural Networks (PINNs) in component-level target setting. PINNs integrate the governing equations into neural network training, enabling data-driven models to adhere to fundamental mechanical principles. The underlying physics in our model is based upon a force scheme of a full-frontal impact. A force scheme is a one-dimensional representation of the front-end structure components that simplifies a crash event's complex physics. It uses the dimensional and positional parameters of the components, along with their force-displacement curves, to estimate the vehicle's crash pulse. In this work, we have implemented PINNs to generate an optimized force scheme using the historical CAE test data. Using this approach promises to cut short the time and cost that goes into the conventional process of target setting.
Gupta, Ishan, Bhatnagar, Abhinav, Kumar, Ayush
A Procedure for Validation of a Full e-Vehicle CAE Model with Physical Tests for Passive Safety Applications2026-26-04111/16/2026
With the fast development of computational analysis tools and capacities during the past ten years, complex and substantial computer-aided engineering (CAE) simulations are now economically possible. While the cost of crash tests has risen steadily, the fidelity and complexity, which numerical simulations could address, has multiplied keeping the cost of computational analysis more stable. The fundamental goal of CAE is to achieve significant reduction in the number of physical tests conducted during the product development process. However, validating the CAE model with physical tests is essential to ensure accuracy and reliability. Simulations performed using a validated CAE model could be used to make decisions like airbag deployment or high voltage shutdown without an actual physical test being conducted. This paper discusses validating an electric commercial vehicle CAE model during a side impact thus emphasizing the safety of a high voltage battery system. The critical parameters considered for fine-tuning the CAE model are discussed. The qualitative comparison looks at global displacement of the vehicle, local deformations and failure of the structural components. The acceleration time histories measured from different locations of the test vehicle are compared with the same obtained from the CAE simulation for quantitative correlation. While most of the quantitative comparison metrics are limited to time domain, this paper discusses a time, frequency and time-frequency domain comparison of the acceleration curves measured from test and CAE. The qualitative and quantitative comparison of the results shows the correlation level of the CAE simulation with the physical test outcome.
Upendran, Anoop, Knuth, Joseph, Krishnappa, Giri, Punnaiappan, Arunsankar
Characterization and Material Card Calibration of PU Foam Under Various Strain Rates for Crash Simulation2026-26-04641/16/2026
PU foam shows a excellent energy absorbing dissipation properties during impact load so it commonly used in car seats, cabin and crash protection system. Specifically, in vehicle seats PU foams play a critical role in protecting occupants during crash scenarios by absorbing energy, distributing forces, and improving seatbelt performance, additionally providing countermeasures for head impact protection. The movement of the seat and the direction of the force during crash testing are highly unpredictable. The material behaviour of PU foam is captured using an isotropic, hyper-elasticity-based constitutive model available in LS-DYNA through MAT_083. This model is designed to take into account the foam's compressibility, sensitivity to strain rates, low Poisson's ratio, and hysteresis. The characterization of a PU foam with a nominal density of 65 kg/m3 was performed using quasi-static compressive testing of 0.01/s and dynamic compressive testing of 1/s,13/s, 120/s, as well as a quasi-static tensile test of 0.01/s. The material response data were used to calibrate the LS-DYNA foam model MAT-FU CHANG FOAM MAT-083. Calibration of the LS-DYNA material card (*MAT_FU_CHAN_FOAM MAT-083) was performed using coupon-level test data. The goal was to accurately simulate the foam's behaviour under varying strain rate conditions and extract the deformation pattern. Finally, the simulations were conducted with the same geometry and loading conditions as the experimental setup. The performance of the material card was validated by comparing simulation results with experimental data, demonstrating its ability to replicate foam behaviour under crash conditions.
Gaurav, Ashish Kumar, Krishnamoorthy, Kunju, Varatharajan, Senthilkumaran
Alloy Wheel Rim Linear Crash Validation with Bench Level Test Procedure2026-26-05741/16/2026
Crash test plays a very crucial role in determining the passenger safety along with driver safety in most modern vehicles. This has become a prominent factor for many buyers to choose a safe car. During crash test, many components tend to fail. Amongst them, the major safety critical component which hampers the drivability of a vehicle is Wheel and Tyre Assembly. With the introduction of low aspect tyres, the failure rate of these assemblies has increased. A very high importance is given to ensure these parts withstand the subject load as it is directly related to function of vehicle. Many methods are available to test the Wheel and Tyre assembly to ensure they pass the crash criteria. We have developed a novel test method which can simulate the crash pattern in the rig/bench level. The method employs a mechanical actuator which can be operated at designated load application to ensure the assembly undergoes the anticipated failure. The process is repeated with different types of contact surfaces along with different tyre pressures to ensure all evaluation criteria which are observed at vehicle level are captured and translated to rig level. We have used two different types of contact surfaces which are designed and developed exclusively for this test procedure. The results of these tests are used as benchmark to evaluate the new assemblies. In conclusion, the main advantage with this test procedure is one can predict the crash failure at rig level rather than going to vehicle level test which in turn reduces the cost of vehicle building and testing. Once the failure is predicted at component level corrective actions can be initiated and design improved components can be used for vehicle level test. This will not only help in reducing the lead time as well as improve the safety of the overall vehicle.
Medaboyina, HarshaVardhan, Singh, Ram Krishnan, Sundaram, Raghupathi, Jithendhar, Ashokan
Analysis of Road Accident Statistics for Females in India and Gaps in Safety Regulations2026-26-00201/16/2026
This paper investigates the current state of road safety for female occupants in India, with a particular focus on road accident statistics and the gaps in safety regulations. According to the Road Accident in India 2022 report by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH), female occupants constitute 16% of passenger car fatalities. Using a extensive dataset of 596 passenger car accidents involving at least one female occupant from the Road Accident Sampling System – India (RASSI), this study evalu the severity and patterns of injuries sustained by female drivers and passengers. The analysis identifies critical shortcomings in existing safety measures, particularly in addressing anatomical differences and male-centric safety designs. Gender-sorted injury trends reveal heightened vulnerabilities for women in crash scenarios. Current regulatory frameworks bank on crash test dummies developed on average male anthropometry, neglecting female-specific biomechanical needs in seatbelt fit, airbag deployment, and injury mitigation. Key gaps include the absence of standardized female-representative crash test dummies and insufficient anthropometric data on Indian women, which compromise the effectiveness of safety systems. To address these issues, the paper advocates for systematic gender-sorted data collection and integration of female-centric dummies in crash testing protocols. Policy recommendations emphasize the urgent need for gender-sensitive regulations and targeted anthropometric research to align safety measures with the physiological diversity of occupants. These steps are vital to reducing disparities in injury outcomes and promoting equitable road safety for women in India.
Ayyagari, Chandrashekhar, G, Santhosh Kumar, Rao, Guruprakash
Geometrical Assessment of the Curtain Airbag Coverage in Indian Passenger Vehicles2026-26-00211/16/2026
Curtain airbags are the most effective protective systems to prevent severe/fatal head injuries in side collisions with narrow objects such as poles or trees. One of the important parameters of curtain airbags is the inflated zone i.e. the coverage area of the airbag, which decides the extent of head protection for occupants with different anthropometries in different seating rows. EuroNCAP first introduced the concept of Head Protection Device Assessment (HPDA) in 2015., In addition to the performance requirements in the dynamic test, EuroNCAP started assessing the deployed curtain airbag/s for its area coverage and verification of inflated zones for various anthropometries over occupant rows. In India, there is now a near total adoption of curtain airbags as standard fitment by the OEMs. Further, introduction of Bharat NCAP (BNCAP), a Perpendicular Pole Side Impact test is conducted for assessing the effectiveness of curtain airbags in a dynamic test, but currently, does not perform the HPD assessment. The paper studies the Head Protection Device/Curtain Airbags offered in Passenger Vehicles in India w.r.t. the Head Protection Device Geometric Assessment (HPDA). This assessment analyses the effectiveness of curtain airbags present in Indian passenger vehicles for protection of occupants of different anthropometries. The study is conducted on the vehicles that have been tested at ARAI and are also currently under sale in the Indian market.
Jaju, Divyan, Kulkarni, Dileep, Mahajan, Rahul
Q-Series Child Dummy FE Model Development and Validation for Child Occupant Safety Assessment in Automotive Crashes2026-26-03901/16/2026
The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH), Government of India, has established BHARAT NCAP to provide a fair, meaningful, and objective assessment of the crash safety performance of cars. This program evaluates vehicles across three key areas, including Child Occupant Protection (COP). A critical component of the COP assessment involves dynamic testing using Q-series child dummies representing a 1½-year-old (Q1.5) and a 3-year-old child (Q3). As per the BHARAT NCAP protocol, these dummies are placed in the second-row outboard seating position within Child Restraint Systems (CRSs) and subjected to two primary dynamic impact tests: Offset Deformable Barrier (ODB) conducted at a speed of 64 km/hr. and Mobile Deformable Barrier (MDB) Side Impact tests conducted at 50 km/hr. The dynamic assessment of these child dummies is primarily focused on the head, neck, and chest regions to evaluate the effectiveness of the CRSs and overall vehicle safety system in protecting young occupants during crash events. This assessment provides crucial information to consumers regarding the safety of vehicles for child occupants and helps them towards decision-making to buy a vehicle. The finite element (FE) models of Q dummies are extensively used in the development, evaluation, optimization, and prototyping of the restraint system concepts. To ensure the accuracy of these models under dynamic impact tests, Humanetics Q dummy models are further validated through additional component, assembly, and full-body tests in addition to certification requirements. This paper presents these additional validations of Q dummies, with a focus on improving response accuracy in critical body regions. The validations were performed under frontal and side impact loading conditions to strengthen the predictability of head and upper torso kinematics exhibited during dynamic impact tests. These enhancements increase confidence in the dummies’ ability to reliably predict child occupant injuries in NCAP crash scenarios.
Khopekar, Maria, Lakshminarayana, Apoorva, Mohan, Pradeep, Kurkuri, Mahendra
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