Browse Topic: Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)

Items (4,289)

Achieving Lagrangian-esque Fuel Mass Tracking in an Eulerian Frame of Reference CFD Diesel Engine Simulation

2025-01-8358

04/01/2025

Diesel combustion is a highly heterogeneous process in which the fuel must undergo several sub-processes after injection in order to release its heat through combustion. Prior to evaporation, computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulations track the injected fuel mass using a Lagrangian frame of reference to determine the pathlines of the liquid fuel in the gaseous environment. However, after evaporation, when the fuel mass becomes part of the working fluid, it is no longer tracked in a Lagrangian reference frame as it undergoes its mixing and combustion processes. To gain deeper insights into the diesel combustion process, a methodology is proposed to track the evolution of fuel mass packets while in the gaseous state attaining a Lagrangian-esque description of the fuel’s evolution. This is achieved using the commercially available capabilities in Convergent Science’s CFD package, without requiring user-defined functions. The methodology is applied to a heavy-duty diesel engine and

Gohn, James, Kumar, Mohit, Gainey, Brian, Lawler, Benjamin

Research on Composite Braking Strategy of Pure Electric Commercial Vehicle on Downhill Low-Adhesion Road Considering Rainfall Intensity

2025-01-8813

04/01/2025

As a distributed wire control brake system, the electro-mechanical brake (EMB) may face challenges due to the need to integrate the actuator in the limited space beside the wheel. During extended downhill braking, especially on wet roads with reduced adhesion, the EMB must operate at high intensity. The significant heat generated by friction can lead to thermal deformation of components, such as the lead screw, compromising braking stability. This paper focuses on pure electric light trucks and proposes a tandem composite braking method. This approach uses an eddy current retarder (ECR) or motor to provide basic braking torque, while the EMB supplies the dynamic portion of the braking torque, thereby alleviating the braking pressure on the EMB. First, a driver model, tire model, motor model, and braking models are developed based on the vehicle's longitudinal dynamics. In addition, the impact of various factors, such as rainfall intensity, road slope, ramp length and vehicle speed, on

Liu, Wang, Zhang, Yu, Xiao, Hongbiao, Shen, Leiming

Data-driven Modeling and Control Framework for Multi-Fuel Compression-Ignition Engines

2025-01-8349

04/01/2025

Controlling the combustion phasing of a multi-fuel compression ignition engine in varying ambient conditions, such as low temperature and pressure, is a challenging problem. Traditionally, engine control is achieved by performing experiments on the engine and building calibration maps. As the number of operating conditions increase, this becomes an arduous task, and model-based controllers have been used to overcome this challenge. While high-fidelity models accurately describe the combustion characteristics of an engine, their complexity limits their direct use for controller development. In recent years, data-driven models have gained much attention due to the available computation power and ease of model development. The accuracy of the developed models, which, in turn, dictates the controller’s performance, depends on the dataset used for building them. Several actuators are required to achieve reliable combustion across different operating conditions, and obtaining extensive

Govind Raju, Sathya Aswath, Sun, Zongxuan, Kim, Kenneth, Kweon, Chol-Bum

CFD Modeling of Elastomeric Silicone Material Dispensing to Enable Equipment Design & Optimization for Efficient Automotive Manufacturing

2025-01-8318

04/01/2025

In the automotive industry, it is essential to consider not only how well specialty materials perform and are formulated, but also how efficiently and economically they can be applied during manufacturing. This becomes especially important during the early stages of development to prevent issues when these materials are used in new designs by automotive suppliers or manufacturers. With the rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs), new materials are being used more frequently, and these materials may not have been as thoroughly tested as those used in traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Therefore, it is crucial to ensure that these materials can be applied correctly and efficiently from the start. One way to speed up the development process is through Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling. CFD helps predict how materials will behave when dispensed, which is essential for developing the right equipment and conditions for applying these materials. Working with

Kenney, J. Andy, Delgado, Roberto, Hossain, Arif, Ng, Sze-Sze, Thomas, Ryan, Chyasnavichyus, Marius, Tsang, Chi-Wei, Hwang, Margaret, Wu, Lance, Dietsche, Laura, Mcmichael, Jonathan, Raines, Kevin, Nelson, Grant

A Novel Method for Evaluating on-Road Drag Changes Using Constant Power Measurements

2025-01-8764

04/01/2025

This paper introduces a new approach for measuring changes in drag force across different vehicle configurations using an on-road testing technique. The method involves fixing the vehicle’s power across configurations and then measuring the resulting speed differences. A detailed formulation is provided on how these speed variations can be used to calculate the change in drag force for each configuration. The OBD II port is used to access and record additional data necessary for the calculations. The method is applied to both a passenger car and a commercial van to evaluate drag changes for different vehicle add-ons. A roof sign was installed at various positions along the roof of the vehicles to assess drag increases, while novel rear appendages were fitted to both vehicles to evaluate the resulting drag reductions. Detailed CFD simulations were performed on the road-tested configurations to compare the simulated drag changes with those measured on the road. Excellent agreement was

Connolly, Michael Gerard, Ivankovic, Alojz, O'Rourke, Malachy J.

3D Modeling of Thermal Runaway in Pouch Cells: Effects of Surface Heating and Heating Rates

2025-01-8559

04/01/2025

Thermal runaway in battery cells presents a critical safety concern, emphasizing the need for a thorough understanding of thermal behavior to enhance battery safety and performance. This study introduces a newly developed AutoLion 3D thermal runaway model, which builds on the earlier AutoLion 1D framework and offers significantly faster computational performance compared to traditional CFD models. The model is validated through simulations of the heat-wait-search mode of the Accelerating Rate Calorimeter (ARC), accurately predicting thermal runaway by matching experimental temperature profiles from peer-reviewed studies. Once validated, the model is employed to investigate the thermal behavior of 3D LFPO cells under controlled heating conditions, applying heat to one or more surfaces at a time while modeling heat transfer from non-heated surfaces. The primary objective is to understand how these localized heating patterns impact temperature profiles, including average core temperatures

Hariharan, Deivanayagam, Gundlapally, Santhosh

Battery Thermal Runaway Propagation: A CFD Approach to Cell and Module Analysis

2025-01-8164

04/01/2025

This Paper will focus on simulating thermal runaway propagation within a battery cell and module. The thermal runaway model parameters are derived from accelerating rate calorimeter (ARC). The simulation involves a thermal runaway propagation model that converts the stored energy of the battery materials into thermal energy, thereby simulating the propagation of thermal runaway. The initiation of thermal runaway is modelled through a nail penetration event, represented by a heat profile in the nail region. The resulting temperature rise in this area triggers the short propagation model, leading to the spread of thermal runaway. For the single-cell simulation, the 1-equation thermal runaway model is used, focusing on the direct energy conversion and propagation within the cell. In contrast, the module simulation involves a more complex scenario. Here, an initial temperature rise near the nail region activates a short propagation model, which subsequently triggers the 4-equation thermal

Wakale, Anil, Ma, Shihu, Hu, Xiao

Numerical Model of the Heat-Wait and Seek and Heating Ramp Protocol for the Prediction of Thermal Runaway in Lithium-Ion Batteries

2025-01-8127

04/01/2025

Interest in Battery-Driven Electric Vehicles (EVs) has significantly grown in recent years due to the decline of traditional Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs). However, malfunctions in Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) can lead to catastrophic results such as Thermal Runaway (TR), posing serious safety concerns due to their high energy release and the emission of flammable gases. Understanding this phenomenon is essential for reducing risks and mitigating its effects. In this study, a digital twin of an Accelerated Rate Calorimeter (ARC) under a Heat-Wait-and-Seek (HWS) procedure is developed using a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) framework. The CFD model simulates the heating of the cell during the HWS procedure, pressure build-up within the LIB, gas venting phenomena, and the exothermic processes within the LIB due to the degradation of internal components. The model is validated against experimental results for an NCA 18650 LIB under similar conditions, focusing on LIB temperature

Gil, Antonio, Monsalve-Serrano, Javier, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Guaraco-Figueira, Carlos

Aeroacoustic Noise Prediction of Passenger Car HVAC by Using CFD and Validation with Test Result

2025-01-8629

04/01/2025

The advancement of automotive industry demand compact size of HVAC with better cabin comfort. To achieve this, HVAC has to be optimized in all the aspects such as in shape & size, thermal comfort as well as in noise comfort. from an HVAC perspective, aeroacoustics noise is more significant due to its intensity at higher speeds and frequencies. Since HVAC is mounted inside the cabin, noise can transfer directly inside cabin. To avoid this, noise reduction or noise controlling is of very important. This is possible with HVAC design and simulation at the initial level and acoustic prediction after the CFD/CAA analysis. The present paper describes the aeroacoustic simulation of one of the HVAC to predict the noise during face mode. For that, 1-D simulation has been done initially to find the porosity of heat exchangers and coupled with a CFD solver. STAR CCM+ software is used for the CFD analysis. Transient simulation is performed with compressible fluid using a moving mesh approach. To

Kame, Shubham, Parayil, Paulson, Goel, Arunkumar

Multiscale Modeling and Validation of Thermal Runaway Propagation in Immersion-Cooled Battery Systems with Full-Scale Application

2025-01-8166

04/01/2025

Thermal management is a key challenge in the design and operation of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), particularly in high-stress conditions that may lead to thermal runaway (TR). Immersion cooling technology provides a promising solution by offering uniform cooling across all battery cells, reducing the risk of hotspots and thermal gradients that can trigger TR. However, accurately modeling the thermal behavior of such systems, especially under the complex conditions of immersion cooling, presents significant challenges. This study introduces a comprehensive multiscale and Multiphysics modeling framework to analyze thermal runaway and its propagation (TRP) in battery systems cooled by immersion in dielectric fluids. The model integrates both 1D and 3D simulations, focusing on calibrating energy terms at the single-cell level using 3D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The calibration process includes a detailed analysis of cell chemistries, exothermic heat release, and thermal runaway

Negro, Sergio, Tyagi, Ramavtar, Kolaei, Amir, Pugsley, Kyle, Atluri, Prasad

Intebrake 3-D CFD Transient Simulation Studies for Predicting Flow Performance

2025-01-8362

04/01/2025

This paper presents transient, complex, moving mesh, 3-D CFD analysis of an intebrake lubrication oil circuit for predicting flow performance. Intebrake is a mechanism for improving braking performance during over speeding conditions. The mechanism briefly opens the exhaust valve at the end of a compression stroke with a small valve lift and releases the compressed gases, thereby helping in quick application of the brake. There is no fueling during the process and hence, no combustion induced pressure rise which helps in quick application of the brake. During the intebrake operation, opening of the exhaust valve is achieved by using a complex lube oil circuit inside the exhaust rocker lever. The intebrake lube oil circuit consists of various spring-operated valves with micro-sized clearances, high oil pressure generation up to ~ 250 bar, 3-D movement of the mechanism components, and it is a transient operation. The 3-D movement consists of simultaneous rotational and translational

Tawar, Ranjit Ramchandra, Pasunurthi, Shyam Sundar, Bedekar, Sanjeev, Ranganathan, Raj

Development of a Detailed Ignition Model with Energy Deposition and its Application to Full Engine Simulation

2025-01-8360

04/01/2025

A multi-dimensional model of the spark ignition process for SI engines was developed as a user-defined function (UDF) integrated into the commercial engine simulation software CONVERGE CFD. The model presented in this paper simulates energy deposition from the ignition circuit into the fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder. The model is based on interaction and collision between electrons in the plasma arc and the gas molecules inside the cylinder using parameters from the ignition circuit and gas inside the cylinder. Full engine simulations using CONVERGE CFD with the developed ignition model including the ignition circuit model, arc propagation model, and energy deposition model were performed to evaluate the validity and performance of the model and to compare with the ignition model provided by CONVERGE CFD. A low turbulent port fuel injected single-cylinder CFR engine was used for comparison. Continuous multi-cycle RANS simulations showed cycle-to-cycle variations. The range of the

Kim, Kyeongmin, Hall, Matthew, Joshi, Sachin, Matthews, Ron

Comprehensive Prediction of Deposit Formation in SCR Systems Using Integrated 1D Heat Transfer Model with Empirical Data from 3D CFD Simulations

2025-01-8491

04/01/2025

Urea-based selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems are widely used to meet stringent NOx emission standards in industrial diesel engines. However, suboptimal design of the urea-water solution (UWS) mixing pipes in SCR systems can lead to the formation of urea-derived solid deposits, which may adversely affect the system performance and reliability. Although recent advancements in deposit simulation technology using three-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (3D CFD) have significantly improved the performance and compactness of mixing pipes, assessing deposit formation across all operating and environmental conditions remains challenging due to high simulation costs. This study introduces a novel computational method for predicting the formation and temperature of permanent liquid films from UWS injection which are closely related to deposit formation, along with new deposit evaluation criteria based on them. This proposed method integrates a one-dimensional heat transfer model

Sugimoto, Kazuma, Kawabe, Ken

Gasoline Particulate Filter Modeling with Catalytic Washcoat and Ash Accumulation and Transient Soot Distribution Prediction

2025-01-8483

04/01/2025

The upcoming EURO 7 and EPA Tier 4 regulations and the possible China 7 are expected to tighten the tailpipe particulate emissions limits significantly. High performance Gasoline Particulate Filters (GPFs) with high filtration efficiency and low pressure drop would be mandated for gasoline engines to meet these stringent regulations. Due to packaging constraints, GPFs are often coated with three-way catalyst (TWC) materials to achieve four-way functionality. Ash accumulation in GPFs also has a significant impact on the performance of GPFs. This paper utilizes 3D CFD to predict the transient filtration efficiency and pressure drop of a washcoated GPF with ash accumulation during the soot loading process. Simulation results show a decent match with experimental data. The 3D CFD model also provides detailed information on soot penetration in the GPF wall substrate and soot cake characteristics on the wall. These information can be crucial for GPF wall substrate design and washcoating

Yang, Pengze, Cheng, Zhen

Automatic Generation of HVAC Ducting System Designs Using Topology and Shape Optimization

2025-01-8656

04/01/2025

In this paper, the topology and shape optimization of a vehicle Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system is presented. The CFD and optimization methodologies are implemented within AcuSolve™ software. The topology optimization algorithm computes the geometry, where the design domain is parameterized with a field of porosity design variables which indicates the material, fluid or solid, throughout the domain. The optimization is performed using the continuous adjoint approach by the Galerkin Least Squares solver on which the AcuSolve™ solver is based. The design is further improved by using shape optimization. To optimize the geometrical shape, a combination of smooth perturbations, in terms of so called morph shapes, are used to deform the geometrical shape in the optimization algorithm. To this end, a parameterization of the design space is done using a moderate number of design variables, each associated with a morph shape. The two optimization phases are connected by

Papadimitriou, Dimitrios, Sandboge, Robert

Consideration of Factors Influencing Blockage Corrections for Road Vehicles in Closed Jet Wind Tunnels

2025-01-8771

04/01/2025

Experimental studies of wind tunnel blockage for road vehicles have usually been conducted in model wind tunnels. Models have been made in a range of scales and tested in a working section of fixed size. More recently CFD studies of blockage have been undertaken, which allow a fixed vehicle size and the blockage is varied by changing the cross section of the flow domain. This has some inherent advantages. A very recent database of CFD derived drag and lift coefficients for different road vehicle shapes and simple bodies tested in a closed wall tunnel with a wide range of blockage ratios has become available and provides some additional insight into the blockage phenomenon. In this paper a process is developed to derive the parameters influencing wind tunnel blockage corrections from CFD data. These are shown to be reasonably effective for correcting the measured drag and lift coefficients at blockage ratios up to 10%.

Howell, Jeff, Butcher, Daniel, Gleason, Mark

3D Drive Unit - Pump Coupled Model to Predict Line Pressures during Vehicle Manoeuvres

2025-01-8623

04/01/2025

The drive unit, primarily consisting of an electric motor and a gearbox, needs to be cooled and lubricated for its long life and efficient performance. In an extreme drive cycle condition, the pickup tube to the pump may get exposed to air, leading to a substantial loss in line pressure and a drop in oil flow rate to the subsystems. An advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation can provide insights into the oil delivery system and help in improving the oil sump design, optimizing the position of the pickup tube to the pump and oil delivery lines. The current study employs a Volume of Fluid (VOF) based multiphase model implemented in a commercial CFD solver, Simerics-MP+. The drive unit lubrication system considered in the study consists of a gerotor pump, the entire oil delivery lines to the two subsystems and the drive unit casing. A multiphase simulation of the system with transient operation of the pump is computationally expensive. Therefore, a new methodology is

Joe, Erin Sam, Schlautman, Jeff, Manne, Venkata Harish Babu, Srinivasan, Chiranth, Pasunurthi, Shyam Sundar

Research on the Thermal Performance of Thick Film Heater for Electric Vehicle Battery

2025-01-8154

04/01/2025

A specific thick film heater (TFH) for electric vehicles is investigaed in this study, and its three dimensional heat tansfer analysis model is estab-lished. The heat transfer and fluid performance of the TFH is analyzed using a computational fluid dynamics soft-ware. The performance of TFH is measured on a test bench, and the measured data is used to validate the developed model. Using the established model, the heating efficiency of TFH is studied for different inlet temperatures and flow rates, and the influence of the fin spoiler structure on TFH heating efficiency and the heating board temperature is investigated. The result indicates that the spoiler structure has a large effect on the board heating temperature, but has little effect on the heating efficiency. An orthogonal experimental design method is used to optimize the design of the fins and water channels, and the purpose is to reduce the board heating temperature for preventing over burning. Under the 25°C inlet

Guan, Wenzhe, Guo, Yiming, Wu, Xiaoyong, Wang, Dongdong, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Flow and Heat Transfer Performance Analysis of Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger in Electric Vehicles

2025-01-8157

04/01/2025

In driving condition, the electric drive system of electric vehicles generates significant heat, which increases temperature of the motor, leading to reduced performance and energy loss. To manage the motor temperature and recover energy, a plate-fin heat exchanger (PFHE) is used to facilitate heat exchange between the electric drive system and the vehicle's thermal management system. In this study, Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method was used to investigate the fin structure on thermal flow performance within the PFHE. The mathematical models of pressure drop and heat transfer of plate-fin heat exchanger are established in this paper, and an empirical formula for the friction factor was derived by using test data. The NTU method was applied to fit the formula of convective heat transfer coefficient, enabling the derivation of an empirical formula for the Colburn factor. A CFD simulation model was developed for a local heat exchange unit, considering the generic boundary

Yin, Jintai, Yin, Zhihong, Lu, Xuan, Wang, Mengmeng, Liu, Qian

The Effect of Rotor Notches on Air Gap Heat Transfer Coefficient and Electromagnetic Performance in a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor for Traction Applications

2025-01-8143

04/01/2025

This study investigates the impact of various notch geometries on the outer surface of the rotor of an interior permanent magnet synchronous motor intended for traction applications, focusing on improving both its thermal and electromagnetic performances. Traditional motor cooling methods, such as water jackets or oil spray/impingement, typically target the stator and/or end windings, neglecting rotor cooling. As a result, the dissipation of the heat from the rotor is dependent on the heat transfer across the air gap surrounding the rotor, despite air’s poor thermal conductivity, which causes it to act as an insulator. Rotor notches are used to limit the higher order harmonics from air gap flux density which results in decreased torque ripple, cogging torque, noise, and vibration of the machine. While the effect of rotor notches on electromagnetic performance is analyzed, their impact on the thermal management of the motor, particularly the heat transfer coefficient in the air gap

Zajac, Arthur, De Silva, Buddhika, Lee, Sun, Mistry, Jigar, Nasirizarandi, Reza, Jianu, Ofelia, Kar, Narayan

Artificial Intelligence Approach for Fuel Cell Model Parameter Calibration

2025-01-8632

04/01/2025

Electrochemical model of a fuel cell involves several parameters which influence its polarization curve. For a numerical fuel cell model to match experimental polarization curve, it is critical to find the right values of these parameters. It is hard to find the values of all the parameters experimentally, and hence parameter calibration is required. A fully automated workflow for calibration of fuel cell model parameters in a three-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) simulation is created. The CFD model captures detailed electrochemistry and water phase change. The CFD polarization curve is generated by sequentially running a series of simulations starting from low current densities to high current densities. Experimental polarization curve is used as the validation target. An objective function is defined as the L2 norm of the difference between the experimental and the CFD generated polarization curve measured at various current densities. For calibration, eight fuel cell

Champhekar, Omkar, Janakiraman, Arun, Gondipalle, Sreekanth, Ajotikar, Nikhil, Zehr, Randall

Consistent Drag Prediction with CFD for a Vehicle with Bimodal Wake Cycling

2025-01-8766

04/01/2025

The vehicle wake region is of high importance when analyzing the aerodynamic performance of a vehicle. It is characterized by turbulent separated flow and large low-pressure regions that contribute significantly to drag. In some cases, the wake region can oscillate between different modes which can pose an engineering challenge during vehicle development. Vehicles that exhibit bimodal wake behavior need to have their drag values recorded over a sufficient time period to take into account the low frequency shift in drag signal, therefore, simulating such vehicle configurations in CFD could consume substantial CPU hours resulting in an expensive and inefficient vehicle design iterations process. As an alternative approach to running simulations for long periods of time, the impact of adding artificial turbulence to the inlet on wake behavior and its potential impact on reduced runtime for design process is investigated in this study. By adding turbulence to the upstream flow, the wake

DeMeo, Michael, Parenti, Guido, Martinez Navarro, Alejandro, Shock, Richard, Fougere, Nicolas, Razi, Pooyan, Oliveira, Danilo, Lindsey, Craig, Yu, Chenxing, Breglia Sales, Flavio

Thermal Simulation of Ball Bearing in Electric Drive Unit: A CFD Study Using Volume of Fluid and Mixed Timescale Coupled Conjugate Heat Transfer Analysis

2025-01-8178

04/01/2025

The drive unit of electric vehicles is a complex system consisting of an electric motor and a gear train, which work together to provide the necessary power for vehicle propulsion. One essential component within this system is the ball bearing, which supports the rotating components such as gears and shafts. This study focuses on the thermal simulation of a ball bearing within the drive unit conducted using the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method coupled with mixed timescale Conjugate Heat Transfer (CHT) in Simerics-MP+ to reduce the computational time while ensuring accuracy in the analysis. The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) approach considers the geometrical details and clearances of the inner race, outer race, cage, and ball within the ball bearing. By accounting for the relative motions between these components, it can accurately model the film formation of the lubricating oil and its impact on heat removal from the bearing. The simulations are conducted at two different shaft speeds

Ballani, Abhishek, Motin, Abdul, Dhar, Sujan, Ganamet, Alain, Maiti, Dipak, Ranganathan, Raj, Pandey, Ashutosh

Numerical Investigation on Motorsport Overtake Manoeuvre in Crosswind Conditions

2025-01-8773

04/01/2025

Existing technical literature has primarily focused on the upstream wake effects of single-seater race cars during overtaking, often neglecting the critical factor: crosswinds. This study presents a quantitative computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis of how crosswinds impact the aerodynamic loads of interacting race car models during an overtake manoeuvre. For numerical validation purposes, a wind tunnel experimental campaign was carried out on a 35%-scale hill climb race car model to evaluate aerodynamic forces and wake pressure mappings at different ride heights. RANS-based simulations were performed to assess the impact of crosswinds (β = 2°, 6°, 10°) on an isolated race car. Subsequently, a quasi-static approach was used to quantify the effect of crosswind (β = 10°) on an overtaking car under different path strategies. The findings indicated that the overtaking car's performance remained largely stable when a driver opts for overtake paths against the crosswind direction (i.e

Makhija, Jai, Soares, Renan F.

Design Parameter Impact of Wind-Averaged Drag Optimization

2025-01-8772

04/01/2025

With the increasing prevalence of electric vehicles (EVs), decreasing vehicle drag is of upmost importance, as range is a primary consideration for customers and has a direct bearing on the cost of the vehicle. While the relationship between drag and range is well understood, there exists a discrepancy between the label range and the real-world range experienced by customers. One of the factors influencing the difference is the ambient wind condition that modifies the resultant air speed and yaw angle, which is typically minimized during SAE coast-down testing. The following study implements a singular wind-averaged drag (WAD) coefficient which is derived from a 3-point yaw curve to show the impact of yaw as compared to the zero-yaw condition. This leads to an interesting dilemma for the vehicle aerodynamicist: whether to optimize the vehicle's exterior shape for low wind (zero yaw) conditions or for real-world conditions where the ambient wind generally produces a few degrees of yaw

Kaminski, Meghan, D'Hooge, Andrew, Borton, Zackery

Effects of Jet Caps on Hydrogen Piezoelectric Injectors for DI Applications: Experiments and 3D-CFD Simulations

2025-01-8454

04/01/2025

The adoption of hydrogen as a sustainable replacement for fossil fuels is pushing the development of internal combustion engines (ICEs) to overcome the technical limitations related to its usage. Focusing on the fuel injector in a DI configuration, it must guarantee several targets such as the adequate delivery of hydrogen mass for the given operating condition and the proper mixture formation in the combustion chamber playing a primary role in reaching the target performance in H2-ICEs. Experimental campaigns and computational fluid dynamics simulations can be used as complementary tools to provide a deep understanding of the injector behaviour and to drive design modifications in a quick and effective way. In the present work an outward opening, piezo-actuated injector purposely designed to be fuelled with hydrogen is tested on several operating conditions to evaluate its performance in terms of delivered mass flow and jet morphology using the Schlieren imaging technique. To

Pavan, Nicolò, Cicalese, Giuseppe, Gestri, Luca, Fontanesi, Stefano, Breda, Sebastiano, Mechi, Marco, Vongher, Sara, Postrioti, Lucio, Buitoni, Giacomo, Martino, Manuel

3D CFD Analysis of Predicting Engine Blowby Considering Ring Dynamics

2025-01-8622

04/01/2025

This paper reports on the development of a simulation model to predict engine blowby flow rates for a common rail DI diesel engine. The model is a transient, three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. Managing blowby flow rates is beneficial for managing fuel economy and oil consumption. In doing so, an improved understanding of the blowby phenomenon is also possible. A mesh for the sub-micron level clearances (up to 0.5 microns) within the piston ring pack is created using a novel approach. Commercial CFD software is used to solve the pressure, velocity, and temperature distributions within the fluid domain. Ring motions within the piston grooves are predicted by a rigorous force balance. This model is the first of its kind for predicting engine blowby using a three-dimensional simulation model while solving the complete set of governing transport equations, without neglecting any terms in the equations. The predicted blowby flow rate has been validated with

Manne, Venkata Harish Babu, Bedekar, Sanjeev, Srinivasan, Chiranth, Das, Debasis, Ranganathan, Raj

Aerodynamic Simulation of a Parametrically Deformed Rotating Tire

2025-01-8765

04/01/2025

As the automotive industry increasingly shifts toward electrification, reducing vehicle drag becomes crucial for enhancing battery range and meeting consumer expectations. Additionally, recent regulations such as WLTP can require car manufacturers to provide reliable drag data for vehicles as they are configured, as is the case in Europe. Vehicle and tire manufacturers can assess tire impacts on vehicle performance through testing. However, to improve designs, it is essential to identify which tire features influence the flow field and overall vehicle performance. Physical tests measure tire behavior under load, but isolating contact patch and tire bulge effects is difficult, as both change together. Simulation allows independent analysis of these factors—something that physical testing alone cannot achieve. This paper investigates the aerodynamic impact of realistic tire deformation parameters—specifically, bulge and contact patch deformations—using PowerFLOW® from Dassault Systèmes

Martinez Navarro, Alejandro, Parenti, Guido, Shock, Richard

Design Optimization of Electro-Hydraulic Valve Performance Through Simulation and Experimental Methods

2025-01-8642

04/01/2025

The main purpose of the semi-active hydraulic damper (SAHD) is for optimizing vehicle control to improve safety, comfort, and dynamics without compromising the ride or handling characteristics. The SAHD is equipped with a fast-reacting electro-hydraulic valve to achieve the real time adjustment of damping force. The electro-hydraulic valve discussed in this paper is based on a valve concept called “Pilot Control Valve (PCV)”. One of the methods for desired force characteristics is achieved by tuning the hydraulic area of the PCV. This paper describes a novel development of PCV for practical semi-active suspension system. The geometrical feature of the PCV in the damper (valve face area) is a main contributor to the resistance offered by the damper. The hydraulic force acting on the PCV significantly impacts the overall performance of SAHD. To quantify the reaction force of the valve before and after optimization under different valve displacements and hydraulic pressures were simulated

Chintala, Paramesh, Hornby, Ryan

Research on Seakeeping Performance of Amphibious Rescue Vehicle Based on CFD

2025-01-8795

04/01/2025

Amphibious vehicles are widely used in civil and military scenarios due to their excellent driving performance in water and on land, unique application scenarios and rapid response capabilities. In the field of civil rescue, the hydrodynamic performance of amphibious vehicles directly affects the speed and accuracy of rescue, and is also related to the life safety of rescuers. In the existing research on the hydrodynamic performance of amphibious vehicles, seakeeping performance has always been the focus of research by researchers and amphibious vehicle manufacturers, but most of the existing research focuses on the navigation performance of amphibious vehicles in still water. In actual application scenarios, amphibious vehicles often face complex water conditions when performing emergency rescue tasks, so it is very important to study the navigation performance of amphibious vehicles in waves. Aiming at the goal of studying the navigation performance of amphibious vehicles in waves

Zhang, Yu

Investigation of the Blockage Phenomenon in Closed Wall Wind Tunnels During the Testing of Bluff Automotive Bodies with Large Wakes in Yawed Configurations

2025-01-8786

04/01/2025

The difficulties of testing a bluff automotive body of sufficient scale to match the on-road vehicle Reynolds number in a closed wall wind tunnel has led to many approaches being taken to adjust the resulting data for the inherent interference effects. But it has been very difficult to experimentally analyze the effects that are occurring on and around the vehicle when these blockage interferences are taking place. The present study is an extension of earlier works by the author and similarly to those studies uses the computational fluid dynamics analysis of three bodies that generate large wakes to examine the interference phenomena in solid wall wind tunnels and the effects that they have on the pressures, and forces experienced by the vehicle model when it is in yawed conditions up to 20 degrees. This is accomplished by executing a series of CFD configurations with varying sized cross sections from 0.4% to 14% blockage enabling an approximation of free air conditions as a reference

Gleason, Mark, Riegel, Eugen

Enhancing and Validating Numerical Models for Oil-Jet Cooing on Corrugated Surfaces of Electric Motor Windings

2025-01-8148

04/01/2025

The U.S. DRIVE Electrical and Electronics Technical Team has set a goal for 2025 to achieve a power density of 33 kW/L for electric vehicle (EV) motors [1]. The increase in motor power density is highly dependent on effective thermal management within the system, making active cooling techniques like oil-jet impingement essential for continued advancements. Due to the time and expense of physical experimentation, numerical simulations have become a preferred method for design testing and optimization. These simulations often simplify the motor-winding surface into a smooth cylinder, overlooking the actual corrugated surface due to windings, thus reducing computational resources and mesh complexity. However, the coil's corrugated surface affects flow turbulence and heat transfer rates. This study utilizes three-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to investigate the impingement-cooling of an Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) jet on a corrugated surface that

Mutyal, Jayesh Ramesh, Haghnegahdar, Ahmad, Gurunadhan, Mohana, Konangi, Santosh, Champhekar, Omkar

Computational Fluid Dynamics Analysis of Gearbox Churning Loss and Oil Splash Characteristics in Electric Vehicle Drive Units

2025-01-8182

04/01/2025

The efficient operation of electric vehicles (EVs) heavily relies on the proper lubrication of the E-drive unit components, particularly the transmission gears and bearings. Improper oil supply can lead to mechanical failures, while excessive oil can increase power loss due to churning. This study focuses on utilizing Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to analyze the impact of drive speed, oil level, and temperature on gear churning loss in E-drive units. The research also investigates the influence of a baffle plate on power loss and oil splash characteristics. The simulations, conducted using the volume of fluid (VOF) method in Simerics-MP+, consistently illustrate a reduction in power loss with rising oil temperature and reveal decreased gear churning loss with a baffle plate, especially under high-speed conditions, highlighting its potential for enhancing energy efficiency in EVs. Additionally, post-processing analysis of oil splash patterns sheds light on the

Kumar, P. Madhan, Motin, Abdul, Pandey, Ashutosh, Ganamet, Alain, Maiti, Dipak, Gao, Haiyang, Ranganathan, Raj

CFD-Based Performance Evaluation of Immersion Cooling Fluids for Lithium-Ion Battery Modules

2025-01-8163

04/01/2025

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are critical components in electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy systems. However, conventional cooling techniques for LIBs often struggle to efficiently dissipate heat during fast charging and discharging, potentially compromising performance and safety. This study investigates the thermal performance of immersion cooling applied to an Electric Vehicle (EV) battery module comprised of NCA-chemistry-based cylindrical 21700 format Lithium-ion cells. The effectiveness of immersion cooling in reducing maximum cell temperature, temperature gradient, cell-to-cell temperature differential, and pressure drop within the battery module is evaluated on a detailed 3D model of a 360-cell immersion-cooled battery module that was developed, incorporating a well-established heat generation model based on theoretical analysis and experimental data to simulate the thermal characteristics of the battery system. The effects of the different fluid properties are first

Garcia, Antonio, Micó, Carlos, Marco-Gimeno, Javier, Elkourchi, Imad

Reducing Temperature-Related Aging Inhomogeneities in Battery Modules Using a Switchable Thermal Management System

2025-01-8167

04/01/2025

The operating temperature of lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells significantly influences their degradation behavior. In indirect liquid cooling systems, temperature variations within a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) LIB module are inevitable due to the increasing downstream temperature of the cooling medium as it absorbs heat. This leads to reduced temperature differentials between the cooling medium and the LIB cells. As a result, LIB cells located further along the flow path experience higher average temperatures than those at the front. Typically, a maximum average cell temperature difference of 5 K within LIB modules is considered acceptable. However, results from a conventional cooling system indicate that, when fast charging is exclusively used, this can lead to a 15.5 % difference in the total ampere-hours passed before the End-of-Life (EOL) is reached for the front and back LIB cells. To address this issue, a switchable thermal management system for the traction battery is

Auch, Marcus, Weyershäuser, Konstantin, Kuthada, Timo, Wagner, Andreas

Numerical Investigation of Injector Cap Design on Hydrogen Jet Characteristics

2025-01-8463

04/01/2025

One of the most critical enablers of hydrogen internal combustion engines is achieving rapid injection and mixing of hydrogen into the combustion chamber. Optimal cap is actively being investigated to improve the injector performance without major hardware modifications. In this study, detailed computational fluid dynamics simulations using the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) turbulence model were undertaken to investigate the behavior of hydrogen jets with various cap designs mounted on a hollow-cone injector within a constant volume chamber. It was found that the implementation of a cap in general enhances mixture formation, leading to a higher proportion of lean mixture over time. Key parameters, such as the cap's inner volume and throat area ratio, directly influence the amount of hydrogen mass trapped within the cap. A smaller volume or larger throat area ratio results in less trapped hydrogen mass. Excessive enlargement of the cap's throat area can lead to a decrease in

Zaihi, Abdullah, Moreno Cabezas, Kevin, Liu, Xinlei, Ben Houidi, Moez, Wu, Hao, AlRamadan, Abdullah, Cenker, Emre, Mohan, Balaji, Roberts, William, Im, Hong

3D Virtual Simulations of Crankcase Dynamics for Oil Pan Aeration Analysis

2025-01-8361

04/01/2025

This research employs advanced Unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) simulations to analyze the transient multiphase flow dynamics within a four-cylinder inline (I-4) engine, with a focus on gas-liquid interface interactions and oil distribution phenomena. Utilizing a commercial three-dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software suite, the study incorporates detailed crankshaft rotational kinematics and piston reciprocation to accurately model oil drawdown and retention across various operational conditions. A Volume of Fluid (VOF) approach is applied to assess the impact of crankshaft rotational speeds of 5000 rpm and 6500 rpm on oil distribution and aeration in the oil pan. Comprehensive computational analyses characterize oil-air distribution patterns, quantify oil flow rates through drainback pipes, and elucidate bubble formation dynamics within the sump. The study also examines the relative contributions of crankshaft rotation, piston pumping, and balance

Godavarthi, Raghu Vamsee, Chen, Yung-Ming, Pandey, Ashutosh, Srinivasan, Chiranth

3D CHT Simulation of Oil-Cooled Electric Motors: A Comparative Study of Standard and Paperless Designs

2025-01-8181

04/01/2025

Conjugate heat transfer (CHT) analysis of electric motor cooling was performed, simulating both the standard and paperless stator designs, using the CFD software Simerics-MP+ to assess the predictive accuracy of the numerical simulations. The condition investigated involved the motor operating at 14,000 RPM. This high rotor speed was modeled using a novel hybrid approach for mesh rotation to make the problem more tractable. Oil and air, the two immiscible fluids, were modeled using the explicit interface-capturing Volume of Fluid (VOF) method. The traditional CHT approach is computationally expensive for electric motor cooling applications due to the heat transfer time scale differences between the fluid and the solid. Temperature changes in solids occur over a much slower time scale owning to their higher thermal inertia compared to fluids. Therefore, we model the fluid and solid domains separately and use a mixed-time scale approach to exchange the heat transfer data between them

Varghese, Joel, Schlautman, Jeff, Chen, Yawei, Bhunia, Srijohn, Srinivasan, Chiranth

Electric Vehicle Drive Unit Power Losses and Efficiency Estimation: A Coupled 1D Analytical and 3D CFD Approach for High Fidelity Prediction

2025-01-8522

04/01/2025

This study presents a sophisticated approach to accurately estimating the power losses in the electric vehicle drive unit (e-DU) through a combination of 1D analytical models and 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Understanding and accurately estimating these power losses is crucial for enhancing efficiency and range of electric vehicles (EV). The primary focus is on the types of power losses attributable to mechanical contact friction and oil drag within components such as gear meshes, bearings, and seals. The research specifically examines different analytical models for quantifying power losses due to gear mesh contact and bearing friction. These models were validated against experimental test data, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of their accuracy across a range of operational parameters. Additionally, the impact of oil properties and oil jet flow rates on power losses related to gear and bearing drag was analyzed using analytical methods and correlated with CFD

Motin, Abdul, Ganamet, Alain

Engine Crankcase, Oil Pan and Lube System Multiphase CFD Analysis for Predicting Oil Aeration

2025-01-8364

04/01/2025

This paper explains transient, computationally rigorous, three-dimensional and one-dimensional multiphase CFD analysis of engine oil drainback system and lubrication system for predicting aeration. Aeration of engine oil is an important factor as it affects working of Hydraulic Lash Adjusters, bearings performance and it reduces lube system pressure itself which is detrimental for the entire engine. In this work specifically effect of engine tilting on lube oil aeration is presented. When engine is tilted, crankshaft and connecting rod/s are dipped in to oil, which creates air bubbles. These air bubbles travel to lube pump and then to the engine lube system. Therefore, it is essential to model aeration in Engine crankcase, Oil pan and Lube system for the purpose of predicting oil pressure reduction in lube system. The problem under consideration is spread over a bigger zone, involves rotating and translating components, passage’s dimensions are varying from microns to meters and

Tawar, Ranjit Ramchandra, Bedekar, Sanjeev

Design of an Air-Liquid Coupled Thermal Management System for Battery Packs in Energy Storage Cabinets

2025-01-8168

04/01/2025

Efficient thermal management is essential for maintaining the performance and safety of large-capacity battery packs. To overcome the limitations of traditional standalone air or liquid cooling methods, which often result in inadequate cooling and uneven temperature distribution, a hybrid air-liquid cooling structure was designed. A three-dimensional model was developed, and heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics were analyzed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. Experimental validation was carried out through discharge temperature rise tests on individual battery cells and flow resistance tests on the liquid cooling plate. The thermal performance of the hybrid system was compared to that of standalone cooling methods under various discharge rates. The results indicated that the hybrid system significantly enhanced cooling performance, reducing the maximum temperature difference by 5.54°C and 3.37°C, and the peak temperature by 11.66°C and 4.5°C, compared to air

Li, Hao, Guo, Yiming, Zhou, Fupeng, Li, Kunyuan, Shangguan, Wen-Bin

Simulating the DrivAer Notchback Car Model using Wall-Function LES

2025-01-8777

04/01/2025

This paper summarizes work on the application of a new and fully parallelized native GPU-based finite-volume solver on the DrivAER Notchback configuration using a wall-function LES approach. A series of meshes generated using a Rapid-Octree strategy have been investigated, and results for drag, surface pressure coefficient and velocity profile are compared with available experimental data.

Menter, Florian, Dalvi, Ashwini, Flad, David, Sharkey, Patrick

Development of a Test Course Selection Method for Natural Wind Data Collection on US Public Roads

2025-01-8780

04/01/2025

The automotive aerodynamic development relies on wind tunnel testing and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), where the former provides reliable values to be used for fuel economy calculations, and the latter enables the investigation of flow features responsible for improvement/degradation of the average large-scale performances in terms of aerodynamic coefficients. The abovementioned procedure overlooks a crucial factor however: natural wind. The speed and the direction of natural wind encountered while driving alters the vehicle’s effective yaw angle. Such condition implies that the minimization of the drag coefficient at zero-yaw, commonly performed through wind tunnel and CFD simulations in an industrial context, may not yield real-world optimal shapes. While it is possible to reproduce natural wind-like conditions in a wind tunnel using flaps, for example, the input signal to the flap system must be available beforehand, and such key element is the focus of the present research

Nucera, Fortunato, Onishi, Yasuyuki, Metka, Matt

The Aerodynamic Development and Computational Fluid Dynamics Accuracy Improvement of Geely Galaxy E8

2025-01-5020

03/27/2025

As the first pure electric flagship sedan under the Geely Galaxy brand, a challenging aerodynamic target was set at the early stage of Geely Galaxy E8 for reducing electric power consumption and improving vehicle range. In response, the aerodynamic team formulated a detailed development plan and an overall drag reduction strategy. After conducting numerous loops of simulations and wind tunnel tests, along with continuous cross-disciplinary communication and collaboration, a product with outstanding aerodynamic performance was successfully developed. During the aerodynamic development of the E8, the primarily utilized steady-state simulations sometimes revealed significant discrepancies when compared to wind tunnel test results, particularly in schemes such as the air curtain, aerodynamic rims, and rear light feature optimizations. Some trends were even contradictory. Further investigations demonstrated that unsteady simulation methods captured different flow field information

Li, Qiang, Liu, Huan, Yang, Tianjun, Liang, Changqiu, Zhu, Zhenying, Liao, Huihong

Analysis and Prediction of Thermal Performance on Charging Equipment of Electric Vehicle

05-18-04-0030

03/26/2025

For the heat dissipation design of charging equipment for electric vehicles, a study is conducted on the thermal performance and its influencing factors of a specific alternating current (AC) charging device. First, based on heat dissipation theory and CFD simulation software, the corresponding finite element model is established and verified through experiments. Next, using the verified finite element model and applying the orthogonal experimental method, the factors influencing the heat dissipation performance of the AC charging pile, such as ambient temperature, output current of the AC charging pile, and surface radiation characteristics, are investigated. Finally, a prediction model for the maximum temperature of the main board is established using the response surface method (RSM), and the effects of each factor on the maximum main board temperature are analyzed, enabling rapid prediction of the heat dissipation performance of the AC charging pile. The analysis of the orthogonal

Tang, Yu, Yan, Chongjing, Lu, Feifei, Jiang, Bingyun, Bao, Yidong, Hu, Peng

Computational Investigation of Wingtip Vortices Generated by Double-Element Wing with Endplates

2025-01-5012

03/05/2025

The research presented in this paper proposes an effective numerical approach based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to analyze the flow structure around the Formula 1 rear wing. The study investigates the influence of endplates on the flow behavior and aerodynamic attributes of the wing. Additionally, it examines the implementation of louvers and cutouts to manipulate the interaction of multiple vortices, thereby mitigating the strength of primary wingtip vortices and the consequent induced drag. Three-dimensional steady-state computations were conducted using the ANSYS® commercial suite. The FLUENT™ solver, employing Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations modeled with a two-equation shear stress transport (SST) k-ω turbulence model, was utilized for the analysis. Post-processing and visualization of the flow field in the near wake region downstream of the rear wing were performed using Tecplot®. Validation of the turbulence model was achieved through the quasi-3D NACA

Kalsi, Mandeep Singh, Joshi, Upendra Kumar

Flow Channel Optimization and Performance Analysis of Forced Air-Cooling Thermal Management for Lithium-ion Battery Energy Storage Modules

05-18-04-0027

03/05/2025

The maximum temperature and the maximum temperature difference of lithium battery energy storage systems are of great importance to their lifespan and safety. The energy storage module targeted in this research utilizes a forced air-cooling thermal management system. In this article, the maximum battery temperature, temperature difference, and cooling fan power are used as evaluation indicators. The thermal–fluid coupling simulation technology is utilized to restore the real structure of the module, ensuring the reliability of the simulation results. The P-Q curve is introduced for the boundary conditions of the heat dissipation fan to investigate the influence of the flow channel structure on the airflow volume and distribution. First, the thermal–fluid coupling simulation results of the original structure were compared with the measured parameters. Subsequently, the study on the airflow and temperature distribution of the original flow channel structure reveals that a significant

Guo, YuCheng, Bao, YiDong, Jiang, BingYun, Lu, FeiFei

CFD-Based Comfort Parameter Evaluation of a Flow Vectoring Air Vent System for Car Cabins Using a Reduced Order Model

15-18-02-0012

03/03/2025

This computational fluid dynamics (CFD) study examines the comfort parameters of an innovative air vent concept for car cabin interiors using a reduced order model (ROM) and proper orthogonal decomposition (POD). The focus is on the analysis of the influence of geometric and fluid mechanical parameters on the resulting jet, in particular on the deflection angle of the airflow and the total pressure difference along the outlet geometry. Different parameters of the investigated system, such as the surface orientation, the outlet height, the separator distance, and the separator height, lead to different effects on the airflow structure. The results show that changes in the air vent surface orientation are always accompanied by an increase in the deflection angle and the total pressure difference. In contrast, the variation of the outlet height ratio positively influences the deflection angle and the total pressure difference in terms of the requirements for air vent geometries. The study

Langhorst, Sebastian, Mrosek, Markus, Boughanmi, Nesrine, Schmeling, Daniel, Wagner, Claus

Study on the Impact of Arrangement of Urea Injector and Mixer in Diesel Engine Selective Catalytic Reduction System on Ammonia Uniformity

02-18-02-0007

02/12/2025

With the continuous upgrading of emission regulations for internal combustion engines, the nitrogen oxide treatment capacity of selective catalytic reduction (SCR) aftertreatment needs to be continuously improved. In this study, based on a prototype of SCR aftertreatment, the impact of the arrangement of key components in the SCR system (urea injector, mixer, and catalyst unit) on ammonia uniformity was investigated. First, parameterized designs of the urea injector, mixer, and SCR unit were conducted. Then, using computational fluid dynamics (CFD), numerical simulations of the established aftertreatment system models with different parameter factors were performed under a high-exhaust temperature and a low-exhaust temperature conditions to study the impact of each individual parameter on ammonia uniformity. Finally, an optimized solution was designed based on the observed patterns, and the optimized samples were tested on an engine performance and emission test bench to compare their

Jie, Wang, Jin, Jianjiao, Wu, Yifan

Innovative Design and Multi-Parametric Computational Investigations on the Propulsive System of a Pentacopter Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

2025-28-0181

02/07/2025

This work focuses on the design and multi-parametric analysis of a designed propeller for a Pentacopter unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The basic and secondary design inputs, along with performance data like propeller diameter, pitch angle, chord length, and lift coefficient, are established using a standard analytical method. Approximately ten distinct airfoils, specifically NACA 2412, NACA 4109, NACA 4312, NACA 4409, NACA 4415, NACA 5317, NACA 6409, NACA 6412, NACA 23024, and NACA 25012, are evaluated over 13 Reynolds Numbers with the angle of attacks (AOA) of 20, varying from -5 to 15 degrees, for the purpose of detailed propeller design. The lift and drag coefficient values for ten distinct airfoils, utilizing a Reynolds number of 13 and 20 angles of attack, are obtained from the XFOIL software. Three sophisticated airfoils are selected from a pool of ten based on their high Lift-to-Drag (L/D) ratio performance. The selected airfoils with a high L/D ratio are NACA 6409, NACA 4109

Veeraperumal Senthil Nathan, Janani Priyadharshini, Arumugam, Manikandan, Rajendran, Mahendran, Solaiappan, Senthil Kumar, Kulandaiyappan, Naveen Kumar, Madasamy, Senthil Kumar, Stanislaus Arputharaj, Beena, L, Natrayan, Raja, Vijayanandh

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