Browse Topic: Regenerative braking

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Power Electronics: The Backbone of Sustainable Electrification2025-28-0228To be published on 11/06/2025
Power electronics is fundamental to sustainable electrification, enhancing energy efficiency, integrating renewable energy sources, and reducing carbon emissions. In electric vehicles (EVs), power electronics is crucial for efficient energy conversion, management, and distribution. Key components like inverters, rectifiers, and DC-DC converters optimize power from renewable sources to meet EV system requirements. In EVs, power electronics converts energy from the battery to the electric motor, ensuring efficient propulsion and regenerative braking. Inverters convert DC power from the battery to AC power for the motor, while DC-DC converters manage voltage levels for various vehicle systems. These components maximize EV energy efficiency, reduce energy losses, and extend driving range. Power electronics also supports fast and efficient battery charging, critical for widespread EV adoption. Advanced charging solutions enable rapid charging times and integration with renewable energy
Pipaliya, Akash Pravinbhai, Hatkar, Chetan
Evaluation of Alternative Cooling Method for High Performance Resistors in Zero-Emission Trucks2025-28-035910/30/2025
High Performance Resistors (HPR), also known as brake resistors are used in zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) to dissipate excess electrical energy produced during regenerative braking, as heat energy. It is necessary to use a suitable cooling technique to release this heat energy into the atmosphere in a regulated manner. Currently in most of the ZEVs, liquid cooled HPR with its dedicated heat exchanger and other auxiliaries such as pump, surge tank, Coolant and coolant lines, is used which increases the cost, packaging space and assembly time. This paper presents air cooling as a substitute heat-exchanging technique for high-performance resistors which eliminates the need of auxiliaries mentioned above, resulting in space optimization and reduction in assembly time. An air cooled HPR, designed for this study consists of a heat exchanger, which accommodates a resistor wire within its tubes. The design was made to fit commercial vehicle use, specific to trucks, due to packaging constraints
Menariya, Pravin Ganesh, Kumar, Vishnu, Arhanth, Mahima, Umesha, Sathwik, Jagadish, Harshitha
Optimal Control Strategy for Dual-Motor EVs with CVT: Comparison of Simulation of Steady-State and Dynamic Programming Methods2025-01-040710/07/2025
This study investigates an optimal control strategy for a battery electric vehicle (BEV) equipped with a high-speed motor and a continuously variable transmission (CVT). The proposed dual-motor powertrain model activates only one motor at a time, with Motor A routed through a CVT and Motor B through a fixed gear. To improve energy efficiency, two optimization methods are evaluated: a quasi-steady-state map-based approach and a dynamic programming (DP) method. The DP approach applies Bellman’s principle to derive the globally optimal CVT ratio and motor torque trajectory over the WLTC cycle. Simulation results demonstrate that the DP method significantly improves overall efficiency compared to traditional control logic. Furthermore, the study proposes using DP-derived maps to refine practical control strategies, offering a systematic alternative to conventional experimental calibration.
Zhao, Hanqing, Moriyoshi, Yasuo, Kuboyama, Tatsuya
Comparative Evaluation of Energy Efficiency and Performance of Electric and Counterpart Diesel Tractors2025-01-041710/07/2025
The objective of this trial was to compare the energy efficiency and performance of battery electric and conventional diesel tractors. Controlled road tests replicating normal operations were conducted using two electric and two diesel day-cab tractors. The test protocol was based on the TMC - Type III RP 1103A and SAE J1526 test procedures. The tests were conducted on a 110 km long route that included a 59 km hilly portion with a maximum altitude difference of 307 m. The tractors were divided into test groups of two vehicles. Trailers and drivers were switched throughout the trial between the tractors in a test group. The tests found that the two electric trucks consumed 60% and 63% less energy than their counterpart diesel trucks, respectively. Considering the average emission factor for production of electricity in Canada, the electric trucks emitted on average 82% less GHG emissions than the conventional diesel-powered tractors. The two diesel trucks showed similar fuel consumption
Surcel, Marius-Dorin, Partington, Mark, Tanguay-Laflèche, Maxime, Schumacher, Richard
Enhancing Capacitance of High-Rate Electric Double-Layer Capacitors with CO 2 -Activated Mesoporous Carbon Gel Electrodes2025-01-506410/02/2025
Electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) store charge by adsorbing ions at the electrode–electrolyte interface, offering fast charge–discharge rates, high power density, minimal heat generation, and long cycle life. These characteristics make EDLCs ideal for memory backup in electronic devices and power assistance in electric and hybrid vehicles, where rapid energy response and high-power delivery are critical. However, their energy density remains lower than that of batteries, requiring improvements in capacitance and operating voltage. Activated carbon with high surface area is commonly used as the electrode material, but its microporous structure limits ion transport at high rates, reducing power performance. This limitation is especially critical in automotive motor drive systems. Recent research has shifted toward mesoporous carbon materials, which improve ion diffusion and accessibility. In this study, resorcinol–formaldehyde carbon cryogels (RFCCs) with controlled mesoporous
Cheng, Zairan, Okamura, Tsubasa, Ohnishi, Yuto, Nakagawa, Kiyoharu
Enhanced Vehicle Capability Through Innovative High Voltage Power Solutions2025-01-050609/16/2025
Increasing the mission capability of ground combat and tactical vehicles can lead to new concepts of operation that enhance safety and effectiveness of warfighters. High-temperature power electronics enabled by wide-bandgap semiconductors such as silicon carbide can provide the required power density to package new capabilities into space-constrained vehicles and provide features including silent mobility, boost acceleration, regenerative braking, adaptive cooling, and power for future protection systems and command and control (C2) on the move. An architecture using high voltage [1] would best satisfy the ever-increasing power demands to enable defense against unmanned aerial systems (UAS) and offensive directed energy (DE) systems for advanced survivability and lethality capabilities.
Eddins, R., Lambert, C., Habic, D., Haynes, A., Spina, J., Schwartz, E.
Bolstering Driver Braking Confidence – Considerations for “Deceleration Adder” Technologies2025-01-035309/15/2025
Over the life of a typical vehicle (often estimated as 15 years or 300,00 km), an average driver can be expected to apply the brakes about 1.6 million times – almost 9 times per mile and over 290 times per day, and an “exuberant” driver can be expected to do this over 2.2 million times. Without question, the driver becomes accustomed to how the vehicle responds to braking control (and all of the normal variation around it), and even develops expectations for how it will respond the next time the brakes are employed. In the rare event of a failure or malfunction in the brake system resulting in an appreciably different vehicle response to the brake input, this can be surprising and even alarming to the driver, sometimes to the extent of causing hesitation in braking. Fortunately, with the rise of mechatronic braking actuators in the 1980’s and 1990’s paved the way for features such as “Driver Brake Assist” (which provides additional pressure beyond what the primary brake actuator can at
Antanaitis, David
A Study on the Development of Optimal Brakes for Electric Vehicles Using Simulation2025-01-034509/15/2025
As the ICE vehicle changes into the EV, we can use regenerative brake. It can improve not only the energy consumption but also reduce the hydraulic brake usage. The less hydraulic brake usage mitigates the heat loading on the brake disc. From this reason, the lightweight brake can be used in the EV. However, when the lightweight brake is applied, the brake NVH can be increased. The optimization design of the lightweight brake should be done to prevent the brake NVH. In this paper, the optimal brake disc thickness and brake interfaces are determined by using of disc heat capacity analysis. The lightweight brake should be optimized by using of the brake squeal analysis. We can verify the results from both analysis and test. Finally, we can have the lightweight brake, which is competitive in terms of cost, weight and robust to the brake NVH.
Kim, Sungho, Kim, Jeongkyu, Hwang, Jaekeun, Kang, Donghoon
An Eco-Charging Strategy for Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles via Graph Optimization2025-24-011609/07/2025
An optimization framework for trip and charging planning for electric heavy-duty vehicles is proposed in this paper. Building upon and extending previous work on light-duty vehicles, our approach models energy-aware routing by constructing a state-augmented graph that jointly captures geographic position and battery state-of-charge. We refine the route model to include detailed vehicle dynamics and speed constraints specific to heavy-duty vehicles, and introduce an alternative graph construction method that avoids the computational complexity of lexicographic products by generating only feasible nodes. The resulting framework enables efficient trip planning that accounts for driving behavior, road characteristics, and charging infrastructure. Simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach in reducing energy consumption and ensuring operational feasibility for long-haul freight transport.
Zonetti, Daniele, Sciarretta, Antonio, De Nunzio, Giovanni
Kinetic Energy Recovery: Assessment on the impact of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor and Battery Dynamic models2025-01-030307/02/2025
This paper examines the influence of a detailed dynamic model of a Surface Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (SPMSM) on the accurate evaluation of kinetic energy recovery during braking in a mild hybrid vehicle. The model, implemented in MATLAB Simulink, is based on the motor’s DQ equivalent circuit, accounting for transient effects, inductance variability, and magnetic saturation. Also, a 2nd Order Thevenin Equivalent model of the battery is used in order to take into account the bus voltage variability. Simulations reveal that the dynamic model predicts significant variations in energy recovery potential, with differences of up to 25% compared to static models under specific braking conditions. These discrepancies are particularly pronounced during high-speed high-torque transitions, where transient electrical behaviors strongly influence energy recovery. The model’s accuracy enhances the reliability of energy simulations, especially in scenarios involving frequent or intense
Lombardi, Simone, Federici, Leonardo, Tribioli, Laura, Bella, Gino
Simulation-Based Investigation and its Experimental Validation of the Thermal Behaviour of a Battery Electric City Bus2025-01-026607/02/2025
Electrification of city busses is an important factor for decarbonisation of the public transport sector. Due to its strictly scheduled routes and regular idle times, the public transport sector is an ideal use case for battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this context, the thermal management has a high potential to decrease the energy demand or to increase the vehicles range. The thermal management of an electric city bus controls the thermal behaviour of the components of the powertrain, such as motor and inverters, as well as the conditioning of the battery system and the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) of the drivers’ front box and the passenger room. The focus of the research is the modelling of the thermal behaviour of the important components of an electric city bus in MATLAB/Simscape including real-world driving cycles and the thermal management. The heating of the components, geometry and behaviour of the cooling circuits as well as the different mechanisms of
Schäfer, Henrik, Meywerk, Martin, Hellberg, Tobias
Electric Bus NVH Challenges and Refinement Using Innovative Approach2025-01-008005/05/2025
The trend towards electrification propulsion in the automotive industry is highly in demand due to zero-emission and becoming more significant across the world. Battery electric vehicles have lower overall noise as compared to conventional I.C Engine counterparts due to the absence of engine combustion and mechanical noise. However, other narrowband and tonal noises are becoming dominant and are strongly perceived inside the cabin. With the ongoing push towards electrification, there is likely to be increased focus on the noise impact of gearing required for the transmission of power from the electric motor to the road. Direct coupling of E-motors with Axle has resulted in severe tonal noises from the driveline due to instant e-motor torque ramp up from 0 rpm and reverse torque on driving axle during regenerative braking. The tonal noises from the rear axle during vehicle running become very critical for customer perception. For automotive NVH engineers, it has become a challenge to
Doshi, Sohin, Kalsule, Dhanaji, Sawangikar, Pradeep, Suresh, Vineeth, Sharma, Manish
Development of an Imperceptible Brake Failure Control Technology and Real Vehicle Application10-09-02-001504/26/2025
With the advancement of control technology in the automotive field, there is a possibility of cross-system redundant control between various actuators. As for the braking system, current brake-by-wire system often uses mechanical backup braking methods to give the vehicle a certain braking capacity after failure. However, in the mechanical backup braking mode, the brake master cylinder is connected to the supporting wheel cylinder, and the brake assist is lost, which leads to an increase in brake pressure and makes it difficult for the driver to step on the brake pedal. Meanwhile, due to the limitation of the brake master cylinder stroke, the maximum braking deceleration of the vehicle is only 3 m/s2 after the driver fully presses the brake pedal. The above two defects greatly affect the safety of the vehicle during backup braking. To solve the above problems, this article takes electric vehicles as the research object, designs a new type of hydraulic circuit for the braking system
Tian, Boshi, Li, Liang, Liao, Yinsheng, Lv, Haijun, Hu, Zhiming, Sun, Yue, Qu, Wenying
Research on Energy Recovery Strategy in Braking of Electric Tractor-Semitrailer2025-01-829004/01/2025
Tractor-semitrailers play an important role in the transportation industry. However, global warming and the rapid advancement of energy technologies have driven the transformation of high-emission vehicles, such as tractor-semitrailers, to be powered by new energy sources in order to achieve goals related to energy conservation, emission reduction, and cost savings. By using the motor as the primary driving force, the energy recovered during braking or coasting can be converted into electricity and stored in the battery for later use. While much research has been conducted on braking control and energy recovery for passenger cars, there is limited research on tractor-semitrailers. Additionally, the jackknife is a critical factor to consider under high-speed conditions. To investigate the braking energy recovery of electric tractor-semitrailers, tire and motor models were developed based on the turning and braking conditions of such vehicles. Taking into account the load transfer effect
Chen, Runping, Duan, Yupeng
An Integrated Data-Driven and Physics-Based Approach for Dynamic Operation Simulation of Electric Vehicles2025-01-860404/01/2025
To address the challenges of complex operational simulation for Electric Vehicles (EVs) caused by spatial-temporal variations and driver behavior heterogeneity, this study introduces a dynamic operation simulation model that integrates both data-driven and physics-based principles, referred to as the Electric Vehicle-Dynamic Operation Simulation (EV-DOS) model. The physics-based component encompasses critical aspects such as the powertrain energy transfer module, heat transfer module, charge/discharge module, and battery state estimation module. The data-driven component derives key features and labels from second-by-second real-world vehicle driving status data and incorporates a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network to develop a State-of-Health (SOH) prediction model for the EV power pack. This model framework combines the interpretability of physical modeling with the rapid simulation capabilities of data-driven techniques under dynamic operating conditions. Finally, this study
Jing, Hao, HU, Jianyao, Ouyang, Jianheng, Ou, Shiqi(Shawn)
Stability Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Using Particle Filter and Fuzzy Integral Sliding Mode Control2025-01-881104/01/2025
The Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles (DDEVs) offer advantages such as independently controllable driving and braking forces at each wheel, rapid response, and precise control. These features enable effective electronic stability control (ESC) by appropriately distributing torque across each wheel. However, traditional ESC systems typically employ single-wheel hydraulic differential braking, failing to fully utilize the independent torque control capabilities of DDEVs. This study proposes a hierarchical control strategy for distributed driving and braking ESC based on particle filter (PF) and fuzzy integral sliding mode control (FISMC). First, the vehicle state estimation layer uses a three-degree-of-freedom vehicle model and the PF to estimate sideslip angle and vehicle speed. Next, the target torque decision layer includes a target speed tracking controller and a yaw moment decision controller. The yaw moment decision controller uses the FISMC to determine additional yaw moment by
Li, Xiaolong, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Smart Boosting: A Control Strategy for Optimized Energy Management with Boost Converter in Hybrid Electric Vehicles2025-01-858004/01/2025
In hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), optimizing energy management and reducing system losses are critical for enhancing overall efficiency and performance. This paper presents a novel control strategy for the boost converter in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), aimed at minimizing energy losses and optimizing performance by modulating to a higher boost converter voltage only when necessary. Traditional approaches to boost converter control often lead to unnecessary energy consumption by maintaining higher voltage levels even when not required. In contrast, the proposed strategy dynamically adjusts the converter's operation based on real-time vehicle demands, such as driver input, Engine Start-Stop (ESS) events, Active Electric Motor Damping (AEMD), entry and exit transitions for Engine Fuel Cut-Off (DFCO), Noise-Vibration-Harshness (NVH) events like lash-zone crossing and other specific operational conditions. The control strategy leverages predictive algorithms and real-time monitoring
Basutkar, Ameya, Huo, Shichao, Sullivan, Claire, Berger, Daniel, Tischendorf, Christoph
Study on Emergency Obstacle Avoidance Lateral Stability Control of Tractor Semitrailer Vehicles2025-01-829604/01/2025
As a crucial component of highway freight systems, tractor semitrailer vehicles play a key role in the transportation industry. However, their complex vehicle structure can lead to significant lateral instability during emergency obstacle avoidance, posing challenges to the vehicle's dynamic stability and safety. To enhance the emergency obstacle avoidance lateral stability of tractor semitrailer vehicles, a direct yaw moment lateral stability control strategy based on differential driving/braking is proposed. First, a 3-degree-of-freedom ideal linear dynamic model of the tractor-semitrailer is established, and its accuracy is validated. Then, a lateral stability control strategy for emergency obstacle avoidance is proposed. The upper-layer controller employs an improved feedforward differential model-free adaptive control (IMFAC) method to track the target yaw rate and vehicle sideslip angle, while the lower-layer controller focuses on optimizing tire load rate. Additionally, a drive
Guo, Shaozhong, Dou, Jingyang
Bi-Level Control Co-Design for Parallel Electric-Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles2025-01-858204/01/2025
This study presents a control co-design method that utilizes a bi-level optimization framework for parallel electric-hydraulic hybrid powertrains, specifically targeting heavy-duty vehicles like class 8 semi-trailer trucks. The primary objective is to minimize battery energy consumption, particularly under high torque demand at low speed, thereby extending both battery lifespan and vehicle driving range. The proposed method formulates a bi-level optimization problem to ensure global optimality in hydraulic energy storage sizing and the development of a high-level energy management strategy. Two nested loops are used: the outer loop applies a Genetic Algorithm (GA) to optimize key design parameters such as accumulator volume and pre-charged pressure, while the inner loop leverages Dynamic Programming (DP) to optimize the energy control strategy in an open-loop format without predefined structural constraints. Both loops use a single objective function, i.e. battery energy consumption
Taaghi, Amirhossein, Yoon, Yongsoon
Evaluation and Prevention of Brake Drum Freezing by Aerodynamic Measures2025-01-877504/01/2025
The use of drum brakes in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) offers numerous benefits, including energy efficiency, reduced brake dust emissions, and reliable performance under challenging weather conditions. The capability of regenerative braking reduces the friction brake application frequency in BEVs and therefore the brakes can be prone to corrosion and performance degradation especially considering conventional disc brake systems. The closed design of a drum brake prevents corrosion of the friction-components by sealing out water, dirt or snow. A common sealing concept is performed with a labyrinth between the gap of the rotating drum and the axle mounted backplate. A hermetical isolation of water and snow ingress into the drum cannot be achieved with this concept, so additional aerodynamic measures are necessary to deflect the air/water path and protect the inner brake components. Additionally, interfaces like wheel cylinders, electric park brake parts, brake shoe pins, and axle
Hennicke, Tim, Kuthada, Timo, Bernhard, Adrian, Reichhart, Leander, Weber, Eugen, Moers, Michael, Rettig, Marc
Mercedes proposes ‘in-drive brakes’ for better EVs25AUTP03_1003/01/2025
From humble Chevrolet Bolts to six-figure Lucid Airs, every EV can reverse its electric motors to slow the vehicle while harvesting energy for the battery, the efficient tag-team process known as regenerative braking. Today's EVs do this so well that traditional friction brakes, which clamp onto a spinning wheel rotor or drum, can seem an afterthought. Witness Volkswagen's decision to equip its ID.4 with old-fashioned rear drum brakes, with VW claiming drums reduce EV rolling resistance and offer superior performance after long periods of disuse.
Ulrich, Lawrence
Refining Control, Charging, and Battery Chemistry for CO 2 e Savings in Heavy-Duty Off-Road Plug-In Series Hybrid14-14-02-000902/27/2025
With current and future regulations continuing to drive reductions in carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions in the on-road industry, the off-road industry is also likely to be regulated for fuel and CO2e savings. This work focuses on converting a heavy-duty off-road material handler from a conventional diesel powertrain to a plug-in series hybrid, achieving a 49% fuel reduction and 29% CO2e reduction via simulation. Control strategies were refined for energy savings, including a regenerative braking strategy to increase regenerative braking and a load-following hydraulic strategy to decrease electrical energy consumption. The load-following hydraulic control shuts off the hydraulic electric machine when it is not needed—an approach not previously seen in a load-sensing, pressure-compensated system. These strategies achieved a 24.1% fuel savings, resulting in total savings of 61% in fuel and 41% in CO2e in the plug-in series compared to the conventional machine. Beyond control
Goodenough, Bryant, Czarnecki, Alexander, Robinette, Darrell, Worm, Jeremy, Subert, David, Kiefer, Dylan, Heath, Matthew, Brunet, Bob, Kisul, Robert, Latendresse, Phil, Westman, John, Black, Andrew
Niobium Alloyed Ferritic Nitrocarburized Brake Rotors2024-01-303109/08/2024
Niobium (Nb) alloyed Grey cast iron in combination with Ferritic Nitrocarburize (FNC) case hardening heat treatment is proposed to improve wear resistance and reduce brake dust generation of brake rotors. Standard Eutectic and Hypereutectic Grey irons alloyed with Niobium were evaluated in comparison to baseline unalloyed compositions. Brake speed snub sensitivity tribological testing was performed on a matrix including Niobium alloyed, Unalloyed, FNC, Non FNC, Non-Asbestos Organic (NAO) friction and Low metallic (Low Met) friction materials. Full size brake rotors were evaluated by Block Wear and Corrosion Cleanability. Improved wear, corrosion resistance and reduced brake dust debris were demonstrated by the Niobium alloyed FNC brake rotor combinations. Corrosion is an important consideration when evaluating brake performance. Combining cyclic corrosion and brake rotor testing provides the best comparison with field exposure.
Holly, Mike
Brake Heat Capacity Prediction Using a Machine-Learned Friction Coefficient Model and Virtual Wheel Brake2024-01-305409/08/2024
Recently, the increasing complexity of systems and diverse customer demands have necessitated the development of highly efficient vehicles. The ability to accurately predict vehicle performance through simulation allows for the determination of design specifications before the construction of test vehicles, leading to reduced development schedules and costs. Therefore, detailed brake thermal performance predictions are required both for the front and rear brakes. Moreover, scenarios requiring validation, such as alpine conditions that apply braking severity to xEV with the regenerative braking system, have become increasingly diverse. To address this challenge, this study proposes a co-simulation method that incorporates a machine-learned brake pad friction coefficient prediction model to enhance the accuracy of brake thermal capacity predictions within the vehicle simulation environment. This innovative method allows for the simultaneous prediction of both front and rear-wheel brakes
Cho, Sunghyun, Baek, SangHeum, Kim, Min Soo, Hong, Incheol, Kim, Hyun Ki, Kim, Gwichul, Lee, Jounghee
Optimization-Based Battery Thermal Management for Improved Regenerative Braking in CEP Vehicles2024-01-297407/02/2024
The courier express parcel service industry (CEP industry) has experienced significant changes in the recent years due to increasing parcel volume. At the same time, the electrification of the vehicle fleets poses additional challenges. A major advantage of battery electric CEP vehicles compared to internal combustion engine vehicles is the ability to regenerate the kinetic energy of the vehicle in the frequent deceleration phases during parcel delivery. If the battery is cold, the maximum regenerative power of the powertrain is limited by a reduced chemical reaction rate inside the battery. In general, the maximum charging power of the battery depends on the state of charge and the battery temperature. Due to the low power demand for driving during CEP operation, the battery self-heating is comparably low. Without active conditioning of the battery, potential of regenerating energy is partially lost because the friction brake needs to absorb kinetic energy whenever the cold battery’s
Rehm, Dominik, Krost, Jonathan, Meywerk, Martin, Czarnetzki, Walter
Control System for Regenerative Braking Efficiency in Electric Vehicles with Electro-Actuated Brakes10-08-02-001505/01/2024
This article presents the design and the analysis of a control logic capable of optimizing vehicle’s energy consumption during a braking maneuver. The idea arose with the purpose of enhancing regeneration and health management in electric vehicles with electro-actuated brakes. Regenerative braking improves energy efficiency and allows a considerable reduction in secondary emissions, but its efficiency is strongly dependent on the state of charge (SoC) of the battery. In the analyzed case, a vehicle equipped with four in-wheel motors (one for each wheel), four electro-actuated brakes, and a battery was considered. The proposed control system can manage and optimize electrical and energy exchanges between the driveline’s components according to the working conditions, monitoring parameters such as SoC of the battery, brake temperature, battery temperature, motor temperature, and acts to optimize the total energy consumption. The solution devised allows first to maximize the effects of
Tempone, Giuseppe Pio, de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Imberti, Giovanni, Carello, Massimiliana
Enhancing Regenerative Energy Capture in Electric Vehicles: Braking Performance through Integral Sliding Mode Control10-08-02-001204/18/2024
This article focuses on the development of an active braking control system tailored for electric vehicles. The essence of this system lies in its ability to regulate the slip coefficient to optimize traction during braking, thereby maximizing energy recuperation. In the context of the simulation on enhancing regenerative energy capture in electric vehicles, the use of integral sliding mode control (ISMC) as an alternative for regulating braking performance can be understood through a comparison of two key output variables in braking control systems: wheel deceleration and wheel slip. Traditionally, wheel deceleration has been a controlled variable in braking systems, and it is still utilized in some anti-lock braking systems (ABS). It can be easily measured using a basic wheel encoder. However, the dynamic performance of wheel deceleration control may suffer when there are rapid changes in the road surface. On the contrary, regulating wheel slip offers high robustness from a dynamic
Direm, Chaima, Hartani, Kada
Real-Time Deployment Strategies for State of Power Estimation Algorithms2024-01-219804/09/2024
Lithium-ion cells operate under a narrow range of voltage, current, and temperature limits, which requires a battery management system (BMS) to sense, control, and balance the battery pack. The state of power (SOP) estimation is a fundamental algorithm of the BMS. It operates as a dynamic safety limit, preventing rapid ageing and optimizing power delivery. SOP estimation relies on predictive algorithms to determine charge and discharge power limits sustainable within a specified time frame, ensuring the cell design constraints are not violated. This paper explores various approaches for real-time deployment of SOP estimation algorithms for a high-power lithium-ion battery (LIB) with a low-cost microcontroller. The algorithms are based on a root-finding approach and a first-order equivalent circuit model (ECM) of the battery. This paper assesses the practical application of the algorithm with a focus on processor execution time, flash memory and RAM allocation using a processor-in-the
Schommer, Adriano, Araujo Xavier, Marcelo, Morrey, Denise, Collier, Gordana
Fuzzy Control of Regenerative Braking on Pure Electric Garbage Truck Based on Particle Swarm Optimization2024-01-214504/09/2024
To improve the braking energy recovery rate of pure electric garbage removal vehicles and ensure the braking effect of garbage removal vehicles, a strategy using particle swarm algorithm to optimize the regenerative braking fuzzy control of garbage removal vehicles is proposed. A multi-section front and rear wheel braking force distribution curve is designed considering the braking effect and braking energy recovery. A hierarchical regenerative braking fuzzy control strategy is established based on the braking force and braking intensity required by the vehicle. The first layer is based on the braking force required by the vehicle, based on the front and rear axle braking force distribution plan, and uses fuzzy controllers. Achieve one-time distribution of the front axle braking force; the second layer, according to the magnitude of the braking intensity, divides the braking conditions into light braking, moderate braking and emergency braking, and realizes braking under the three
Zhang, Yu
Innovative Zero-Emissions Braking System: Performance Analysis Through a Transient Braking Model2024-01-255304/09/2024
This paper presents the analysis of an innovative braking system as an alternative and environmentally friendly solution to traditional automotive friction brakes. The idea arose from the need to eliminate emissions from the braking system of an electric vehicle: traditional brakes, in fact, produce dust emissions due to the wear of the pads. The innovative solution, called Zero-Emissions Driving System (ZEDS), is a system composed of an electric motor (in-wheel motor) and an innovative brake. The latter has a geometry such that it houses MagnetoRheological Fluid (MRF) inside it, which can change its viscous properties according to the magnetic field passing through it. It is thus an electro-actuated brake, capable of generating a magnetic field passing through the fluid and developing braking torque. A performance analysis obtained by a simulation model built on Matlab Simulink is proposed. The model is able to simulate the transient 1D motion of an electric vehicle equipped with four
Tempone, Giuseppe Pio, Imberti, Giovanni, de Carvalho Pinheiro, Henrique, Carello, Massimiliana
Optimal Control Co-Design of a Parallel Electric-Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicle2024-01-215404/09/2024
This paper presents an optimal control co-design framework of a parallel electric-hydraulic hybrid powertrain specifically tailored for heavy-duty vehicles. A pure electric powertrain, comprising a rechargeable lithium-ion battery, a highly efficient electric motor, and a single or double-speed gearbox, has garnered significant attention in the automotive sector due to the increasing demand for clean and efficient mobility. However, the state-of-the-art has demonstrated limited capabilities and has struggled to meet the design requirements of heavy-duty vehicles with high power demands, such as a class 8 semi-trailer truck. This is especially evident in terms of a driving range on one battery charge, battery charging time, and load-carrying capacity. These challenges primarily stem from the low power density of lithium-ion batteries and the low energy conversion efficiency of electric motors at low speeds. To address these issues, a recent development is the electric-hydraulic hybrid
Taaghi, Amirhossein, Yoon, Yongsoon
An Adaptive Clamping Force Control Strategy for Electro-Mechanical Brake System Considering Nonlinear Friction Resistance2024-01-228204/09/2024
The Electronic Mechanical Braking (EMB) system, which offers advantages such as no liquid medium and complete decoupling, can meet the high-quality active braking and high-intensity regenerative braking demands proposed by intelligent vehicles and is considered one of the ideal platforms for future chassis. However, traditional control strategies with fixed clamping force tracking parameters struggle to maintain high-quality braking performance of EMB under variable braking requests, and the nonlinear friction between mechanical components also affects the accuracy of clamping force control. Therefore, this paper presents an adaptive clamping force control strategy for the EMB system, taking into account the resistance of nonlinear friction. First, an EMB model is established as the simulation and control object, which includes the motor model, transmission model, torque balance model, stiffness model, and friction model. Subsequently, a cascaded clamping force controller, consisting
Xu, Zelin, Wu, Jian, Bi, Gongyuan, Hou, Jie, Zheng, Wenbo, Li, Lun, Gao, Shang, Chen, Zhicheng
Fatigue Analysis and Rapid Design Process of Anti-vibration Rubber Parts for Automobiles2024-01-225504/09/2024
In recent years, an increase in vehicle weight due to the electrification of automobiles, specifically EVs, has increased the input loads on anti-vibration rubber parts. Moreover, the characteristics of these loads have also changed due to the rotational drive of electric motors, regenerative braking, and other factors. When designing a vehicle, in advance it is necessary to set specifications that take into account the spring characteristics and durability of the anti-vibration rubber parts in order to meet functional requirements. In this study, the hyperelastic and fatigue characteristics (S-N diagram and Haigh diagram) of Rubbers which is widely used for anti-vibration rubber parts, were experimentally obtained, and structural and fatigue analyses using FEM (Finite Element Method) were conducted in conjunction with spring and fatigue tests of anti-vibration rubber parts to determine the correlation between their spring and fatigue characteristics. Parameter studies were conducted
Sugimoto, Nao
An Improved Semi-Transient Brake Cooling Simulation Method15-17-03-001102/05/2024
In this article, an improved brake cooling simulation method is introduced. By this method, the vehicle parameters, such as weight, height of the center of gravity, wheelbase, and the like can be included to calculate the braking thermal load under different operating conditions. The effect of the brake kinetic energy regeneration (BKER) on the braking thermal load can also be calculated by this method. The calculated braking thermal load is then input to a coupled 3D simulation model to conduct flow and thermal simulation to calculate brake disc temperature. It is demonstrated that by this simulation method, the difference between the brake disc temperatures obtained from simulation and vehicle test can be controlled below 5%.
Ni, Jun, Li, Bo, Yuan, Qingpeng, Ran, Xin, Liang, Changqiu, Liao, Huihong
A Study on Effect of Regenerative Braking on Vehicle Range and Axle Life2024-26-024001/16/2024
This paper aims at analysing the effect of regeneration braking on the amount of energy harnessed during vehicle braking, coasting and its effect on the drive train components like gear, crown wheel pinion, spider gear & bearing etc. Regenerative braking systems (RBS) is an effective method of recovering the kinetic energy of the vehicle during braking condition and using this to recharge the batteries. In Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV), this harnessed energy is used for controlled charging of the high voltage batteries which will help in increasing the vehicle range eventually. Depending on the type of the powertrain architecture, components between motor output to the wheels will vary, i.e., in an e-axle, motor is coupled with a gear box which will be connected with differential and the wheels. Whereas in case of a central drive architecture, motor is coupled with gearbox which is connected with a propeller shaft and then the differential and to the wheels. All the components
S, Srivatsa, Pethkar, Shivanand, Ghosh, Sandeep
Regeneration Calibration for Optimum Range and Effective Brakes Performances in eSUV2024-26-011001/16/2024
Regenerative braking is an effective approach for electric vehicles (EVs) to extend their driving range. To enhance the braking performances and regenerative energy, regenerative braking control strategy based on multi objective optimization is explained in this paper. This technical paper would be focusing on extracting optimum Range with effective brake performances without affecting drivability and performances in different drives modes. An extensive research study on public road driving patterns is done to understand the percentage utilization of brakes at various (low-mid-high) speeds as per the customer driving behavior. Multi-Objective optimization function with three vital factors is defined where output generated power, torque smoothness and current smoothness are selected as optimization objective to improve the driving range, braking comfort, and battery lifetime respectively. Braking regeneration maps are calibrated along with optimized foundation brake hardware’s to get
Kumar, Prabhakar, K, Rajakumar, Krishnan, Nandhakumar, Suhail, Mohammed Thamjeed
Enhancing Electric Vehicle Performance and Battery Life through Flywheel Energy Storage System: Modelling, Simulation, and Analysis2024-26-013601/16/2024
This research paper focuses on the modelling and analysis of a flywheel energy storage system (FESS) specifically designed for electric vehicles (EVs) with a particular emphasis on the flywheel rotor system associated with active magnetic bearings. The methodology used simulation approaches to investigate the dynamics of the flywheel system. The objective of this study is to explore the effects of implementing the flywheel energy storage system on the performance of the EV. The paper presents a comprehensive model of the flywheel energy storage system, considering the mechanical and electrical aspects. The mechanical model accounts for the dynamic behaviors of the flywheel, including parameters such as rotational speed, inertia, and friction. The electrical model describes the interaction between the flywheel and the power electronics, such as the converter and motor/generator. To evaluate the benefits of the flywheel energy storage system, simulations are conducted. Simulation studies
Akhtar, Juned
Study on Range Improvement Controls and Method for Electric Vehicles2024-26-013201/16/2024
Electric Vehicles are rapidly growing in the market yet various doubts on success of its adaptation were noted all along the globe. On the question part range is one of the major attribute; however, range anxiety has greatly inspired manufacturers to explore new practices to improve. One of the most important components of an electric vehicles (EV) is the battery, which converts chemical energy to electrical energy thereby liberating heat energy as the loss. When this heat energy loss is high, the energy available in the battery for propulsion is reduced significantly. Additionally, with a higher heat loss in the battery, system is prone to failure or reduced mileage. Therefore, controlling/maintaining system temperature under safe usable limits even during harsh conditions is critical. Simple reduction in energy consumption of electrical cooling/heating devices used with regenerative energy techniques can greatly help in range improvement. The intention of this paper is to explore
MR, Vikram, Pattalwar, Ashutosh, Verma, Mrinal, Bawa, Vikas
Drive GPT – An AI Based Generative Driver Model2024-26-002501/16/2024
Good driving practices, encompassing actions like maintaining smooth acceleration, sustaining a consistent speed, and avoiding aggressive maneuvers, can yield several benefits. These practices enhance energy efficiency, reduce accident risks, and significantly lower maintenance costs. Consequently, the presence of a system capable of providing actionable insights to promote such driving behavior is crucial. Addressing this need, the Drive-GPT model is introduced, representing an AI-based generative pre-trained transformer. Within this study, the transformative potential of deep learning networks, specifically based on transformers, is showcased in capturing the typical driving patterns exhibited by individuals in diverse road, traffic, weather, and vehicle health scenarios. The model's training dataset comprises an extensive 90 million data points from multivariate time series originating from telematics systems in 100 vehicles traversing eight distinct Indian cities over a six-month
Kumar, Vedant, Jain, Siddhant, Soni, Nimish, Saran, Amitabh
Fault Compensation Control for Regenerative Braking of Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle Based on Hierarchical Control2023-01-706112/20/2023
For distributed drive electric vehicles (DDEV) equipped with an electronic hydraulic braking system (EHB) and four-wheel hub motors, when one or more hub motors have regenerative braking failure, because the braking torque of the four wheels is inconsistent, additional yaw moment will be formed on the vehicle, resulting in the loss of directional stability of the vehicle during braking. If it occurs at high speeds, it will further threaten driving safety. To solve the above problems, a new hierarchical control architecture is established in this paper. Firstly, taking DDEV as the research object, the vehicle dynamics model and EHB braking system model are built. Then, a state observer based on an adaptive Kalman filter is designed in the upper layer to estimate the vehicle’s sideslip angle and yaw rate in real time. In the judgment decision-making layer, the phase plane is used to divide the stability domain boundary of the vehicle, and the quasi-stability tolerance band judges the
Fang, Ting, Zhao, Linfeng, Hu, Jinfang, Mei, Zhen, Wang, Muyun, Sun, Bin
Electric Bikes as Exercise Equipment: A Technical Study on Design and Energy Recovery for Home and Fitness Center Use2023-28-010411/10/2023
Sustainable transportation has been a focus area for over a decade, and the recent pandemic-induced lockdowns have witnessed a substantial increase in the demand for fitness equipment. Several studies have proposed different techniques for harvesting energy from human motion, such as piezoelectric footwear, backpacks, and wearable lightweight systems. This research aims to develop a low-cost and efficient technique for harvesting energy from a custom-built electric bike that can be used as a stationary exercise bike. Integrating electric bicycles as exercise bikes has become a viable solution to promote physical fitness and environmental responsibility. This technical paper explores the mechanical and electrical design of e-bikes as exercise bikes and the technical considerations required to create a functional and efficient hybrid machine. The technical aspects of integrating an electric bicycle with an exercise bike include modifying the frame to allow for a stationary position using
P R, Bharanitharan, Anbalagan, Rajalakshmi, Mani, Thanigaivel, Arumugam, Velmurugan
Applying Ferritic Nitrocarburizing (FNC) in Conjunction with Smart ONC® on GCI Brake Rotors: The New Generation of FNC Rotors to Meet the Euro 7 Standards2023-01-188811/05/2023
As the regulations aiming to limit air pollution become stricter, the battle against non-exhaust emissions known to be harmful to human health and the environment is attracting more focus and extending worldwide. EVs are equipped with a hybrid braking system combining regenerative and hydraulic braking to provide the same performance as traditional vehicles. Whenever the regenerative braking torque is insufficient to give the necessary deceleration rate, the hydraulic and electromechanical braking torque is applied. Thus, the recuperative braking of EVs reduces the need for brakes. As the brakes are not used as often, dust and rust will accumulate and impede their performance, so brake problems can arise from not using them enough. Due to the extra weight of EVs compared to ICEVs, more particulates are released through increased corrosion and friction on the braking system. Grey cast iron brake rotors rust quickly, and excessive corrosion causes heavy damage to the rotor’s surface
Nousir, Saadia, Winter, Karl-Michael
Simulated LACT Procedure for Predicting Lining Life for Vehicles with Regenerative Braking2023-01-189211/05/2023
The Simulated Los Angeles City Traffic (SLACT) test is a well-established dynamometer test procedure used to evaluate brake noise and lining wear performance under a typical US city driving conditions. This procedure is based on a vehicle test conducted on the roads of Los Angeles, California. Unlike ICE vehicles, in electric vehicles regenerative brakes do a significant amount of the work to stop the vehicle, resulting in less work required from the foundation brakes. This means that the life of a brake pad could significantly increase in electric vehicles. It is possible then to reduce the thickness of the brake pad to improve packaging and cost. However, in situations where regenerative braking is disabled due to a failure or low battery charge level, all the work must be done by the foundation brake with no support from the regenerative braking. Hence, it is crucial to select the optimal brake pad thickness for such scenarios. The SLACT test was designed primarily for ICE vehicles
Jayyousi, Wael, Divakaruni, Saikiran
Using the XiL Approach for Brake Emission Investigations for Electrified Vehicles2023-01-189111/05/2023
The following paper aims to bring the topics of connected testing and emission measurements together. It is an introduction of connected bench testing with the aim to characterize brake particle emissions with a special focus on the impact of regenerative braking by simulating the real behavior of a premium BEV SUV. Such an approach combines the advantages of a brake dynamometer including an emission testing setup and a HiL setup to allow a much more precise testing of brake particle emissions under the impact of regen braking compared to the current recommendations of the Global Technical Regulation (GTR) on brake particle emissions. It is shown for the very first time, how interactions between the vehicle motion system work. The study includes one physical front brake corner as well as one physical rear brake corner. The regen functionalities are simulated by a real ESC-ECU which is the core of the HiL test setup. The presented results will deal with the simulation accuracy, the
Gramstat, Sebastian, Gramstat, Elizaveta, Hense, Maximilian, Zessinger, Marco
Electro-Hydraulic Composite Braking Control Optimization for Front-Wheel-Driven Electric Vehicles Equipped with Integrated Electro-Hydraulic Braking System2023-01-186411/05/2023
With the development of brake-by-wire technology, electro-hydraulic composite braking technology came into being. This technology distributes the total braking force demand into motor regenerative braking force and hydraulic braking force, and can achieve a high energy recovery rate. The existing composite braking control belongs to single-channel control, i.e., the four wheel braking pressures are always the same, so the hydraulic braking force distribution relationship of the front and rear wheels does not change. For single-axle-driven electric vehicles, the additional regenerative braking force on the driven wheels will destroy the original braking force distribution relationship, resulting in reduced braking efficiency of the driven wheels, which are much easier to lock under poor road adhesion conditions. The integrated Electro-Hydraulic Braking system (iEHB) is the current advanced brake-by-wire system, which can build brake hydraulic pressure by its motor, and independently
Zhao, Xinyu, Xiong, Lu, Zhuo, Guirong, Shu, Qiang, Zhao, Xuanbai
Online Identification of Vehicle Driving Conditions Using Machine-Learned Clusters2023-01-160710/31/2023
Modern electrified vehicles rely on drivers to manually adjust control parameters to modify the vehicle's powertrain, such as regenerative braking strength selection or drive mode selection. However, this reliance on infrequent driver input may lead to a mismatch between the selected powertrain control modifiers and the true driving environment. It is therefore advantageous for an electric vehicle's powertrain controller to make online identifications of the current driving conditions. This paper proposes an online driving condition identification scheme that labels drive cycle intervals collected in real-time based on a clustering model, with the objective of informing adaptive powertrain control strategies. HDBSCAN and K-means clustering models are fitted to a data set of drive cycle intervals representing a full range of characteristic driving conditions. The cluster centroids are recorded and used in a vehicle controller to assign driving condition identification labels to the most
Marrone, John Francis, Kwok, Ian, Fraser, Roydon
Hybrid Electric Two-Wheeled Vehicle Fitted with an EVT System (Electrical Variable Transmission System)2023-01-185310/24/2023
In recent years, global warming, depletion of fossil fuels, and reducing pollution have become increasingly prominent issues, resulting in demand for environmentally-friendly two-wheeled vehicles capable of reducing CO2 emissions. However, it remains necessary to meet customers’ expectations by providing smaller drivetrains, lighter vehicles, and support for long-distance riding, among other characteristics. In the face of this situation, hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) systems are considered to be the most realistic method for creating environmentally-friendly powertrains and are widely used. This research introduces a hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicle fitted with an electrical variable transmission (EVT) system, a completely new type of electrical transmission that meets the aforementioned needs, achieving enhanced fuel efficiency with a compact drivetrain. The EVT system comprises double rotors installed inside the stator. The hybrid electric two-wheeled vehicle equipped with the
Furuta, Hideki, Yoshida, Jun
Evaluation of PM Emissions from Internal Combustion Engines, Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles by Using Emission Factors2023-24-011608/28/2023
To pursue the target of the “net-zero” emission by 2050 and to reduce the most harmful pollutant emissions from road traffic, more specifically of particulate matter (PM), the transportation sector is subject to significant changes. A transition from internal combustion engine passenger cars (ICEVs) to hybrid vehicles (HEVs) and battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) is taking place. This transition, however, must be carefully examined from different perspectives, as hybridization/electrification may not reduce the levels of PM and CO2 as much as expected. In this work, exhaust and non-exhaust PM emissions of a vehicle powered with an internal combustion engine, and of the same vehicle in plug-in hybrid and electric configurations is carried out, by using the emission factors approach. The main objective is the evaluation of the impact of vehicle weight, of percentage of regenerative braking and of energy management strategy (for hybrid configuration), on tire, wear and road surface wear
Castiglione, Teresa, Perrone, Diego, Polistina, Massimo
Trailer Electrification – A HIL Approach for MPC Powertrain Control to Ensure Driver Safety in Micromobility2023-24-018008/28/2023
Bicycle-drawn cargo trailers with an electric drive to enable the transportation of high cargo loads are used as part of the last-mile logistics. Depending on the load, the total mass of a trailer can vary between approx. 50 and 250 kg, potentially more than the mass of the towing bicycle. This can result in major changes in acceleration and braking behavior of the overall system. While existing systems are designed primarily to provide sufficient power, improvements are needed in the powertrain control system in terms of driver safety and comfort. Hence, we propose a novel prototype that allows measurement of the tensile force in the drawbar which can subsequently be used to design a superior control system. In this context, a sinusoidal force input from the cyclist to the trailer according to the cadence of the cyclist is observed. The novelty of this research is to analyze whether torque impulses of the cyclist can be reduced with the help of Model Predictive Control (MPC). In
Miller, Marius, Pfeil, Markus, Kennel, Ralph
A Mid-fidelity Model in the Loop Feasibility Study for Implementation of Regenerative Antilock Braking System in Electric Vehicles10-07-03-002207/29/2023
The tailpipe zero-emission legislation has pushed the automotive industry toward more electrification. Regenerative braking is the capability of electric machines to provide brake torque. So far, the regenerative braking feature is primarily considered due to its effect on energy efficiency. However, using individual e-machines for each wheel makes it possible to apply the antilock braking function due to the fast torque-tracking characteristics of permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM). Due to its considerable cost reduction, in this article, a feasibility study is carried out to investigate if the ABS function can be done purely through regenerative braking using a mid-fidelity model-based approach. An uni-tire model of the vehicle with a surface-mount PMSM (SPMSM) model is used to verify the idea. The proposed ABS control system has a hierarchical structure containing a high-level longitudinal slip controller and a low-level SPMSM torque controller. Given the uncertainties of
Ghanami, Nastaran, Nikzadfar, Kamyar, Mohammadi Daniali, Hamid Reza
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