Browse Topic: Stability control

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Dynamics and Control Research of a Momentum-Wheel-Based Two-Wheeled Self-Balancing Vehicle Based on Cascade PID2026-01-0216To be published on 04/07/2026
Momentum wheel-based two-wheeled self-balancing vehicle represent typical underactuated, nonlinear systems, posing significant challenges for stability control under varying operating conditions. To achieve self-stabilizing control during uniform horizontal motion, a cascaded PID control method is proposed. This approach stabilizes the frame tilt angle via an outer-loop PID controller while simultaneously controlling the handlebar angle and momentum wheel speed through an inner-loop PID controller, thereby enabling constant-speed self-balancing vehicle operation. First, based on the Lagrange method, the five rigid-body Lagrangian functions of the self-balancing vehicle are derived. The nonlinear dynamic equations of the self-balancing vehicle system, incorporating Lagrange multipliers, are established. Using Taylor series expansion, these equations are approximated linearly near the system's equilibrium point, leading to the linearized dynamic equations of the self-balancing vehicle
wang, nannan, lu, jiahao, zhao, yanlei, fan, yigang
Research on Fault-Tolerant Control Strategy for Drive System Failure of Corner Module-by-Wire Chassis Vehicles2026-01-0620To be published on 04/07/2026
As an emerging research focus, corner module-by-wire chassis vehicles address the pain points of traditional chassis in flexibility, cost, and development efficiency, and have become one of the key infrastructures in the autonomous driving era. However, their large number of actuators significantly increases the risk of failures. This paper analyzes the characteristics of such vehicles and studies the fault-tolerant control for their drive system failures. Firstly, a full-vehicle dynamic model was established, with mathematical modeling conducted for the vehicle body, motor, tire, and corner module system models. Secondly, a hierarchical yaw stability control strategy was designed for the non-faulty actuator scenario: the decision-making and control layer adopted both Sliding Mode Control (SMC) and fuzzy PID control, selecting the method with better performance to output the additional yaw moment; the control allocation layer used a quadratic programming algorithm based on tire load
Zheng, Hongyu, Zhang, Tianhao, Zhang, Yuzhou
A Study of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 126 and 136 Test Procedures on a Class 5 Vehicle2026-01-0616To be published on 04/07/2026
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) 126 and 136 are standards imposed on four of the eight recognized road vehicle classes in The United States. These standards make it mandatory for Electronic Stability Control modules (ESC) to be mounted to Class 1,2,7, and 8 vehicles. These modules strategically activate the vehicle brakes via the Antilock Brake System (ABS) to limit the recorded yaw rate and lateral displacement of a vehicle during an extreme cornering maneuver such as a sudden swerve to avoid an obstacle on the road. The two aforementioned FMVSS mandates also specify three different driving maneuvers that are conducted to profile and analyze ESC module performance. There is now an interest in creating a new FMVSS that makes ESC modules mandatory for Class 5 vehicles. The purpose of this paper is to analyze how one specific Class 5 vehicle’s ESC module performed when subjected to the two test procedures that correspond to FMVSS 126 and 136. As will be seen, the vehicle’s
Cazares, Richard Isaac, Guenther, Dennis, Heydinger, Gary
A Complex Road Surface Parameter Estimation Method Based on the Fusion Framework of Visual Classifier and Dynamics Observer10-10-02-00131/16/2026
Special vehicles such as off-road vehicles and planetary rovers frequently operate on complex, unpaved road surfaces with varying mechanical parameters. Inaccurate estimation of these parameters can cause subsidence or rollover. Existing methods either lack proactive perception or high precision. This article proposes a fusion framework integrating a visual classifier and a dynamics observer for stable, accurate estimation of road surface parameters. The visual classifier uses an adaptive segmentation system for unpaved roads, leveraging a large-scale vision model and a lightweight network to classify upcoming road surfaces. The dynamics observer employs an online wheel-–ground interaction model using stress approximation, integrating strong tracking theory into an unscented Kalman filter for real-time parameter estimation. The fusion framework performs integration of the classifier and observer outputs at data, feature, and decision levels. An adaptive fading factor and recursive
Zhang, Chenhao, Xia, Guang, Zhang, Yang, Zhou, Dayang, Shi, Qin
High-Fidelity Modeling of Vehicle Dynamics for Control-Oriented Stability Enhancement2026-26-00931/16/2026
This study presents an integrated vehicle dynamics framework combining a 12-degree-of-freedom full vehicle model with advanced control strategies to enhance both ride comfort and handling stability. Unlike simplified models, it incorporates linear and nonlinear tire characteristics to simulate real-world dynamic behavior with higher accuracy. An active roll control system using rear suspension actuators is developed to mitigate excessive body roll and yaw instability during cornering and maneuvers. A co-simulation environment is established by coupling MATLAB/Simulink-based control algorithms with high-fidelity multibody dynamics modeled in ADAMS Car, enabling precise, real-time interaction between control logic and vehicle response. The model is calibrated and validated against data from an instrumented test vehicle, ensuring practical relevance. Simulation results show significant reductions in roll angle, yaw rate deviation, and lateral acceleration, highlighting the effectiveness
Duraikannu, Dinesh, Dumpala, Gangi Reddi
Emergency Motion Control of Autonomous Vehicles under Tire Blowout Conditions2025-01-733612/31/2025
As one of the most common types of traffic accidents, tire blowout has become a significant safety issue in the stability control of autonomous vehicles. This paper presents a coordinated control strategy for autonomous vehicles operating under tire blowout conditions. A simplified three-degree-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model and a preview-based kinematic model are developed to capture the complex interactions between lateral and longitudinal motions during a blowout event. Then, the proposed control framework integrates sliding mode control (SMC) with a prescribed-performance function to constrain lateral deviation and heading error within predefined boundaries. To improve emergency path tracking and ensure stability, a transformation-based error bounding method is introduced. Lyapunov-based stability analysis verifies the convergence properties of the closed-loop system. Simulation results validate the effectiveness of the proposed method under both tubeless and tubed tire blowout
Xia, Hongyang, Yang, Ming, Li, Hongluo, Huang, Yongxian
Research on the Rotation Resistance Coefficient Experiment Based on the 6 Degree-of-Freedom Rig2025-99-030812/17/2025
The rotational resistance coefficient of the bogie is a critical parameter for assessing the operational safety of vehicles, significantly influencing the stability of the vehicle’s snaking motion and the safety of curve negotiation. This paper conducts measurements of the rotational resistance coefficient using a 6- degree-of-freedom bogie test rig, evaluating the variation patterns of the indicator under different vehicle load conditions and air spring inflation states. By establishing a SIMPACK dynamic model of the 6-DOF platform, it is possible to obtain actuator displacement control curves that comply with the EN 14363 standard. Taking a specific subway trailer bogie as an example, the rotational resistance coefficient under various operating conditions was measured. The test results indicate that under the condition of air spring deflation, the rotational resistance coefficient is significantly higher than that under air spring inflation. Moreover, under the condition of air
Li, Li, Hu, Jie
Integral–Derivative-Tilted Controller for Semi-Active Magnetorheological Truck Suspension System Using Combined Multi-Objective Ant Colony Optimization Algorithm02-19-02-000910/29/2025
This study proposes a novel control strategy for a semi-active truck suspension system using an integral–derivative-tilted (ID-T) controller, developed as a modification of the TID controller. The ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithm is employed to tune the controller parameters. Performance is evaluated on an eight-degrees-of-freedom semi-active suspension system equipped with MR dampers. The objective is to minimize essential dynamic responses (displacement, velocity, and acceleration) of the sprung mass, cabin, and seat. The controller also considers the nonlinear effects including suspension travel, pitch dynamics, dynamic tire loads, and seat-level vibration dose value (VDV). System performance is assessed under both single bump and random road excitations. The ACO-tuned ID-T controller is compared against passive suspension, MR passive (OFF/ON), and ACO-tuned PID and TID controllers. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed controller achieves superior performance in
Gad, S., Metered, H., Bassiuny, A. M.
Coordinated Strategy of Trajectory Tracking and Stability Control for Autonomous Vehicles with Switched Envelope and Composite Evaluation10-10-01-000310/13/2025
Trajectory tracking and lateral stability under extreme conditions are critical yet conflicting control objectives due to nonlinear tire dynamics and road adhesion limitation, where accurate characterization of vehicle dynamics for each objective is essential to enable coordinated performance. This article proposes a coordinated control strategy based on switched envelope and composite evaluation to improve both tracking accuracy and stability. Unlike previous stability envelope methods that rely solely on the vehicle’s rear tire saturation boundary to prevent instability, the switched envelope approach incorporates both front and rear tire saturation boundaries to simultaneously mitigate steering loss and instability in trajectory tracking. A critical steering angle, derived from tire slip dynamics and phase plane stability analysis, is formulated as the switching criterion. Additionally, a composite stability evaluation is developed by combining a future disturbance resistance index
Shi, Wenbo, Wang, Junlong, Ding, Haitao, Xu, Nan
Automotive Engineering: October 202525AUTP1010/2/2025
Engineering EV, charger safety and security From a quick access port to help firefighters fight EV battery fires faster than otherwise possible to preventing public charger vandalism, here are some developments that haven't made the big headlines. Electronic stability control builds the foundation for safer roads How a mechanically simple idea has kept cars stable for decades, and why it can still evolve for an autonomous future. The factory's hidden power grid Why smart electrical distribution is the new frontier in sustainable manufacturing. Safety by design: a next-gen blueprint for EV batteries The EV industry can - and should - stop pushing decades-old battery architecture well past its limits. Vehicle fire safety with Erbis Biscarri Author turns classroom quest into a tome for anyone who wants to engineer safer cars. Editorial IAA Mobility: A new class of auto show Supplier Eye The new supplier strategy playbook BMW brings EV motor production to Steyr in Austria Ford unveils its
Electronic stability control builds the foundation for SAFER ROADS25AUTP10_0210/1/2025
How a mechanically simple idea has kept cars stable for decades, and why it can still evolve for an autonomous future. Since debuting in 1995, Bosch's electronic stability program (ESP) has become one of the most essential safety features in modern vehicles. It's now a standard on nearly every new car sold in America and has been deployed in over 350 million vehicles worldwide. ESP is more than just legacy tech. It's the foundation behind advanced driver assistance, motion control and a more automated future.
Nesbitt, Rich
Early Detection of the Loss of Control of Motorsport Vehicles10-09-03-00296/30/2025
The article investigates how to detect as quickly as possible whether the driver will lose control of a vehicle, after a disturbance has occurred. Typical disturbances refer to wind gusts, obstacle avoidance, a sudden steer, traversing a pothole, a kick by another vehicle, and so on. The driver may be either human or non-human. Focus will be devoted to human drivers, but the extension to automated or autonomous cars is straightforward. Since the dynamic behavior of vehicle and driver is described by a saddle-type limit cycle, a proper theory is developed to use the limit cycle as a reference trajectory to forecast the loss of control. The Floquet theory has been used to compute a scalar index to forecast stable or unstable motion. The scalar index, named degree of stability (DoS), is computed very early, in the best case, in a few milliseconds after the disturbance has ended. Investigations have been performed at a dynamic driving simulator. A 14 DoF vehicle model, virtually driven by
Della Rossa, Fabio, Fontana, Matteo, Giacintucci, Samuele, Gobbi, Massimiliano, Mastinu, Giampiero, Previati, Giorgio
Simulation and Experimental: Enhanced Stability Control of Electric Vehicle Based on Phase Plane Boundary Analysis10-09-02-00175/5/2025
To optimize vehicle chassis handling stability and ride safety, a layered joint control algorithm based on phase plane stability domain is proposed to promote chassis performance under complicated driving conditions. First, combining two degrees-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model considering tire nonlinearity with phase plane theory, a yaw rate and side slip angle phase plane stability domain boundary is drew in real time. Then based on the real-time stability domain and hierarchical control theory, an integrated control system with active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC) is designed, and the stability of the controller is validated by Lyapunov theory. Finally, the lateral stability of the vehicle is validated by Simulink and CarSim simulations, real car data, and driving simulators under moose test and pylon course slalom test. The experimental results confirm that the algorithm can enhance the maneuverability and ride safety for intelligent vehicles.
Liao, Yinsheng, Zhang, Zhijie, Su, Ailin, Zhao, Binggen, Wang, Zhenfeng
Compatibility between Stability and Curving Ability of Railway Vehicles Using Conventional and Unconventional Bogie Frame Models02-18-03-00144/9/2025
This article analyses the fundamental curving mechanics in the context of conditions of perfect steering off-flanging and on-flanging. Then conventional, radial, and asymmetric suspension bogie frame models are presented, and expressions of overall bending stiffness kb and overall shear stiffness ks of each model are derived to formulate the uniform equations of motion on a tangent and circular track. A 4 degree of freedom steady-state curving model is formulated, and performance indices such as stability, curving, and several parameters including angle of attack, tread wear index, and off-flanging performance are investigated for different bogie frame configurations. The compatibility between stability and curving is analyzed concerning those configurations and compared. The critical parameters influencing hunting stability and curving ability are evaluated, and a trade-off between them is analyzed. For the verification, the damped natural frequencies and mean square acceleration
Sharma, Rakesh Chandmal, Sharma, Sunil Kumar, Palli, Srihari, Rallabandi, Sivasankara Raju, Sharma, Neeraj
Dynamics Analysis and Stability Control of a Lunar Unicycle Self-Balancing Robot2025-01-83014/1/2025
The unicycle self-balancing mobility system offers superior maneuverability and flexibility due to its unique single-wheel grounding feature, which allows it to autonomously perform exploration and delivery tasks in narrow and rough terrains. In this paper, a unicycle self-balancing robot traveling on the lunar terrain is proposed for autonomous exploration on the lunar surface. First, a multi-body dynamics model of the robot is derived based on quasi-Hamilton equations. A three-dimensional terramechancis model is used to describe the interaction between the robot wheels and the lunar soil. To achieve stable control of the robot's attitude, series PID controllers are used for pitch and roll attitude self-balancing control as well as velocity control. The whole robot model and control strategy were built in MATLAB and the robot's traveling stability was analyzed on the lunar terrain.
Shi, Junwei, Zhang, Kaidi, Duan, Yupeng, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Cost-Effective Sideslip Measurement: Beta for the People!2025-01-87964/1/2025
Vehicle sideslip is a valuable measurement for ground vehicles in both passenger vehicle and racing contexts. At relevant speeds, the total vehicle sideslip, beta, can help drivers and engineers know how close to the limits of yaw stability a vehicle is during the driving maneuver. For production vehicles or racing contexts, this measurement can trigger Electronic Stability Control (ESC). For racing contexts, the method can be used for driver training to compare driver techniques and vehicle cornering performance. In a fleet context with Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAVS) any vehicle telemetry reporting large vehicle sideslip can indicate an emergency scenario. Traditionally, sideslip estimation methods involve expensive and complex sensors, often including precise inertial measurement units (IMUs) and dead reckoning, plus complicated sensor fusion techniques. Standard GPS measurements can provide Course Over Ground (COG) with quite high accuracy and, surprisingly, the most
Hannah, Andrew, Compere, Marc
Stability Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles Using Particle Filter and Fuzzy Integral Sliding Mode Control2025-01-88114/1/2025
The Distributed Drive Electric Vehicles (DDEVs) offer advantages such as independently controllable driving and braking forces at each wheel, rapid response, and precise control. These features enable effective electronic stability control (ESC) by appropriately distributing torque across each wheel. However, traditional ESC systems typically employ single-wheel hydraulic differential braking, failing to fully utilize the independent torque control capabilities of DDEVs. This study proposes a hierarchical control strategy for distributed driving and braking ESC based on particle filter (PF) and fuzzy integral sliding mode control (FISMC). First, the vehicle state estimation layer uses a three-degree-of-freedom vehicle model and the PF to estimate sideslip angle and vehicle speed. Next, the target torque decision layer includes a target speed tracking controller and a yaw moment decision controller. The yaw moment decision controller uses the FISMC to determine additional yaw moment by
Li, Xiaolong, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo
Study on Emergency Obstacle Avoidance Lateral Stability Control of Tractor Semitrailer Vehicles2025-01-82964/1/2025
As a crucial component of highway freight systems, tractor semitrailer vehicles play a key role in the transportation industry. However, their complex vehicle structure can lead to significant lateral instability during emergency obstacle avoidance, posing challenges to the vehicle's dynamic stability and safety. To enhance the emergency obstacle avoidance lateral stability of tractor semitrailer vehicles, a direct yaw moment lateral stability control strategy based on differential driving/braking is proposed. First, a 3-degree-of-freedom ideal linear dynamic model of the tractor-semitrailer is established, and its accuracy is validated. Then, a lateral stability control strategy for emergency obstacle avoidance is proposed. The upper-layer controller employs an improved feedforward differential model-free adaptive control (IMFAC) method to track the target yaw rate and vehicle sideslip angle, while the lower-layer controller focuses on optimizing tire load rate. Additionally, a drive
Guo, Shaozhong, Dou, Jingyang
A Drive Anti-Slip and Lateral Stability Control Technique for Distributed Three-Axis Drive Vehicle2025-01-83034/1/2025
The research object of this project is the anti-slip and lateral stability control technique for a distributed three-axis drive vehicle. What differs from the traditional four-motor power system layout is that the third axle has two motors, while the second axle only has one motor. Compared with the traditional design, this layout can reduce dependence on battery performance and maintain motor operation in a high-efficiency range by switching between different operating modes. For example, when driving at high speeds, only the motor on the second axle works, which can improve motor efficiency. When accelerating or climbing, all motors work to provide a large power output. In the research, the vehicle model was first established in Simulink, and then co-simulated with TruckSim. The drive anti-slip control first identified the optimal slip rate for the road, and then used the sliding mode control to determine the driving torque for each wheel, achieving good control effects under various
Shen, Ruiteng, Zheng, Hongyu, Kaku, Chuyo, Zong, Changfu
Stability-Based Coordinated Control for Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle Trajectory Tracking and Handling Stability2025-01-83074/1/2025
To address the issue of poor yaw stability in distributed drive electric vehicles under extreme trajectory tracking conditions, this paper proposes a novel control approach that coordinates upper-layer trajectory tracking and stability control with lower-layer active front steering (AFS) and direct yaw moment control (DYC). Firstly, a stability domain boundary is defined in the β−β̇phase plane, and the instability factor is derived based on boundary line characteristics. This factor is used as a weight in the objective function to establish a model predictive control (MPC) for trajectory tracking and handling stability, thereby adjusting the control target weights for both objectives. Secondly, fuzzy logic is used to change the boundary of the phase plane transition field according to the vehicle state to dynamically adjust the intervention timing of the stability control, while AFS and DYC control are used to modify the front wheel steering angle and yaw moment control in the MPC
Dou, Jingyang, Wu, Jinglai, Zhang, Yunqing
Time-Varying Gain-Scheduled Path-Tracking Controller with Delay Compensation (TGDC) for Autonomous Vehicles10-09-02-00122/19/2025
Path-tracking control occupies a critical role within autonomous driving systems, directly reflecting vehicle motion and impacting both safety and user experience. However, the ever-changing vehicle states, road conditions, and delay characteristics of control systems present new challenges to the path tracking of autonomous vehicles, thereby limiting further enhancements in performance. This article introduces a path-tracking controller, time-varying gain-scheduled path-tracking controller with delay compensation (TGDC), which utilizes a linear parameter-varying system and optimal control theory to account for time-varying vehicle states, road conditions, and steering control system delays. Subsequently, a polytopic-based path-tracking model is applied to design the control law, reducing the computational complexity of TGDC. To evaluate the effectiveness and real-time capability of TGDC, it was tested under a series of complex conditions using a hardware-in-the-loop platform. The
Hu, XuePeng, Zhang, Yu, Hu, Yuxuan, Wang, Zhenfeng, Qin, Yechen
Enhancing Vehicle Safety: Investigating the Role of Active Anti-Roll Bars in Vehicle Dynamics2024-36-005812/20/2024
A serious problem of public healthcare around the world is the number of road vehicle accidents, every year almost 1,3 million people die and approximately 20 to 50 million people suffer a non-fatal accident because of a road vehicle accident [1]. As a result of that, in 2021 the World Health Organization stated the “The Second Decade of Action for Road Safety”, which the goal is to prevent at least 50% of deaths and injuries due traffic by 2030. To achieve this goal, the automobile companies have invested in technology and products that can enhance vehicle safety. Despite exist some control systems able to reduce roll, and consequently the roll over, such as active suspension, semi-active suspension, and stability control systems, none of them have as main purpose reduce the number of rollovers. The following study aims to examine the effects of an active anti roll bar, to improve the vehicle dynamics during corners and reduce the risk of a rollover by reducing the roll of the sprung
Gomes, Pedro Carvalho, Teixeira, Evandro Leonardo Silva, Morais, Marcus Vinicius Girão, Fortaleza, Eugenio Liborio Feitora, Santos Gioria, Gustavo
Trajectory Planning and Tracking Control for Single Lane Changing with Different Driving Styles of Intelligent Vehicles Based on Seventh-Degree Polynomial12-08-03-002812/14/2024
Single lane changing is one of the typical scenarios in vehicle driving. Planning an appropriate lane change trajectory is crucial in autonomous and semi-autonomous vehicle research. Existing polynomial trajectory planning mostly uses cubic or quintic polynomials, neglecting the lateral jerk constraints during lane changes. This study uses seventh-degree polynomials for lane change trajectory planning by considering the vehicle lateral jerk constraints. Simulation results show that the utilization of the seventh-degree method results in a 41% reduction in jerk compared to the fifth-degree polynomial. Furthermore, this study also proposes lane change trajectory schemes that can cater to different driving styles (e.g., safety, efficiency, comfort, and balanced performance). Depending on the driving style, the planned lane change trajectory ensures that the vehicle achieves optimal performance in one or more aspects during the lane change process. For example, with the trajectory that
Lai, Fei, Huang, Chaoqun
Active Hydro-Pneumatic Suspension Active Disturbance Rejection Sliding Mode Control for Improved Vehicle Stability2024-28-021512/5/2024
Hydro-pneumatic suspension is widely used because of its desirable nonlinear stiffness and damping characteristics. However, the presence of parameter uncertainties and high nonlinearities in the system, lead to unsatisfactory control performance of the traditional controller in practical applications. In response to this challenge, this paper proposes a novel stability control method for active hydro-pneumatic suspension (AHPS). Firstly, a nonlinear mathematical model of the hydro-pneumatic suspension, considering the seal friction, is established based on the hydraulic principle and the knowledge of Fluid dynamics. On the basis of the established hydro-pneumatic suspension nonlinear model, a vehicle dynamics model is established. Secondly, an active disturbance rejection sliding mode controller (ADRSMC) is designed for the vertical, roll, and pitch motions of the sprung mass. The lumped disturbance caused by the model nonlinearities and uncertainties is estimated by the extended
Niu, Changsheng, Liu, Xiaoang, Jia, Xing, Gong, Bo, Xu, Bo
Integrated Control of Intelligent Vehicle Driving Stability Using Three-Dimensional Phase Space10-09-01-000210/16/2024
To enhance vehicle dynamic stability during driving, we developed a three-dimensional phase space model that incorporates the sideslip angle of center of mass, yaw rate, and lateral load transfer rate. This model enabled real-time evaluation and active control of vehicle stability. First, longitudinal and lateral controllers were implemented to ensure precise vehicle trajectory. Second, a hierarchical control strategy was designed to actively manage the desired sideslip angle, yaw rate, and roll angle based on the vehicle’s destabilizing conditions, thereby maintaining the vehicle within a stable state space. We simulated and tested the stability analysis methods and integrated control strategies for both cars and trucks under DLC (double lane change) and CDC (circular driving condition) scenarios using joint simulations with CarSim/TruckSim and Simulink. The proposed integrated stability control strategy, which combined MPC-based trajectory tracking with direct yaw moment control and
Lai, Fei, Xiao, Hao, Huang, Chaoqun
Experimental Study on Quality Control and Variable Valve Timing Strategy of Hydrogen Engine for High Efficiency and Low Emission at Low Load2024-01-509510/15/2024
In order to reduce the pumping loss of low loads and maximize the lean combustion advantage of hydrogen, the paper proposes a load control strategy based on hydrogen mass, called quality control, for improving thermal efficiency and emissions at low loads. The advantages of quality control and the effect of VVT on the combustion performance of hydrogen internal combustion engines under low loads were discussed. The results show that when the relative air–fuel ratio (λ) increases to more than 2.5, the NOx emissions are reduced to less than 3.5 g/kW · h at the brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) below 8 bar, especially when the BMEP is less than 5 bar, the NOx is within 0.2 g/kW · h. Compared to quantity control based on air mass, the quality control strategy based on hydrogen mass achieves over a 2.0% reduction in pumping loss at BMEP levels lower than 4.4 bar. Furthermore, it enhances thermal efficiency by up to 5% at low loads, while maintaining NOx emissions within 0.2 g/kW · h at
Li, Yong, Chen, Hong, Fu, Zhen, Du, Jiakun, Wu, Weilong
Integrated Motion Control Strategy Considering Parameter Robustness for Distributed Vehicle by Wire10-08-04-003110/10/2024
To address the issues of functional conflicts in execution subsystems and the deterioration of control performance due to model parameter uncertainties in the motion control of distributed vehicle by wire, this article proposes an integrated control strategy considering parameter robustness. This strategy aims to compensate for model mismatch, resolve functional conflicts, and achieve motion coordination. Based on the over-actuation characteristics of distributed vehicle by wire, this article constructs the dynamic model and utilizes the tire cornering properties along with phase portraits to delineate the working regions of the execution subsystems. To deal with model parameter uncertainties and mismatch, tube-based model predictive control (tube-based MPC) is applied to the control strategy design, which compensates for model deviations through state feedback and constructs a robust positively invariant set (RPI) to constrain the system state. Correspondingly, the weights of control
Chen, Guoying, Bi, Chenxiao, Zhao, Xuanming, Yang, Liunan, Tang, Zhuo, Yu, Huili
Intelligent Vehicle Path Tracking and Stability Cooperative Control Strategy Based on Stable Domain10-08-04-00258/14/2024
Vehicle path tracking and stability management are critical technologies for intelligent driving. However, their controls are mutually constrained. This article proposes a cooperative control strategy for intelligent vehicle path tracking and stability, based on the stable domain. First, using the vehicle’s two-degrees-of-freedom (DOF) model and the Dugoff tire model, a phase plane representation is constructed for the vehicle’s sideslip angle and sideslip angular velocity. An enhanced method utilizing five eigenvalues is employed to partition the vehicle stability domain. Second, by employing the divided vehicle stable domain, the design of a fuzzy controller utilizes the Takagi–Sugeno (TS) methodology to determine the weight matrix gain for path tracking and stability control. Subsequently, a fuzzy model predictive control (TS-MPC) cooperative control strategy is designed, which takes into account both the precision of path tracking and the stability of the vehicle. Finally, a
Jiang, Shuhuai, Wu, Guangqiang, Li, Yihang, Mao, Libo, Zhang, Dong
Analysis of road safety implementation strategies to support the easiest introduction of autonomous braking products for complex vehicle combinations2024-36-03198/9/2024
In contrast to passenger cars, whose regulation allowed only a simple trailer combination, the autonomous technologies implementation of Electronic Stability Control (ESC) and Advanced Emergency Braking System (AEBS) for commercial vehicles demands more application and calibration efforts. At this case, the focus is on dynamic control of towing vehicles when applying the service brakes of trailer, in special when complex combination as bi-train and road-train, allowed in North and South America. However, the major risk is present occurrence when an ESC or AEBS equipped towing vehicles is connected to a double or triple trailer combination with a conventional braking system, it means: a system that is not equipped with Anti-lock Braking System (ABS). For instance, if during autonomous control, trailers wheels lock, a jackknifing phenomenon can easily occur. Therefore, in case longer and heavier vehicles (LHV) or megatrucks as called in Europe, the strategy for safety assistance systems
Guarenghi, Vinicius Mendes, Pizzi, Rafael Fortuna, Depetris, Alessandro, Pinto, Gustavo Laranjeira Nunes, Collobialli, Germano
Path-Tracking Control for Four-Wheel Steer/Drive Agricultural Special Electric Vehicles Considering Stability2024-01-50514/25/2024
With the modernization of agriculture, the application of unmanned agricultural special vehicles is becoming increasingly widespread, which helps to improve agricultural production efficiency and reduce labor. Vehicle path-tracking control is an important link in achieving intelligent driving of vehicles. This paper designs a controller that combines path tracking with vehicle lateral stability for four-wheel steer/drive agricultural special electric vehicles. First, based on a simplified three-degrees-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model, a model predictive control (MPC) controller is used to calculate the front and rear axle angles. Then, according to the Ackermann steering principle, the four-wheel independent angles are calculated using the front and rear axle angles to achieve tracking of the target trajectory. For vehicle lateral stability, the sliding mode control (SMC) is used to calculate the required direct yaw moment control (DYC) of the vehicle, and wheel torque distribution
Huang, Bin, Yang, Nuorong, Ma, Liutao, Wei, Lexia
Vehicle Yaw Stability Model Predictive Control Strategy for Dynamic and Multi-Objective Requirements2024-01-23244/9/2024
Vehicle yaw stability control (YSC) can actively adjust the working state of the chassis actuator to generate a certain additional yaw moment for the vehicle, which effectively helps the vehicle maintain good driving quality under strong transient conditions such as high-speed turning and continuous lane change. However, the traditional YSC pursues too much driving stability after activation, ignoring the difference of multi-objective requirements of yaw maneuverability, actuator energy consumption and other requirements in different vehicle stability states, resulting in the decline of vehicle driving quality. Therefore, a vehicle yaw stability model predictive control strategy for dynamic and multi-objective requirements is proposed in this paper. Firstly, the unstable characteristics of vehicle motion are analyzed, and the nonlinear two-degree-of-freedom vehicle dynamics models are established respectively. Secondly, the vehicle yaw stability control strategy is designed: The two
Wang, Hanlin, Wu, Jian, Chen, Zhicheng, He, Rui, Li, Haiqiao
Reference Velocity Estimation with Variable Gain Based on Powertrain Dynamics for Production Hybrid Electric Vehicle2024-01-21474/9/2024
Reference velocity (i.e. the absolute velocity of vehicle center of gravity) is a key parameter for vehicle stability control functions as well as for the powertrain control functions of hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). Most reference velocity estimation methods employ the vehicle kinematic and tire dynamic equations to construct high order linear or nonlinear model with a set of parameters and sensor measurements. When using those models, delicate algorithm should be designed to prevent the estimates from deviating along with the increase of nonlinearity, modeling error and noise that introduced by high order, parameter approximation, and sensor measurements, respectively. Alternatively, to improve the function robustness and calibration convenience, a straightforward online estimation method is developed in the paper by using a second-order powertrain dynamic model that only need a small set of vehicle parameters and sensor values. First, the HEV powertrain dynamic model is established
Li, Huan, Liu, Xuewu, Wang, Jinhang, Chen, Lihua, Xu, Yin, Wu, Meng
A Novel Torque Distribution Approach of Four-Wheel Independent-Drive Electric Vehicles for Improving Handling and Energy Efficiency2024-01-23154/9/2024
This paper presents a torque distribution strategy for four-wheel independent drive electric vehicles (4WIDEVs) to achieve both handling stability and energy efficiency. The strategy is based on the dynamic adjustment of two optimization objectives. Firstly, a 2DOF vehicle model is employed to define the stability control objective for Direct Yaw moment Control (DYC). The upper-layer controller, designed using Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR), is responsible for tracking the target yaw rate and target sideslip angle. Secondly, the lower-layer torque distribution strategy is established by optimizing the tire load rate and motor energy consumption for dynamic adjustment. To regulate the weights of the optimization targets, stability and energy efficiency allocation coefficient is introduced. Simulation results of double lane change and split μ road conditions are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed DYC controller.
Dou, Jingyang, Chen, Zixuan, Zhang, Yunqing, Wu, Jinglai
Recursive Least Square Method with Multiple Forgot Factor for Mass Estimation of Heavy Commercial Vehicle2024-01-27624/9/2024
Heavy commercial vehicles have large variations in load and high centroid positions, so it is particularly important to obtain timely and accurate load information during driving. If the load information can be accurately obtained and the braking force of each axle can be distributed on this basis, the braking performance and safety of the entire vehicle can be improved. Heavy commercial vehicle load information is different from passenger vehicles, so it is particularly important to study commercial vehicles engaged in freight and passenger transportation. Presently, numerous research endeavors focus on evaluating the quality of passenger vehicles. However, heavy commercial vehicles exhibit notable distinctions compared to their passenger counterparts. Due to substantial variations in vehicle mass pre and post-loading, coupled with notable suspension deformations, significant changes are observed. Hence, the task of estimating the mass of heavy commercial vehicles proves considerably
Zheng, Hongyu, Xin, Yafei, Yan, Yang
Coordinated Control of Trajectory Tracking and Yaw Stability of a Hub-Motor-Driven Vehicle based on Four-Wheel-Steering2024-01-27674/9/2024
In order to improve the trajectory tracking accuracy and yaw stability of vehicles under extreme conditions such as high speed and low adhesion, a coordinated control method of trajectory tracking and yaw stability is proposed based on four-wheel-independent-driving vehicles with four-wheel-steering. The hierarchical structure includes the trajectory tracking control layer, the lateral stability control decision layer, and the four-wheel angle and torque distribution layer. Firstly, the upper layer establishes a three-degree-of-freedom vehicle dynamics model as the controller prediction model, the front wheel steering controller is designed to realize the lateral path tracking based on adaptive model predictive control algorithm and the longitudinal speed controller is designed to realize the longitudinal speed tracking based on PID control algorithm. Then, the middle layer decides the rear wheel steering angle and the additional yaw moment to maintain the vehicle's yaw stability based
Fu, Yao, Xie, Renmin, Kaku, Chuyo, Zheng, Hongyu
A Novel Method to Assess 4WS Vehicle Stability Based on Vehicle Sideslip Angle and Angular Velocity Phase Plane Method2024-01-50041/18/2024
Vehicle dynamic control could improve vehicle performance. Vehicle stability is vital to the determination of vehicle dynamic control strategy. The phase plane method is one of the most common methods to judge vehicle stability. To determine the 4WS (four-wheel steering) vehicle stability status faster and more accurately, a novel method to assess the vehicle stability is based on the vehicle sideslip angle and angular velocity ( β-β˙) phase plane. At first, the 2 DOF (degree of freedom) model with a nonlinear tire model is established to acquire β-β˙ phase plane. Then the boundary of the stability region generated by the current method is compared. A crosspoint-ellipse method is provided based on the boundary comparison with the ideal boundary. The boundary function determined by the crosspoint-ellipse method is fitted based on vehicle dynamic theory and the boundary analysis with different steering angles, velocity, and road adhesion coefficient. At last, the transition area between
Peng, Dengzhi, Xia, Zuguo, Wang, Long, Liu, Qing
Outrigger Design & Development for Vehicle Testing as per AIS 1332024-26-03501/16/2024
Outrigger is mounted on the test vehicle during handling test maneuvers, such as double lane change, constant radius cornering, J-turn, etc. The aim of these outriggers is to protect the driver & vehicle from rollover during testing of vehicle electronic stability control systems under various dynamic maneuvers as per AIS 133. Outrigger design has to be achieved within a certain mass and roll moment of inertia as per AIS 133 guidelines. The paper discusses design which includes load path analysis, material comparison to maximize strength per unit weight, shape, dimensional finalization, etc. Torsion is generated when the skidpad comes in contact with the ground which we have tried to balance in the free body diagram (FBD) by changing the skidpad contact point for reducing the stress. Finite element analysis is done on the design developed after setting boundary conditions arrived from FBD. The developed design is then manufactured and successfully implemented in the testing of vehicles
Rathore, Gopal Singh, Chawla, Shubham
Prognosis of Engine Failure Based on Modelling by Using Live Parameter Data from Vehicle2024-26-02661/16/2024
In the commercial vehicle business, vehicle availability is a pivotal factor for the profitability of the customer. Nonetheless, the intricate nature of the technologies embedded in modern day engines and exhaust after-treatment systems coupled with the variability of the duty cycles of end applications of the vehicles imposes added challenges on the vehicle's sustained performance and reliability. In this context, the ability to predict potential failures through tools like telematics and real-time data analytics presents a significant opportunity for original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to deliver distinctive value to their customers. A modern-day commercial vehicle has a minimum of 5 micro controllers managing the performance and performing the on-board diagnostics of various sub-systems like engine, after treatment system, transmission, Cab and stability controls, the driver interface, and advisory systems etc., They operate independently and also sync with each other as master
K.S, Guru Prasanna, D.V, Ramkumar, S, Kannan, J, Narayana Reddy, K.R, Karthikeyan, D., Somsekar, M.D, Senthilkumar, N, Augustin Selvakumar, S.P, Suprabhan
Estimation of Lateral Velocity and Cornering Stiffness in Vehicle Dynamics Based on Multi-Source Information Fusion10-08-01-00031/4/2024
To address the challenge of directly measuring essential dynamic parameters of vehicles, this article introduces a multi-source information fusion estimation method. Using the intelligent front camera (IFC) sensor to analyze lane line polynomial information and a kinematic model, the vehicle’s lateral velocity and sideslip angle can be determined without extra sensor expenses. After evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of the two aforementioned lateral velocity estimation techniques, a fusion estimation approach for lateral velocity is proposed. This approach extracts the vehicle’s lateral dynamic characteristics to calculate the fusion allocation coefficient. Subsequently, the outcomes from the two lateral velocity estimation techniques are merged, ensuring rapid convergence under steady-state conditions and precise tracking in dynamic scenarios. In addition, we introduce a tire parameter online adaptive module (TPOAM) to continually update essential tire parameters such as
Chen, Guoying, Yao, Jun, Gao, Zhenhai, Gao, Zheng, Wang, Xinyu, Xu, Nan, Hua , Min
Attitude Stability Control and Visualization Simulation for Vertical Take-Off and Landing (VTOL) Fixed-Wing Aircraft2023-01-710212/31/2023
Direct debugging of a vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) fixed-wing aircraft’s control system can easily result in risk and personnel damage. It is effectively to employ simulation and numerical methods to validate control performance. In this paper, the attitude stabilization controller for VTOL fixed-wing aircraft is designed, and the controller performance is verified by MATLAB and visual simulation software, which significantly increases designed efficiency and safety of the controller. In detail, we first develop the VTOL fixed-wing aircraft’s six degrees of freedom kinematics and dynamics models using Simulink module, and the cascade PID control technique is applied to the VTOL aircraft’s attitude stabilization control. Then the visual simulation program records the flight data and displays the flight course and condition, which can validate the designed controller performance effectively. It can be concluded that the designed VTOL fixed-wing aircraft control visual simulation
Li, Wei, Shi, Jiekai, Wang, Fang, Bai, Jie
Real-Time Road Slope Estimation Based on GNSS/INS Fusion System Considering Slope Change2023-01-704312/20/2023
For intelligent vehicles, a fast and accurate estimation of road slope is of great significance for many aspects, including the steering comfort, fuel economy, vehicle stability control, driving decision-making, etc. But the commonly used estimation methods nowadays usually demand additional sensors or complex dynamic models, causing increase in system complexity as well as decrease in accuracy. To solve these problems, this paper puts forward a real-time road slope estimation algorithm leveraging the relationship between pitch angle and road slope, which only requires low sensors cost and computational complexity. Firstly, a GNSS/INS fusion system is established to obtain the pitch angle with respect to the navigation frame, which couples the vehicle’s pitch angle in vehicle frame and road slope angle. Then, based on the different characteristics in frequency domain of the two components, frequency domain analysis is conducted and low-pass filter is used to separate out road slope
Chen, Mengyuan, Xiong, Lu, Gao, Letian
Fault Compensation Control for Regenerative Braking of Distributed Drive Electric Vehicle Based on Hierarchical Control2023-01-706112/20/2023
For distributed drive electric vehicles (DDEV) equipped with an electronic hydraulic braking system (EHB) and four-wheel hub motors, when one or more hub motors have regenerative braking failure, because the braking torque of the four wheels is inconsistent, additional yaw moment will be formed on the vehicle, resulting in the loss of directional stability of the vehicle during braking. If it occurs at high speeds, it will further threaten driving safety. To solve the above problems, a new hierarchical control architecture is established in this paper. Firstly, taking DDEV as the research object, the vehicle dynamics model and EHB braking system model are built. Then, a state observer based on an adaptive Kalman filter is designed in the upper layer to estimate the vehicle’s sideslip angle and yaw rate in real time. In the judgment decision-making layer, the phase plane is used to divide the stability domain boundary of the vehicle, and the quasi-stability tolerance band judges the
Fang, Ting, Zhao, Linfeng, Hu, Jinfang, Mei, Zhen, Wang, Muyun, Sun, Bin
Automotive Stability Enhancement SystemsJ2564_202312 (Current)12/7/2023
The purpose of this SAE Information Report is to describe currently known automotive active stability enhancement systems, as well as identify common names which can be used to refer to the various systems and common features and functions of the various systems. The primary systems discussed are: a ABS - Antilock Brake Systems b TCS - Traction Control Systems c ESC - Electronic Stability Control The document is technical in nature and attempts to remain neutral regarding unique features that individual system or vehicle manufacturers may provide.
Vehicle Dynamics Standards Committee
Contribution to the Objective Evaluation of Combined Longitudinal and Lateral Vehicle Dynamics in Nonlinear Driving Range10-07-04-003410/19/2023
Since the complexity of modern vehicles is increasing continuously, car manufacturers are forced to improve the efficiency of their development process to remain profitable. A frequently mentioned measure is the consequent integration of virtual methods. In this regard, objective evaluation criteria are essential for the virtual design of driving dynamics. Therefore, this article aims to identify robust objective evaluation criteria for the nonlinear combined longitudinal and lateral dynamics of a vehicle. The article focuses on the acceleration in a turn maneuver since available objective criteria do not consider all relevant characteristics of vehicle dynamics. For the identification of the objective criteria, a generic method is developed and applied. First, an open-loop test procedure and a set of potential robust objective criteria are defined. Subsequently, suitable criteria are selected for different vehicle dynamics characteristics based on an investigation of Pearson
Raabe, Justus, Fontana, Fabian, Neubeck, Jens, Wagner, Andreas
Considerations for ISO 26262 ASIL Hazard ClassificationJ2980_202310 (Current)10/2/2023
This SAE Recommended Practice presents a method and example results for determining the Automotive Safety Integrity Level (ASIL) for automotive motion control electrical and/or electronic (E/E) systems. The ASIL determination activity is required by ISO 26262-3, and it is intended that the process and results herein are consistent with ISO 26262. The technical focus of this document is on vehicle motion control systems. The scope of this SAE Recommended Practice is limited to collision-related hazards associated with motion control systems. This SAE Recommended Practice focuses on motion control systems since the hazards they can create generally have higher ASIL ratings, as compared to the hazards non-motion control systems can create. Because of this, the Functional Safety Committee decided to give motion control systems a higher priority and focus exclusively on them in this SAE Recommended Practice. ISO 26262 has a wider scope than SAE J2980, covering other functions and accidents
Functional Safety Committee
Recurrent Neural Network Model for On-Board Estimation of the Side-Slip Angle in a Four-Wheel Drive and Steering Vehicle15-17-01-00039/23/2023
A valuable quantity for analyzing the lateral dynamics of road vehicles is the side-slip angle, that is, the angle between the vehicle’s longitudinal axis and its speed direction. A reliable real-time side-slip angle value enables several features, such as stability controls, identification of understeer and oversteer conditions, estimation of lateral forces during cornering, or tire grip and wear estimation. Since the direct measurement of this variable can only be done with complex and expensive devices, it is worth trying to estimate it through virtual sensors based on mathematical models. This article illustrates a methodology for real-time on-board estimation of the side-slip angle through a machine learning model (SSE—side-slip estimator). It exploits a recurrent neural network trained and tested via on-road experimental data acquisition. In particular, the machine learning model only uses input signals from a standard road car sensor configuration. The model adaptability to
Giuliacci, Tiziano Alberto, Ballesio, Stefano, Fainello, Marco, Mair, Ulrich, King, Julian
Robust Estimation of Vehicle Dynamic State Using a Novel Second-Order Fault-Tolerant Extended Kalman Filter10-07-03-00195/25/2023
The vehicle dynamic state is essential for stability control and decision-making of intelligent vehicles. However, these states cannot usually be measured directly and need to be obtained indirectly using additional estimation algorithms. Unfortunately, most of the existing estimation methods ignore the effect of data loss on estimation accuracy. Furthermore, high-order filters have been proven that can significantly improve estimation performance. Therefore, a second-order fault-tolerant extended Kalman filter (SOFTEKF) is designed to predict the vehicle state in the case of data loss. The loss of sensor data is described by a random discrete distribution. Then, an estimator of minimum estimation error covariance is derived based on the extended Kalman filter (EKF) framework. Finally, experimental tests demonstrate that the SOFTEKF can reduce the effect of data loss and improve estimation accuracy by at least 10.6% compared to the traditional EKF and fault-tolerant EKF.
Wang, Yan, Wei, Henglai, Hu, Binbin, Lv, Chen
Electronically Controlled Brake System with Two-Channel Pressure Control for Electric Vehicles2023-01-06634/11/2023
In this study, we introduce an electronically controlled brake system (ECB) that can be applied to electric vehicles (EVs) and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The main features of the ECB include maximizing the regenerative energy while maintaining vehicle stability and ensuring redundancy in automatic braking. The brake system consists of upper and lower units. The newly developed upper unit has a brake-by-wire configuration and can control the front and rear wheel pressures separately. Hereinafter, controlling the front and rear wheel pressures separately is referred to as two-channel pressure control. The regenerated energy can be maximized while appropriately maintaining the distribution of the front and rear braking forces based on the two-channel pressure control during regenerative cooperation. The lower unit is a conventional hydraulic unit for executing anti-lock brake control, electronic stability control and so on. Each of the upper and lower units has a
Watanabe, Shunya, Yamamoto, Takayuki, Masuda, Yoshio, Yamakita, Hiroki
Modeling and Verification of Tire Nonlinearity Effect on Accuracy of Vehicle Yaw Rate Calculation2023-01-07534/11/2023
The desired yaw rate is a vital target parameter for vehicle stability control, which is currently determined as a steady-state yaw rate by the linear single-track vehicle model. Tire nonlinearity deteriorates the effect of vehicle stability control at larger lateral acceleration. This paper proposes a new calculation method of the steady-state yaw rate considering the tire nonlinearity based on the brush tire model. To validate and verify the proposed method, step steering tests of the target vehicle under different lateral accelerations are carried out on a real proving ground. The results show that when the lateral acceleration is relatively small, the difference between the calculation results of the proposed method and the traditional one is not apparent, and both methods can provide a good estimation for the steady-state yaw rate; however, when the lateral acceleration is relatively large, the difference becomes apparent. It can be shown that the linear tire model cannot be able
Min, Delei, Wei, Yintao
Interconnected Roll Stability Control System for Semitrucks with Double Trailers2023-01-09064/11/2023
This paper provides a simulation analysis of a novel interconnected roll stability control (RSC) system for improving the roll stability of semitrucks with double trailers. Different from conventional RSC systems where each trailer’s RSC module operates independently, the studied interconnected RSC system allows the two trailers’ RSC systems to communicate with each other. As such, if one trailer’s RSC activates, the other one is also activated to assist in further scrubbing speed or intervening sooner. Simulations are performed using a multi-body vehicle dynamics model that is developed in TruckSim® and coupled with the RSC model established in Simulink®. The dynamic model is validated using track test data. The simulation results for a ramp steer maneuver (RSM) and sine-with-dwell (SWD) maneuver indicate that the proposed RSC system reduces lateral acceleration and rollover index for both trailers, decreasing the likelihood of wheel tip-up and vehicle rollover. Specifically, the
Zheng, Xiaohan, Chen, Yang, Ahmadian, Mehdi
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