Browse Topic: Crashes

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Collapse Strength and Crush Space Analysis in Lateral Side Pole Impact of an Electric Vehicle2026-01-50527/31/2026
High-Voltage Battery (HVB) protection in lateral pole impact is very important due to severe nature of the impact. Unlike frontal impacts, vehicles have limited range of space and capacity to absorb kinetic energy in lateral side impacts. Nowadays, computer-aided engineering (CAE) using finite element analysis (FEA) is utilized routinely to simulate high-speed crash events of varied type, including side pole impact. These CAE applications focus on the analysis and design of HVB when the vehicle structure is well-developed. CAE methods are time-consuming and are not suited during the pre-program stage when the structure is only in a concept stage and not even a reasonable CAD is available/developed in any sense to use these methods. There is no analytical tool available to understand how to define the characteristics of the structure that surrounds and protects the HVB. The primary motive of this publication is to help with this aspect of vehicle planning/development. Needless to state that this procedure can also be used in planning/developing of internal combustion engine (ICE) and hybrid vehicles, as well. The objective therefore is to develop a simple method/procedure that can give reasonably accurate estimation of the collapse/crush force required for a specified crush space and hence protect the critical components, such as HVB and fuel tank. This analytical method also gives some insight into the optimal use of the upper body (rocker and floor cross-members) and underbody (ladder frame) parts. It was found, for a problem under consideration, optimum kinetic energy to be absorbed by the upper body is 32.5% to avoid intrusion into HVB.
Alavandi, Bhimaraddi, Midoun, Djamal, Frank, Randy
Optimization of Pneumatic Conveying Elbows to Reduce Grain Particle Normal Contact Forces via CFD-DEM Coupling Method2026-99-01167/31/2026
This study presents a refined design for pneumatic conveying pipelines, featuring a grooved structure at the bend aimed at reducing particle breakage during transportation. Using soybean particles as a focus, the research employs a gas-solid two-phase flow approach to explore how different groove depths and widths influence the breakage rate. We used CFD-DEM simulation techniques, combining fluid mechanics with discrete element modeling to achieve a more accurate representation of particle motion and collision forces during expressing. Based on these simulations, we identified the most effective combination of groove width and spacing. Experimental results showed that a groove width of 4.5 mm coupled with a 40 mm spacing could decrease impact forces on particles by approximately 5% to 10% at expressing speeds of 15 m/s and 20 m/s. Throughout all measured time intervals, the impact forces remained stable, with turbulence exerting minimal influence on the particle forces.
Luo, Xinhao, Yang, Tiancheng, Huang, Bo, Mao, Genwu, Dong, Deliang, Shi, Heng, Li, Xiaoliang, He, Bo
Structure Optimization of a Two-Dimensional Mixer for Mixing Uniformity Improvement Using the DEM2026-99-08467/30/2026
A two-dimensional (2-D) mixer has been widely used in the engineering field. The discrete element method (DEM) is capable of simulating and tracking collisions among particles inside the mixer. In this paper, the mixing process of spherical particles inside a 2-D mixer known as EYH150L is simulated by the DEM. The Lacey Index provides a quantitative measure of the blending efficacy achieved by a 2-D mixer. The DEM analysis indicated that the level of blending effectiveness among the particles in proximity to the rotating blades is significantly superior to that in regions devoid of blades. The rotational velocities of particles in blade-free zones are about 40% of those near the rotating blades, which serves as a key factor accounting for the slower increase in mixing efficiency observed in these regions. To address this disparity and enhance overall mixing performance, a mirrored rotating blade was incorporated, positioned to the left of the baseline revolving cylinder, thereby optimizing the structural configuration of the 2-D mixer. The verification tests indicated that the modification increases the mixing efficiency of the mixer at its left side, and enhances the blending uniformity, ensuring the four particle types are mixed equitably.
Fang, Ziqiang, Liu, Yong, Chen, Yafeng
Analytical Analysis of Wellbore Stresses under Fluid Pressure and In-Situ Stress in Three-Dimensional Wellbores2026-99-08317/30/2026
During fluid injection operations such as fracturing and well killing, the casing, cement sheath, and borehole wall rock are subjected to three-dimensional in-situ stresses and internal pressure. If the equivalent stress exceeds the material’s yield strength, component failure may occur, leading to wellbore failure or even blowout accidents. In order to investigate the stress distribution in wellbores under specific working conditions, a three-dimensional mechanical model of curved wellbores was established. By adopting the superposition principle and stress function method, the influence of horizontal in-situ stress non-uniformity on the fourth equivalent stress of various components was analyzed. The study demonstrates that under three-dimensional in-situ stress, the fourth equivalent stress of each component increases with the rise of horizontal in-situ stress load non-uniformity and azimuth angle. Meanwhile, borehole azimuth angle and in-situ stress load non-uniformity exert a greater influence on the fourth equivalent stress of the casing, while internal pressure has a lesser impact on it. The effects of azimuth angle, horizontal in-situ stress load non-uniformity, and internal pressure on the fourth equivalent stress of the casing are more significant than those on the cement sheath and borehole wall rock. The research results can provide theoretical and technical references for wellbore design and safety improvement, as well as for the structural safety assessment of components such as automotive chassis and body frames under complex dynamic loads.
Zhang, Wenzhe, Jiang, Wu, Guo, Ziwang, Cao, Yinping, Dou, Yihua
Comparison of Female and Male Post Mortem Human Subject Kinematic Responses and Injuries in Rear-Facing Seat Configurations in High-Speed Frontal Impacts2026-22-00077/28/2026
This study investigates female post-mortem human subject (PMHS) responses and injuries, comparing them to previously published data from male PMHS tested at a change in velocity (delta-V) of 56 kph in high-speed rear-facing frontal- impact (HSRFFI) scenarios. Twelve small female PMHS were subjected to the same HSRFFI pulse. The subjects were positioned in reinforced production seats, identical to those from the previous male PMHS studies, and set to recline angles of either 25 or 45 degrees. Instrumentation was used to measure kinematics of the head, spine, pelvis, and ribs. Whole-body kinematics were recorded using motion capture. Female PMHS consistently showed lower head restraint, seatback, and lap belt loads compared to males across all test conditions (Bio Rank System [BRS] scores >1.0), with BRS scores for head restraint forces as high as 4.0. While head and T1 kinematics were consistent with males in all-belt-to-seat (ABTS) conditions (BRS < 1.0), significant differences were found in other body regions (BRS>1.0). Female PMHS had larger head forward rotation and smaller pelvis Z-axis displacement (less ramping) than males in the fixed D-ring (FDR) conditions, leading to major discrepancies (BRS>2.0). In addition, female chest deflection was smaller in one FDR condition (BRS=1.98), and tibia acceleration onset was earlier. Female PMHS sustained severe to critical rib fractures (Abbreviated Injury Scale [AIS]3-5) similar to males. However, five females in the FDR conditions and one in the ABTS condition sustained sacral fractures, an injury not seen in males. Females also had a higher frequency of lower extremity fractures (7 of 12) and vertebral body fractures (7 of 12) compared to males. These findings suggest that existing male PMHS data may not adequately predict responses and injury risks for female PMHS, emphasizing the need for female-specific biomechanical data to enhance safety tools and models in HSRFFI scenarios.
Kang, Yun-Seok, Baker, Gretchen H., Ramachandra, Rakshit, Marcallini, Angelo, Kwon, Hyunjung, Foster, Craig D., Moorhouse, Kevin, Agnew, Amanda M., Bolte, John H.
Geometric Deep Learning–Based AI Framework for Nonlinear Crash Behavior of Extruded Rails15-19-03-00127/27/2026
Extruded Rails are critical energy-absorbing components in automotive structures designed to mitigate impact loads during the frontal collisions. Traditional crashworthiness design relies heavily on computationally expensive finite element simulations and iterative design exploration. This work proposes a machine learning–driven framework for rapid front extruded rails design using a trained geometric deep surrogate model. A design-of-experiments (DoE) was conducted by varying geometric parameters including width, height, and wall thickness of a thin-walled extruded rail structure. For each design variant, LS-DYNA simulations were performed to obtain performance metrics such as mean crush force and peak crush force. These simulation results were used to train an AI surrogate model capable of predicting crash responses directly from geometric parameters. The proposed approach significantly reduces computational cost by replacing repeated high-fidelity crash simulations with machine learning surrogate predictions. By enabling fast and accurate evaluation of crash response metrics, the workflow shortens design cycles and supports sustainability-driven crashworthiness assessment by reducing simulation resource usage. The framework establishes a scalable, simulation-driven engineering pathway across vehicle platforms and provides a foundation for future closed-loop, AI-assisted crash design workflows.
Kumar, Manik, Srinivasan, Sriram
Study on Cleaning Requirements and Verification Methods for Oxygen Equipment of a Certain Type of Civil Aircraft2026-99-18037/17/2026
Pollution in the oxygen system of civil aircraft may lead to fire accidents, and maintaining the cleanliness of oxygen equipment is the most effective measure to reduce the risk of fire. This paper introduces the cleanliness requirements, cleaning methods, and procedures of oxygen equipment, and combines the cleanliness level requirements of oxygen equipment for a certain type of civil aircraft. By detecting the total weight of Non-Volatile Residue and the size and quantity of particles on the surface of the parts, it verifies whether the specific cleaning process can meet the cleanliness level required by the design. In addition, the possible sources of pollutants are analyzed based on the first unqualified verification results, and targeted improvement directions for the process are provided. After re-performing the cleanliness verification test, the results passed successfully, indicating that the process improvement is effective and has passed the airworthiness certification of the reviewer.
Huang, Jingqi
Experimental Analysis of Human Head Dynamic Response and Injury under High-G Landing Shock2026-99-18617/17/2026
This study looks at how the human head reacts and gets injured during high-G landing impacts in spacecraft return capsules. We used a vertical drop tower system for the experiments. A standard crash test dummy, called the Hybrid III 50th, was used to imitate how astronauts sit during landing. We applied two common safety standards—the Head Injury Criterion (HIC) and the 3 ms cumulative acceleration rule—to measure head response under high-G impacts. The results show several things. First, head acceleration increases linearly as seat acceleration increases. Second, the peak total acceleration of the head is much higher than the seat acceleration. In particular, acceleration in the X and Z directions is much stronger than in the Y direction. Third, when seat acceleration went over 47.71 g, HIC exceeded the safe limit of 700, and the 3 ms head acceleration also passed the 80 g limit. This suggests that 40 g should be considered a safe upper limit for seat acceleration. This work provides experimental support for improving landing systems to protect astronauts’ heads during high-G impacts.
An, Hao, Wang, Yafeng, Guo, Yazhou
Research on the Design of Lane Line Recognition and Deviation Warning System Based on Machine Vision2026-99-05667/10/2026
In order to reduce traffic accidents caused by cars straying from lanes, a lane line recognition and deviation warning system based on machine vision is designed. It mainly includes image preprocessing, lane line detection, and the design of a deviation warning model. “In this study, an ROS-based intelligent vehicle-mounted camera is adopted for road image collection. To reduce the computational load of data processing while guaranteeing the algorithm’s accuracy and reliability, grayscale conversion and region of interest (ROI) extraction are implemented to finish the image preprocessing stage. Additionally, a fusion strategy of global and local thresholds is introduced to enhance both the operational speed and detection accuracy of the algorithm” use the Canny operator for the edge feature extraction; and complete the fitted lane lines with the improved Hough transform. Finally, based on the Kalman filter and camera viewpoint conversion coefficient algorithm, the lane line offset is detected in real time, and the deviation is judged in combination with the monitoring interface. Simulation experiments show that the system is able to effectively recognize the lane line and judge the deviation status under the condition of setting the offset threshold of 70 pixels, which significantly improves the accuracy and real-time performance of the lane deviation warning and provides effective technical support for reducing traffic accidents.
Wang, Xufeng, Zhang, Chunshu, Wang, Yan, Chen, Yihui, Ji, Rui
Privacy-Preserving UAV-Based Traffic Data Acquisition Platform2026-99-05957/10/2026
This paper puts forward a Privacy-Preserving UAV-Based Traffic Data Acquisition Platform to address 1) privacy leakage, 2) limited scenario coverage, and 3) low traffic data utilization efficiency in urban traffic monitoring environments. Our system integrates three innovations: 1) Dynamic Privacy Masking (DPM) and Dual-Track acquisition (DTC), which hides sensitive information (e.g., faces, license plates or LPL) in real-time while preserving critical traffic data (e.g., vehicle density, speed), 2) traffic data Localization (DL) and Privacy-Enhanced Federated Learning (FEFL), enabling cross-regional collaboration without raw traffic data sharing by perturbing neural network updates with differential privacy (DP), and 3) Ground-Air Collaboration (GAC) and VPF (VPF), combining UAVs with ground sensors and digital twins (DTs) to cover blind spots (e.g., tunnels, extreme weather). Experimented on UA-DETRAC and CitySim traffic data-sets, the platform achieves 92% privacy compliance (GDPR/PIPL), 87.5% mAP accuracy, and 85% road network coverage, outperforming other methods (e.g., FedUAV, static blurring). It supports applications such as traffic flow optimization, accident prevention, and regulatory alignment.
Zhang, Shilin, Yan, Ming
Optimization Method for Emergency Rescue Resource Allocation in Two-Way Ten-Lane Expressway Based on Risk Assessment2026-99-05677/10/2026
The two-way ten-lane expressway has the significant characteristics of “large traffic volume, mixed vehicle types, and heavy loads”, which makes the impact of traffic flow status on accident risk present nonlinear characteristics. Traffic flow fluctuations not only directly affect the probability of accidents, but also amplify the spatiotemporal differences in rescue needs through mechanisms such as lane occupancy time and accident chain reactions. Therefore, the essence of resource allocation on a two-way ten-lane expressway is the “spatiotemporal matching problem between dynamic risks and limited resources”, which requires both quantifying the spatiotemporal evolution of risks and coping with the high uncertainty of the traffic system. Aiming at the problem of inefficiency of traditional empirical resource allocation under complex traffic conditions, this study proposes a dynamic optimization framework based on multidimensional risk assessment for emergency rescue resource allocation. In this framework, firstly, the entropy weight method and fuzzy comprehensive evaluation are combined to construct a risk quantification model using historical accident data and real-time traffic characteristics to achieve fine risk classification of road sections. Secondly, a multi-objective optimization model is established with the goal of minimizing risk-weighted costs and maximizing risk-weighted resource demand satisfaction, and considering constraints such as mandatory requirements for key equipment in high-risk areas and minimum site configuration. At the same time, the improved NSGA-II algorithm is used to effectively solve the contradiction between cost and utilization efficiency in emergency rescue resource allocation through adaptive non-dominated sorting, hybrid genetic operators and dynamic penalty mechanism. Experimental results show that the improved NSGA-II algorithm is superior to the traditional method in terms of Pareto front distribution, convergence speed and actual resource allocation effect. Compared with the traditional scheme, the method proposed in this study reduces the resource allocation cost by 35.5%, increases the risk-weighted resource demand satisfaction rate by 1.9%, and expands the resource coverage of high-risk areas by 13.8%. This study provides scientific decision-making support for emergency response in complex road networks and offers a practical optimization approach for highly dynamic traffic emergencies.
Kan, Youjun, Cao, Yang, Shi, Xiaomin, Gao, Shangjie
Multi-Objective Optimization Research and Design of Seat Structure in Vehicle Collision2026-99-05187/10/2026
The vehicles often accompanied by a huge impact in the collision process, high-quality and high-strength car-seats can better protect the safety of passengers. However, in the call for vehicle energy saving and emission reduction, the lightweight design of car-seats is imminent. Therefore, it is necessary to achieve lightweight seat weight while ensuring vehicle safety. Based on the dynamic condition of vehicle collision, this paper takes the rear seat of a certain model as the research object, takes multiple responses of the seat skeleton system as the target, establishes a multi-objective optimization model of the seat skeleton, determines the optimization result with the greatest comprehensive satisfaction, verifies the optimization result of the seat skeleton. The correctness and feasibility of the design method are proved.
Shao, Youlin, Ni, Weiyu, Chen, Daojiong, Cheng, Zhiqing
Traffic Crash Prediction and Causal Disentanglement by Machine Learning2026-99-05527/10/2026
Aiming at the problem of insufficient modeling of spatio-temporal heterogeneity in road traffic accident prediction, a dual task machine learning framework integrating geographical environment, location attributes and time periodicity is proposed. The dataset used in this study was derived from traffic accident records of Nanchang during 2019–2023. Firstly, geographical identifiers are generated by rounding and aggregating latitude and longitude coordinates. At the same time, the location type is processed by a one-hot encoding, so as to carry out spatial clustering analysis of accident hotspots. Compared with the North-South pattern, the contribution of geographical features shows a strong East-West trend. The kernel density heatmap identified Zone A and zone B as dual core high-risk areas. Secondly, the sinusoidal/cosine function is used to encode the time feature circularly, which effectively captures the daily change of the accident. The quantitative analysis of random forest regression model showed that time characteristics accounted for 89.2% of the variance of accident frequency interpretation, significantly exceeding the contribution of geographical factors (10.2%) and location attributes (0.6%). After hyperparameter optimization, the accuracy of XGBoost classifier in predicting serious accidents is 75.97%, and the AUC value is 0.8412, which has strong robustness, and provides reliable support for dynamic risk assessment of traffic management system.
Luo, Jiang, Zhang, Yuxin, Li, Xin, Wu, Ronghai
Fifteen Instrumented Motorcycle Crash Tests into a Barrier and Stiffness Comparison of Standard and Upside-Down Forks2026-01-50597/10/2026
Fifteen instrumented crash tests were performed using a 2005 Yamaha R6 motorcycle. Seven tests were performed with upside-down (USD) forks and eight tests were performed with standard forks. The 2005 Yamaha R6 provided a platform where both types of front forks could be interchanged. For all tests, the motorcycle was delivered into a concrete block at speeds varying between 5 and 23 mph. Seven tests were conducted at low speeds to determine the onset of permanent deformation. Eight tests were conducted at higher speeds to observe the wheelbase reduction of the motorcycle and its relationship to impact speed. This paper summarizes the data from these tests related to wheelbase reduction, impact dynamics, and post-impact movement, allowing comparison between two different suspension systems and historical datasets.
Lucernoni, Anthony, Boyd, Dusty, Wahba, Ronny, Taeuber, Andre, Stoner, Jacob, Law, Trevor
A Framework for Precautionary Safety for Automated Driving Systems—Toward Tactical Decisions Fulfilling Quantitative Risk Acceptance Criteria12-09-04-00287/8/2026
Safety of Automated Driving Systems (ADSs) is arguably one of the main remaining barriers before widespread market deployment. While there exists a plethora of methods for planning a trajectory that fulfils certain constraints, what those constraints should look like, to enable effective planning of safe trajectories, is still being discussed. In this article, we generalize the concept of Precautionary Safety (PCS) and present a framework providing constraints on the tactical and operational decisions of the ADS. Such constraints consider the ADS’ capabilities, the external conditions, knowledge of statistically relevant events and behaviors of other traffic actors, as well as the controllability of these events. The proposed framework enables assessment of the statistical fulfilment of quantitative risk acceptance criteria (QRACs), including requirements on accident, injury, and fatality rates. The framework further provides a means to dynamically adapt the constraints used for trajectory planning, i.e., to adapt the driving to the situation at hand. A case study, considering a possible collision scenario with a jaywalking pedestrian and a rear-end collision with a trailing vehicle, is provided to showcase the applicability and usefulness of the presented framework. The simulation-based case study displays the safety benefits from considering QRACs with multiple injury risk levels and further shows how the proposed PCS framework can be applied in practice.
Gyllenhammar, Magnus, de Campos, Gabriel Rodrigues, Sandblom, Fredrik, Törngren, Martin, Fredriksson, Jonas
The Influence of Spatial and Aspatial Factors on the Safety Driving Behavior of Motorcycle Couriers in the Gig-Economy Era: A Case Study of East Jakarta, Indonesia09-14-02-00057/3/2026
This study aims to analyze the impact of spatial and aspatial factors on the safety driving behavior of motorcycle couriers in East Jakarta within the context of the gig economy. Both factors are integrated to clarify how spatial conditions and individual characteristics jointly shape couriers’ safety driving behavior. The Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) method was employed to examine the relationship between spatial and aspatial factors on safety driving behavior. Data were collected through questionnaires from 253 motorcycle couriers operating in three subdistricts in East Jakarta, namely Cakung, Pasar Rebo, and Pulo Gadung. The results show that safety driving behavior is significantly influenced by aspatial factors, particularly socioeconomic characteristics and personality traits. In contrast, spatial factors such as road conditions and daily activity patterns do not directly influence safety driving behavior, but exert indirect effects through the couriers’ personality traits.
Wahyuddin, Yasser, Sitorus, Paldibo Alfriramson, Putri, Kharunia, Maharani, Garnierita
An Analysis and Comparison of Free-Space Detection Approaches and Their Evaluation for Heavy-Duty Vehicles2026-01-07637/1/2026
The detection of free space plays a fundamental role in ensuring the safe and efficient operation of heavy-duty vehicles, particularly in environments where the available area to maneuver is severely constrained, such as construction zones, rest areas, or loading docks. An accurate estimation of free space is essential to prevent collisions, maintaining operational continuity and minimizing vehicle downtime. As observed from the reviewed literature, despite the large number of proposed free-space detection methods, there is no concise and established definition about how free space should be determined, represented, and inferred, nor agreement on the semantic classes to be considered. This heterogeneity complicates systematic comparison and benchmarking across approaches. This paper presents a structured survey and methodological analysis of recent free-space detection and semantic segmentation approaches across automotive LiDAR-, camera-, and radar-based perception systems, as well as multimodal sensor fusion. The review spans classical geometric and occupancy-based techniques together with deep-learning methods, along with datasets commonly used for evaluation. The main contributions are (i) a structured taxonomy and comparative analysis of existing free-space definitions and detection strategies, categorized by their assumptions, representation forms, and sensing modalities; and (ii) a unified and application-independent definition of free space together with the required semantic classes. These contributions aim to provide a consistent conceptual foundation to support future research and to aid the systematic evaluation of upcoming free-space detection systems.
Martinez, Cristian, Peters, Steven
Model-Guided Scenario Expansion for Data-Driven Autonomous-Vehicle Safety Testing: A Feasibility Demonstration12-09-04-00326/29/2026
This article presents a data-driven pipeline for autonomous-vehicle (AV) safety testing. The pipeline integrates real-world traffic observations with model-guided scenario expansion and safety-metric evaluation to enable an end-to-end AV safety testing framework, demonstrated on a canonical highway scenario. The framework enhances test diversity, realism, and coverage by generating statistically informed variants of observed driving behaviors. Key parameters such as vehicle speed, trajectories, and headways are extracted from naturalistic data and used to train a probabilistic model of traffic dynamics. Scenario variants are sampled from this model and encoded as behavior trees (BTs) for modular, simulation-ready execution. Each scenario is simulated using a consistent AV control configuration, and safety metrics such as minimum safe distance violation, minimum safe distance factor, time to collision, and aggressive driving are applied to evaluate safety outcomes independently of system-specific tuning. A case study based on the highD dataset (110,000+ trajectories) demonstrates the framework’s ability to generate realistic and safety-relevant scenarios, providing an initial demonstration of pipeline feasibility and metric-based evaluation. This initial study is intentionally scoped to a single scenario class and a simplified parametric model to isolate and validate the end-to-end integration of the pipeline.
Elshenawy, Mohamed, Aboudina, Aya, Abdelmotaleb, Anhar, Amr, Mariam, El-darieby, Mohamed
Female PMHS Thoracic Biomechanical Response Corridors with Preliminary Consideration of the Influence of Breast Tissue in Frontal Impacts2026-22-00066/24/2026
Thoracic injuries are common for belted occupants in frontal motor vehicle crashes. However, there remains a lack of female post-mortem human subject (PMHS) data in the literature to generate female-specific biomechanical response corridors and evaluate engineering tools such as anthropomorphic test devices (ATDs) and computational human body models (HBMs). Additionally, the effect of breast tissue on thoracic response has not been directly investigated despite female ATDs and HBMs having features representing breasts. As such, this study sought to utilize simplified frontal hub impacts to (1) generate female PMHS thoracic response corridors both with breasts positioned with a bra and without breasts (no bra) and (2) preliminarily explore the influence of breasts on the thoracic responses of female PMHS. Twelve female PMHS (9 small and 3 midsize) were subjected to frontal impacts at mid-sternum with a 14.0 kg circular impactor at 4.3 m/s in conditions with and without breasts. Force versus deflection (FD) response corridors were generated, and comparisons were made between groups and to scaled FD corridors representing female response. Overall, female PMHS with and without breasts displayed differences in FD response compared to scaled corridors in terms of the shape of the initial response and peak force and deflection. Additionally, female PMHS with breasts produced lower peak force and greater peak deflection compared to those without breasts. These results suggest the importance of collection and evaluation of female biomechanical data that can be used for continued evaluation of female-specific safety tools as well as the further reduction of injury risk for all occupants during motor vehicle crashes.
Baker, Gretchen H., Kang, Yun-Seok, Marcallini, Angelo, Lang, Ryan, Hutter, Erin, Moorhouse, Kevin, Agnew, Amanda M.
A Simplified Layered Model for Large-Scale Impact Simulations of Li-Ion Prismatic Cells14-15-02-00126/16/2026
This article presents a novel finite element modeling approach to predict the mechanical response of jellyrolls in large-scale explicit crash simulations up to the experimental occurrence of internal short-circuit. The proposed simplified layered model embeds membrane elements within a solid element mesh to improve the prediction in load cases dominated by the buckling and sliding of the jellyroll’s layered structure. The model was validated against experimental results from in-plane, out-of-plane, and bending tests on jellyroll samples extracted from prismatic lithium-ion cells. The experimental results confirmed the jellyroll’s high compressibility under out-of-plane loads and its behavior as a collection of unconnected layers under in-plane and bending loading. Compared to the widely used crushable foam model, the simplified layered model offered additional flexibility, especially for in-plane and bending load cases. Additionally, it meets critical time increment requirements for explicit analysis and requires a limited number of calibration tests. These results highlight the model’s potential to improve the prediction of the jellyroll’s mechanical behavior in large-scale simulations.
Cioni, Daniele, Morin, David, Strating, Arjan, Kizio, Stephan, Costas, Miguel
Comparison of Concussion Risk Functions Generated from Two Different Datasets2026-22-00046/11/2026
To estimate risk of concussion, risk functions based on injuries occurring in sports are often used. A range of datasets have been used to develop injury risk functions for concussion based on either global kinematics or tissue-level predictors. Two such datasets are one from American football, and another one from Australian football and rugby. These two datasets constitute the largest published collections of video-verified concussive cases in sports with known kinematics suitable for constructing risk functions. The objective of this study was to analyze the differences between two datasets of concussion for injury predictions to better understand the influence on injury risk functions. The kinematics were applied to the KTH head model and risk functions for different kinematic- and tissue-based predictors were developed and compared. The accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and AUC were also compared. The two datasets evaluated in this study generated different risk curves. The datasets had some similarities such as having no significant difference in resultant linear acceleration, but also some differences, for example having a significant difference in resultant angular velocity. The Australian cases had relatively equally distributed major x-, y-, and z-components for angular velocity while the majority (59%) of the NFL cases had a major x-component (coronal plane rotation) representing more than 50% of the resultant. The y-component of the linear acceleration (lateral direction) was the major component in 64% of the Australian cases and 72% of the NFL cases. The two datasets, from Australian football/rugby, and American football, generated different injury risk curves with a lower 50% risk of concussion for the Australian dataset. This indicates that the choice of data as input for the development of injury risk functions is important. Therefore, it is necessary to improve methodology with focus on sampling methods and reliable/valid data collection.
Fahlstedt, Madelen, Meng, Shiyang, Patton, Declan, McIntosh, Andrew S., Kleiven, Svein
Influence of Joint Structure in Multibody Model on Behavior Analysis of Crash Test Dummy2026-22-00056/11/2026
This study developed a new multibody model that accurately represents the collision behavior of crash test dummies using PC-Crash. The model replicates the shape and weight of an actual dummy. To investigate the influence of joint structures on collision behavior, an additional multibody model was developed to reproduce the joint structure of the actual dummy. These models were applied to analyze occupant behavior in a full-frontal rigid barrier and pedestrian behavior in a vehicle-to-pedestrian impact experiments. A comparison of the multibody model simulations with actual dummy impact experiments revealed that the behavior of the multibody model, which simulates the joint structure of the dummy, closely matched that of the actual dummy. The results indicate that joint structure significantly influences collision behavior, and accurately recreating it improves the precision of crash test dummy collision behavior analysis using PC-Crash.
Usui, Masatoshi, Matsui, Yasuhiro, Hosokawa, Naruyuki, Tanaka, Yoshinori
A Comprehensive Review of System Risk in Automotive Crash Safety15-19-02-00106/9/2026
Occupant protection has been at the forefront of risk evaluation regarding vehicle crashworthiness design. However, the vehicle is a member of a larger transportation system with varied stakeholders. This article identifies an opportunity for assessing risk in a crash event through emerging safety science paradigms. Conventional Safety I and Safety II frameworks handle well-defined hazards but falter with uncertainty, variability, and emergent behaviors in real crashes. A comprehensive literature review was performed on peer-reviewed research to situate automotive crash safety risk within the Safety III paradigms. The review addresses two questions: (1) How is “risk” defined across the crash safety literature and adjacent safety science domains? and (2) What limitations arise from these definitions in practice? Findings show a dominant probabilistic framing alongside a minority of system-oriented interpretations. Current crash safety practice lacks a coherent, system-level definition of risk that integrates uncertainty and knowledge strength, leading to fragmented methods and limited alignment with modern safety science. Based on this synthesis, the article proposes guiding principles for Safety III-aligned guidelines and recommendations that integrate consequences, uncertainty, and knowledge strength to improve transparency, traceability, and adaptability in crash safety decision-making.
Rye, Patrick J.
Occupant Sex Equity and Vehicle Safety: Historical Activities, Research, and Countermeasure2026-22-00025/28/2026
Since 2019, sex equity in traffic crashes has been a highly debated topic in vehicle safety, especially following the 2019 study by Forman et al. (1) claiming that female occupants face a 73 percent greater risk of serious injury in frontal crashes compared to male occupants. This was soon followed by a Consumer Reports Article by Keith Barry (2), which attempted to identify underlying factors contributing to the higher risk. These have been embraced by several parties since 2019. Firstly, it was alleged that vehicle design practice over the last four decades considered safety for the male population only and ignored that of the female as evidenced by the exclusive use of the mid-sized male Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATDs) in Regulatory and Safety Ratings tests and not with an average sized female ATD. The absence of such an ATD for testing of vehicles “set the course for four decades’ worth of car safety design, with deadly consequences” (2). Secondly, although there is a recognition of the fact that Regulatory testing with a Small Female ATD, the Hybrid III-05F, was introduced in the FMVSS208 in 2003, this ATD was only a scaled version of the average male ATD of the 1970’s implying that this ATD is incapable of driving the design of restraint systems for females due to “They’re put together differently. Their material properties—their structure—is different” (2). Thirdly, according to a quote “These same trends have been observed in many, many studies in the past.” We assume that the trends refer to the apparent disparity in safety of females when compared to those of males. This document aims to outline historical activities, associated research and the development of countermeasures addressing crashworthiness concerns related to vehicle safety for females, as well as factors affecting both males and females, such as age-related impacts. This paper deals mainly with the frontal crash modes, mentions side impacts briefly as it affected designs of inflatable restraints for side impact to protect the smaller portion of the population from inflation induced injuries but the history behind the use of female ATDs by IIHS and NHTSA in full scale testing is not covered. Where ever possible, the time periods of reported activities related to female safety have been divided to pre-1997 corresponding to a change in US frontal crash regulation to address serious-to-fatal injuries to females and children, between 1997 to 2003 corresponding to the proposal by Canada for its frontal impact standard, and between 2003 and 2006 when the Advanced Restraint Regulation in the US FMVSS 208 was promulgated. This was followed by activities between 2007 and 2019, and post 2019 period.
Prasad, Priya, Dalmotas, Dainius J.
Traumatic Brain Injury in Vulnerable Road Users: Analysis of German In-Depth Crash Data to Inform Targeted Prevention2026-22-00035/28/2026
Road traffic crashes are a major cause of traumatic brain injury (TBI), particularly among vulnerable road users (VRUs). However, current injury prevention strategies often overlook the heterogeneity of TBI—which include various injury types and severities—leading to an oversimplified approach to evaluating helmets and safety systems in regulations and ratings. To identify priority TBI types and severities in VRUs and to inform targeted prevention strategies, the German In-Depth Accident Study database was analyzed and a pathoanatomic classification system, i.e., Abbreviated Injury Scale, was employed. AIS 2 (moderate) TBIs account for 70-80% of all brain injuries across VRU groups, nearly half of which are concussions. For helmeted cyclists, milder TBIs are at a greater percentage than for unhelmeted cyclists. These findings highlight the need for expanding prevention efforts to include AIS 2+ injuries. Key injury types observed include concussion (with and without loss of consciousness), skull base fracture, subdural hemorrhage, contusion and laceration. New mechanism-specific injury criteria may be needed to address these injuries. The strong similarity in injury type ranking among different road users (the Kendall’s tau values ranged from 0.90 to 0.93) suggests similar needs for injury prevention. A new brain injury assessment criterion may serve all road user types.
Meng, Shiyang, Schindler, Ron, Kleiven, Svein, Lubbe, Nils
Research on Automatic Installation of Flash-Type Bird Collision Warning Device on Drones2026-99-17195/22/2026
Bird accidental collision with overhead transmission lines poses a threat to the ecology of rare bird populations. This article analyzes the warning measures to prevent birds from accidental collisions at home and abroad. In response to the low efficiency of manual installation and the poor static warning effect in preventing birds from accidental collisions with overhead transmission lines, the visual characteristics of birds are analyzed. A drone-based automatic installation flash-type bird accidental collision warning device is proposed, which includes a fixture, a disc, and a luminous circuit. The fixture can be carried and installed on the overhead line by a drone and can be easily disassembled. The disc adopts eye-catching colors and has a hollow structure to reduce wind resistance load. The luminous circuit includes solar panels, charge and discharge control circuits, flicker control circuits, batteries, and luminous components. The drone suspension warning device test was conducted, and the results showed that the device can be easily suspended from the overhead line by the drone.
Wang, Jian, Wang, Xiulong, Liu, Bin, Li, Danyu, Xu, Xunjian
A Real-Time Monitoring and Rapid Warning Method for Guardrail Collisions in Intelligent Transportation Systems2026-99-07235/15/2026
This article proposes a method for real-time monitoring and rapid alert for guardrail collisions based on Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS). The aim is to enhance traffic safety through continuous analysis of vibration signals. To achieve this, a system architecture that combines both hardware and software design has been developed, enabling the handling of the entire process from signal acquisition and decoding to intelligent event recognition and visualization. To improve signal reliability, an adaptive noise reduction algorithm and a multi-level feature extraction method are introduced, enabling accurate differentiation between collision events and environmental disturbances. Tests at various vehicle speeds show that the DAS-based system detects collisions with over 98% accuracy and cuts false alarms by more than 60% compared to traditional video and point-sensor monitoring. It can locate accidents with an average error of 4.2 meters and respond in under 1 second, demonstrating both its accuracy and speed. These results confirm the method’s effectiveness and reliability for enhancing transportation safety.
Sun, Lang
Letter from the Guest Editor09-14-01-00345/13/2026
Letter from the Guest Editor
Tylko, Suzanne
Letter from the Editor-in-Chief09-14-01-00015/13/2026
Letter from the Editor-in-Chief
Hardy, Warren N.
Applications of Multiple Spatial Audio Cues to Rotorcraft Scenarios: Too Much or Simply Misunderstood?F-0082-2026-02035/5/2026
This study evaluates the operational impact of multiple concurrent spatialized auditory cues during high-workload rotorcraft missions. A controlled, within-subject flight simulation experiment was conducted in which military-qualified rotorcraft pilots completed continuous multi-objective missions including formation flying, visual asset detection, collision avoidance, and emergency landing tasks. Each mission was flown under spatialized (3D) and non-spatialized (2D) audio rendering conditions while cue composition remained constant. Preliminary results indicate that under complex, formation-dominant workload conditions, pilots consistently prioritized visually anchored tasks and largely deprioritized auditory cue information regardless of spatial rendering. Collision avoidance cues did not produce observable evasive responses, and reported cue trust remained low without prior training. Although limited performance improvements were observed in isolated conditions, participants reported consciously suppressing audio cues. These findings suggest that effective integration of spatial audio requires structured training, procedural embedding, and deliberate workload redistribution rather than perceptual enhancement alone.
Beers, Heather, Prasad, J.V.R., Magalhaes, Jose, Bowers, Ryan, Tauro-Padival, Rahul, Feigh, Karen M.
Air Tour Helicopter Accidents (2014 to 2024): A Data-Driven Exploration of Causal and Contributing FactorsF-0082-2026-01675/5/2026
Helicopter air tours operate in one of the most challenging and least-controlled environments of commercial aviation, yet the safety outcomes of these operations remain inconsistent across regulatory frameworks. This study examined 55 helicopter air tour accidents in the United States from 2014 to 2024 using data from the NTSB Case Analysis and Reporting Online database. Defining event narratives, contributing factors narratives, and probable cause were coded to identify causal relationships between accidents and identify safety trends between 14 CFR Part 91 operations and Part 135 operations. CFR Part 91 operations exhibited accident rates approximately three times higher than Part CFR 135, averaging 3.94 per 100,000 flight hours compared to 1.23. Maintenance/mechanical was the most common initiating cause for accidents under CFR Part 91, accounting for 52% of cases compared to 37% under Part 135. Pilot/related cases were more prevalent under CFR Part 135, accounting for 53% of accidents. The two regulatory frameworks operated substantially different fleets, with CFR Part 91 relying on reciprocating-engine helicopters (76%) and Part 135 on turbine-powered aircraft (81%). Engine and powerplant/related events accounted for 27% of all defining events, and nearly half of all events involved a technical or mechanical initiator.
Sanchez, Gustavo, Gupta, Shantanu, Coimbra Mendonca, Flavio
Characterization of Lane Keeping and Departure Scenarios Using Large-Scale Naturalistic Driving Data09-14-01-00225/4/2026
Roadway departures remain a major cause of crashes, injuries, and fatalities on U.S. roads. Technologies such as lane keeping assist (LKA) and lane centering assist (LCA) can help mitigate these crashes, but their development involves extensive characterization of the parameter space in which they operate. Lane and road departures (LDs/RDs) and lane changes (LCs) must be systematically described and quantified to distinguish kinematic features, identify contributing factors, and benchmark system influence on lateral control. This study developed a unified pipeline to mine over 36 million miles of naturalistic driving study (NDS) data collected from more than 3800 participants. The pipeline integrates various types of signals to detect roadway boundary crossings, classify LKA-relevant scenarios, and extract roadway, driver, environmental, and assistance-related parameters. Lane keeping epochs with and without LKA were also extracted to quantify system influence on lateral control. In the NDS analysis, crashes include both object contact events and RDs, defined as non-premeditated departures from the intended travel surface involving at least one tire. Analysis of pre-identified crashes in the NDS showed that unintentional RDs accounted for 5.67%, unintentional LDs for 1.76%, and intentional LCs for 1.55%, corresponding to lower-bound rates of 2.7, 0.8, and 0.7 crashes per million vehicle miles traveled. RD crashes were predominantly right-sided, LD crashes left-sided, and both were overrepresented on curves and under adverse conditions. Loss of control preceded 22% of RD crashes and 69% of LD crashes. Beyond crashes and near-crashes (CNCs), the algorithm identified approximately 3 million LCs and 0.3 million LDs/RDs. LCs typically involved larger crossing angles that decreased with speed, while departures clustered within 0°–2°. Compared with CNCs, these occurred at higher speeds and smaller angles. LKA consistently reduced lateral variability without biasing the mean offset.
Ali, Gibran, Terranova, Paolo, Williams, Vicki, Holley, Dustin, Saffy, Joshua, Antona-Makoshi, Jacobo, Kefauver, Kevin, Shull, Emily, Li, Eric, Venegas, Michael
Advanced Tool for Traffic Crash Analysis: An AI-Driven Multi-Agent Approach to Pre-Crash Reconstruction09-14-01-00335/4/2026
Traffic collision reconstruction traditionally relies on human expertise and, when performed properly, can be incredibly accurate. However, attempting to perform pre-crash reconstruction, i.e., reconstructing the driver and vehicle behaviors that preceded the actual crash, poses significantly more challenges. This study develops a multi-agent artificial intelligence (AI) framework that reconstructs pre-crash scenarios and infers vehicle behaviors from fragmented collision data. We present a two-phase collaborative framework combining reconstruction and reasoning phases. The system processes 277 rear-end lead vehicle deceleration (LVD) collisions from the Crash Investigation Sampling System (CISS; 2017–2022), integrating textual crash reports, structured tabular data, and visual scene diagrams. Phase I generates natural language crash reconstructions from multimodal inputs. Phase II performs in-depth crash reasoning by combining these reconstructions with the temporal event data recorder (EDR). This enables precise identification of striking and struck vehicles while isolating the EDR records most relevant to the collision moment, thereby revealing crucial pre-crash driving behaviors. For validation, we applied it to all LVD cases, focusing on a subset of 39 complicated EDR cases where multiple EDR records per collision introduced possible ambiguity (e.g., due to missing or conflicting data). Ground truth was established via consensus between manual annotations (two independent researchers), with a separate large language model (LLM) used only to flag possible conflicts for re-checking. In the full end-to-end evaluation, the framework achieved 100% accuracy across all 4155 trials (277 cases × 5 runs × 3 models), with three reasoning models producing identical outputs, confirming that performance derives from the structured prompt design rather than model-specific characteristics. In contrast, research analysts without specialized reconstruction training achieved 92.31% accuracy on the same 39 complex cases. In separate ablation experiments on the 39 complicated EDR cases, where one randomly selected Phase I output from the full end-to-end evaluation was fixed as the unified input for Phase II and each model was tested with 10 independent runs, removing the structured reasoning anchors reduced case-level accuracy from 99.7% to 96.5%, with errors spreading from a single output type to multiple analytical dimensions. The system maintained robust performance even when processing incomplete data. This zero-shot evaluation, conducted without any domain-specific training or fine-tuning, demonstrates that the framework’s effectiveness stems from its multi-agent architecture and prompt engineering, offering a scalable approach for AI-assisted pre-crash analysis.
Xu, Gerui, Chen, Boyou, Guo, Huizhong, LeBlanc, Dave, Kusari, Arpan, Yarbasi, Efe, Ahmed, Ananna, Sun, Zhaonan, Bao, Shan
SAE Level 2 ADAS Performance in Specific Crash-Imminent Scenarios09-14-01-00155/4/2026
This research examined the performance of SAE Level 2 (L2) advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) in crash-imminent scenarios (CIS), with particular attention to how vehicle configuration like body style and powertrain (internal combustion engine, plug-in hybrid, electric vehicle) influences vehicle system performance. The objectives were to (1) identify CIS relevant to L2-equipped vehicles using crash databases and naturalistic driving studies (NDSs), (2) develop scenario-based test procedures and test matrices, and (3) evaluate system and vehicle responses across configurations and conditions. Multiple crash data sources were analyzed, including NHTSA’s Standing General Order dataset of L2-related crashes, the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, the Crash Report Sampling System, and NDS data from the Second Strategic Highway Research Program and the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute L2 NDS. Coded variable analyses from the datasets identified three common CIS: lane and road departures, rear-end striking events, and intersection conflicts. Supporting variables such as speed, roadway condition, and driver actions were also extracted to characterize scenarios and inform test development. Tests were executed at a closed-track testing facility using four vehicles selected for diversity of L2 systems, body types, and powertrains. Phase 0 exploratory testing assessed vehicle kinematics and L2 responses to refine the test matrix. Phases 1 and 2 conducted controlled evaluations of selected CIS, with expansion factors reflecting real-world crash variability. The testing highlighted interactions between L2 features and active safety systems. For example, results showed that all four vehicles employed distinct hand-off strategies between L2 longitudinal control and active safety systems during rear-end striking crash scenarios, and AEB engagement was strongly correlated with TTC at the moment the vehicle identified the crash partner. This work contributes novel insights into vehicle L2 and ADAS behavior in CIS events across multiple factors and provides a structured framework to evaluate system behavior for those crash-imminent scenarios.
Beale, Gregory, Kefauver, Kevin, Venegas, Michael, Li, Eric, Chen, Jay, Huggins, Steven, Guduri, Balachandar, Llaneras, Eddy
Rear-Impact Crash Injury Patterns and Predictors: Insights from Contemporary CISS and CIREN Field Data09-14-01-00295/4/2026
The objective of this study was to investigate occupant injury patterns and predictors in rear-impact crashes using recent US field data. Cases were queried from the Crash Investigation Sampling System (CISS, 2017–2023) and the Crash Injury Research and Engineering Network (CIREN, 2017–2024), yielding 1923 front-row outboard occupants from 1533 crashes. Crash documentation and vehicle photographs were manually reviewed to classify seatback deformation magnitude and secondary impact severity. Multivariable logistic regression models estimated associations between occupant, vehicle, and crash characteristics and Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) ≥ 2 and AIS ≥ 3 injury outcomes across body regions. Sensitivity analyses included CISS-only, weighted, single-event, and interaction models. Thoracic injuries were further subdivided into skeletal and cardiopulmonary categories. Findings reflect associations within the pooled CISS + CIREN analytic sample rather than nationally representative injury rates. Seatback deformation and multievent crash classification are proxy measures and may introduce misclassification and residual confounding. A total of 188 occupants sustained AIS ≥ 2 injuries and 81 sustained AIS ≥ 3 injuries. Head injury was the most frequent AIS ≥ 2 outcome, while thoracic injury was the most frequent serious injury outcome, accounting for 60% of AIS ≥ 3 cases. Across AIS ≥ 2 and AIS ≥ 3 models, crash severity (delta-v) was the most consistent predictor of injury. Age was strongly associated with injury across most AIS ≥ 2 outcomes and several AIS ≥ 3 models, particularly for overall maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale (MAIS) and thoracic injury. Seatback deformation was associated with injury across multiple models after controlling for crash severity and occupant characteristics, with severe deformation showing stronger associations with AIS ≥ 3 outcomes. Unbelted status was associated with abdominal, pelvic, and lumbar spine injury. Female sex was associated with thoracic injury, primarily attributable to cardiopulmonary rather than skeletal injury. These findings highlight statistical associations between seatback deformation severity, restraint status, occupant characteristics, and injury outcomes in rear-impact crashes.
Lockerby, Jack, Rudd, Rodney
Characterization of Front Row Occupants Involved in Motor Vehicle Crashes Compared to ATDs and the U.S. Population09-14-01-00275/4/2026
Currently, adult anthropomorphic test devices used in regulatory and consumer information crash testing in the United States are targeted to represent a small female (5th percentile) and an average male (50th percentile). The anthropometry determined previously might not represent the current population, or as investigated in the current study, those that are at least moderately injured during a motor vehicle crash. The objective of this study was to use field data to determine if the current frontal anthropomorphic test devices are representative. Data from the National Automotive Sampling System–Crashworthiness Data System (2010-2015) and Crash Investigation Sampling System (2017–2023) were queried for sex, age, size, and injury information for front seat occupants in frontal crashes. Additional datasets used were from the National Trauma Data Bank and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. According to field data, the most frequently injured female and male is approximately 164 cm tall, weighing 72 kg and approximately 177 cm tall, weighing 81 kg, respectively. The distribution of those injured in frontal crashes aligns with all crash types and the current United States population. Differences between anthropomorphic test device specifications and recent data (particularly weight) should be the focus of future work.
McNeil, Elizabeth, Atwood, Jonathan, Rudd, Rodney, Craig, Matthew
Modification and Validation of a Finite Element Model of a Pedestrian Dummy09-14-01-00125/4/2026
Aims of the research This study aims to modify the lower body (the pelvis, thigh, and leg) of the mid-sized male pedestrian dummy FE model by considering the latest version of the physical dummy and to evaluate both the accuracy by comparing test results of the past studies and the biofidelity specified in SAE J2782 in both component and full-scale validations. Methods 1 Component validation The validation of the modified pelvis model was performed in dynamic lateral compression simulations. The sacrum and the pubis force-deflection responses of the iliac or the acetabulum impact were measured. The modified thigh and leg models were evaluated in a dynamic 3-point lateral bending simulation, measuring the force-deflection responses. The results from the simulations were compared with test results and the biofidelity requirements. 2 Full-scale validation The whole-body model was updated by incorporating these modified component models. The model of the generic buck developed for the assessment of pedestrian whole-body impact response and specified in SAE J3093 was used in this study. The buck model was made to collide with the full-scale dummy model at 40 km/h laterally. The trajectories of the head, upper spine, mid-thorax, and pelvis were measured and compared with those of the test results and the biofidelity requirements. Results The force-deflection responses from the pelvis, thigh, and leg models were similar to those of the test results, indicating they almost fell within the biofidelity requirements. As the results of the full-scale simulation, the trajectories of the head, upper spine, mid-thorax, and pelvis showed a strong agreement with those of the test results, indicating almost the same tendency as the biofidelity corridors, except for that of the pelvis. Conclusions As the results of component and full-scale validations, the equivalences of the modified pedestrian dummy model to test results and the biofidelity were confirmed in most cases.
Asanuma, Hiroyuki, Gunji, Yasuaki, Mori, Fumie, Nagashima, Akiko
Frontal Crash Classification and Occupant Outcomes from 2017 to 2023 US Field Cases09-14-01-00245/4/2026
This study provides an updated characterization of real-world frontal crash types—considering overlap and obliquity—based on their overall frequency and associated injury outcomes. The results of this study will support an evaluation of how well NHTSA’s frontal oblique crash test condition addresses the current population of serious frontal crashes, as compared to frontal test modes in existing crashworthiness programs. U.S. field crash data from 2017 to 2023 were analyzed to classify frontal crashes by coded damage characteristics. Oblique frontal crashes were defined as those with principal direction of force between 10°–40° and 320°–350°. Non-ejected belted first and second row occupants in model year 2000 and newer passenger vehicles absent a rollover event were included. Occupants were stratified by sex, age, and body mass index, and injury outcomes based on moderate, serious, and fatal thresholds were analyzed across crash configurations. Among the belted first row occupants considered in this study, more than 45% were exposed to oblique crashes while full overlap colinear crashes accounted for 18% of the occupants. Oblique crashes represent a disproportionately large number of AIS 3+ injured and fatal occupants. Older occupants and females showed a trend of higher injury frequency despite less exposure. Full overlap crashes still account for a representative portion of serious injuries among frontal crashes. Limitations include restriction of cases to those with complete vehicle and occupant details. Assessment of impact type was dependent on generic vehicle class-specific reference values. The findings reinforce the enduring relevance of oblique frontal crash conditions which remain a substantial contributor to serious injuries and fatalities, especially for older adults and female occupants.
Rudd, Rodney W.
Interactions of Rear-Facing Child Restraints in Frontal Crash Tests09-14-01-00105/4/2026
The aims of this study were to investigate the kinematics of child anthropomorphic test devices in a large sample of rear-facing child restraint system installations and the effects of anti-rebound features and load legs on the kinematics of rear-facing child anthropomorphic test devices. The test matrix included a general sample of 70 rear-facing child restraint system installations to observe trends in frontal crash tests; 14 full-scale crash tests with paired comparisons to investigate the effect of anti-rebound features; and five paired comparisons of rear-facing child restraint systems installed with and without a load leg. The paired t-test was used to determine the statistical significance of differences in kinematic responses. In the general sample, 84% of anthropomorphic test devices in infant seats with the base in outboard seats interacted with the first-row seat. In 52% of tests, the anthropomorphic test device head directly contacted the front seatback. Head accelerations > 80 g were caused by interactions between: the child restraint system and front seatback; the anthropomorphic test device head and the interior surface of the child restraint system; or the anthropomorphic test device head and front seatback. In the anti-rebound sample, head contact on rebound occurred in three infant seat installations, and all were associated with head resultant accelerations ≤33 g. The mean paired difference in head 3 ms clip was negligible (p > 0.05). In the load leg sample, the load leg limited forward excursion and forward rotation of the rear-facing child restraint system, thereby contributing to the containment of the anthropomorphic test device within the boundary of the child restraint system shell. In this study, anti-rebound features did not improve the kinematics of pediatric anthropomorphic test devices. The feasibility of including the use of the load leg in the Canadian regulatory test protocol should be explored.
Tylko, Suzanne, Tang, Kathy
Validation of Vehicle-Based Injury Severity Prediction Using Crash Telemetry Data09-14-01-00095/4/2026
Subaru has developed vehicle-based Injury Severity Predictions (ISP) models using data from the National Automotive Sampling System Crashworthiness Data System (NASS-CDS) covering calendar years 1999–2015, for integration into Advanced Automatic Collision Notification (AACN) systems. This study evaluates the accuracy of these ISP models by comparing predictions derived from Subaru vehicle telemetry with actual Injury Severity Scores (ISS) of transported occupants. Two crash databases were utilized: Subaru Telematics Assisted Accident Research (STAAR) data for calendar years 2021–2024, which includes Automatic Collision Notification (ACN) data, police reports, emergency medical services (EMS), and medical records from the medical centers across Michigan; and the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) data for calendar years 2021–2023, matched with ACN data to supplement serious injury cases. ISS values were obtained from medical records in STAAR, while fatal cases in FARS were assigned as fatal injury. Four ISP models were evaluated, grouped into two main approaches: (1) models using categorical impact directions (Front, Right, Rear, Left), (2) models applying functional data analysis with cyclic spline modeling of Principal Direction of Force (PDOF). The presence of a right-front passenger was also considered as an interaction factor. Among 56 STAAR cases, only one involved serious injury (ISS ≥ 15), limiting sensitivity analysis. All models demonstrated specificity above 90%. In 102 FARS cases, 44 were fatal, yielding sensitivity between 52% and 57%. Models using PDOF splines performed similarly to directional models. When multiple impacts were excluded, sensitivity improved to 63%–74%, suggesting that in such crashes, PDOF may not be clearly identifiable from vehicle telemetry data. Although functional data analysis was expected to enhance sensitivity, this improvement was not confirmed. Additional data collection is needed to improve ISP accuracy. Vehicle telemetry remains a rapid and cost-effective method for acquiring crash data to advance vehicle safety.
Ejima, Susumu, Zhang, Peng, Cunningham, Kristen, Wang, Stewart
The Effect of Initial Foot Position on THOR-50M and THOR-05F Lower Leg Response in a Realistic Vehicle Buck09-14-01-00085/4/2026
This study aims to explore and evaluate the effect of various foot positions on the kinematic and kinetic response of the lower extremity during frontal crashes using a realistic vehicle interior. Frontal impact sled tests were performed with the Test Device for Human Occupant Restraint, 50th-percentile Male (THOR-50M) and Test Device for Human Occupant Restraint, 5th-percentile Female (THOR-05F) anthropometric test device (ATD) in the driver’s seat of a midsize SUV testing buck (with realistic interior components including an instrument panel with steering wheel and steering wheel airbag, seat, three-point seat belt with pretensioner and force-limiter, accelerator pedal, brake pedal, knee airbag, and seat belt retractor pretensioner). Six sled tests were performed in two principal directions of force (PDOF) [three each in frontal (0°) and oblique (−20°) configurations]. The right foot was positioned on the accelerator pedal, fully on the brake, and half on the brake. A single test was conducted with the THOR-05F in an oblique configuration with the foot on the accelerator. Ankle response was analyzed from internal ATD instrumentation. Restraint engagement was found to be consistent across all testing cases. Ankle moment and angle varied based on PDOF and the tested foot condition. Right ankle moment ranged from 70 to −70 Nm in inversion/eversion. Right ankle angles ranged from 37° inversion to 28° eversion. Left ankle moment ranged from 10 to −41 Nm in inversion/eversion. Left ankle angles ranged from 10° eversion to 23° inversion. Differences in lower extremity motion and loading were observed for each testing condition. Placing the foot on the accelerator pedal produced greater ankle moment than either brake pedal condition. Placing the foot on the brake pedal resulted in the highest dorsiflexion angle response. Obliquity increased ankle moment and rotation for both ankles. The United States New Car Assessment Program (US-NCAP) foot position with an oblique PDOF created the highest ankle moment while the in-line brake position in oblique created the highest dorsiflexion rotation. By combining these findings with other efforts focused on naturalistic driving and foot positioning, these results might aid in development of additional testing practices that might enhance our understanding of the lower extremity in nonstandard initial positions.
Noss, Junior, Donlon, John-Paul, Morris, Anna, Samier, Germain, Park, Joseph, Forman, Jason
Front-Row Seatback Contact for Pediatric Occupants Seated in Rearward-Facing Infant Child Restraint Systems during Frontal Crashes09-14-01-00195/4/2026
Using a subset of the Transport Canada dataset of rearward-facing CRS in full-frontal rigid barrier vehicle tests, the aim of the current study was to evaluate CRS and/or ATD head contact with the front-row seatback and categorize the contribution to the peak ATD head acceleration. For 33 cases of ATDs seated in rearward-facing CRS models installed in the second-row outboard seats across 19 vehicle tests, high-speed video footage was analyzed to identify instances and timings of CRS and/or ATD head contact with the front-row seatback. The timing of contact was compared to the ATD head acceleration time history to identify instances of “contributory contact” with the front-row seatback, which was defined as contact occurring before the ATD head acceleration was within 10 g of the peak. ATD contributory contact cases involved both the ATD head and CRS contacting the front-row seat, whereas CRS contributory contact cases involved only the CRS, but not the ATD head, contacting the front-row seat. No contributory contact cases were those that involved either ATD or CRS contact with the front-row seatback, but the contact occurred after the time point associated with 10 g below the peak ATD head acceleration. No contact cases were those that did not involve either ATD or CRS contact with the front-row seatback. Contributory CRS and/or ATD contact with the front-row seatback was found to be associated with increased head injury risk. Therefore, the energy-absorbing properties of the CRS head restraint and/or front-row seatback are likely important considerations regarding frontal crash protection for rearward-facing pediatric second-row occupants. Impact velocity, location, and angle were able to be calculated for two cases that involved contributory ATD contact with the front-row seatback. Such data could be used as boundary conditions for physical testing of front-row seatbacks and computational modeling.
Patton, Declan A., Tang, Kathy, Tylko, Suzanne, Arbogast, Kristy B.
Comparative Analysis of Thoracic Injury and Causative Factors across Sexes in Serious Frontal Motor Vehicle Collisions in the Crash Injury Research and Engineering Network Database09-14-01-00315/4/2026
This study investigated sex-specific differences in thoracic injury prevalence, causation, and rib fracture patterns among seriously injured occupants in frontal motor vehicle collisions. Crash Injury Research and Engineering Network (CIREN) data from 2005 to 2022 included 793 front-seat occupants aged 16 years and older with Abbreviated Injury Scale 2+ thorax injury, representing 1802 thoracic injuries. Injuries were grouped as rib fracture, sternum fracture, hemo/pneumothorax, lung injury, heart injury, and other. A weighted scoring system captured contributions of involved physical components to each injury. Logistic and linear regression with generalized estimating equations assessed sex associations with injury presence and causation. Two models were estimated: a comprehensively adjusted model including demographic, crash, vehicle, restraint, and airbag deployment, and a simplified model adjusting for age, body mass index, delta-V, and occupant role. Among occupants with AIS 2+ thoracic injuries, sex-specific differences were observed in injury patterns and causation. Females were less likely than males to sustain lung injuries (OR = 0.70, p = 0.038) and more likely to sustain rib fractures (OR = 1.25, p = 0.006). Females had higher odds of rib fractures attributed to seatbelt loading in both models (Full: OR = 2.20, p = 0.005; Simplified: OR = 1.55, p = 0.021). Females were less likely than males to sustain lung injuries (OR = 0.17, p = 0.042) and hemo/pneumothoraces (OR = 0.15, p = 0.044) from instrument panel loading. Steering wheel, airbag, and other components showed no significant sex-specific associations with thoracic injury. Rib fracture patterns showed clusters along the seatbelt path in belted occupants and a more diffuse pattern in unbelted occupants, with minimal significant findings of differences between sexes. These findings contribute to the growing evidence of sex-specific injury patterns and may inform future research on injury prediction and prevention strategies. However, this dataset includes only occupants with AIS 2+ thoracic injuries and therefore cannot be extrapolated to the general population or to collisions outside those represented in the sample.
Armstrong, William, Devane, Karan, Hsu, Fang-Chi, Heilmann, Nina, Sink, Joel, Miller, Anna N., Kiani, Bahram, Martin, R. Shayn, Stitzel, Joel D., Weaver, Ashley
Regional-Specific Patterns of Abdominal Injury in Belted Male and Female Frontal Crash Occupants: Insights from Redefined Anatomical Mapping09-14-01-00025/4/2026
Research Question/Methods The study examined abdominal injuries of 87 belted occupants in CIREN frontal crashes for sex-based differences in abdominal injury patterns. It introduced a more anatomically detailed method for identifying injury locations in an abdominal-pelvic region that includes skeletal structures. The study introduces and applies a novel Abdominal New Injury Severity Score (AbNISS) to address limitations of traditional AIS coding in capturing sex-based differences in injury patterns. The operative reports/EDR/imaging data in CIREN cases enabled identification of sex-specific crash outcomes. The dominant analytical motif is Bertrand Russell’s knowledge by acquaintance and definite descriptions. Results Females had a higher rate of moderate to severe abdominal injuries than males: Only females sustained AIS 5 injuries, lumbar Chance fractures, posterior pelvic arch injuries, and more AIS 2, 3, and 4 injuries, with more injuries in superior-mid, left-superior, and medial-mid-abdominal zones. Males had more in the medial-inferior zone. 13 females had muscle ruptures. Four had combined muscle and Morel–Lavallée injuries, and four had Morel–Lavallée injuries alone. 13 of 14 males had muscle ruptures only. Pelvic morphology: Statistically significant (p < 0.05) sex-based difference in pelvic aspect ratios: Females: 1.37 ± 0.053, with the male ratio of 1.28 ± 0.079. By incorporating anatomical precision and enhanced injury mapping, it supports the development of more representative ATD/human body models. Discussion and Limitations Limitations of the study include its retrospective design, possible inconsistencies in clinical documentation, and challenges in applying AbNISS coding to non-CIREN datasets due to specificity constraints.
Halloway, Dale, Curry, William, Somasundaram, Karthik, Pintar, Frank
Injury and Kinematics of Obese PMHS in Frontal Impacts with Reclined Seating09-14-01-00035/4/2026
Objective: This study investigated injury outcomes and body kinematics in obese occupants exposed to frontal impacts while seated in reclined postures. With increasing interest in non-traditional seating configurations and a growing population of obese vehicle occupants, the objective was to evaluate how seat stiffness and restraint features influence injury patterns and whole-body excursions. Methods: Nine obese post-mortem human surrogates (PMHS; mean age: 64 years, stature: 1.70 m, body mass: 102 kg, BMI: 35 kg/m2) were tested under frontal impact conditions simulating a delta-V of 50 kph. All specimens were seated on a spring-controlled seat with a 45° reclined seatback and restrained by a three-point belt system with pretensioner and load limiter. Three configurations were evaluated: (1) stiffer seat, (2) softer seat, and (3) stiffer seat with a knee bolster 100 mm from the knees. Each subject underwent one test. Whole-body kinematics were captured using a VICON motion analysis system, and injury outcomes were assessed through radiographs, CT imaging, and autopsy, with severity classified by Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale (MAIS) and Injury Severity Score (ISS). Results: Softer seats produced substantially greater downward (+Z) pelvic displacement compared with stiffer seats. The knee bolster effectively reduced both downward and forward excursions of the lower torso. Rib cage and pelvic injuries were most frequent, with the highest severity observed in softer seat tests. Mean ISS values were: STIFF—27, 13, 27; SOFT—34, 27, 14; STIFF-KB—22, 0, 13. Discussion: Reduced seat stiffness combined with increased occupant mass contributed to greater excursions and anterior torso injuries, whereas the knee bolster mitigated excursion and injury severity. Findings are limited by sample size and test conditions; broader evaluation with production seats is needed to confirm trends and support countermeasure design.
Somasundaram, Karthik, Yoganandan, Narayan, Pintar, Frank
Geometric Variabilities and Their Effects on Impact Responses in Midsize Male and Female Occupants09-14-01-00255/4/2026
The objective of this study is to use parametric human body models (HBMs) to understand how geometric variability among individuals who have the same sex, stature, and body weight may affect the impact responses and injury outcomes, using midsize male and midsize female populations as representative cases. Methods were developed to quantify skeletal and external body surface variations using principal component analysis, regression, and residual error analysis. Based on this analysis, nine midsize male and nine midsize female geometric models were created, focusing on ribcage and pelvis variations, which account for most of the observed variability. These geometries were then applied to morph the simplified Global Human Body Model Consortium (GHBMC) midsize male model, producing 18 distinct HBMs. Each morphed HBM was subjected to nine impact scenarios, resulting in a total of 162 simulations to assess the effects of geometric variability. Substantial geometric variation was observed in the ribcage and pelvis, while the femur and tibia showed minimal variability for both midsize males and females. All morphed HBMs had good mesh quality, and all crash simulations terminated normally without error. Component-level tests showed relatively minor differences in impact responses among HBMs with identical sex, stature, and body weight. However, the United States New Car Assessment Program (US-NCAP) frontal crash simulations revealed considerable differences in injury risk, especially in the front passenger position. These findings highlight the importance of accounting for geometric variability, even among HBMs with the same sex, stature, and body weight, when evaluating injury risks in severe frontal crashes. It is especially important to consider ribcage geometry variations, which could impact occupant sitting height, posture, and injury risks at different body regions in frontal crashes. This study demonstrated that future virtual testing frameworks using HBMs should consider human geometric variations, especially in the ribcage and pelvis, when assessing injury risks in vehicle frontal crashes.
Hu, Jingwen, Lin, Yang-Shen, Boyle, Kyle, Khandare, Sujata, Bonifas, Anne, Reed, Matthew P., Hasija, Vikas
Characterization of Fatal Cyclist Collisions Involving Nine Vehicle Types Traveling at Low and High Speeds in Japan09-14-01-00055/4/2026
To reduce traffic fatalities through vehicle safety measures, particular attention must be given to cyclist-related fatalities. Clarifying the characteristics of hazardous events leading to cyclist fatalities, not only by vehicle speed range but also by vehicle type, is essential and should be based on analyses of real-world accident data. Accordingly, this study aimed to characterize fatal cyclist accidents involving vehicles traveling at low and high speeds in Japan. We used macro accident data from the Japanese Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis covering the period from 2013 to 2022. Based on nine vehicle types, we investigated the effects of road type, vehicle behavior, and accident type on cyclist fatalities. Additionally, we identified the five most frequent accident scenarios separately for each low- and high-speed category. At signalized intersections, the proportions of cyclist fatalities involving vehicles traveling at low speeds were higher than those involving vehicles traveling at high speeds across all vehicle types. In contrast, on straight roads, the proportions at low speeds were lower than those at high speeds for all vehicle types. In the low-speed range, cyclist fatalities within the top five scenarios accounted for 65% of all fatalities, with the most frequent scenario occurring at signalized intersections during left-turn maneuvers, where heavy-duty trucks accounted for 86% of the fatalities. In the high-speed range, cyclist fatalities within the top five scenarios accounted for 71% of all fatalities. The most frequent high-speed scenario involved crossing collisions at unsignalized intersections when vehicles traveled straight, with light passenger cars and sedans accounting for 29% and 24% of the fatalities, respectively. These findings provide valuable insights for the development of targeted traffic safety regulations and vehicle technologies aimed at reducing vehicle–cyclist collisions across different speed ranges.
Matsui, Yasuhiro, Oikawa, Shoko
Assessing Injury Prediction with Human Body Models: Application to Rib Fracture Risk Prediction Using SAFER HBM09-14-01-00235/4/2026
As a consequence of the introduction of mathematical human body models (HBMs) in consumer information programs, there is an increased need for reliable methods that can demonstrate and build trust in the capability of HBMs to predict human response and injury risk in crashes. Therefore, a framework for validation of strain-based injury prediction is proposed. The framework comprises stepwise validation with the final step to validate the utility of risk predictions by means of the area under the curve (AUC) combined with Brier scores. SAFER HBM V11.1.0 previously validated at component and body part levels was selected for the demonstration of the final step of the framework to validate the capability to predict fracture risk in frontal, oblique, and lateral loading. For frontal loading, five postmortem human surrogate (PMHS) test series with 43 PMHS (age range: 19–88 years) were reconstructed. The predicted rib fracture risk for 2+ and 3+ fractured ribs was compared to the number of fractured ribs sustained by the PMHS. Using the framework, the SAFER HBM was for frontal impact analysis found capable of predicting 2+ fractured ribs with an AUC of 0.90 and 3+ fractured ribs with an AUC of 0.89. For oblique and lateral impacts, three PMHS test series including 47 PMHS (23 with 0, 22 with 2+, and 20 with 3+ fractures) were reconstructed, and SAFER HBM rib fracture risk predictions obtained AUC values of 0.84 and 0.87 for 2+ and 3+ fractured ribs, respectively. In the frontal load case, the Brier score was 0.14 for the Number of Fractured Ribs (NFR) 2+ model and 0.17 for the NFR 3+ model. In the lateral/oblique load case, Brier scores were 0.20 and 0.18 for the NFR 2+ and NFR 3+ models, respectively. The proposed framework is a suitable method to objectively assess the utility of HBM injury predictions, demonstrated with the SAFER HBMs capability to predict rib fracture risk.
Pipkorn, Bengt, Niranjan Poojary, Yash, Osth, Jonas, Larsson, Karl-Johan, Iraeus, Johan
Neck and Spinal Responses in the Reclined Large Omnidirectional Child Anthropomorphic Test Device with and without a Booster Seat during Far-Side Lateral Oblique Impacts09-14-01-00115/4/2026
Objective The objective of this study was to examine the Large Omnidirectional Child (LODC) anthropomorphic test device (ATD) neck and spine responses in reclined seating configurations with and without a backless belt-positioning booster (BPB) in far-side lateral oblique impacts. Methods The LODC was seated on a production passenger seat with an integrated seatbelt and tested in nine lateral oblique impact (80° from frontal) sled tests (31.3 km/h). A condition with a nominal seatback angle (~25°) with a backless BPB and two conditions with reclined seatback angles (~45° and ~60°) with and without a BPB were compared. Each condition was repeated, except for the 60° without BPB. Peak upper neck tension force and lateral moment, T1, T6, and T12 lateral rotation, lumbar axial and lateral shear forces, and lumbar axial moment (Mz) were extracted. Results With noBPB, upper neck tension (45° noBPB: 2.0 ± 0.1 kN; 60° noBPB: 1.8 kN) and lateral moment (45° noBPB: 31.7 ± 2.3 Nm; 60° noBPB: 29.2 Nm) were greater than with the BPB in all seatback angles (25° BPB: 1.3 ± 0.04 kN; 21.6 ± 0.1 Nm; 45° BPB: 1.2 ± 0.1 kN, 22.5 ± 2.3 Nm; 60° BPB: 1.2 ± 0.03 kN, 17.6 ± 0.7 Nm). Thoracic spine rotation was smaller in reclined conditions with noBPB (41°–59°) than with BPB (63°–80°). Lumbar axial forces decreased with increasing seatback angle with the BPB (from 2.2 to 1.2 kN). Lumbar Mz showed increasing unbelted shoulder rotation toward the seatback with increasing seatback angle (from 29.8 to 37.8 Nm) with the BPB but not without. Discussion The presence of the BPB may improve neck and spine coupled motion during far-side lateral impacts. However, increased lumbar Mz with the BPB in recline seatbacks requires further understanding.
Graci, Valentina, Humm, John, Hauschild, Hans
Effects of Vehicle Speed, Category, and Front-End Design on Full-Body Injury Risks of a Midsized Male Pedestrian09-14-01-00175/4/2026
This study investigated how vehicle front-end geometry, impact speed, and vehicle category influence injury risk to a midsize male pedestrian. Eighty-one generic vehicle (GV) models representing sedans, sport utility vehicles (SUVs), pickup trucks, and minivans sold in the United States were developed by morphing three base models using an automated pipeline. Front-end parameters that were varied included ground clearance (GC), bumper height (BH), hood leading-edge (HLE) height, hood length (HL), bumper lead angle (BLA), hood angle (HA), and windshield angle (WSA). Each vehicle impacted the Global Human Body Models Consortium 50th percentile male simplified pedestrian (GHBMC M50-PS) model at 30, 40, and 50 kph, totaling 243 simulations. Boundary conditions followed the European New Car Assessment Program (Euro NCAP) pedestrian test protocol. Thirty-five injury metrics were extracted across the head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and lower extremities. Linear mixed-effects regression models assessed relationships between vehicle front-end geometry, impact speed, and injury outcomes, with predictor selection guided by principal component analysis (PCA) and collinearity diagnostics. Impact speed was the strongest predictor of injury severity across all body regions. GC and HLE height were also dominant predictors. Wrap-type trajectories were common at lower speeds and in SUVs, trucks, and minivans, while sedans and minivans showed roof vaulting at higher speeds. Head injury severity increased with speed and was influenced by HA and BLA. Minivans showed elevated brain injury criterion (BrIC) and cumulative strain damage measure (CSDM25) values, indicating increased diffuse brain injury risk. Trucks produced the highest thoracoabdominal injury metrics, which correlated with HL, HA, and HLE height. Sedans showed higher right-side (trailing leg) femur forces, slightly lower left-side femur forces than SUVs and minivans, and lowest tibia moments. Trucks had greater tibia bending moments, while SUVs and minivans had higher left femur moments compared to sedans. GC and impact speed exacerbated lower extremity injuries, varying by vehicle category. These effects are driven by geometry: Higher GC increases the unsupported span below the knee, promoting tibial bending, while lower HLE heights shift impact forces above the knee, elevating femur injury risk.
Poveda, Luis, Miller, Logan E., Edwards, Colin C., Pollock, Madeline, Armstrong, William M., Hsu, Fang-Chi, Gayzik, Scott F., Weaver, Ashley A., Stitzel, Joel D., Devane, Karan S.
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