Browse Topic: Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS)

Items (1,443)
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are increasingly integrated into heavy-duty commercial vehicles to improve road safety, mitigate accident severity, and enhance operational efficiency. In the context of braking systems, however, a significant gap remains between system calibration practices and real-world operating conditions, where most evaluations and validations of ADAS and braking performance are conducted under nominal or standardized load assumptions, which fail to represent the wide variability of payload magnitude and distribution typically observed in trucks, semi- trailers, and buses. Variations in vehicle mass and load distribution directly affect braking efficiency, axle load transfer, center of gravity (CG) position, and stability limits, posing critical challenges to both conventional brake systems and brake-related assistance functions. This paper presents an exploratory qualitative study based on a systematic literature review addressing the influence of variable loading on braking performance and the operation of ADAS in commercial vehicles. Scientific publications, experimental investigations, and technical reports from both academia and industry were thoroughly analyzed, with emphasis on service brake efficiency, load-dependent braking behavior, rollover propensity, and the performance of the ADAS systems. The reviewed studies demonstrate that longitudinal, lateral, and vertical CG displacements significantly modify braking force distribution, actuator effectiveness, and stopping distances, particularly under emergency braking and downhill driving conditions. Improper load distribution was consistently associated with reduced braking margins and increased instability risk. The findings further indicate that integrating load-aware strategies into braking control and ADAS calibration can improve braking consistency, reduce component stress, and enhance overall vehicle safety. As a contribution, this work emphasizes the need to incorporate variable load conditions into braking system evaluation, ADAS development, and certification procedures for heavy commercial vehicles, ensuring robust and reliable performance under real operating conditions.
Rubbo, Bruno TiagoDacol, Franco De BastianiDo Nascimento, Vagner
The implementation of ADAS in buses represents both a significant opportunity and a complex challenge for the future of urban mobility. While ADAS technologies such as lane departure warning, adaptive cruise control, blind spot detection, and autonomous emergency braking have been widely adopted in passenger cars and trucks, their integration into buses has been slower due to unique operational and safety concerns. This paper provides a broad overview of the advantages and obstacles associated with ADAS deployment in public transport vehicles, with particular emphasis on passenger safety, regulatory frameworks, and operational efficiency. Key barriers include the vulnerability of standing passengers during sudden braking events, the unpredictability of pedestrians and cyclists in dense urban environments, and the economic constraints faced by bus operators. At the same time, regulatory initiatives such as Transport for London’s Bus Safety Standard, the European Union’s General Safety Regulation, and Brazil’s MOVER program are driving the gradual adoption of these systems. The benefits of ADAS in buses extend beyond accident reduction, encompassing improved driver ergonomics, reduced fatigue, lower maintenance costs, and enhanced passenger comfort. Case studies from Europe, Brazil, and Asia highlight both the safety potential and the reluctance of drivers to fully embrace these technologies, often due to knowledge gaps and perceived inconvenience. The analysis underscores that successful implementation requires not only technological adaptation but also comprehensive driver training, infrastructure readiness, and public policy support. Ultimately, ADAS in buses should be understood as a transitional step toward autonomous mobility, offering immediate safety gains while reshaping the paradigm of urban transport.
Marcon, EdersonMichelon, Gabrieldo Nascimento, Vagner
Ammonia is receiving heightened attention as a carbon-neutral and hydrogen energy carrier alternative fuel for compression ignition engines. However, replacing diesel with ammonia poses significant challenges due to its low reactivity and slow-burning nature, particularly at low-load conditions. This study investigated the effect of ammonia energy share (AES) on the combustion characteristics and performance of an ammonia–diesel dual-fuel (ADDF) compression ignition engine operating under low loads and at a constant speed of 1800 RPM. The experiments were conducted at three different loads: 6 Nm, 13.5 Nm, and 18 Nm, corresponding to 11%, 25%, and 33% of full load, respectively. At each load, the AES was incrementally increased, ranging from zero to its maximum limit, while maintaining the COV of IMEP below 3% to ensure stable combustion. Furthermore, CFD simulations were performed using a CONVERGE CFD model of the engine to analyze the in-cylinder thermal and chemical behavior, and the model was validated against the experimental data. The experimental results showed that the AES reached 40%, 58%, and 61% for engine loads of 6 Nm, 13.5 Nm, and 18 Nm, respectively. Increasing AES reduced the mean in-cylinder temperature and peak cylinder pressure, and shifted the peak pressure location toward the expansion stroke. Combustion phasing was delayed, and combustion duration increased with higher ammonia substitution. CFD analysis revealed weaker high-temperature and OH reaction zones, along with reduced OH and H radical activity, and increased persistence of NH2 and HO2 evolution at higher AES, indicating slower oxidation of the ammonia-containing mixture. The results highlight the challenges associated with high-ammonia operation at low loads and provide deeper insight into the combustion processes governing ADDF engine performance.
Sardar, GobindaKishore, KislayPradeep, P.Mittal, Mayank
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are increasingly prevalent in light vehicles, both in the United States and worldwide. Moreover, ADAS are steadily being incorporated into regulatory requirements globally. Like ADAS, the automotive aftermarket is also increasing in size and significance. As both ADAS and the aftermarket industry are growing, the effect of aftermarket modifications on ADAS functionality should be examined. However, there is very little information available in the public domain about the effect of aftermarket modifications on original equipment ADAS. This work is centered on a considerable research project that was conducted to address the knowledge gap at the intersection of ADAS and the aftermarket. The project investigates five light vehicles that are important to the aftermarket, including four pickup trucks and one sport-utility vehicle. It focuses solely on the effect of popular aftermarket suspension modifications, and it does not evaluate aftermarket ADAS equipment. Typical suspension modifications were applied to the test vehicles in five modification categories, including stock, lower kits, level kits, 3–4 in. lift kits, and 6 in. lift kits. Six ADAS test procedures were performed for the test vehicles, comprised of blind spot detection, crash imminent braking, lane departure warning, pedestrian automatic emergency braking, rear cross traffic alert, and traffic jam assist. The physical tests were developed based on National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) written experimental procedures. Statistical hypothesis testing was performed for the purpose of determining if average measured dynamic responses varied in the modified vehicles compared to stock. The results show that vehicles modified with typical aftermarket modifications will likely retain their ADAS functionality, given the limitations of the small sample size of five vehicles. Vehicles with 6 in. lift kits are expected to exhibit greater variability in their dynamic responses compared to stock. Plans for future work and unanswered research questions are outlined, with the goal of advancing aftermarket ADAS integration and ensuring the safety and performance of modified vehicles.
Bastiaan, Jennifer M.Morales, LuisMuller, Mike
This SAE Information Report provides a broad summary of existing Reverse Automatic Emergency Braking test protocols to help assess whether additional test protocols are needed. Eventually, the task force may develop additional protocols to support testing of Reverse Automatic Emergency Braking systems.
Active Safety and Driver Support Systems Standards Committee
Ultrasonic sensors are widely deployed in automotive driver assistance systems for near-range environment perception and provide safety-relevant inputs for functions such as parking assistance and automated parking. With increasing vehicle automation, the integrity and availability of ultrasonic sensor data become more critical, as compromised measurements may lead to incorrect vehicle decisions and hazardous behavior. While prior research has extensively studied physical attacks on ultrasonic sensors, a structured cybersecurity risk analysis in accordance with automotive cybersecurity standards, combined with experimental validation, is largely missing. In particular, the communication interface between ultrasonic sensors and control units has received limited attention despite its relevance as a potential attack surface. This paper presents a systematic security analysis of an automotive ultrasonic sensing system based on a demonstrator setup. The work applies a Threat Analysis and Risk Assessment methodology aligned with ISO/SAE 21434 and HEAVENS 2.0 to identify security-relevant assets, threat scenarios, and attack paths. Risk levels are derived by evaluating potential impact and attack feasibility. To validate the risk assessment, a structured test strategy is developed using the ISTQB test process and translated into laboratory experiments. Both digital attacks targeting the sensor communication interface, with DSI3 selected as the representative protocol, and physical manipulations of the sensor environment are examined. Experimental results show that selected communication-level attacks can be realized with moderate effort and can cause controlled falsification or loss of measurement data. Physical environmental manipulations significantly degrade signal quality but do not fully suppress object detection in the evaluated configuration. The findings largely confirm the initial risk assessment while enabling refinement of attack feasibility parameters. The results provide a validated linkage between automotive cyber-security risk assessment methods and practical testing of ultrasonic sensing systems and underline the importance of jointly addressing communication interfaces and physical effects in future security concept development.
Gahm, SebastianHaller, JonathanKriesten, Reiner
The development and validation of advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving systems (ADS) are shifting from traditional linear V-model processes toward more iterative engineering cycles. Despite faster iteration, these safety-critical systems remain subject to stringent regulations. Standards and guidance, including UNECE UN Regulation No. 157 and ISO/TS 5083, emphasize traceability, transparency, and explainability throughout development and validation. Nevertheless, as ADAS/ADS are developed and validated in faster, more iterative release cycles, additional stakeholders become involved and new explainability requirements emerge. These requirements vary between stakeholders and across development, validation, and post-market deployment phases, yet they are not systematically captured in the current state of research and practice. Therefore, to ensure that explainability supports rapid iteration, it is essential to identify relevant stakeholders and specify their explainability needs. Standards such as IEEE Standard 7001-2021 provide a broad foundation for transparency in autonomous systems. However, their generic nature does not address the domain-specific complexities of ADAS/ADS. Furthermore, a conceptual gap remains between general transparency principles and explainability requirements in automotive development and validation. Building on IEEE Standard 7001-2021, this paper first offers a stakeholder taxonomy in the context of ADAS/ADS, then proposes a stakeholder-oriented analysis of explainability requirements within an automated driving use case and contexts. This analysis specifically focuses on the motivations for requiring explainability and the necessary explanation modalities. Finally, the paper discusses the limitations of the analysis and outlines directions for future research. The results of the paper provide a structured guideline for stakeholder-oriented explainability requirements in ADAS/ADS.
Liu, XuanhengBairy, AkhilaPaudel, BijayAdolph, LaurenzHeck, MelanieHettich, LennardNägele, Ann-ThereseRudolf, KorbinianBause, KatharinaDüser, TobiasSchwammberger, Maike
This paper investigates the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) within radar-based perception for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) under safety considerations aligned with ISO 26262 [1] for functional safety and ISO 21448 (SOTIF) [2] for performance-related safety of the intended functionality. The study evaluates a hybrid architecture in which AI-based perception modules are combined with deterministic supervisory mechanisms to maintain safety compliance. A simulation-based case study using CARLA with radar sensor modeling is presented to compare a deterministic radar perception pipeline with an AI-enhanced approach under nominal and degraded environmental conditions. Performance is evaluated using precision, recall, and F1 score metrics. Results indicate improved recall and F1 score under adverse scenarios for the AI-based perception module, accompanied by a moderate increase in false positives. The paper discusses architectural constraints required to limit non-deterministic behavior, including confidence gating, deterministic supervision, and scenario-based validation. The findings are limited to simulation and are intended to provide preliminary insights into the technical and safety implications of incorporating AI-based radar perception within ISO 26262-compliant ADAS architectures.
Jain, Yesha
Automotive Engineering: June 202626AUTP066/4/2026
New York 2026: diversity on full display New powertrain choices keep popping up on new vehicles from OEMs that debuted at NYIAS this year. Sealing integrity in a Formula 1 limited-slip differential High-temperature hydraulic control in a Formula 1 drivetrain requires dimensional stability, controlled sealing force, and resistance to wear under sustained pressure cycling. Inside the limited-slip differential, the sealing architecture plays a defined mechanical role in maintaining consistent torque management under race conditions. From ADAS to autonomy How engineering thermoplastics can advance sensor-based technologies. Synthetic data and the future of ADAS validation Why ADAS validation can't be solved with more miles alone. Intelligent power distribution will change the way vehicles are designed Electronic fuse (eFuse) technology can create electronic power distribution modules (ePDMs) for architectural flexibility, higher reliability, greater safety, and proactive maintenance. Editorial Maybe more than ever, let's talk transportation diversity The Navigator Can legacy automakers finally succeed with SDVs? AI scares and excites cybersecurity professionals at WCX Expert claims war hurting China's already-struggling economy NHTSA open to negotiated rulemaking on some safety issues Resilient propulsion strategies require options Driven: Honda Fastport eQuad Prototype Product Briefs Spotlight: Connectors & harnesses, EV thermal management Q&A Neural Concept's Thomas von Tschammer: Working with AI at speed
In the two months since Microvision bought Luminar and acquired key tech and talent, the sensor company has been busy. In that time, they've merged key lidar units from each company and created a perception software stack to run it in a convincing demo of its ADAS and autonomous capabilities. The company is also pushing innovative lidar tech into the defense drone and antidrone markets, already working with a German defense supplier that works with NATO member countries.
Clonts, Chris
Why ADAS validation can't be solved with more miles alone. Modern advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) are expected to operate reliably across an almost limitless range of real-world conditions, including changing weather, low lighting, unpredictable traffic behavior, and sensor noise. Validating performance across that level of variability has become one of the most demanding parts of ADAS development. Physical road testing, or even large-scale simulation, alone cannot provide sufficient coverage to meet these demands. This challenge is driven by increasing system complexity. Modern ADAS platforms rely on machine-learning-based perception, multi-sensor fusion, and tightly integrated software architectures that must interpret complex sensor data in real time. Each additional sensing modality, software update, or feature expansion drives a significant validation effort and, in many cases, increases the number of scenarios that must be evaluated.
Kuehnke, Lutz
Bird accidental collision with overhead transmission lines poses a threat to the ecology of rare bird populations. This article analyzes the warning measures to prevent birds from accidental collisions at home and abroad. In response to the low efficiency of manual installation and the poor static warning effect in preventing birds from accidental collisions with overhead transmission lines, the visual characteristics of birds are analyzed. A drone-based automatic installation flash-type bird accidental collision warning device is proposed, which includes a fixture, a disc, and a luminous circuit. The fixture can be carried and installed on the overhead line by a drone and can be easily disassembled. The disc adopts eye-catching colors and has a hollow structure to reduce wind resistance load. The luminous circuit includes solar panels, charge and discharge control circuits, flicker control circuits, batteries, and luminous components. The drone suspension warning device test was conducted, and the results showed that the device can be easily suspended from the overhead line by the drone.
Wang, JianWang, XiulongLiu, BinLi, DanyuXu, Xunjian
NHTSA is conducting research to evaluate the current state-of-the-art technology for lane departure warning (LDW) and lane-keeping assistance (LKA) technology. NHTSA is undertaking research to understand the nature of real-world lane departures and recovery behaviors. While some information about lane departures can be learned from crash datasets, the purpose of this work was to mine simulator datasets for lane departures, analyze them in greater detail than is possible from crash reports or naturalistic studies, and link their characteristics to driver drowsiness. The objective of the study was to determine whether there are differences in lane departure characteristics as a function of driver drowsiness. This research used a novel approach by combining data from six different driving simulator studies on driver drowsiness. The dataset included a sample of 380 drivers. Study drives occurred during overnight hours after periods of sleep deprivation, with participants being awake for at least 16 h prior to driving. Study drives ranged in duration from relatively short 45-min to nearly 4 h. The datasets were reduced to characterize 5805 individual lane departures. Lane departures were delineated into three phases (pre-departure, departure, and recovery) and two transition points (onset and reentry) to capture driver behaviors under drowsiness. We hypothesized that lane departures would look different under different levels of drowsiness. Drives took place across a range of roadway environments that included interstate highways, rural highways, rural roads, and low-speed urban areas. Drowsiness was sampled at points before, during, and after the drive using self-ratings [Karolinska Sleepiness Scale (KSS) or Stanford Sleepiness Scale (SSS)] as well as the expert Observational Rating of Drowsiness (ORD). High levels of drowsiness were associated with a narrow speed range at highway speeds and the least amount of throttle input, while low levels of drowsiness had more steering activity, more throttle input, and a broader range of speeds. The results of this study will improve understanding of vehicle kinematics and driver behavior in drowsy lane departures using a safe methodology to help address crash dataset limitations.
Schwarz, ChrisGaspar, JohnShull, EmilyVenegas, Michael
Roadway departures remain a major cause of crashes, injuries, and fatalities on U.S. roads. Technologies such as lane keeping assist (LKA) and lane centering assist (LCA) can help mitigate these crashes, but their development involves extensive characterization of the parameter space in which they operate. Lane and road departures (LDs/RDs) and lane changes (LCs) must be systematically described and quantified to distinguish kinematic features, identify contributing factors, and benchmark system influence on lateral control. This study developed a unified pipeline to mine over 36 million miles of naturalistic driving study (NDS) data collected from more than 3800 participants. The pipeline integrates various types of signals to detect roadway boundary crossings, classify LKA-relevant scenarios, and extract roadway, driver, environmental, and assistance-related parameters. Lane keeping epochs with and without LKA were also extracted to quantify system influence on lateral control. In the NDS analysis, crashes include both object contact events and RDs, defined as non-premeditated departures from the intended travel surface involving at least one tire. Analysis of pre-identified crashes in the NDS showed that unintentional RDs accounted for 5.67%, unintentional LDs for 1.76%, and intentional LCs for 1.55%, corresponding to lower-bound rates of 2.7, 0.8, and 0.7 crashes per million vehicle miles traveled. RD crashes were predominantly right-sided, LD crashes left-sided, and both were overrepresented on curves and under adverse conditions. Loss of control preceded 22% of RD crashes and 69% of LD crashes. Beyond crashes and near-crashes (CNCs), the algorithm identified approximately 3 million LCs and 0.3 million LDs/RDs. LCs typically involved larger crossing angles that decreased with speed, while departures clustered within 0°–2°. Compared with CNCs, these occurred at higher speeds and smaller angles. LKA consistently reduced lateral variability without biasing the mean offset.
Ali, GibranTerranova, PaoloWilliams, VickiHolley, DustinSaffy, JoshuaAntona-Makoshi, JacoboKefauver, KevinShull, EmilyLi, EricVenegas, Michael
This research examined the performance of SAE Level 2 (L2) advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) in crash-imminent scenarios (CIS), with particular attention to how vehicle configuration like body style and powertrain (internal combustion engine, plug-in hybrid, electric vehicle) influences vehicle system performance. The objectives were to (1) identify CIS relevant to L2-equipped vehicles using crash databases and naturalistic driving studies (NDSs), (2) develop scenario-based test procedures and test matrices, and (3) evaluate system and vehicle responses across configurations and conditions. Multiple crash data sources were analyzed, including NHTSA’s Standing General Order dataset of L2-related crashes, the Fatality Analysis Reporting System, the Crash Report Sampling System, and NDS data from the Second Strategic Highway Research Program and the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute L2 NDS. Coded variable analyses from the datasets identified three common CIS: lane and road departures, rear-end striking events, and intersection conflicts. Supporting variables such as speed, roadway condition, and driver actions were also extracted to characterize scenarios and inform test development. Tests were executed at a closed-track testing facility using four vehicles selected for diversity of L2 systems, body types, and powertrains. Phase 0 exploratory testing assessed vehicle kinematics and L2 responses to refine the test matrix. Phases 1 and 2 conducted controlled evaluations of selected CIS, with expansion factors reflecting real-world crash variability. The testing highlighted interactions between L2 features and active safety systems. For example, results showed that all four vehicles employed distinct hand-off strategies between L2 longitudinal control and active safety systems during rear-end striking crash scenarios, and AEB engagement was strongly correlated with TTC at the moment the vehicle identified the crash partner. This work contributes novel insights into vehicle L2 and ADAS behavior in CIS events across multiple factors and provides a structured framework to evaluate system behavior for those crash-imminent scenarios.
Beale, GregoryKefauver, KevinVenegas, MichaelLi, EricChen, JayHuggins, StevenGuduri, BalachandarLlaneras, Eddy
The objective of this study was to characterize and compare pedestrian automatic emergency braking (PAEB) pulses in modern light vehicles to understand the loading environment that vehicle occupants are being exposed to during PAEB maneuvers. PAEB tests (n = 8008) conducted using 2018–2023 vehicle model years were analyzed. Pulse, vehicle, and impact characteristics (e.g., jerk, peak acceleration, pedestrian scenario, etc.) were derived from each PAEB test. Two k-means clustering analyses were used to group PAEB pulses with and without target collisions based on their similarity between characteristics. One-way ANOVA and Kruskal–Wallis tests were performed on the PAEB pulse characteristics to examine differences between clusters (p < 0.05). Two non-collision clusters (NC1 and NC2) were identified for PAEB pulses without collisions: NC1 had a statistically significant lower jerk (0.8 ± 0.4 g/s) and peak acceleration (1.0 ± 0.1 g) compared to NC2 (1.6 ± 0.8 g/s and 0.9 ± 0.1 g, respectively, p < 0.001). NC1 was mostly represented by stationary adult (88.6%), 60 km/h (99.5%), and 40 km/h (62.2%) tests. NC2 was mostly represented by crossing scenarios (child: 92.3%; adult: 70.5%) and 20 km/h (96.2%) tests. Three collision clusters (C1, C2, and C3) were identified for PAEB pulses with collisions. C3 showed a greater jerk (1.5 ± 0.8 g/s) compared to C1 (0.9 ± 0.6 g/s) and C2 (1.1 ± 0.9 g/s, p < 0.001). These results suggest that with successful avoidance, deceleration begins earlier with higher speeds and a stationary pedestrian, resulting in potentially milder loading conditions for vehicle occupants (i.e., lower jerk in NC1 vs NC2). With unsuccessful avoidance, in daytime pedestrian crossing scenarios, lower impact speeds were observed, resulting in potentially non-optimal loading conditions (i.e., higher jerk and peak acceleration in C3) for vehicle occupants. At night with low beams, C2 may result in advantageous loading conditions for vehicle occupants (i.e., lower jerk and peak acceleration), but it may lead to the worst outcome for pedestrians (i.e., greatest impact speed).
Witmer, MaitlandKidd, DavidGraci, Valentina
While an enlarged lead time from risk notifications to collisions is widely acknowledged to facilitate safe driving, it remains challenging to effectively notify drivers of invisible risks and non-apparent risks coming from uncertain behaviors on the part of road users. The current study examined whether verbal notifications are able to assist early awareness of predictive risks. We also attempted to identify human and environmental factors that could possibly improve the effectiveness of predictive risk information. Twenty-eight licensed drivers participated in a public road test conducted in two different urban areas on 3 days. They drove predefined courses on which potential risk locations were identified prior to the test, using a sport utility vehicle equipped with an automatic verbal notification system triggered based on the distance to the potential risk locations. After passing through the locations each time, the participants were instructed to verbally evaluate the shift in awareness provided by the notification and the usefulness of the assistance. After the driving test was completed, we acquired a subjective evaluation on annoyance acceptability and a self-report of participants’ road usage frequency at notified locations in daily life, as well as questionnaires on their driving style and workload sensitivity. We found that the effectiveness of verbal notifications increased by conveying uncertainty risks at visible locations and by using interrogative sentences or expressions of risk target perspective, although it decreased as a function of age. Our model showed strong performance in predicting positive ratings for the notifications, but this was not the case for negative ratings. We identified individual characteristics and the risk factor of uncertainty as important features in our model. In conclusion, the findings provide an important reference for understanding the early notification of predictive risk and constructing a numerical model for the implementation of assistance systems in vehicles and nomadic devices.
Maruyama, MasakiKoyama, KeiichiroEzaki, ToruSakamoto, JunichiSawada, YutaMatsuoka, Takahiro
Drivers frequently encounter Type II dilemma zones at signalized intersections, where the decision to stop or proceed during the onset of a yellow indication can be ambiguous. Decision-making relies on drivers’ expectations of the yellow change interval duration and behavioral factors. While boundaries of these zones are well studied, less is known about how familiar drivers are with their local yellow indication laws, which vary from state to state, and whether their typical reactions to yellow indications align with the laws. Existing interventions like signal timing adjustments, improved vehicle detection, and advance warning signs reduce the number of drivers caught in dilemma zones but may not reach distracted drivers. In-vehicle alerts tailored to dilemma zone scenarios are a potential solution not yet implemented widely in North America. This study addresses how drivers may interpret these alerts. A web-based survey of 640 licensed drivers in Michigan and Washington (ages 18–85) assessed respondents’ knowledge of their state’s law, typical responses to yellow indications, interpretations of proposed in-vehicle alerts, and preferences for alert modality, frequency, and placement. These states were selected for their differing yellow indication laws—restrictive in Michigan, permissive in Washington. Nine alert visuals were tested, including pairs of implicit and explicit messages, and were inspired by or designed to address gaps in prior research. Respondents evaluated these alerts in response to hypothetical intersection scenarios that varied by the presence of other vehicles. Results revealed a prevalent misunderstanding of local yellow indication laws across both states. Statistical analyses showed significant differences in rankings among the nine alert visuals, and explicit messages showed higher rates of correct interpretation. Findings show overall driver support for dilemma zone alerts, but higher receptivity in drivers who more frequently use other ADAS features and lower receptivity in drivers within older, but not the oldest, age groups. Future research could explore whether these alerts promote safe behaviors aimed at crash avoidance.
Anderson, ErikaJashami, HishamAhmed, AnannaHurwitz, David
Programs that teach older drivers how to confidently and competently use advanced vehicle technologies (AVTs) are limited. The MOVETech study evaluated a training program specifically designed to teach older drivers how to use these technologies. Participants (n = 119) were randomized to the intervention (training program) or control group (brochure). The intervention involved an in-person classroom education session on the use and benefits of AVTs, and an on-road driving session where participants drove along a pre-defined route in a dual-controlled vehicle with instruction on AVT use by a driving instructor. All participants completed in-person and telephone assessments at baseline and 3 months. Driving performance and on-road AVT competence assessments were the primary outcomes. Self-reported driving confidence, competence, and confidence in use of AVT, crashes, citations, and count of vehicle damage were the secondary outcomes. Program fidelity was also evaluated using a checklist. At 3 months, overall driving performance was high (96/100) and similar between groups. The intervention group, however, had slightly higher competence in AVT use (77 vs 73), but the between-group difference was not statistically significant (4.14, 95% CI −4.85 to 13.13). There were no differences in secondary outcomes. Program fidelity was high for all classroom sessions but varied for on-road sessions due to external and environmental factors, which impacted how AVT was demonstrated. The findings indicate AVT competence and confidence may be improved by combining classroom and on-road sessions, and importantly, that this type of program is feasible and very well-accepted among older drivers. Future work could target drivers with new vehicles who are unfamiliar with AVT to determine potential real-world benefits. This study provides evidence for vehicle manufacturers and policymakers to explore efficient ways of providing support to older drivers with AVT.
Nguyen, HelenRen, KerrieCoxon, KristyNeville, NickO’Donnell, JoanCheal, BethBrown, JulieKeay, Lisa
Vehicle maneuver data are essential for perception and planning in advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and automated driving systems (ADS). While high-quality annotations improve machine-learning performance, existing maneuver datasets remain fragmented, labor-intensive to annotate, and inconsistent in semantic richness. Challenges persist in scalability, interpretability, and contextual labeling. This article establishes a structured framework for maneuver data analysis by combining a systematic review of existing resources with the development of a new multimodal dataset. First, we conduct a systematic review of publicly available datasets such as HDD, KITTI, BDD-X, D2CAV, Brain4Cars, DrivingDojo, and the Driving Behavior Database. We further evaluate the data modality and sensor configurations including event data recorders, onboard logging systems, and smartphone sensing. We then propose the Matt3r Data Collection System with modern metadata management, which integrates video, GPS, and IMU signals into temporally coherent clips. Next, we outline the limitations of traditional annotation approaches, which rely on manual labeling and rule-based methods. To address the limitations of traditional manual and semi-automated labeling, we propose a Vision–Language Model (VLM)–driven annotation pipeline. VLMs generate maneuver categories and causal explanations through prompt-based reasoning, with selected outputs refined through human-in-the-loop verification. Finally, we propose an annotation quality evaluation based on accuracy, inter-annotator agreement, credibility, consistency, and efficiency gain. In summary, this article bridges the gap between the environment perception requirements of existing ADAS and ADS systems and the developing capabilities of generative artificial intelligence. By providing a novel and scalable research approach for AI-driven maneuver data annotation and analysis, this article supports data engineering efforts for both research and practical applications aimed at enhancing vehicle safety.
Bai, LingYuan, ChongyuOsman, IslamLin, ZiruiMirab, GhazalSaheb, AmirParnian, NedaShapiro, EvgenyShehata, Mohamed S.Liu, Zheng
To reduce traffic fatalities through vehicle safety measures, particular attention must be given to cyclist-related fatalities. Clarifying the characteristics of hazardous events leading to cyclist fatalities, not only by vehicle speed range but also by vehicle type, is essential and should be based on analyses of real-world accident data. Accordingly, this study aimed to characterize fatal cyclist accidents involving vehicles traveling at low and high speeds in Japan. We used macro accident data from the Japanese Institute for Traffic Accident Research and Data Analysis covering the period from 2013 to 2022. Based on nine vehicle types, we investigated the effects of road type, vehicle behavior, and accident type on cyclist fatalities. Additionally, we identified the five most frequent accident scenarios separately for each low- and high-speed category. At signalized intersections, the proportions of cyclist fatalities involving vehicles traveling at low speeds were higher than those involving vehicles traveling at high speeds across all vehicle types. In contrast, on straight roads, the proportions at low speeds were lower than those at high speeds for all vehicle types. In the low-speed range, cyclist fatalities within the top five scenarios accounted for 65% of all fatalities, with the most frequent scenario occurring at signalized intersections during left-turn maneuvers, where heavy-duty trucks accounted for 86% of the fatalities. In the high-speed range, cyclist fatalities within the top five scenarios accounted for 71% of all fatalities. The most frequent high-speed scenario involved crossing collisions at unsignalized intersections when vehicles traveled straight, with light passenger cars and sedans accounting for 29% and 24% of the fatalities, respectively. These findings provide valuable insights for the development of targeted traffic safety regulations and vehicle technologies aimed at reducing vehicle–cyclist collisions across different speed ranges.
Matsui, YasuhiroOikawa, Shoko
LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) systems are essential for autonomous driving (AD) and advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS), providing accurate 3D perception of the surrounding environment. However, their performance significantly deteriorates under adverse weather conditions such as fog, where laser pulses are scattered by airborne particles, resulting in substantial noise and reduced ranging accuracy. This scattering effect makes it difficult to detect objects within or behind particulate matter, posing a serious challenge for reliable perception in real-world driving scenarios. To address this issue, we propose an algorithm that combines adaptive multi-echo signal processing with a feature-integrated, rule-based denoising framework to enhance LiDAR performance in noisy environments. The multi-echo approach selectively utilizes meaningful signal returns by evaluating both intensity and relative echo positions. Based on predefined rules, the algorithm identifies the echo most likely to represent a real object. The rule-based denoising algorithm dynamically adjusts thresholds by integrating multiple features, including point clouds density, intensity, and echo width. These features are evaluated in conjunction with measured distance to adaptively suppress fog noise and improve signal reliability. This synergistic method enables robust detection of real objects even in low-visibility conditions. Experimental evaluations demonstrate that the proposed algorithm significantly improves effective ranging distance under adverse conditions compared to conventional methods. Furthermore, it eliminates up to approximately 99% of noise induced by airborne particles in foggy scenarios. These results highlight the potential of our approach to enhance LiDAR reliability and safety in real-world automotive applications, contributing to the advancement of autonomous driving technologies under all-weather conditions.
Kaito, SeiyaZheng, ShengchaoFujioka, IbukiBeppu, Taro
With the rise of end-to-end autonomous driving, visual perception for environmental understanding has become a key research topic in advanced driver assistance system (ADAS) development. Most existing end-to-end models generate only executable control commands or planned trajectories, making the prediction process difficult to interpret. In this study, we present an end-to-end approach for traffic-light recognition and stop-sign detection built on top of the open-source openpilot framework. Instead of deploying separate object detection networks, we extend the existing backbone with two lightweight multi-task heads: a traffic-light detection and classification head, and a stop-sign detection head with confidence estimation. The modified architecture preserves openpilot’s core driving functionality by reusing shared features and incorporating compact residual and feed-forward layers. The additional perception outputs are appended to the original outputs, ensuring that the model’s performance on other driving tasks remains unaffected. The proposed model is trained under diverse scenes and lighting conditions and demonstrates high accuracy in traffic-light classification and stop-sign detection, maintaining stable and consistent behavior during on-road evaluation. Furthermore, the enhanced model is fully compatible with Comma 3X hardware and has been successfully deployed and validated on a 2025 Nissan Leaf test vehicle. This work demonstrates the feasibility of developing a compact, lightweight, and deployable perception module that integrates traffic-signal understanding directly into an end-to-end driving model with minimal architectural modification.
Wang, HanchenLi, TaozheHajnorouzali, YasamanBurch, Collinli, VictoriaTan, LinArjmanzdadeh, ZibaXu, Bin
Achieving full vehicle autonomy is not just about adding sensors or compute - it requires a fundamental shift in how vehicles are architected. Autonomous systems rely on higher-resolution sensors, massive processing power, and the ability to fuse data from multiple sources in real time. Centralized in-vehicle architectures, which consolidate computing and enable sensor fusion, place unprecedented demands on connectivity. Precise time synchronization across systems becomes critical, as does advanced control to ensure safe and reliable operation. Any delay or data loss can impact decision-making, making robust, resilient communication links essential. High-performance connectivity is the backbone of this evolution. It must deliver the highest bandwidth to handle massive streams of sensor data, support long-reach connections across the vehicle, and maintain error-free performance even in the most challenging electromagnetic environments. This combination of speed, reach, and reliability forms the foundation that enables higher-level ADAS and ultimately autonomous driving to move from concept to reality.
Shwartzberg, Daniel
Autonomous platforms such as self-driving vehicles, advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS), and intelligent aerial drones demand real-time video perception systems capable of delivering actionable visual information at ultra-low latency. High-resolution vision pipelines are often hindered by delays introduced at multiple stages—sensor acquisition, video encoding, data transmission, decoding, and display—undermining the responsiveness required for safety-critical decision making. This study introduces a holistic system-level optimization framework that systematically reduces end-to-end video latency while maintaining image fidelity and perception accuracy. The proposed approach integrates hardware-accelerated encoding, zero-copy direct memory access (DMA), lightweight UDP-based RTP transport, and GPU-accelerated decoding into a unified pipeline. By minimizing redundant memory copies and software bottlenecks, the system achieves seamless data flow across hardware and software boundaries. Evaluations demonstrate a latency reduction from a baseline of 45.3 milliseconds to an optimized 23.5 milliseconds, representing a 48.1% improvement without sacrificing spatial resolution or detection robustness. Under optimized configurations, the framework sustains frame rates above 60 FPS at both Full HD and 4K resolutions, with frame drop rates held to approximately 3%. Perceptual evaluation further confirms that object detection accuracy consistently exceeds 91% within the <35 ms latency range, while collision-prediction delays are reduced to below 12.4 ms, ensuring timely responses in dynamic scenarios. These improvements collectively validate the critical importance of hardware-software co-design for embedded vision systems. The results highlight that ultra-low-latency perception is achievable on edge platforms when pipelines are designed with cross-layer optimization, bridging sensor interfaces, video codecs, network transport, and GPU computation. The proposed architecture provides a scalable foundation for future embedded vision deployments in autonomous driving, robotics, and unmanned aerial systems, where low latency is a non-negotiable requirement for safety, reliability, and operational efficiency.
Indrakanti, Rama Kiran Kumar
Edge detection is fundamental for intelligent vehicle applications, directly supporting ADAS functions such as lane detection, obstacle recognition, and scene understanding. The conventional Canny edge detection method exhibits notable shortcomings, especially in color-image processing, adaptive threshold selection, and preserving edge integrity under noisy conditions. In this study, we present an enhanced Canny edge detection framework tailored for ADAS-oriented intelligent vehicle systems, incorporating a quaternion-based weighted averaging scheme for color preservation, adaptive thresholds derived from gradient-amplitude histograms, multiscale edge localization via scale multiplication, and a novel gravitational-field-intensity operator for improved gradient robustness. Moreover, we extend the method to vanishing-point estimation an essential ADAS capability by performing precise intersection calculations combined with clustering techniques such as DBSCAN and RANSAC. Experimental evaluations demonstrate that the proposed algorithm markedly outperforms traditional approaches in edge clarity, localization accuracy, and noise resilience, underscoring its promise for strengthening ADAS perception modules in intelligent vehicles.
Uppala, Rohit RajKaye, MuraliZadeh, MehrdadTan, Teik-Khoon
Recent years have seen a rapid rise in edge-oriented object detection models, including new YOLO variants and transformer-based RT-DETR. Choosing an appropriate model for vehicle detection, however, remains challenged because common metrics such as precision, recall, and mAP capture only part of the trade-off between accuracy and computational cost. To better support model selection, we introduce the Multi-dimensional Equilibrium Detection Assessment Score (MEDAS), which evaluates detectors across four practical dimensions: performance, balance, efficiency, and adaptability. The framework includes a normalization strategy and adjustable weighting so that evaluations can reflect specific deployment needs, especially in resource-limited settings. Experiments on the MS-COCO vehicle dataset show that while RT-DETR models offer competitive accuracy, they require substantially more computation. In contrast, lightweight YOLO variants provide a stronger balance between accuracy and efficiency. Among all evaluated models, YOLOv11s achieves the highest MEDAS score, suggesting it is well suited for applications such as ADAS and embedded autonomous systems. MEDAS offers a practical way to compare modern detectors and helps connect offline accuracy metrics with real deployment constraints in intelligent transportation systems.
Guo, Bin
Ensuring the safety of Vulnerable Road Users (VRUs) is a critical challenge in the development of advanced autonomous driving systems in smart cities. Among vulnerable road users, bicyclists present unique characteristics that make their safety both critical and also manageable. Vehicles often travel at significantly higher relative speeds when interacting with bicyclists as compared to their interactions with pedestrians which makes collision avoidance system design for bicyclist safety more challenging. Yet, bicyclist movements are generally more predictable and governed by clear traffic rules as compared to the sudden and sometimes erratic pedestrian motion, offering opportunities for model-based control strategies. To address bicyclist safety in complex traffic environments, this study proposes and develops a High-Order Control Lyapunov Function–High-Order Control Barrier Function–Quadratic Programming (HOCLF-HOCBF-QP) control framework. Through this framework, CLFs constraints guarantee system stability so that the vehicle can track its reference trajectory, whereas CBFs constraints ensure system safety by letting vehicle avoiding potential collisions region with surrounding obstacles. Then by solving a QP problem, an optimal control command that simultaneously satisfies stability and safety requirements can be calculated. Three key bicyclist crash scenarios recorded in the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) are recreated and used to comprehensively evaluate the proposed autonomous driving bicyclist safety control strategy in a simulation study. Simulation results demonstrate that the HOCLF-HOCBF-QP controller can help the vehicle perform robust, and collision-free maneuvers, highlighting its potential for improving bicyclist safety in complex traffic environments.
Chen, HaochongCao, XinchengGuvenc, LeventAksun Guvenc, Bilin
Ensuring ISO 26262 functional safety in advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) is increasingly complex as these platforms integrate artificial intelligence (AI) for perception, decision-making, and vehicle control. Traditional safety mechanisms are largely deterministic, but AI introduces non-determinism, creating challenges for verification, validation, and certification. Real-time vehicle telemetry, sensor outputs, and environmental inputs are processed through machine learning algorithms that forecast hardware and software faults before they escalate into hazardous conditions. These predictions are systematically integrated with ISO 26262 safety measures, enabling adaptive diagnostics, fault isolation, and rapid recovery strategies. The AI model introduces hazards such as data bias, model drift, opaque decision-making, and unsafe automation. A dedicated AI Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment addresses data quality, validation, monitoring, explainability, and fail-safe mechanisms alongside system-level safety controls. The proposed approach demonstrates measurable improvements, including up to 25 % higher diagnostic coverage and fault-recovery times under 30 ms, while maintaining ASIL-D compliance and adhering to FTTI, SPFM, and DC requirements. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulations validate system performance and robustness under diverse operational scenarios. Future work focuses on uncertainty quantification and explainable AI integration, enhancing traceability and safety certification readiness for intelligent ADAS controllers. By demonstrating how AI can complement functional safety principles instead of conflicting with them, this study provides OEMs and Tier-1 suppliers with a roadmap for deploying certifiable, intelligent, and resilient ADAS platforms. This framework ensures safer, more reliable AI-enhanced vehicle systems while bridging the gap between emerging AI technologies and rigorous functional safety standards. This paper presents a predictive fault management framework that enhances functional safety in ADAS controllers by combining AI-driven predictive models with ISO 26262 safety mechanisms. This work uniquely bridges deterministic ISO 26262 workflows with predictive AI fault forecasting. In this framework, the AI model is used solely as a diagnostic enhancement and is not credited as an ISO 26262 safety mechanism; all safety decisions and fault reactions remain under deterministic safety-shell control.
Abdul Karim, Abdul Salam
The increased integration of radar and vision sensors in modern vehicles has significantly improved environmental perception, safety, and automation. Nevertheless, conventional camera modules capture images in fixed, continuous frames, leading to unnecessary data processing, power consumption, and heat generation in the limited space of small sensors. The paper discusses the technology of Radar Based Dynamic Pixel Activation (RDPA); whereby radar data can be used to dynamically activate specific pixels on the camera sensor, optimizing image capture and processing. Through a systematic literature review of peer-reviewed articles published between 2021 and 2025, we examined the literature on radar-camera fusion, adaptive imaging, and sensor design that is efficient in power consumption. The review indicates a research gap that there is no current paradigm that dynamically activates sensor pixels at the hardware level using radar data. We aggregated ten topical studies and proposed a conceptual model where radar-determined Regions of Interest (ROIs) trigger localized pixel activation. The framework reduces the computational load, improves power efficiency and enhances thermal performance without affecting image fidelity. The paper also explains how RDPA may affect the Driver Monitoring Systems (DMS), Occupant Monitoring Systems (OMS), and Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), and how it is more beneficial than traditional full frame imaging. Difficulties with synchronization, hardware interpenetration, and algorithmic synchronization are discussed. Altogether, RDPA is an excellent prospect to intelligent, energy-saving, and thermally stable vehicle perception systems of the next generation.
Kasarla, Nagender Reddy
Despite remarkable advances in vehicle technology - enhancing comfort, safety, and automation – productivity of transportation over the road continues to decline. Stop-and-go driving remains one of the most persistent inefficiencies in modern mobility systems, leading to greater travel delays, energy waste, emissions, and accident risk. As vehicle volumes rise, these effects compound into systemic challenges, including driver frustration, unstable flow dynamics, and elevated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To address these issues, an extensive data-driven evaluation was performed characterizing the underlying causes of traffic instability and uncovering hidden behavioral parameters influencing traffic flow. This research led to the identification of a previously unrecognized metric - the Driver Comfort Index (DCI) - which quantifies an inter-vehicle spacing behavior that reflects intrinsic human driving behavior. Building on this discovery, mixed traffic is explored to identify its phenomena, where human-driven and machine-controlled vehicles coexist and share the road. It appears that adaptive cruise control (ACC) and connected autonomous vehicles (CAV) are controlled by a non-intrinsic parameter so that traffic mix suffers from a mismatch of vehicle dynamics. This mismatch is explored, and it is proposed to harmonize traffic dynamics by adopting the natural DCI parameter as the single control mechanism. Analytical studies demonstrate that DCI-based traffic flow orchestration, applied integrally to human- and machine-controlled vehicles, enhances traffic flow stability, mitigates stop-and-go oscillations, and significantly improves network efficiency, safety, and environmental performance.
Schlueter, Georg J.
Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) has become a widely adopted driver-assist technology, designed primarily to regulate a vehicle’s longitudinal movement while maintaining a safe following distance from the preceding vehicle. A key performance criterion is the system’s ability to detect and respond to both moving and stationary target vehicles within the ego vehicle’s path. While manufacturers typically validate ACC performance within specific speed ranges, responding to stationary objects remains particularly challenging due to limited sensor range, difficulty in detecting distant stationary targets, and constrained deceleration capabilities. Beyond certified operating limits, overall system reliability may degrade. Nonetheless, increasing industry and regulatory expectations are driving the need to extend ACC functionality across wider and more clearly defined speed domains. Modern ACC systems are further evolving to recognize and respond to various road features, including traffic lights, STOP signs, intersections, curved road segments, and roundabouts—an expanding set of scenarios enabled by multi-sensor fusion and map integration using standard definition (SD) and high definition (HD) maps. Regulatory frameworks are increasingly addressing these map-based functionalities. This paper investigates the interaction between map-based functionalities and traditional ACC behavior, specifically examining how map integration enhances ACC responsiveness to critical scenarios. Due to the wide variety of possible cases, this study focuses on stationary vehicle encounters, recognized as the most challenging and safety-critical scenario, particularly at higher speeds. Simulation studies are conducted to evaluate the impact of map-based augmentation on ACC performance, with results demonstrating performance improvements. For instance, at 50 mph on straight roads, the ego vehicle safely stopped ~4 meters from the target stationary vehicle using map-based anticipatory braking, compared to less than 1 meter with traditional ACC. These findings highlight the extended operational capability and safety benefits offered by the proposed approach, even beyond conventional speed limits.
Awathe, ArpitPatel, DarshMathur, DhruvRaut, Abhinandan Vijay
The rapid advancement of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), automated driving and electrification has significantly increased the software content and complexity within modern vehicles. Consequently, ensuring both high process quality and compliance or qualification with functional safety standards becomes critically important. Automotive Software Process Improvement and Capability Determination (ASPICE 4.0) focus on Process quality and Capability Maturity, while ISO 26262:2018 emphasizes engineering guidelines for functional safety and risk mitigation. The efficient integration of the process and standard remains a key challenge due to differences in their objectives, terminologies, and assessment criteria. The misalignment between ASPICE 4.0 and ISO 26262:2018 standard often results in duplicated efforts, rework of work products, and delays in product release schedules. This paper proposes a unified framework to bridge ASPICE 4.0 process areas with ISO 26262:2018 safety standard recommendations and activities. The framework introduces a refined V-model that integrates safety lifecycle activities directly into ASPICE 4.0 process workflows, enabling a harmonized and systematic approach to software development and safety compliance. While maintaining a focus on system engineering (SYS) and software engineering (SWE) process areas, this paper also discusses how the hardware engineering (HWE) process and support process (SUP) areas in ASPICE 4.0 can be mapped to the ISO 26262:2018 standard. In addition, the proposed framework addresses the concept phase of the safety lifecycle, encompassing item definition, HARA, safety goals and functional safety concept (FSC). This technique facilitates higher process efficiency, reduces redundant activities, and enhances product quality while maintaining compliance with both standards. The harmonized approach presented in this paper provides a holistic solution to current industry challenges by enabling incorporation of safety practices within automotive software development process. This ensures that vehicle systems meet quality and safety expectations, supporting timely product delivery in an increasingly competitive and regulated automotive market.
Ravi, ReshmaEaswaramoorthy, Prasad VigneshPromise, Dinu
Parking assist systems are among the most widely adopted driver-assistance features in modern vehicles. A key component of these systems is the path planning module, which ensures accurate vehicle alignment within a parking slot while satisfying various constraints such as maintaining slot centering, avoiding collisions in confined spaces, minimizing maneuver count, and achieving the shortest feasible path. Multiple path generation techniques—such as geometric, polynomial-based, and search-based methods—have been developed to enable safe and efficient parking maneuvers. However, most of these approaches rely on the simplifying assumption that the vehicle’s instantaneous center of rotation (ICR) is fixed, typically located on the non-steering axle. In practice, the ICR is not constant and can vary significantly across vehicles due to several physical and kinematic factors, including steering geometry, tire slip characteristics, suspension configuration, and weight distribution. Neglecting these variations can introduce trajectory inaccuracies, reducing the precision and reliability of automated parking systems. Although prior studies have explored estimation methods for the instantaneous center of rotation (ICR), limited research has examined how variations in the ICR influence overall parking performance. This paper addresses this gap by investigating the impact of ICR variation on path generation and motion control accuracy in parking assist systems. A simulation-based study using an SUV-class vehicle model is conducted to evaluate system behavior across diverse parking scenarios. The results demonstrate how ICR assumptions affect path precision and overall parking accuracy, providing insights to enhance path planning and control algorithms for real-world applications.
Awathe, ArpitPatanwala, AbizerJain, ArihantVarunjikar, Tejas
Vehicle system testing serves as a critical phase in obtaining road certification for prototype vehicles. While direct road testing with physical vehicles yields the most authentic data, this approach entails significant costs, challenges in reproducing extreme scenarios, and inherent safety risks. In contrast, virtual vehicle-based testing technologies represent advanced simulation methodologies for enhancing development efficiency and quality, effectively mitigating risks associated with complex real-world operating conditions and hazardous physical testing. However, virtual vehicle models often rely on idealized parameters, limiting their ability to reflect real-world dynamics and resulting in lower credibility of test outcomes. Furthermore, as evidenced in current mainstream virtual testing software, environmental simulations predominantly remain confined to the visual domain, with limited direct interaction between dynamic environmental changes and virtual vehicle responses. To address these limitations, this study proposes a novel testing framework leveraging vehicle-cloud integration technology, which combines the authenticity of physical testing with the flexibility of virtual simulation. The proposed system is validated through an AEB (Automatic Emergency Braking) function activation test. Experimental results demonstrate real-time data interoperability between physical and virtual vehicles, achieving a 89% accuracy rate in synchronizing virtual scenario velocities with real-world speeds. This approach enables safe and efficient preliminary testing, providing robust data support for subsequent physical validation and significantly lowers the overall testing cycle.
Liao, YinshengCheng, Qing HuaQu, WenyingWang, ZhenfengWu, YanHe, ChengkunZhang, JunzhiLu, Yukun
In order to achieve fully autonomous driving, point to point autonomous navigation is the most important task. Most existing end-to-end models output a short-horizon path which makes the decision process hard to interpret and unreliable at intersections and complex driving scenarios. In this research, we build a navigation-integrated end-to-end path planner on top of an openpilot open source model. We created a navigation branch that encodes route polyline geometry, distance-to-next-maneuver, and high-level instructions and combines with path plan branch using residual blocks and feed-forward layers. By adding minimal parameters, new model keeps the original openpilot tasks unchanged and have the path output based on the navigation information. The model is trained on diverse urban scenes’ intersections, and it shows improved route performance in vehicle testing. The proposed model is validated in a Comma 3x device installed on a 2025 Nissan Leaf test vehicle. The road test results show the proposed algorithm shows less path planning error than the stock openpilot end to end model when evaluated against the human driver. This proposed path planning model can be adapted to different type of vehicles for the point to point navigation task.
Wang, HanchenLi, TaozheHajnorouzali, YasamanBurch, Collinli, VictoriaTan, LinArjmanzdadeh, ZibaXu, Bin
Heavy-duty Class 8 battery electric trucks not only offer the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to conventional diesel trucks but can also provide significant savings in fuel costs. To further enhance energy and freight efficiency, Predictive Cruise Control (PCC) algorithms can be developed that generate optimal acceleration profiles for the vehicle by minimizing a cost function which combines both energy consumption and deviation from the desired velocity. A critical component of the cost function is the penalty factor, which governs the tradeoff between energy use and travel time, which are two conflicting objectives in freight logistics. Selecting an appropriate penalty factor is essential, as freight deliveries are time sensitive, but minimizing energy consumption remains a priority. Moreover, variations in payload significantly affect vehicle dynamics and energy usage, making it critical to adapt the penalty factor to different payload conditions and maintain consistent performance. This study presents a method for optimally selecting the penalty factor for various payload scenarios. A validated powertrain simulator which is calibrated using data from an actual electric truck, was used to conduct 100 simulations across a spectrum of payloads, from no load to fully loaded. The resulting discrete search space of energy and time was used to perform a brute-force (exhaustive) search to determine the optimal penalty factor for each scenario. The proposed algorithm incorporates adjustable weightings of the penalty factor for energy and time preferences. This allows flexibility for the driver or fleet operator to prioritize either objective. The results demonstrate that using a fixed penalty factor is suboptimal for heavy-duty electric trucks. In contrast, the optimal selection of the penalty factor significantly improves consistency across different payloads. A reduction of the variation in travel time to within approximately 4% across all loading conditions was observed. This work shows the importance of adaptive penalty tuning in PCC for real-world deployment in freight applications, ensuring both energy efficiency and timely deliveries under varying payload demands.
Safder, Ahmad HussainVillani, ManfrediWang, EricKhuntia, SatvikNelson, JamesMeijer, MaartenAhmed, Qadeer
Embedded vision systems are essential for contemporary applications, including robotics, advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), and intelligent surveillance; yet they frequently experience diminished image quality due to resource constraints, environmental variability, and inconsistent illumination conditions. Such degradations impact multiple visual attributes—sharpness, contrast, color accuracy, noise levels, and structural similarity—that are critical for reliable perception in safety- and performance-driven domains. This study introduces a comprehensive system-level calibration architecture that integrates three coordinated layers: sensor-level adjustment, firmware optimization, and adaptive software enhancements. At the sensor level, exposure control, gain tuning, and white balance adjustments mitigate luminance imbalance and color shifts under changing light conditions. Firmware optimization leverages image signal processor (ISP) parameters to reduce temporal and spatial noise, refine tone mapping, and correct color reproduction through calibrated color correction matrices. Software-level improvements apply adaptive sharpening, contrast enhancement, and gamma correction to maintain visual fidelity across diverse scenes. The proposed pipeline was evaluated on three representative embedded platforms—NVIDIA Jetson Nano, Raspberry Pi 4B, and STM32F7 MCU—covering a range of computational capabilities and power budgets. Experimental results demonstrate substantial improvements in image quality: Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR) increased from 24.2 dB to 31.6 dB in indoor low-light conditions, Structural Similarity Index (SSIM) improved from 0.73 to 0.88 in dynamic scenarios, and color accuracy (ΔE) was reduced to 3.1 in bright outdoor conditions. The complete calibration pipeline sustained real-time responsiveness (< 40 ms/frame) with acceptable power consumption (maximum 172 mW) and memory utilization (peak 35.7 MB). These results validate the modularity, efficiency, and robustness of the proposed method, making it well-suited for deployment in practical embedded vision applications where image quality, latency, and resource constraints must be balanced.
Indrakanti, Rama Kiran KumarVishnoi, NitinKamadi, Venkata
The emergence of AI-driven autonomy in modern vehicles marks a pivotal evolution in transportation, but it also introduces deep system-level vulnerabilities that span from sensor interface tampering to compute unit compromise and untrusted communication links. Autonomous vehicles (AVs) operate as distributed intelligent systems, relying on real-time data exchange between zonal gateways, AI compute platforms, and safety-critical electronic control units (ECUs). These interactions must be protected from hardware-based attacks that could compromise functional safety, system integrity, or operational availability. The deployment of AI-driven AVs introduces unprecedented levels of complexity. Sensors, AI compute clusters, and actuators communicate over multiple interfaces including Ethernet, PCIe, and MIPI, exposing vehicles to potential cybersecurity attacks. This paper proposes a unified, layered hardware security architecture tailored for AI-powered automated vehicles. Grounded in current automotive Ethernet and zonal architectures, it provides end-to-end trust using hardware interface security, accelerated- cryptography, and SRAM PUF-based key provisioning. All security primitives are anchored to hardware root of trust, delivering cryptographic identity, secure boot enforcement, and trusted key storage across the entire vehicle lifecycle.
C Suriyanarayanan, PavIacob, Radu
This paper presents the integration and validation of Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) algorithms on a student-team-developed vehicle as part of the U.S. Department of Energy EcoCAR EV Challenge. The competition provided each team with a 2023 Cadillac Lyriq, which was modified to an all-wheel-drive configuration and re-architected to support the development of SAE Level 3 autonomous features including Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), Automatic Intersection Navigation (AIN), Lane Centering Control (LCC), and Automatic Parking (AP). The scope of this paper, however, is limited to the development, implementation, and validation of a Level 2 longitudinal ADAS function. Higher-level automation requirements such as Operational Design Domain (ODD) definition and Driver Monitoring System (DMS) enforcement are addressed at the vehicle architecture and competition level but are not the focus of this work. The major contribution of this work is the development of ACC with Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) integration, highlighting the end-to-end implementation of the ACC algorithm and its interaction with key actuation systems in the modified vehicle architecture. The ACC algorithm encompassed multiple applications: conventional cruise control to maintain speed, adaptive cruise control to respond to a lead vehicle, and initial deceleration handling for intersection navigation in a single straight lane. By implementing a unified algorithm, transitions between these modes were smooth and more efficient compared to developing separate algorithms for each application. Track-based testing and calibration were conducted to validate these modes under real-world scenarios, ensuring safe operation while addressing the challenges of blended actuation. Multiple track tests were used to measure stopping distances at intersections for different entry speeds, evaluate controller performance during different driving scenarios, and identify system limitations. Results demonstrated that the controller maintained steady-state speed error within +/- 1 km/hr, preserved a minimum following distance of 8 m at a complete stop, and limited acceleration within +/- 2 m/s2 to support driver comfort. The work demonstrates the progression from simulation to real-world deployment using an empirical approach to system-level validation of ACC with V2I integration. The findings provide insights into calibration methodology, mode transition, and the benefits of a unified control framework for advancing software-defined vehicle features.
Gupta, IshikaEstrada, TylerTambolkar, PoojaMidlam-Mohler, Shawn
With the steady increase in autonomous driving (AD) and advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) aimed at improving road safety and navigation efficiency, simulation tools have become a critical part of the development process, allowing systems to be tested while mitigating the risk of physical injury or property damage upon failure. Physics-based simulators are central to virtual vehicle development, yet their control responses often differ from real vehicles, potentially limiting the transfer of controllers and algorithms developed in simulation. As these simulations play an important role in the vehicle design and validation process, a critical question is how well their predicted behavior translates to real-world physical systems. This paper presents a calibration framework for an autonomous vehicle platform that learns the motion characteristics of an experimental vehicle and uses that knowledge to correct the actuator response of a simulation model. The model is trained by collecting training data consisting of angular velocity data recorded during motion sequences from the wheel encoders mounted on the vehicle. After the data is post-processed, a long-short-term memory (LSTM) model is trained that predicts the angular velocity that the physical vehicle would achieve given a sequence of the past 30 command velocities.
Soloiu, ValentinSutton, TimothyMehrzed, ShaenLange, RobinZimmerman, CharlesPeralta Lopez, Guillermo
Brake pulsation noise caused by fluid-borne vibration, which is generated by pressure pulsations from the pump in the Electronic Stability Control (ESC) modulator, occurs when the control brake function is activated under various driving conditions, such as Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) and regenerative-friction brake coordination. This noise is particularly noticeable in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), where the background noise from the power source is lower than that of internal combustion engine vehicles. The simulation of pressure pulsations in the brake system requires the excitation force of the pump built into the ESC modulator, the characteristics of valves, and the characteristics of the flexible hose; however, it is extremely difficult to determine these parameters with high accuracy from the design specifications. For this reason, in this study, the pump and valves were experimentally identified, while the flexible hose was represented by a three-element Voigt model to describe its viscoelastic properties. The pressure pulsation prediction model of the brake line was constructed by formulating the characteristics of all hydraulic components using four-pole matrix equations consisting of pressure, flow rate, and impedance, along with the continuity equation. This paper describes the method for creating a prediction model of pressure pulsation, the measurement results of the transfer matrix of the flexible hose, the modeling and parameter identification method of the flexible hose, and the accuracy verification results from a bench test of a brake system equivalent to an actual vehicle. Since a high-accuracy prediction model has been constructed, by predicting the pressure pulsation at any position in the brake line for any pump rotation speed, it can be utilized for designing the pump rotation speed that achieves both braking performance and brake pulsation noise reduction, and for examining bending and clamp positions of the brake line that avoid the amplification of excitation force.
Koike, YoheiKomada, MasashiYano, MasahiroYoshioka, Nobuhiko
Although SAE Level 2 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Automated Driving Systems (ADS) have been shown to provide some safety benefits, they have largely been constrained to specific driving contexts, namely motorways for ADAS and lower speed roadways for ADS. As more advanced systems are entering the roadways and their operating conditions are expanding, it remains an ongoing challenge to assess the safe operation of vehicles with automation in different roadway contexts and leverage lessons learned from real-world incidents to create safer and more robust systems. As of August 2025, NHTSA’s Standing General Order on Crash Reporting offers systematic data on such incidents, providing at least a cursory overview of where and how they occur. From this source, a total of 1,375 crash records were extracted, 657 for ADAS systems and 715 for ADS systems. Through the application of association rule mining and a novel metric termed influence, patterns in ADAS- and ADS-related crashes were examined within different roadway contexts. In general, it was found that subject vehicle and crash partner pre-crash movements as well as collision types were some of the most distinguishing factors between the two systems used. Differences in context specific rule summations also indicate distinct crash factor combinations between the two systems. The results offer an initial, exploratory perspective on the impact of vehicle automation on public roadways, providing insights that can inform system-specific safety assessments, risk mitigation strategies, and future research into the evolving dynamics of automated driving technologies.
Astle, W. AbramHaus, Samantha
Trust calibration is vital for safe human–automation interaction but remains largely qualitative. This study develops multiple quantitative frameworks modeling trust as a function of automation reliability. Four progressive models of binary, linear, triangular, and logistic formalize the calibrated trust zone, defining where human reliance aligns with system performance. The framework corrects major misconceptions: that trust is purely qualitative, that low trust–low reliability states are acceptable, and that overtrust and distrust pose equal risk. It establishes a minimum reliability threshold for meaningful trust and identifies distrust as the safer default in high-risk contexts. A case study on an empirical observation of 32 AI applications plotted in the trust–reliability space confirms the analysis, revealing a consistent distrust tendency where reliability exceeds user confidence and other observations. By quantifying trust through reliability, the study reframes it as a controllable safety variable, enabling predictive calibration and adaptive, trust-aware safety architectures for reliable human–AI collaboration.
Wen, HeMounir, Adil
This study develops a personalized driver model for expressway merging, embedding individual driving characteristics into automated longitudinal and lateral control via Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks. Uniform assistance (Advanced Driver Assist System, ADAS) can feel uncomfortable when it does not match a driver’s style; we therefore target the merge maneuver—a safety-critical task requiring anticipation and timing—and test whether merging-related context improves model fidelity. Driving data were collected in a high-fidelity motion-base simulator across two merging scenarios (13 licensed drivers in total). Inputs comprised ego speed, Headway distance and relative speed to the lead vehicle, and geometric context variables (distance to the end of the acceleration lane and to the hard/soft nose); outputs were longitudinal and, in the cross-scenario study, lateral accelerations. Models were trained per driver and evaluated by root mean square error (RMSE). Including merging context reduced longitudinal error in Experiment 1 (Gotemba IC) by about 30% on average relative to models without context, while errors remained below 0.5 m/s2. In Experiment 2 (Tokyo–Nagoya Expressway vs. Tokyo Metropolitan Expressway), longitudinal and lateral errors were low across both geometries; group-mean trends favored context but were non-significant, reflecting small sample size and inter-individual variability. Questionnaire-based evaluations in the simulator showed ratings close to real driving for discomfort, merge timing, and perceived safety; similarity and willingness to use were slightly higher in the urban expressway scenario, suggesting good user acceptance in constrained conditions. These findings indicate that incorporating merging context enables personalized control that better reflects individual driving behavior, while pointing to future work on generalization across geometries, speed ranges, and richer interaction semantics.
Shen, ShuncongHirose, Toshiya
The influence of modern Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) on the head and neck behavior of the occupants in a vehicle continues to be an active area of research. Occupant kinematics and kinetics were evaluated using a vehicle equipped with a pedestrian AEB system. The vehicle was tested in several different scenarios with speeds between 15 and 45 mph. Two instrumented 50th-percentile male Hybrid-III Anthropomorphic Test Devices (ATD) were positioned in certain seats of the vehicle, while minimally instrumented human volunteers occupied the remaining seats. Displacement transducers and video analysis were utilized to capture the kinematics of each occupant. The findings of this study indicate that in AEB-only events with belted-occupants, the test vehicle did not result in any occupant motion that would have placed the occupants out-of-position (OOP) had an impact occurred immediately following the AEB event. This means that when evaluating real-world AEB events, it may not be necessary to analyze and model properly seated and restrained occupant kinematics prior to an impact event when only AEB occurs. Consistent with the published literature, the kinetic results continue to show that the belted occupant exposure is significantly below any accepted injury criteria and is comparable to routine activities of daily living. Tests were also completed in two seating configurations with unbelted ATDs to evaluate the difference in vehicle braking (if any) and the excursion differences when unbelted. The study found greater excursion for unbelted ATDs compared to that of belted volunteers and provides a sample of unbelted ATD kinematics via AEB activation.
Bartholomew, MeredithDahiya, AkshayRussell, CalebMorr, DouglasCastro, ElaineNguyen, An
This paper presents a testing platform for the development of lateral stability control systems in independent motor electric vehicles (EVs). A 10 degree of freedom (DOF) vehicle simulation and a radio control test vehicle are constructed to enable controls validation scalable to full size vehicles. These vehicle simulations, or ‘digital twins’, have been widely adopted throughout the automotive industry due to their lower operating costs and ease of implementation. Virtual models are not perfect representations of reality, however, and physical testing is still necessary to validate systems for use in the real world. This is especially true when testing safety-critical features such as stability control. As a result, a simulation environment working in conjunction with a test vehicle represents an optimal hybrid approach. In this work, a high fidelity vehicle model is constructed in the Matlab/Simulink environment. To capture the effect of suspension, the digital twin is capable of modeling all angular and linear degrees of freedom of the vehicle body. The vehicle model must also estimate wheel forces during high-sideslip maneuvers. The Pacejka Magic Formula is used for its accurate representation of tire behavior in highly transient driving scenarios. This vehicle model describes the behavior of a physical vehicle. For this purpose, a 1/5 scale radio controlled vehicle with independent rear wheel propulsion is designed and assembled. All physical parameters of the test vehicle required by the vehicle model are estimated through direct measurement or estimation through test maneuvers. Magic formula coefficients are estimated from GPS, inertial, and odometry measurements collected throughout defined test maneuvers. Vehicle model behavior is then benchmarked against the test vehicle. An S-curve maneuver is performed in simulation and experimentation to ensure accuracy and consistency across transient and steady state behavior. In future work, focus will turn to creating an ADAS control system which re-stabilizes a vehicle after a collision using torque vectoring.
Petersen, Nicholas ConnerRobinette, Darrell
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