This study presents the development and integration of a vehicle mass estimator into the ZF’s Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) system. The aim is to improve the accuracy of the ACC system’s torque control for achieving desired speed and acceleration. Accurate mass estimation is critical for optimal control performance, particularly in commercial vehicles with variable loads. The incorporation of such mass estimation algorithm into the ACC system leads to significant reductions in the error between requested and measured acceleration during both flat and uphill driving conditions, with or without a preceding vehicle. The article details the estimator’s development, integration, and validation through comprehensive experimental testing. An electric front-wheel drive van was used. The vehicle’s longitudinal dynamics were modeled using D’Alembert’s principle to develop the mass estimation algorithm. This algorithm updates the mass estimate based on specific conditions: zero brake torque, high

Marotta, Raffaele, D’Itri, Valerio, Irilli, Alessandro, Peccolo, Marco

Software Architecture for Autonomous Vehicles using MATLAB Simulink

2025-28-0190

02/07/2025

Autonomous vehicles utilise sensors, control systems and machine learning to independently navigate and operate through their surroundings, offering improved road safety, traffic management and enhanced mobility. This paper details the development, software architecture and simulation of control algorithms for key functionalities in a model that approaches Level 2 autonomy, utilising MATLAB Simulink and IPG CarMaker. The focus is on four critical areas: Autonomous Emergency Braking (AEB), Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC), Lane Detection (LD) and Traffic Object Detection. Also, the integration of low-level PID controllers for precise steering, braking and throttle actuation, ensures smooth and responsive vehicle behaviour. The hardware architecture is built around the Nvidia Jetson Nano and multiple Arduino Nano microcontrollers, each responsible for controlling specific actuators within the drive-by-wire system, which includes the steering, brake and throttle actuators. Communication

Ann Josy, Tessa, Sadique, Anwar, Thomas, Merlin, Manaf T M, Ashik, Vr, Sreeraj

Neural Network-Enhanced Model Predictive Cruise Control for a Heavy Truck with LLM-Assisted Data Collection for Training

2025-01-7033

01/31/2025

Predictive Cruise Control (PCC) is a promising approach for improving fuel efficiency and reducing operational costs in heavy trucks. However, its implementation using conventional Nonlinear Model Predictive Control (NMPC) methods is hindered by computational limitations, often restricting the use of long-horizon slope information. This paper addresses these challenges by proposing a neural network-enhanced slope-adaptive NMPC framework. A Convolutional Neural Network-Long Short-Term Memory (CNN-LSTM) architecture is employed to integrate long-horizon slope information and dynamically update control parameters, effectively overcoming computational constraints of traditional NMPC. To further enhance efficiency, an automated simulation scheduling system is developed, leveraging Large Language Models (LLMs) and expert knowledge to optimize parameter tuning and streamline data collection, significantly reducing training overhead. Validation on a high-fidelity simulation platform

Han, Xiao, Song, Kang, Lv, Qing Fang, Zhang, Yi, Xie, Hui

Enhanced Adaptive Cruise Control Strategies Considering Front and Rear Vehicles

10-09-01-0007

01/29/2025

Adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems have increasingly become more robust in adapting to the motion of the preceding vehicle and providing safety and comfort to the driver. But conventional ACC hangs with a concern for rear-end safety in the presence of traffic or aggressive car maneuvers. It often leads to getting dangerously close to the vehicle behind in scenarios where there is less space and time for the rear vehicle to adjust. This research article develops an ACC approach that considers the rear vehicle in addition to the front vehicle, thereby ensuring safety with the rear vehicle without compromising the safety of the front vehicle. Two novel methodologies are devised to enhance the ACC system. The first approach involves utilizing fuzzy logic to associate the inputs with the throttle and brake based on the inference rules within a fuzzy logic controller overseeing both vehicles. The other utilizes a cascaded model predictive control (MPC) system framework that integrates a

Sharma, Vishrut, Sengupta, Somnath, Ghosh, Susenjit

A Reinforcement Learning-Based Parameter Tuning Approach for a Secure Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control System

12-08-04-0033

01/25/2025

Connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) rely on communication channels to improve safety and efficiency. However, this connectivity leaves them vulnerable to potential cyberattacks, such as false data injection (FDI) attacks. We can mitigate the effect of FDI attacks by designing secure control techniques. However, tuning control parameters is essential for the safety and security of such techniques, and there is no systematic approach to achieving that. In this article, our primary focus is on cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC), a key component of CAVs. We develop a secure CACC by integrating model-based and learning-based approaches to detect and mitigate FDI attacks in real-time. We analyze the stability of the proposed resilient controller through Lyapunov stability analysis, identifying sufficient conditions for its effectiveness. We use these sufficient conditions and develop a reinforcement learning (RL)-based tuning algorithm to adjust the parameter gains of the

Javidi-Niroumand, Farahnaz, Sargolzaei, Arman

Cooperation Dynamics in Multiagent Systems: Modeling Vehicular Cooperation through Game Theory

12-08-03-0026

12/24/2024

Cooperation lies at the core of multiagent systems (MAS) and multiagent reinforcement learning (MARL), where agents must navigate between individual interests and collective benefits. Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), like collision avoidance systems and adaptive cruise control, exemplify agents striving to optimize personal and collective outcomes in multiagent environments. The study focuses on strategies aimed at fostering cooperation with the aid of game-theoretic scenarios, particularly the iterated prisoner’s dilemma, where agents aim to optimize personal and group outcomes. Existing cooperative strategies, such as tit-for-tat and win-stay lose-shift, while effective in certain contexts, often struggle with scalability and adaptability in dynamic, large-scale environments. The research investigates these limitations and proposes modifications to align individual gains with collective rewards, addressing real-world dilemmas in distributed systems. By analyzing existing

Nidamanuri, Jaswanth, Sathi, Vaigarai, Shaik, Sabahat

INTEGRATING SENSOR DATA: Selecting an ADAS decision-making process

24AUTP12_01

12/01/2024

Exactly when sensor fusion occurs in ADAS operations, late or early, impacts the entire system. Governments have been studying Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) since at least the late 1980s. Europe's Generic Intelligent Driver Support initiative ran from 1989 to 1992 and aimed “to determine the requirements and design standards for a class of intelligent driver support systems which will conform with the information requirements and performance capabilities of the individual drivers.” Automakers have spent the past 30 years rolling out such systems to the buying public. Toyota and Mitsubishi started offering radar-based cruise control to Japanese drivers in the mid-1990s. Mercedes-Benz took the technology global with its Distronic adaptive cruise control in the 1998 S-Class. Cadillac followed that two years later with FLIR-based night vision on the 2000 Deville DTS. And in 2003, Toyota launched an automated parallel parking technology called Intelligent Parking Assist on the

Ramsey, Jonathon

Study on the Test Procedure of Fuel Economy and CO ₂ Emissions for Vehicles with Adaptive Cruise Control System

2024-01-4308

11/05/2024

With advancements in the development of the automated driving technology, vehicles equipped with such technology can be observed widely in market. However, there is a lack of clarity regarding fuel consumption and emission characteristics with automated driving functions. In fact, it cannot be found that any technical papers that have conducted such an evaluation. Therefore, in this study, it was investigated that an evaluation method to understand fuel consumption and emission characteristics by using the adaptive cruise control (ACC) function. The function is one of the automated driving functions which is widely used and corresponds to Level 2 defined by SAE International (Society of Automotive Engineers). In the approach taken for this study, two vehicles were used as the real driving emission test and the preceding vehicle—equipped with a driving robot—was driven accurately to trace the speed pattern defined by the test cycle. The trailing vehicle was driven using the ACC function

Okui, Nobunori

Virtual Identification of Driver-Specific Characteristics for Assisted Lateral Control

2024-01-5090

09/02/2024

Advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) have become an integral part of today’s vehicle development. These systems are designed to provide secondary support to the driver, but the driver is primarily responsible for the driving task, e.g., lane-keeping assist (LKA). The driving setup and testing of these LKA systems is very time-consuming and usually applied in the car, based on experiences and subjective evaluation. This results in a cost-intensive calibration of the system. An objective-based calibration procedure can increase efficiency. For a targeted calibration of the system, it is necessary to define and identify key performance indicators (KPIs), which are able to describe the secondary support in sufficient detail. Usually, subjective feelings are used to derive KPIs. Vice versa, there are no results on how to design an LKA without any subjective assessment, before the calibration. With this in mind, this paper is focused on filling this unknown aspect by using virtual

Baumann, Benjamin, Iatropolous, Jannes, Panzer, Anna, Henze, Roman

Expanding the Use of Vehicle Specific Power in Analysis of Platoon Performance

2024-01-2057

04/09/2024

Platooning is a coordinated driving strategy by which following trucks are placed into the wake of leading vehicles. Doing this leads to two primary benefits. First, the vehicles following are shielded from aerodynamic drag by a “pulling” effect. Secondly, by placing vehicles behind the leading truck, the leading vehicles experience a “pushing” effect. The reduction in aerodynamic drag leads to reduced fuel usage and, consequently, reduced greenhouse gas emissions. To maximize these effects, the inter-vehicle distance, or headway, needs to be minimized. In current platooning strategy iterations, Coordinated Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) is used to maintain close following distances. Many of these strategies utilize the fuel rate signal as a controller cost function parameter. By using fuel rate, current control strategies have limited applicability to non-conventional powertrains. Vehicle Specific Power (VSP) has shown promise as a metric by which the performance of such controllers

Bentley, John, Stegner, Evan, Bevly, David M., Hoffman, Mark

Modelling and Analysis of a Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) Algorithm for Fuel Economy

2024-01-2564

04/09/2024

Connectivity in ground vehicles allows vehicles to share crucial vehicle data, such as vehicle acceleration and speed, with each other. Using sensors such as radars and lidars, on the other hand, the intravehicular distance between a leader vehicle and a host vehicle can be detected. Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) builds upon ground vehicle connectivity and sensor information to form convoys with automated car following. CACC can also be used to improve fuel economy and mobility performance of vehicles in the said convoy. In this paper, a CACC system is presented, where the acceleration of the lead vehicle is used in the calculation of desired vehicle speed. In addition to the smooth car following abilities, the proposed CACC also has the capability to calculate a speed profile for the ego vehicle that is fuel efficient, making it an Ecological CACC (Eco-CACC) model. Simulations were run to model and test the Eco-CACC algorithms with different lead vehicle driving behaviors

Kavas-Torris, Ozgenur, Guvenc, Levent

An Evaluation of the Bosch Radar-Based Adaptive Cruise Control System on a 2022 Ducati Multistrada V4S

2024-01-2478

04/09/2024

Starting in 2021 Ducati introduced a radar based adaptive cruise control (ACC) developed by Bosch. It utilizes a single radar unit on the front of the motorcycle to detect the presence of vehicles ahead, as well as the separation distance. The system is not an automatic emergency braking (AEB) system but does have similar features. The Ducati ACC system does have limitations, some of which are explored in the subject research. Initial testing was conducted to document the engine braking in each gear. Following initial testing, several tests were performed at high closing speeds of over 100 kph. It was determined that at a closing speed of approximately 100 kph the ACC system would not react to a moving vehicle ahead. Additionally, the system will not react to a stopped vehicle or a “swerve-around” stopped vehicle that suddenly appears. Another series of tests were performed while actively following a vehicle at various speeds, with the front vehicle suddenly slowing to a stop and

Fatzinger, Edward C., Gonzaga, William

Enhancing Lateral Stability in Adaptive Cruise Control: A Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Model-Based Strategy

2024-01-1962

04/09/2024

Adaptive cruise control is one of the key technologies in advanced driver assistance systems. However, improving the performance of autonomous driving systems requires addressing various challenges, such as maintaining the dynamic stability of the vehicle during the cruise process, accurately controlling the distance between the ego vehicle and the preceding vehicle, resisting the effects of nonlinear changes in longitudinal speed on system performance. To overcome these challenges, an adaptive cruise control strategy based on the Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy model with a focus on ensuring vehicle lateral stability is proposed. Firstly, a collaborative control model of adaptive cruise and lateral stability is established with desired acceleration and additional yaw moment as control inputs. Then, considering the effect of the nonlinear change of the longitudinal speed on the performance of the vehicle system. And the input penalty factor of the adaptive cruise control system is designed as a

Yan, Yang, Xin, Yafei, Zheng, Hongyu

On-Road Testing to Characterize Speed-Following Behavior in Production Automated Vehicles

2024-01-1963

04/09/2024

A fully instrumented Tesla Model 3 was used to collect thousands of hours of real-world automated driving data, encompassing both Autopilot and Full Self-Driving modes. This comprehensive dataset included vehicle operational parameters from the data busses, capturing details such as powertrain performance, energy consumption, and the control of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). Additionally, interactions with the surrounding traffic were recorded using a perception kit developed in-house equipped with LIDAR and a 360-degree camera system. We collected the data as part of a larger program to assess energy-efficient driving behavior of production connected and automated vehicles. One important aspect of characterizing the test vehicle is predicting its car-following behavior. Using both uncontrolled on-road tests and dedicated tests with a lead car performing set speed maneuvers, we tuned conventional adaptive cruise control (ACC) equations to fit the vehicle’s behavior. We

Duoba, Michael, Vellamattathil Baby, Tinu, Pulpeiro Gonzalez, Jorge, HomChaudhuri, Baisravan

Design, Prototyping, and Implementation of a Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) System for Eco-Approach and Departure through Connected and Smart Corridors

2024-01-1982

04/09/2024

The advent of Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication has revolutionized the automotive industry, particularly with the rise of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS). V2X enables vehicles to communicate not only with each other (V2V) but also with infrastructure (V2I) and pedestrians (V2P), enhancing road safety and efficiency. ADAS, which includes features like adaptive cruise control and automatic intersection navigation, relies on V2X data exchange to make real-time decisions and improve driver assistance capabilities. Over the years, the progress of V2X technology has been marked by standardization efforts, increased deployment, and a growing ecosystem of connected vehicles, paving the way for safer and more efficient automated navigation. The EcoCAR Mobility Challenge was a 4-year student competition among 12 universities across the United States and Canada sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, MathWorks, and General Motors, where each team received a 2019 Chevrolet

Chowduri, Suhrit, Midlam-Mohler, Shawn, Singh, Karun Prateek

A Hazard Analysis Approach for Automated Driving Shared Control

2024-01-2056

04/09/2024

Systems-Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA) is being used as a hazard analysis technique within automotive, due in part to its systems engineering viewpoint making it suitable to automated driving feature analysis and with several new and emerging standards and guidelines suggesting its use as one option its familiarity is increasing. Approaches incorporating the human into the STPA Control Structure Diagram (CSD) have been proposed, such as Engineering for Humans: A New Extension to STPA [1]. Such approaches position the human as the top controller in the CSD hierarchy. While placing the human at the top of the CSD is suited to reasoning about supervisory human machine interactions, perhaps in an industrial control setting, we argue that a different approach is needed to address automotive shared control. In an automotive context the driver is integral to vehicle control. Even for vehicle features delivering partial or conditional automation, low level vehicle control tasks may be

Monkhouse, Helen Elizabeth, Ward, David

A Method for Determining Mileage Accumulation for Robustness Validation of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) Features

2024-01-1977

04/09/2024

Robustness testing of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) features is a crucial step in ensuring the safety and reliability of these systems. ADAS features include technologies like adaptive cruise control, lateral and longitudinal controls, automatic emergency braking, and more. These systems rely on various sensors, cameras, radar, lidar, and software algorithms to function effectively. Robustness testing aims to identify potential vulnerabilities and weaknesses in these systems under different conditions, ensuring they can handle unexpected scenarios and maintain their performance. Mileage accumulation is one of the validation methods for achieving robustness. It involves subjecting the systems to a wide variety of real-world driving conditions and driving scenarios to ensure the reliability, safety, and effectiveness of the ADAS features. Following ISO 21448 (Safety of the intended functionality-SOTIF), known hazardous scenarios can be tested and validated through robustness

Almasri, Hossam, Fan, Hsing-Hua, Mudunuri, Venkateswara Raju

Employing a Model of Computation for Testing and Verifying the Security of Connected and Autonomous Vehicles

12-07-03-0020

03/05/2024

Testing and verifying the security of connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs) under cyber-physical attacks is a critical challenge for ensuring their safety and reliability. Proposed in this article is a novel testing framework based on a model of computation that generates scenarios and attacks in a closed-loop manner, while measuring the safety of the unit under testing (UUT), using a verification vector. The framework was applied for testing the performance of two cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC) controllers under false data injection (FDI) attacks. Serving as the baseline controller is one of a traditional design, while the proposed controller uses a resilient design that combines a model and learning-based algorithm to detect and mitigate FDI attacks in real-time. The simulation results show that the resilient controller outperforms the traditional controller in terms of maintaining a safe distance, staying below the speed limit, and the accuracy of the FDI estimation.

Alnaser, Ala Jamil, Holland, James, Sargolzaei, Arman

Driver-Vehicle Interface Considerations for Lane Keeping Assistance Systems

J3048_202402 (Current)

02/27/2024

The purpose of this document is to provide guidance for the implementation of DVI for momentary intervention-type LKA systems, as defined by ISO 11270. LKA systems provide driver support for safe lane keeping operations via momentary interventions. LKA systems are SAE Level 0, according to SAE J3016. LKA systems do not automate any part of the dynamic driving task (DDT) on a sustained basis and are not classified as an integral component of a partial or conditional driving automation system per SAE J3016. The design intent (i.e., purpose) of an LKA system is to address crash scenarios resulting from inadvertent lane or road departures. Drivers can override an LKA system intervention at any time. LKA systems do not guarantee prevention of lane drifts or related crashes. Road and driving environment (e.g., lane line delineation, inclement weather, road curvature, road surface, etc.) as well as vehicle factors (e.g., speed, lateral acceleration, equipment condition, etc.) may affect the

Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) Committee

Letter from the Focus Issue Editors

14-13-01-0001

02/02/2024

Letter from the Focus Issue Editors

Song, Ziyou, Feng, Shuo, Wu, Guoyuan, Li, Zhaojian

Implementation of Predictive Adaptive Cruise Control Strategy Based on ADAS Map

2023-01-7111

12/31/2023

Heavy vehicles are major fuel consumers in road transportation, and the traditional way to reduce fuel consumption is to reduce weight, resistance, improve mechanical transmission efficiency, and improve engine thermal efficiency. However, European heavy-duty truck companies took the lead in realizing predictive cruise control (PCC) technology on the basis of cruise through intelligent network technology, based on ADAS maps, and achieved good fuel saving effects. In this paper, by studying the fuel consumption characteristics of trucks, designing the dynamic parameters of the load and whole vehicle, the predictive adaptive cruise control (PACC) technology is realized based on the predictive cruise strategy, and the statistics of fuel saving rate under different cruise ratio conditions are analyzed through the big data platform.

Qian, Guoping, Lu, Zhenghua, Tian, Juntao, Liu, Lianfang, Xi, Chong, Zhou, Xiaoying

An Energy-Efficient Merge-Aware Cruise Control Method for Connected Electric Vehicles

14-13-01-0010

12/28/2023

This article presents a merge-aware cruise control method that incorporates vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) information and aims at improving the energy efficiency of vehicles and reducing speed disruptions of merging traffic during highway merges. During the events of highway merges, the gap between the ego and the preceding vehicle reduces drastically, which can result in sudden braking of the ego vehicle and thus reduction of its energy efficiency. We propose a rather simple cruise control algorithm to eliminate such sudden variations in the gap and velocity with respect to the preceding vehicle during highway merges, thus reducing the large accelerations and braking during such events and thereby improving energy efficiency. The proposed algorithm incorporates future traffic information and has computational requirements similar to adaptive cruise control methods, hence it is real-time applicable. Data used in this article are taken from on-road experiments using a 2020 Tesla Model 3

Vellamattathil Baby, Tinu, HomChaudhuri , Baisravan

Passenger Vehicle Lane Departure Warning, Lane Keeping Assistance, and Lane Centering Assistance Systems Test Procedure

J3240_202312 (Current)

12/20/2023

This SAE Recommended Practice establishes a test procedure for the evaluation of lane departure warning (LDW), lane keeping assistance (LKA), and lane centering assistance systems used in passenger vehicles and light trucks. This test procedure does not intend to exclude any particular system or sensing technology. The recommended practice can be used to test the functionality and performance of LDW, LKA, and lane centering assistance systems by assessing their ability to (1) warn (LDW) or control (LKA, lane centering assistance) in response to an unintended lane departure, and (2) the ability to indicate a system disengagement. The human machine interface (HMI) is not addressed herein but is considered in SAE J2808. The recommended practice specifies lane markers to enable lane departure testing, or road edges, to enable testing of road departure mitigation systems. The document is separated into two tiers. Tier One establishes a recommended minimum set of performance criteria for LDW

Active Safety Systems Standards Committee

Performance Requirements for Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) and Platooning™ ASN File

J2945/6A_202310 (Current)10/26/2023

This Abstract Syntax Notation (ASN.1) file precisely specifies the structure of the data used to support the implementation of SAE International Standard 2945/6. Using the ASN.1 specification, a compiler tool can be used to produce encodings as required by the encoding rules identified in the standard. Both this file and the SAE J2735 ASN.1 files are necessary to collectively implement the data exchange described in the J2945/6. The combined library can be used by any application (along with the additional logic of the application) to exchange the data over an interface conformant to J2945/6. SAE J2945/6 specifies the interface and requirements for Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) and Platooning. It provides the information necessary to build interoperable systems that support CACC, which rely on the exchange of Cooperative Control Messages. You may also be interested in: Performance Requirements for Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) and Platooning™ the J2945/6 PDF

V2X Vehicular Applications Technical Committee

Performance Requirements for Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) and Platooning™ SET File

J2945/6S_202310 (Current)10/26/2023

V2X Vehicular Applications Technical Committee

Performance Requirements for Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) and Platooning

J2945/6_202310 (Current)10/26/2023

This standard provides the guideline for enhancements to adaptive cruise control (ACC) by the addition of wireless communication from relevant vehicles (V2V) and/or the infrastructure (I2V) to augment the ACC active sensing capability. The CACC system operates under driver responsibility and supervision and is limited to the following: Does only longitudinal control of the vehicle. Uses time gap control strategy similar to ACC. Motor vehicles covered in the scope of this document include light and heavy vehicles. The message elements to realize CACC and platooning are part of the scope. The initial release covers definitions for CACC and platooning and requirements for CACC, while a subsequent release will cover the platooning requirements.

V2X Vehicular Applications Technical Committee

Closet In-Path Vehicle Detection and Recognition Algorithm Based on Camera and Millimeter-Wave Radar Fusion

12-07-02-0010

10/11/2023

The closet in-path vehicle (CIPV) is recognized relying on the detection results for road lane lines in most current ACC system, which may not work well in the poor conditions, for example, unclear road lane lines, low light level, bad weather, and so on. To solve this problem, the article proposes a sensor fusion-based CIPV recognition algorithm independent of road lane lines. First, a robust Kalman filter based on the global coordinate system is designed to fuse the millimeter-wave radar and camera targets. The fusion algorithm can dynamically adjust the covariance matrix of sensor observations to avoid the influence of anomalous observations on the fusion results. Stable detection of targets by the fusion algorithm is the basis of the CIPV recognition algorithm. Then, the CIPV recognition algorithm generates virtual lane lines using the motion parameters of self-vehicle or the driving trajectory of vehicle target and develops a mode switch strategy for virtual lane lines generation

Yang, Yifei, Zhao, Zhiguo, Yu, Qin, Deng, Yunhong, Li, Wenchang

Considerations for ISO 26262 ASIL Hazard Classification

J2980_202310 (Current)

10/02/2023

This SAE Recommended Practice presents a method and example results for determining the Automotive Safety Integrity Level (ASIL) for automotive motion control electrical and/or electronic (E/E) systems. The ASIL determination activity is required by ISO 26262-3, and it is intended that the process and results herein are consistent with ISO 26262. The technical focus of this document is on vehicle motion control systems. The scope of this SAE Recommended Practice is limited to collision-related hazards associated with motion control systems. This SAE Recommended Practice focuses on motion control systems since the hazards they can create generally have higher ASIL ratings, as compared to the hazards non-motion control systems can create. Because of this, the Functional Safety Committee decided to give motion control systems a higher priority and focus exclusively on them in this SAE Recommended Practice. ISO 26262 has a wider scope than SAE J2980, covering other functions and accidents

Functional Safety Committee

Vinfast needs to slow down

23AUTP09_11

09/01/2023

Startups are famous for moving quickly. Vinfast may want to slow things down. It was only 2019 when the Vietnamese company built its first cars, rebodied versions of gasoline BMWs that became hits in its home market. Vinfast speedily developed four electric SUVs, including the inaugural VF8 that SAE Media drove in southern California. At the same time, a cargo ship docked near San Francisco, carrying nearly 2,000 VF8s for customers in California and Canada. The next day, Vinfast announced plans to go public via a SPAC merger. And Vinfast recently broke ground on a $4 billion factory in North Carolina, targeting 150,000 units of annual capacity and more than 7,000 jobs.

Ulrich, Lawrence

Battery Electric Vehicle Control Strategy for String Stability Based on Deep Reinforcement Learning in V2V Driving

2023-24-0173

08/28/2023

This works presents a Reinforcement Learning (RL) agent to implement a Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) system that simultaneously enhances energy efficiency and comfort, while also ensuring string stability. CACC systems are a new generation of ACC which systems rely on the communication of the so-called ego-vehicle with other vehicles and infrastructure using V2V and/or V2X connectivity. This enables the availability of robust information about the environment thanks to the exchange of information, rather than their estimation or enabling some redundancy of data. CACC systems have the potential to overcome one typical issue that arises with regular ACC, that is the lack of string stability. String stability is the ability of the ACC of a vehicle to avoid unnecessary fluctuations in speed that can cause traffic jams, dampening these oscillations along the vehicle string rather than amplifying them. In this work, a real-time ACC for a Battery Electric Vehicle, based on a Deep

Borneo, Angelo, Miretti, Federico, Acquarone, Matteo, Misul, Daniela

Using Distributed Autonomous Adaptive Cruise Control Vehicles to Mitigate Congestion in a Two-Lane Traffic Flow

2023-01-5055

08/22/2023

Steady advances in autonomous vehicle development are expected to lead to improved traffic flow in terms of string stability compared with that for human-driven vehicles. Fluctuation in intervehicle distances among a group of vehicles without string stability is amplified as it propagates upstream (rearward), which may cause traffic congestion. Since it will take a few decades for autonomous vehicles to replace all human-driven vehicles, it is important to tackle the problem of traffic congestion in a mixed flow of human-driven and autonomous vehicles. Communication technologies such as fifth-generation mobile communication systems, which are improving rapidly, enable vehicle-to-vehicle communication with a sufficiently small delay. We previously reported a strategy based on vehicle-to-vehicle communication for avoiding traffic congestion by using leader–follower control, which is a distributed autonomous control strategy. However, it was designed and evaluated for single-lane traffic

Kurishige, Masahiko

A Review of Dynamic State Estimation for the Neighborhood System of Connected Vehicles

10-07-03-0023

07/28/2023

Precise vehicle state and the surrounding traffic information are essential for decision-making and dynamic control of intelligent connected vehicles. Tremendous research efforts have been devoted to developing state estimation techniques. This work investigates the research progress in this field over recent years. To be able to describe the state of multiple traffic elements uniformly, the concept of a vehicle neighborhood system is proposed to describe the system composed of vehicles and their surrounding traffic elements and to distinguish it from the traditional macroscopic traffic research field. In this work, the vehicle neighborhood system consists of three main traffic elements: the host vehicle, the preceding vehicle, and the road. Therefore, a review of state estimation methods for the vehicle neighborhood system is presented around the three traffic objects mentioned earlier. This article performs a comprehensive analysis of these approaches and depicts their strengths and

Wang, Yan, Wei, Henglai, Yang, Lie, Hu, Binbin, Lv, Chen

Comparing the Performance of Different Heavy Duty Platooning Control Strategies

2023-01-0895

04/11/2023

Platooning is a promising technology which can mitigate greenhouse gas impacts and reduce transportation energy consumption. Platooning is a coordinated driving strategy where trucks align themselves in order to realize aerodynamic benefits to reduce required motive force. The aerodynamic benefit is seen as either a “pull” effect experienced by the following vehicles or a “push” effect experienced by the leader. The energy savings magnitude increases nonlinearly as headway (following distance) is reduced [1]. In efforts to maximize energy savings, cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC) is utilized to maintain relatively short headways. However, when platooning is attempted in the real world, small transient accelerations caused by imperfect control result in observed energy savings being less than expected values. This study analyzes the performance of a recently developed nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) platooning strategy over challenging terrain. The NMPC strategy is

Bentley, John William, Snitzer, Philip, Stegner, Evan, Bevly, David M., Hoffman, Mark

Research on Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) Based on Fuzzy PID Algorithm

2023-01-0682

04/11/2023

For cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC) system, a robust following control algorithm based on fuzzy PID principle is adopted in this paper. Firstly, a nonlinear vehicle dynamics model considering the lag of driving force and acceleration constraints was established. Then, with the vehicle’s control hierarchic, the upper controller takes the relative speed between vehicles and the spacing error as inputs to output the following vehicle's target acceleration, while the lower controller takes the target acceleration as inputs and the throttle opening and brake master cylinder pressure as outputs. For the setting of target spacing, this paper additionally considers the relative speed between vehicles and the acceleration of the front vehicle. Through testing, compared with the traditional variable safety distance model, the average distance reduces by 5.43% when leading vehicle is accelerating, while increases by 2.74% in deceleration. For the fixed-speed cruise mode, a set of logic

Zhu, Mingyang, Tan, Gangfeng

Utilizing Speed Information Forecast in Energy Optimization of an Electric Vehicle with Adaptive Cruise Controller

2023-01-0685

04/11/2023

The efficiency in energy consumption of an electric vehicle (EV) has significant value to both vehicle manufacturers and vehicle owners. Such efficiency will directly impact the cost of energy and vehicle range while relieving the stringent requirements on the DC motor and battery specs. Nowadays, with the development of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), such as adaptive cruise control (ACC) or cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC), drivers enjoy a much safer driving experience. ADAS capabilities in sensory, computing and communication can be leveraged in EVs for the purpose of optimizing energy consumption. This paper introduces an energy-optimized ACC platform, which utilizes a forecast of the speed profile of the host vehicle in a short (few seconds) horizon. Such speed information can be available through ADAS or similar systems. This paper focuses on optimization in longitudinal tracks. We consider ten different drive-cycles in several driving scenarios, such as

Shahram, Shahriar, Pourmohammadi Fallah, Yaser

Evaluation of Longitudinal ADAS Functions for Fuel Economy Improvement of Class 8 Long Haul Trucks

2023-01-0217

04/11/2023

Fuel economy improvement of Class 8 long-haul trucks has been a constant topic of discussion in the commercial vehicle industry due to the significant potential it offers in reducing GHG emissions and operational costs. Among the different vehicle categories in on-road transportation, Class 8 long-haul trucks are a significant contributor to overall GHG emissions. Furthermore, with the upcoming 2027 GHG emission and low-NOx regulations, advanced powertrain technologies will be needed to meet these stringent standards. Connectivity-based powertrain optimization is one such technology that many fleets are adopting to achieve significant fuel savings at a relatively lower technology cost. With advancements in vehicle connectivity technologies for onboard computing and sensing, the full potential of connected vehicles in reducing fuel consumption can be realized through V2X (Vehicle-to-Everything) communication. Upcoming road grade, traffic lights and lead vehicle speeds can be utilized to

Paul, Sumit, Goyal, Vasu, Joshi, Satyum, Franke, Michael, Tomazic, Dean, Zeman, Jonathan

Testing of Heavy Truck Advanced Driver Assistance Systems and Crash Mitigation Systems

2023-01-0010

04/11/2023

Modern heavy vehicles may be equipped with an Advanced Driver Assistance System (ADAS) designed to increase highway safety. Depending on the vehicle or manufacturer, these systems may detect objects in a driver’s blind spot, provide an alert when the ADAS determines that the vehicle is leaving its lane of travel without the use of a turn signal, or notify the driver when certain road signs are detected. ADASs also include adaptive cruise control, which adjusts the vehicle’s set cruise speed to maintain a safe following distance when a slower vehicle is detected ahead of the truck. In addition, the ADAS may have a Collision Mitigation System (CMS) component that is designed to help drivers respond to roadway situations and reduce the severity of crashes. CMSs typically use radar or a combination of radar and optical technologies to detect objects such as vehicles or pedestrians in the vehicle’s path. If the CMS determines that a collision event is likely, interventions such as audible

Austin, Timothy, Grimes, Wesley, Cheek, Timothy, Plant, David, Steiner, John, Higgins, Bradley, Lombardi, Kristina, DiSogra, Matthew, Wilcoxson, Gregory

Drive-Thru Climate Tunnel: A Proposed Method to Study ADAS Performance in Adverse Weather

2023-01-0827

04/11/2023

The advancement of Advanced Driver Assistance System (ADAS) technologies offers tremendous benefits. ADAS features such as emergency braking, blind-spot monitoring, lane departure warning, adaptive cruise control, etc., are promising to lower on-road accident rates and severity. With a common goal for the automotive industry to achieve higher levels of autonomy, maintaining ADAS sensor performance and reliability is the core to ensuring adequate ADAS functionality. Currently, the challenges faced by ADAS sensors include performance degradation in adverse weather conditions and a lack of controlled evaluation methods. Outdoor testing encounters repeatability issues, while indoor testing with a stationary vehicle lacks realistic conditions. This study proposes a hybrid method to combine the advantages of both outdoor and indoor testing approaches in a Drive-thru Climate Tunnel (DCT). The proposed DCT features a test section that is isolated from the surrounding environment and allows a

Pao, Wing Yi, Li, Long, Agelin-Chaab, Martin, Komar, John

New Controller Evaluation Techniques for Autonomously Driven Heavy-Duty Convoys

2023-01-0688

04/11/2023

Platooning vehicles present novel pathways to saving fuel during transportation. With the rise of autonomous solutions, platooning becomes an increasingly apparent sector requiring the application of this new technology. Platooning vehicles travel together intending to reduce aerodynamic resistance during operation. Drafting allows following vehicles to increase fuel economy and save money on refueling, whether that be at the pump or at a charging station. However, autonomous solutions are still in infancy, and controller evaluation is an exciting challenge proposed to researchers. This work brings forth a new application of an emissions quantification metric called vehicle-specific power (VSP). Rather than utilize its emissions investigative benefits, the present work applies VSP to heterogeneous Class 8 Heavy-Duty truck platoons as a means of evaluating the efficacy of Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC). VSP creates a bridge between types of passenger vehicles to compare

Snitzer, Philip, Stegner, Evan, Bentley, John, Bevly, David M., Hoffman, Mark

Road Parameter Estimation with Drone-Vehicle Communication

2023-01-0664

04/11/2023

The presented study is dedicated to the technology supporting vehicle state estimation and motion control with a concept drone, which helps the vehicle in sensing the surroundings and driving conditions. This concept allows also extending the functionality of the sensors mounted on the vehicle by replacing or including additional parameter observation channels. The paper discusses the feasibility of such a drone-vehicle interaction as well as demonstrates several design configurations. In this regard, the paper presents a general description of the proposed drone system that assists the vehicle and describes an experiment in measuring the profile of the road with a range sensor. The results obtained in the experiment are described in terms of the accuracy to be achieved using the drone and are compared with other studies, which use the methods of estimation from the sensors mounted on the vehicle. The proposed measurement concept can be applied to a large number of vehicle systems such

Beliautsou, Viktar, Beliautsou, Aleksandra, Ivanov, Valentin

Diagnosis and Prognosis of Chassis Systems in Autonomous Driving Conditions

2023-01-0741

04/11/2023

Expanding various future mobilities such as purpose built vehicle (PBV), urban air mobility (UAM), and robo-taxi, the application of autonomous driving system (ADS) technology is also spreading. The main point of ADS is to ensure safety by monitoring vehicle anomalies to prevent functional failure or accident. In this study, a model-based diagnosis and prognosis process was established using degradation data generated during autonomous driving simulation. A vehicle model was designed using Modelica/Dymola, and autonomous driving simulation was performed by integrating the lane keeping assistant (LKA) system with the vehicle model using Matlab/Simulink. Degradation data for the 3 components (a shock absorber damper, a suspension bush, and a tire) of the chassis system were input into the integrated simulation model. The degradation behavior was monitored with K-nearest neighbor (K-NN) and Gaussian mixture model (GMM). The remaining useful life (RUL) for each component was estimated

Lee, Kyung-Woo, Sung, Dae-Un, Han, Yong Ha, Yoo, Yeongmin, Lee, Jongsoo

Adaptive Cruise Control Based on a Model Predictive Controller Considering the Driving Behavior of the Front and Rear Vehicles

15-16-03-0013

03/08/2023

Aiming to improve the lateral instability of adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems, both the front and rear vehicles are considered the centers of two control strategies. A vehicle control system is designed to enable the vehicle to automatically find the best following distance based on the displacement and speeds of the front and rear vehicles, hence enhancing driver assistance, traffic efficiency, and road utilization ratio. A practical model predictive control is designed to improve performance, responsiveness, and minor discomfort. A quadratic programming (QP) solver is used to construct an error preview-based mathematical model for the vehicle control, which is then applied to improve the control performance of the system to achieve relative intervehicle distance control. The time sampling of the parameters and the prediction horizon are obtained by numerical simulation, verifying the effectiveness of the ACC system proposed.

Umar Yakubu, Al-amin, Guoqing, Geng, Qingyuan, Shen

Object Detection and Tracking Based on Lidar for Autonomous Vehicles on Highway Conditions

2022-01-7103

12/22/2022

Multiple object detection and tracking are central aspects of modeling the environment of autonomous vehicles. Lidar is a necessary component in the autonomous driving system. Without Lidar sensors, we will most probably not see fully self-driving cars become a reality. Lidar sensing gives us high-resolution data by sending out thousands of laser signals. In advanced driver assistance systems or automated driving systems, 3-D point clouds from lidar scans are typically used to measure physical surfaces. Lidar is a powerful sensor that you can use in challenging environments where other sensors might prove inadequate. Lidar can provide a complete 360-degree view of a scene. This paper designs Lidar based multi-target detection and tracking system based on the traditional point cloud processing method including down-sampling, denoising, segmentation, and clustering objects. Based on the detections from Lidar, a multi-target tracking system is involved in this paper which can be used on

Wu, Zhihong, Zhu, Yuan, Lu, Ke, Li, Fu-Xiang

Feature Oriented Optimal Sensor Selection and Arrangement for Perception Sensing System in Automated Driving

2022-01-7104

12/22/2022

The recent proliferation of perception sensing and computing technologies has promoted the rapid development of automated driving. The design of the perception sensing system has nonnegligible influences both on the performances of various automated driving features and on the system costs. This paper proposes an automated driving feature oriented framework for automatic selection and arrangement of the sensors in the perception sensing system. An automated driving feature oriented optimization model is built considering the characteristics and requirements of the specific feature and a genetic algorithm based design method is provided to solve this optimization model. Furthermore, the Adaptive Cruise Control feature and the Automated Parking Assistance feature are selected as the simulation cases to verify the effectiveness of the proposed method. The proposed method has prospective potential to provide an automatic generation framework for the sensor selection and arrangement scheme

Meng, Tianchuang, Huang , Jin, Zhang, Bowei, Hao, Jianping, Jia, Yifan, Yang, Diange, Zhong, Zhihua

77 GHz Radar Based Multi-Target Tracking Algorithm on Expressway Condition

2022-01-7129

12/16/2022

Multi-Target tracking is a central aspect of modeling the surrounding environment of autonomous vehicles. Automotive millimeter-wave radar is a necessary component in the autonomous driving system. One of the biggest advantages of radar is it measures the velocity directly. Another big advantage is that the radar is less influenced by environmental conditions. It can work day and night, in rainy or snowy conditions. In the expressway scenario, the forward-looking radar can generate multiple objects, to properly track the leading vehicle or neighbor-lane vehicle, a multi-target tracking algorithm is required. How to associate the track and the measurement or data association is an important question in a multi-target tracking system. This paper applies the nearest-neighbor method to solve the data association problem and uses an extended Kalman filter to update the state of the track. Finally, the tracking algorithm is tested on the vehicle equipped with millimeter radar and the result

Wu, Zhihong, Li, Fu-Xiang, Zhu, Yuan, Lu, Ke

Virtual Software-In-Loop (Closed Loop) Simulation Setup during Software Development

2022-28-0384

10/05/2022

Simulation of real time situations is a time tested software validation methodology in the automotive industry and array of simulation technologies have been in use for decades and is widely accepted and been part & parcel of software development cycle. While software that is being developed needs detailed plan, architecture and detailed design, it also matters during its development that, it is built in the right way from the very beginning and is fine tuned constantly. Especially for Software-In-Loop simulation (SIL), plenty of practices/tools/techniques/data are being used for simulation of system/software behavior. When it comes to choosing the right simulation technique and tools to be adopted, often there are discussions revolve around cost, feasibility, effectiveness, man-power, scalability, reusability etc. As automotive software validation is data driven, we deal with myriad of ground truth data for simulations, ranging from vehicle dynamics to vehicle models to environment

Nagarajan, Kalaiyarasan, Ranga, Ankur, Kalkura M, Kiran, Anegundi, Ranishree, Ariharan, Anantharaju

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